CHAPTER III

IMPACT OF E-WASTE ON ENVIRONMENT AND HUMAN HEALTH

3.1 INTRODUCTION

The widespread use of plastics, biomedical products, and electronic devices that release
highly stable chemicals poses significant threats to both human health and the environment.
These chemicals are non-biodegradable and often transform into toxic metabolites, which
accumulate in the lipid tissues of living organisms and spread through the food chain, affecting
the planet's hydrosphere, lithosphere, and atmosphere. Rapid technological advancement and
globalization have led to an increase in obsolete electronic products worldwide, including in
India. The Information and Communication Technology (ICT) revolution has profoundly
changed human lifestyles, making them more comfortable and interconnected, but this
dependence on electronic gadgets has resulted in a significant waste problem. As these Electrical
and Electronic Equipment (EEE) products reach the end of their useful life or become obsolete
due to continuous technological advancements, they turn into Waste Electrical and Electronic
Equipment (WEEE). The growing volume and complexity of e-waste, combined with its toxic
components and informal recycling practices, pose severe challenges. Initially managed
alongside solid waste, e-waste has complicated waste management efforts due to its hazardous
nature. Improperly processed e-waste can lead to devastating health and environmental
consequences, especially in developing nations where crude recycling methods are more
prevalent due to weak regulatory frameworks. E-waste contains valuable materials like gold and
silver, but also harmful substances such as lead and mercury, which can leach into soil and
water, causing pollution and health risks. The transboundary movement of e-waste from
developed to developing countries exacerbates these issues, as the latter often lack the
infrastructure to handle it properly. In India, rapid economic growth and technological adoption
have outpaced the development of effective e-waste management systems, with informal
recycling dominating the sector. Addressing the e-waste crisis requires comprehensive strategies,
including robust legislation, international cooperation, investment in sustainable recycling
technologies, and public awareness campaigns. Effective regulation and enforcement, coupled
with promoting responsible consumption and recycling practices, are essential to mitigate the
environmental and health impacts of e-waste and work towards a sustainable future.
3.2 COMPOSITION OF E-WASTE

E-waste is composed of an extremely diverse array of components, which vary according

to the different categories of Electrical and Electronic Equipment (EEE). This waste includes
more than a thousand different elements, both hazardous and non-hazardous. Broadly, e-waste
comprises ferrous and non-ferrous metals, circuit boards, ceramics, plastics, rubber, and other
items. Non-ferrous metals in e-waste include aluminum, copper, and precious metals like
platinum and gold. Hazardous elements present in e-waste include mercury, lead, cadmium,
chromium, and arsenic, all of which can have devastating impacts on the environment and health
if not properly disposed of.

The following outlines the primary chemicals and metals of concern in e-waste, along
with their sources and hazardous impacts:

I. Indium: Found in LCD screens, indium can pose health risks if inhaled or ingested, leading to
lung damage and other respiratory issues.

II. Antimony: Present in CRTs, PCBs, fire retardants, and plastics, antimony exposure can cause
respiratory problems, skin irritation, and potentially cancer.

III. Barium: Found in front panels/getters of CRTs and fluorescent lamps, barium exposure can
cause muscle weakness, damage to the heart, liver, and kidneys, and even death.

IV. Beryllium: Used in power supply boxes containing silicon controlled rectifiers,
motherboards of computers, beam line components, x-ray machines, photographic equipment,
electrical insulators, resistors, and rotating mirrors in laser printers, beryllium is highly toxic and
can cause chronic beryllium disease, lung cancer, and other respiratory issues.

V. Cadmium: Present in some components of Printed Circuit Boards (PCB) like chip resistors,
semiconductors, and infrared detectors, cadmium is also used as a stabilizer in
Polyvinylchlorides (PVC). It can cause kidney damage, skeletal damage, and is a known
carcinogen.
VI. Cobalt: Found in coatings for hard disk drives and rechargeable batteries, cobalt exposure
can lead to respiratory issues, skin problems, and other health concerns.

VII. Copper: Used in electrical wires and as a conductor, copper exposure in large amounts can
cause liver and kidney damage.

VIII. Hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs): Present in cooling units and insulation foam in

coolers and older refrigerators, HCFCs contribute to ozone layer depletion and climate change.

IX. Gallium: Found in integrated circuits, optical electronics, and light-emitting diodes (LEDs),
gallium exposure can cause skin and eye irritation, and other health issues if ingested or inhaled.

X. Lead: Present in PCBs, computer monitors, lithium batteries, stabilizers, LEDs, and as a
compound in glass of CRTs and photocopier plates. Lead exposure can cause neurological
damage, developmental delays in children, and other severe health problems.

XI. Mercury: Found in fluorescent lamps used for backlighting in LCDs, mercury-wetted
switches, alkaline batteries, switches, printed circuit boards, relays, pocket calculators, steam
irons, and batteries in clocks. Mercury exposure can cause neurological and developmental
damage, particularly in fetuses and young children.

XII. Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs): Used in lubricants, dielectric fluids, and coolants in
generators, insulating materials in old electric products, transformers, capacitors, ceiling fans,
electric motors, and dishwashers, PCBs are highly toxic and can cause cancer, immune system
suppression, and endocrine disruption.

XIII. Nickel: A primary constituent of rechargeable batteries, alloys, semiconductors, relays,

and pigments, nickel exposure can cause allergic reactions, respiratory issues, and other health
problems.

XIV. Lithium: Found in rechargeable batteries, mobile telephones, photographic equipment, and
video equipment, lithium exposure can cause skin and eye irritation, and is harmful if ingested or
inhaled.
XV. Perfluorooctane Sulfonate (PFOS): A prime constituent of photoresist coatings, PFOS
exposure can cause developmental and reproductive toxicity, as well as liver damage.

XVI. Phthalates: Used to soften plastic, phthalates exposure can cause endocrine disruption,
reproductive toxicity, and developmental issues.

XVII. Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs): Used in brominated flame retardants (BFRs)
in plastic housing of electronic equipment and circuit boards to reduce flammability, PBDE
exposure can cause thyroid disruption, neurodevelopmental issues, and other health problems.

XVIII. Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC): Used in forming the structure of computer housings,
keyboards, and in manufacturing connecting wires such as cables, PVC exposure can cause
respiratory issues, cancer, and other health problems.

XIX. Silver: Found in capacitors, switches, batteries, and resistors, silver exposure in large
amounts can cause skin discoloration and respiratory issues.

XX. Thallium: Present in batteries and semiconductors, thallium exposure can cause hair loss,
nerve damage, and other severe health problems.

XXI. Tin: Found in flame-proofing agents, plastic stabilizers, fusible alloys, and soft solder, tin
exposure can cause respiratory and skin issues.

XXII. Zinc: Zinc compounds, such as zinc chromate, are found in plating materials, and zinc
sulfide is used on CRT screens. Zinc exposure in large amounts can cause gastrointestinal issues
and other health problems.

XXIII. Chromium: Used in chrome plating on the surface of plastics and metals as a pigment in
magnetic audios, data storage, solar cells, and in mobile phones and computers. Hexavalent
chromium exposure can cause respiratory problems, skin irritation, and cancer.

XXIV. Sulfuric and Hydrochloric Acid: Used in the functioning of circuit boards, these acids
can cause severe skin burns, respiratory issues, and other health problems if improperly handled.
XXV. Arsenic: Found in minor quantities in the form of gallium arsenide in LEDs,
semiconductors, microwaves, and solar cells, arsenic exposure can cause skin lesions, cancer,
and other severe health problems.

XXVI. Selenium: Present in older photocopying machines in photo drums, selenium exposure
can cause respiratory issues, gastrointestinal problems, and other health concerns.

XXVII. Radioactive substances: Found in medical equipment, fire detectors, and active sensing
elements in smoke detectors, exposure to radioactive substances can cause cancer and other
severe health problems.

XXVIII. Toner dust: Found in toner cartridges for laser printers or copiers, exposure to toner
dust can cause respiratory issues and skin irritation.

XXIX. Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs): Released during the burning of PVC and other
kinds of plastics used in computers and other e-waste, POPs are highly toxic and can cause
cancer, reproductive disorders, and immune system suppression.

The above stated pollutants are the prime constituents of e-waste that are primarily
responsible for environmental degradation and deterioration of human health. Proper
management and disposal of e-waste are crucial to mitigate these hazardous impacts. Recycling
and disposal processes must adhere to stringent environmental and health safety standards to
prevent the release of toxic substances into the environment. Public awareness and regulatory
enforcement are essential to address the challenges posed by e-waste and protect human health
and the environment. Hereunder stated are the various computer components that forms the
major parts of e-waste and its impact:

i. Plastics from Computers and Peripherals: Shredding and low-temperature melting are
common processes used in recycling e-waste. However, these methods can release harmful
emissions of dioxins, heavy metals, and hydrocarbons into the environment. When these toxic
substances are inhaled or come into contact with the skin, they pose significant occupational
hazards. Evidence indicates that high-level exposure to dioxins can lead to fluctuations in serum
lipid levels, enzymatic dysfunction, and gastrointestinal disturbances. Moreover, exposure to
these pollutants has been linked to various cancers and adverse effects on the hypothalamic,
pituitary, and thyroid glands, particularly affecting infants. Dioxins also disrupt estrogen
production, which can reduce reproductive capabilities and potentially lead to sterility.

ii. Printed Circuit Boards: The recycling process for e-waste often involves de-soldering and
the removal of computer chips, which release metals and dioxins into the air. Workers engaged
in this recycling process are particularly vulnerable to inhaling harmful substances such as lead,
tin, dioxin, cadmium, and mercury. Additionally, dismantled printed circuit boards are often
burned to extract chips and finer metals, releasing tin and lead. This practice contaminates soil
and water, and inhaling these toxic substances can cause permanent damage to the central and
peripheral nervous systems as well as the respiratory tract.

iii. Chips and Other Related Components: The recycling of e-waste components often
involves chemical processing using nitric acid and hydrochloric acid. These acids, once used, can
seep into the water and soil, causing significant environmental hazards. This contamination can
severely impact ecosystems and pose risks to human health, including potential damage to the
eyes and skin upon exposure or inhalation.

iv. CRTs and Monitors: The recycling process for e-waste often involves breaking down the
components, removing the copper yoke, and recycling the glass, which releases lead, mercury,
and toxic phosphor into the water and soil. Regular exposure to these processes poses significant
occupational hazards, such as silicosis, cuts, and injuries. Additionally, prolonged exposure can
weaken the muscles of the body, further compromising workers' health and safety.

v. Toner Cartridges: Brushes are used to recover toners of different colors, such as yellow and
magenta, from e-waste. However, the remnants of these toners often end up in the soil and water,
leading to significant pollution and environmental degradation.

vi. Wires and Cables: Wires and cables are often burned to recover metal wires, a process that
releases brominated and chlorinated dioxins, leading to significant air pollution. Additionally,
secondary smelting processes for steel, copper, and precious metals involve the use of furnaces
to recover these materials. This smelting process emits dioxins and heavy metals into the air and
soil, further contributing to environmental pollution and degradation.
viii. Miscellaneous Computer parts covered in rubber: Burning these parts to recover metals
results in the emission of dioxins and Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) into the air,
introducing pollutants that pose significant environmental and health risks. Due to the complex
composition of e-waste, numerous toxic substances are released during recycling or dumping
processes, contributing to various health hazards and environmental degradation. These toxic
substances have the potential to affect multiple organs in the body, and some chemicals can bio-
accumulate and undergo bio-magnification, further amplifying their harmful effects through the
food chain. Therefore, proper management and recycling of e-waste are critical to mitigate these
impacts and protect both human health and the environment.

The complex composition of e-waste results in the release of numerous toxic substances
during its recycling or dumping, which pose significant health hazards and degrade
environmental quality. These substances typically affect multiple organs in the body, and some
chemicals have a tendency to bioaccumulate and undergo bio-magnification. E-waste contains a
wide array of hazardous materials such as heavy metals (like lead, mercury, cadmium),
brominated flame retardants, phthalates, and other chemicals used in electronic components.
Improper management or recycling can lead to these substances leaching into soil and water,
contaminating the air through incineration, and posing risks to both human health and ecological
well-being. Heavy metals, for instance, can accumulate in the body over time, causing chronic
toxicity and impacting organs such as the brain, kidneys, and liver. Brominated flame retardants
and phthalates, found commonly in plastics and circuit boards, are known to disrupt hormones,
cause reproductive issues, and contribute to developmental problems in humans and wildlife.
Additionally, the phenomenon of bio-magnification amplifies the concentration of these toxic
substances as they move up the food chain, potentially causing more severe harm to organisms at
higher trophic levels. Effective management of e-waste is essential, involving proper recycling
methods that minimize emissions and ensure safe handling of hazardous materials. This
necessitates robust regulatory frameworks, technological innovations in recycling processes, and
public awareness to promote responsible disposal practices and reduce the environmental impact
of electronic waste.
3.3 CAUSES OF SWIFT GENERATION OF E-WASTE

In today's world, the rapid pace of technological advancement drives individuals to

continually seek access to the latest electronic and electrical equipment (EEE). However, when it
comes to disposing of these devices, there is widespread ignorance and unawareness about the
proper handling of e-waste. Several factors contribute to the alarming rate of e-waste generation.

3.3.1. Development &Technology: The relentless pace of development and technology has
characterized the past two decades as a "golden period" for the EEE industry. With India
transitioning from a restricted economy to a globalized one, the information technology sector
has boomed, contributing significantly to economic growth. This rapid evolution results in
electronic devices becoming obsolete quickly, not necessarily due to malfunction but because
newer technologies render existing ones less desirable. Many discarded computers, for instance,
remain functional; however, they are replaced simply to accommodate the latest innovations.
This trend underscores a lack of awareness about the potential reuse or recycling of still-
functional electronics.

3.3.2. Change in Consumption Pattern: IT is driven by urbanization and increased disposable

incomes have fueled a culture of constant upgrading. Affordability and the availability of a wide
range of EEE products have altered consumer mindsets, leading to a disposition towards frequent
upgrades. As consumers embrace new technologies, older devices are swiftly discarded,
contributing significantly to the volume of e-waste generated annually.

3.3.3. Population Growth: It plays a crucial role in the escalating e-waste crisis. As the
population expands and incomes rise, the adoption of electronic devices becomes more pervasive
across all segments of society. The ubiquitous presence of cell phones exemplifies this trend,
reflecting a scenario where every individual, regardless of socioeconomic status, possesses
electronic gadgets. This widespread ownership directly correlates with increased e-waste
production.

Despite these trends, there remains a notable lack of awareness among the Indian
populace regarding the environmental and health impacts of e-waste. A study by Toxic Links, an
environmental NGO specializing in toxic waste management, highlighted this issue, emphasizing
the urgent need for education and awareness campaigns. Addressing the e-waste challenge
necessitates proactive measures including robust recycling programs, effective policies, and
public education initiatives. Encouraging responsible disposal practices and promoting the reuse
of functional electronics can significantly mitigate the environmental footprint of e-waste while
harnessing the economic potential of recycling valuable materials. Ultimately, a collective effort
is required to manage e-waste sustainably and safeguard both public health and the environment
in India and globally.

3.4. IMPACT OF E-WASTE ON ENVIRONMENT:

Illegally imported or dumped e-waste is typically processed within the informal recycling
sector. This unregulated practice has led to significant pollution of local environments. Studies
from fields and laboratories in China have demonstrated that informal e-waste recycling centers
severely degrade soil, air, water quality, and various ecosystems. These recycling units primarily
focus on extracting precious metals such as gold, silver, copper, and lead. The process typically
involves dismantling components, wet chemical processing, and incineration, exposing manual
laborers directly to harmful chemicals. This constant exposure poses serious health risks,
potentially leading to chronic illnesses among workers. Moreover, many recycling units lack
proper exhaust systems, resulting in the release of dangerous fumes and chemicals into the
environment. Acids used in the extraction process are often dumped without adequate
precautions, further contaminating the air and water with heavy metals and toxic substances.
Rainwater then washes these pollutants into low-lying areas and agricultural lands, where they
can bioaccumulate in crops and contaminate groundwater, adversely affecting aquatic life. E-
waste recycling not only poses significant occupational hazards but also causes extensive
environmental damage that extends beyond local areas. The pollutants and toxic chemicals
released into the environment affect both nearby communities and distant regions, posing health
risks to people living and working in those areas. Addressing these challenges requires stringent
regulations, proper waste management practices, and greater awareness of the environmental and
health impacts of e-waste recycling.
 3.4.1. Contamination of Ecological Sources by E-Waste:

Living beings require a healthy ecology to survive. However, the toxic substances from
e-waste are contaminating environmental resources in various ways:

A. Air and Dust: Humans rely on atmospheric air for survival, yet it has increasingly become a
source of health problems due to e-waste contamination. Burning e-waste releases large amounts
of toxicants into the environment. Fugitive emissions and slag from burning processes contain
numerous heavy metals. When items like plastic casings, circuit boards, cables, and PVCs are
burned in the open, highly toxic substances like dioxins and furans are released. These pollutants
pose serious health risks, including breathing difficulties, coughing, respiratory irritations, and
even more severe conditions such as pneumonitis, neuropsychiatric problems like convulsions
and coma, which can be fatal. Workers in the e-waste industry face heightened exposure to these
toxic substances, leading to chronic illnesses such as asthma, skin diseases, and gastrointestinal
disorders.

Dust: The composition of settled dust serves as an indicator of air pollution, reflecting heavy
metal contamination present in both the atmosphere's suspended particles and settled dust. A
study assessing heavy metal presence found significantly elevated concentrations in dust from e-
waste workshops and adjacent roads. For instance, lead levels in road dust near e-waste
workshops were found to be 330 to 106 times higher than at non-e-waste sites located 30 km and
8 km away. The reduced quantities of zinc and lead in dust from 2004 to 2014 can be attributed
to the shift from primitive recycling techniques to more formal e-waste recycling methods in
recent years. Furthermore, dust collected from e-waste recycling workshops typically contains
concentrations of zinc, lead, and copper five times higher than those found in road dust.

B. Water: Liquid wastes associated with the electronics industry include used electroplating
solutions, contaminated rinse water, spent solvents, and alkaline effluents. Despite regulatory
efforts, the treatment of liquid and gaseous effluents often results in further liquid waste
production. Improperly monitored processes are more likely to generate fugitive liquid wastes
through spillages, seepages, and acidic leakages from storage tanks and transport processes.
Wastewater released from recycling units is a significant source of heavy metal contamination in
water and the environment. Heavy metals from e-waste dumped in landfills can leach into
groundwater, particularly under acidic conditions. Dioxins and furans can bioaccumulate in
aquatic systems, affecting the overall environmental quality.

Unprocessed or improperly processed e-waste that ends up in dumpsites can undergo

leaching processes, allowing contaminants to enter aquatic systems. Acidic wastes from
hydrometallurgical processes are also disposed into water or soil, further contaminating aquatic
systems. Additional contaminants such as arsenic, cyanide, and fluorides have been found in
groundwater at levels exceeding safe thresholds. Contaminated soil and groundwater can lead to
permanent damage to land, affecting its potential use for agriculture and other purposes.

C. Soil and Sediments: Soil and sediments have a significant capacity to absorb and accumulate
pollutants, leading to long-term contamination effects. Open dumping and landfilling are
common methods used to dispose of e-waste, but they are also among the most hazardous.
Through leaching processes, toxic elements from e-waste can migrate into soil and sediments,
polluting them extensively. Once these pollutants enter plants from contaminated soil, they can
bioaccumulate up the food chain, posing dangers to aquatic organisms and humans alike. The
concentration of heavy metals such as chromium, lead, cadmium, and copper in topsoil samples
from e-waste areas has been found to be significantly higher than in standard agricultural soil.
For instance, copper concentrations in these samples can be up to 16 times greater than in
agricultural areas not affected by e-waste recycling or dumping activities. These elevated levels
are primarily due to improper dismantling and treatment of e-waste materials.

3.5 Impact of E-Waste on Plants and Vegetation

High levels of metal contamination in plant samples clearly indicate the presence of
metals in the soil, posing significant risks to human health through the consumption of
contaminated crops. Numerous studies in China have focused on the contamination of rice, a
staple crop crucial for maintaining a healthy population. Similarly, in India, the Mandoli region
of Delhi is notorious for its e-waste recycling activities. A study conducted in the North East
region of Delhi examined five sites, collecting plant, soil, and water samples for analysis. The
results revealed alarming concentrations of heavy metals such as zinc, lead, copper, cadmium,
and selenium in the soil. Plants sampled from these regions exhibited distinct biological
differences compared to those from areas farther away from recycling units. This disparity
underscores the direct impact of informal e-waste recycling methods on plant biology,
particularly due to the accumulation of heavy metals.

It was observed that plants near e-waste recycling centers primarily absorb heavy metals
from the soil, with secondary exposure occurring through atmospheric deposition. Informal
recycling practices often result in heavy metal contamination in nearby agricultural fields, where
crops absorb these metals from the soil. This phenomenon is exacerbated by the tendency of
heavy metals like cadmium to leach into crops, increasing the risk of metal contamination
reaching consumers. Studies consistently highlight cadmium as a major contaminant in
vegetables grown near e-waste recycling centers, posing significant health risks to local
populations. While copper levels may be high in soil, plants exhibit a lower uptake of this metal.
Lead, on the other hand, enters plants primarily through atmospheric deposition, as evidenced by
high levels found in rice from paddy fields near recycling sites. This indicates that rice grains
absorb lead, exposing consumers to significant levels of this toxic metal through consumption of
contaminated crops.

The presence of heavy metals in plants and vegetation due to proximity to e-waste
recycling sites cannot be overlooked. The consumption of these contaminated plants exposes
humans to dangerous levels of toxic heavy metals, leading to potential health issues. Therefore,
mitigating the environmental impact of e-waste recycling and improving waste management
practices are crucial steps toward safeguarding both environmental quality and public health in
affected regions.

3.6 Impact on Animals and Aquatic life

E-waste contaminants pose significant threats to aquatic systems through leaching from
dumpsites where processed or unprocessed e-waste is stored. Acidic wastes from
hydrometallurgical processes further contribute to water and soil contamination, affecting
aquatic ecosystems. The typical pH range of natural water is between 5 and 9. Disposal of
alkaline and acidic effluents disrupts this balance, potentially harming fish and other aquatic
organisms, and reducing overall ecosystem diversity.

In India, Mandoli is a notable site for e-waste dumping and recycling, where groundwater
contamination has become a critical issue. Groundwater serves as the primary drinking water
source for Mandoli residents, but has been found polluted due to industrial activities in the area.
As industries proliferate in Mandoli, residents frequently experience water shortages. Complaints
about the groundwater's pungent smell and taste affecting food and tea preparation are common,
with stomachaches reported, although direct links to contaminated groundwater are rarely
investigated due to lack of awareness and financial resources. Moreover, the absence of proper
drainage exacerbates the problem, leading to waterlogging of industrial waste and fostering
waterborne diseases.

3.7 Impact of E-Waste on Human Health:

Electronic waste, or e-waste, poses a dual challenge with its composition of both precious
and toxic substances. Components such as cadmium and lead are commonly found in circuit
boards and monitors, with lead oxide and cadmium present in cathode ray tubes, emphasizing the
hazardous nature of these materials. The toxic components in electrical and electronic appliances
pose significant threats to human health, life, and the environment. Health is not merely the
absence of illness but encompasses complete physical, mental, and social well-being. The right
to life, as enshrined in Article 21, guarantees more than mere survival—it encompasses all
aspects that make life meaningful and worth living. However, the developmental activities of
humans have polluted every element of the environment. Rivers, wells, tanks, and canals are all
contaminated with pollutants that endanger the lives of humans, birds, animals, and plants. The
presence of pollutants in e-waste exacerbates these issues, leading to serious health problems and
environmental pollution, making its management highly complex.

In developing countries like India, the impacts are particularly severe. People engaged in
recycling e-waste often work in the unorganized sector, living in close proximity to dumps or
landfills of untreated e-waste without adequate protection. A significant portion of e-waste ends
up in sanitary landfill sites. While e-waste discarded at urban waste dumping sites tested under
the Toxicity Characteristic Leaching Procedure (TCLP) has shown leachates with heavy metal
concentrations within environmental limits, the chemical cocktail released during these tests
remains toxic to aquatic organisms. Furthermore, compressing e-waste before or during landfill
disposal may increase leachate volumes, necessitating strategies like cement solidification to
mitigate environmental impacts by increasing pH and reducing aqueous solution flow. The
electronic industry stands as the world's largest and fastest-growing manufacturing sector, with
electronic waste emerging as the fastest-growing waste stream in industrialized nations.
Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs), known for their fire resistance and poor conductivity, have
widespread industrial applications but pose significant environmental risks. PCBs persist in the
environment, resisting breakdown and retaining their toxic properties. They accumulate in the
kidneys and liver of organisms, causing long-term health issues in humans and reproductive
failures in birds and mammals. E-waste serves as a potential source of genetic mutation and
cytogenetic damage due to exposure to pollutants. The improper disposal practices, such as open
burning of wires and printed circuit boards, release dioxins, furans, lead, cadmium, and mercury
fumes into the atmosphere. Workers exposed directly to these chemicals during operations, often
lacking personal protective equipment, face serious health hazards. The release of toxic materials
into the environment contaminates air, water, and soil, leading to adverse health effects on both
human populations and ecological systems. The lighting industry exemplifies this rapid growth,
with an annual increase of approximately 12%. In India alone, fluorescent lamp (FL)
manufacturing capacity exceeds 100 million units annually. While FLs provide efficient lighting
to schools and buildings, they contain mercury, crucial for their energy-efficient properties.
However, improper disposal practices and accidents can lead to mercury release, posing
additional environmental and health risks. The management of e-waste demands urgent attention
to mitigate its adverse impacts on health and the environment. Enhanced regulatory frameworks,
implementation of safer recycling practices, and public awareness campaigns are crucial steps
toward sustainable e-waste management. By addressing these challenges comprehensively,
society can minimize the health risks associated with toxic e-waste components and safeguard
environmental quality for current and future generationsFluorescent tube lamps and compact
fluorescent lamps (CFLs) contain mercury, which poses serious risks to human health and the
environment. Recognizing these risks, it is imperative to ensure safe management of mercury
wastes, which includes:
 I. Safe collection and recycling of mercury from products like fluorescent lamps in
commercial and residential complexes
II. Safe collection and disposal of mercury-containing batteries, with the ultimate
goal of eliminating their production.
III. Sensitizing manufacturing units to phase out mercury-bearing products and
ensure the safety and health of medical staff.
IV. Involving schools, colleges, and NGOs to raise awareness about the safe handling
of mercury and its associated health concerns.

The management of e-waste currently poses a serious health hazard, not only to those
directly involved in the recycling process but also to the broader environment. E-waste is laden
with toxic heavy metals such as lead, mercury, and cadmium, which can leach into water, soil,
and the atmosphere. This leaching poses significant risks to both environmental sustainability
and human health.

3.7.1. Effects of E-Waste Components on Health

Source of E-Waste Constituents Health Effects

Solder in PCB, Glass panels Lead Damage to central nervous
and Gaskets in Computer system, retarded brain
Monitors development of child
Chip Resistors and Semi Cadmium Accumulates in Kidney and
Conductors liver.
Relays and Switches, Printed Mercury Chronic damage to brain,
Circuit Boards respiratory system.
Chronic damage to brain, Plastics including PVC Burning produces dioxins and
respiratory system. carcinogens.
Plastic Housing of Electronic Brominates Flame Retardants Effects Endocrine system
Equipments and Circuit functions.
Boards
Front Panel of CRTs Barium Damage to heart, liver
Motherboard Beryllium Lung cancer, skin disease
Source: T.V. Ramachandra, K. Varghese, Energy and Wetland Group, Centre for Ecological
Studies, Indian Institute of Science, Banglore for Envis Journal of Human Settlements, March
2004.

3.7.2. Routes of Exposure of E-Waste Toxic Substances on Human Body:

Exposure to toxic substances from e-waste occurs through various routes, each presenting
significant health risks to individuals:

I. Inhalation: E-waste processing often involves rudimentary methods like burning and
combustion, releasing fine particulate matter and hazardous components such as Brominated
Flame Retardants (BFRs) and PCBs into the air. Levels of these pollutants at e-waste processing
sites in countries like India, China, and Ghana often exceed ambient air quality standards,
leading to various respiratory and systemic health complications upon inhalation.

II. Dietary Intake: Toxic compounds from e-waste can enter the human body through dietary
intake. Foods such as marine fish, freshwater fish, shellfish, meat, cereals, fruits, and vegetables
can accumulate heavy metals and organic pollutants present in e-waste. Consuming these
contaminated foods exposes individuals to health risks associated with these toxic substances.

III. Dermal Exposure: Direct skin contact with e-waste and its processing byproducts is another
significant pathway for exposure. Workers in informal recycling units often lack adequate
protection, exposing them to toxic fumes and substances. For instance, during the burning of
plastics to extract metals, workers endure prolonged exposure to fumes that can cause skin
irritation and rashes. Similarly, in acid bath processes, prolonged immersion of hands in
extraction solutions can lead to burning sensations and skin burns. Persistent exposure through
these methods can even increase the risk of skin cancers and other dermatological issues.

IV. Ingestion: Workers at dumping sites and landfills handling e-waste without proper
protective measures are at risk of ingesting contaminated dust and soil. Ingestion of these
particles introduces toxic substances into the body, causing chronic health problems over time.

These exposure routes highlight the pervasive health hazards associated with e-waste
recycling and disposal practices, particularly in informal settings where safety measures are often
inadequate or nonexistent. Addressing these issues requires stringent regulations, proper safety
protocols, and public awareness campaigns to mitigate the risks posed by e-waste contamination.

3.7.3. Impact of E-Waste on Body Systems:

Exposure to e-waste introduces a unique combination of hazardous substances into the

environment, posing significant health risks to individuals engaged in recycling activities and
those living near e-waste facilities. These risks extend beyond immediate workers to affect
broader populations due to the persistence of e-waste pollutants in the environment. Various
bodily functions and systems are adversely impacted by exposure to these toxins:

I. Impact on Intelligence: E-waste, rich in heavy metals like lead, bioaccumulates in

animals and plants, eventually entering the human food chain through contaminated
foods. Oral intake of such contaminated food is a significant route for lead transfer
into the human body, particularly affecting children's intelligence. Studies have
linked lead exposure from e-waste to neuroanatomical changes, including depletion
of grey matter and altered white matter diffusivity in adolescents. Lead interferes with
learning and behavioral abilities, impacting intelligence directly. Children living near
informal e-waste recycling areas often exhibit neurological deformities. Research has
shown that even low levels of lead in blood can decrease intelligence levels,
emphasizing the detrimental impact of e-waste pollutants on cognitive development.
II. Effect on Physical Development: Children residing near or working in e-waste
recycling facilities have been found to have significantly lower weight, height, and
body mass index (BMI) compared to those living farther away. Lead, a prevalent
component in e-waste, is particularly damaging to brain development in children. It
affects multiple body systems, including gastrointestinal, neurological,
cardiovascular, hematological, and renal systems upon accumulation. Other toxic
metals like barium, mercury, and silver also pose serious health risks, affecting
organs and overall physical growth, especially in young children and developing
fetuses.
III. Impact on Respiratory System: Inhalation of fumes and gases released during e-
waste processing poses a significant risk to respiratory health. Asbestos, though
limited in use, presents severe health risks if inhaled, causing chronic illnesses such
 as lung cancer. Cadmium exposure through inhalation leads to flu-like symptoms
initially and can progress to lung cancer and pulmonary emphysema with prolonged
exposure. Other metals like indium, beryllium, copper, and selenium also affect
respiratory functions, causing irritations, shortness of breath, and in severe cases, lung
diseases and cancers.
IV. Effect on Digestive System: E-waste toxins impact the digestive system differently
based on the substance. Mercury, for instance, causes inflammation and ulceration in
the mouth's mucous membranes, along with gastrointestinal complications like
diarrhea. Antimony disrupts gastrointestinal tract functioning, leading to digestive
problems. Barium compounds, when ingested, dissolve in stomach fluids, causing
various toxic effects such as vomiting, abdominal cramps, and respiratory issues.
Lead ingestion results in severe symptoms like vomiting, diarrhea, convulsions,
coma, and potential fatality. Zinc, though essential, can damage the stomach lining
when ingested in excess, disrupting digestive processes.
V. Impact on Urinary System: High mercury exposure adversely affects kidney
function, with symptoms including increased protein levels in urine and specific
enzyme presence in urine and blood. Chronic arsenic exposure leads to tumor
formation in the urinary bladder and kidneys. Cadmium, highly toxic and
accumulative in kidneys and liver, causes irreversible damage and increases cancer
risk in these organs. Nickel ingestion affects kidneys and blood, increasing urine
protein content and causing stomach aches. Indium exposure damages kidneys,
impairing urinary system function, while high copper concentrations lead to kidney
damage and other health complications.
VI. Impact on Reproductive System: E-waste contaminants, such as lead and mercury,
exert detrimental effects on both male and female reproductive systems. In males,
exposure to lead is associated with underdeveloped testes, reduced sperm production,
and abnormalities in sperm morphology. This can lead to decreased fertility and
impaired reproductive function. Lead exposure has also been linked to delayed
puberty in girls and diminished sperm quality in males. Mercury, particularly
methylmercury, easily crosses the placental barrier, adversely affecting the
development of the brain and central nervous system in fetuses and children. It can
 impair normal fetal growth and development, impacting birth outcomes such as low
birth weight, inappropriate fetal growth, and even stillbirths. Research has highlighted
that children born to mothers who worked in e-waste recycling industries during
pregnancy, with fathers also exposed, tend to exhibit high concentrations of lead in
cord blood and meconium. This prenatal exposure to lead can lead to developmental
abnormalities and cognitive impairments in these children. Other toxins like PCBs
(polychlorinated biphenyls) and phthalates disrupt the endocrine system, leading to
reproductive failures and immune suppression. These chemicals interfere with
hormone production, causing birth defects in fetuses and impacting fertility in both
men and women. Dioxins and polychlorinated naphthalenes found in e-waste have
also been implicated in reproductive disturbances, including fetal malformations and
decreased reproductive and growth rates.
VII. Impact on Endocrine System: The toxins present in e-waste disrupt the body's
hormonal balance, affecting the production and regulation of various hormones such
as thyroid hormones, estrogens, androgens, retinoids, and corticosteroids. High-level
exposure to dioxins and furans can alter serum lipid levels and disrupt the functioning
of the pituitary, hypothalamic, and thyroid regulatory systems in young individuals.
Men exposed to dioxins may experience reduced testosterone levels, while women
may face early sterility. PBDEs (polybrominated diphenyl ethers) and HBCDs
(hexabromocyclododecanes), neurotoxic compounds found in e-waste, exhibit
endocrine-disrupting properties and are associated with genotoxic damage and cancer.
PVC (polyvinyl chloride), when burned, releases dioxins that interfere with glandular
function and disrupt the endocrine system.
VIII. Impact on Nervous System: The nervous system is particularly vulnerable to the
toxic substances found in e-waste. Long-term exposure to these compounds can result
in peripheral vision loss and central nervous system damage. For instance, inhalation
of antimony, used in electronics manufacturing, can lead to liver, lung, and brain
damage, causing neurological dysfunction. Copper, when burned from wires, has
been linked to neurological diseases like Alzheimer's and neurological damage.
Aluminum exposure is also associated with Alzheimer's and Parkinson's diseases.
Lead and mercury are notorious for their neurotoxic effects, causing damage to both
 the central and peripheral nervous systems, leading to motor neuropathy and
intellectual impairments in children. PCBs, commonly used in capacitors and
transformers, not only impact the endocrine system but also affect nervous system
development, potentially leading to mental retardation. Lead ingestion or inhalation
disrupts the central and peripheral nervous systems, as well as kidney and liver
function. Beryllium, another hazardous metal used in electronics, causes berylliosis,
primarily targeting the lungs but also affecting the nervous system upon exposure.
IX. Impact on DNA: Chromium, specifically hexavalent chromium (Cr VI), used in
electronic components, has the potential to affect DNA, causing gene mutations and
chromosomal aberrations. Studies have shown increased DNA damage among e-
waste recyclers compared to non-workers, indicating a higher risk of cancer due to
genotoxic effects. E-waste pollutants like heavy metals induce DNA fragmentation
and cell death, contributing to growth retardation, abnormal brain function, and long-
term impacts on cognition, memory, and behavior.
X. Impact on Skin and Hair: Exposure to e-waste toxins can also severely affect the
integumentary system, leading to immediate skin reactions such as dermatitis, skin
lesions, and burns. Beryllium, for example, used for its thermal conductivity in
electronics, can cause various skin diseases upon contact. Chromium in electronic
components is known to cause severe dermatitis and painless skin ulcers upon
exposure. Mercury exposure, whether in liquid or vapor form, can lead to allergic
skin sensitization. Cobalt, found in electronic devices, causes skin allergies,
irritations, and rashes upon inhalation or ingestion. Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), used
in cooling appliances, cause frostbite upon direct skin contact and are harmful to the
ozone layer.

Exposure to e-waste is a complex process due to the varied sources, routes, durations of
exposure, and potential inhibitory or synergistic effects of toxic chemicals present in
electronic waste. The impact of e-waste on individuals depends significantly on the quantity
and types of electronic waste involved, the methods used for recycling, and the physiological
vulnerabilities, especially among women and children. Children, for instance, are particularly
susceptible due to their unique interaction with the environment, potentially leading to higher
doses of toxins relative to their size compared to adults. Dietary intake is a crucial pathway
for toxins to enter the human body, and children, who consume more food and water relative
to their body weight, face increased risks. Studies have also highlighted the presence of
toxins in breast milk, further exposing neonates to e-waste contaminants. Moreover,
children's frequent hand-to-mouth behavior increases their exposure to toxic substances from
contaminated dust. Their immature and sensitive body systems are less capable of effectively
processing and eliminating these dangerous toxins, leading to higher accumulation levels.

Direct engagement in e-waste processing activities, such as dismantling electronics,

exposes children to toxins through dermal contact, inhalation, or oral ingestion.
Consequently, children's health is significantly impacted by environmental contamination
resulting from e-waste. Hazardous substances originating from discarded electrical and
electronic equipment (EEE) permeate the environment, polluting air, water, soil, and even
food sources, disproportionately affecting children who are more vulnerable due to their
developmental stage and behaviors. Improper disposal practices exacerbate these risks,
particularly when e-waste is handled in informal recycling sectors using crude methods
without adequate safety measures. The prevalence of toxic constituents in e-waste, such as
lead, cadmium, mercury, and phthalates, poses numerous health disorders, underscoring the
urgent need for stringent e-waste management practices and regulatory oversight to
safeguard human health and environmental integrity.

3.4 CONCLUSION

Based on the analysis, the researcher draws seven overarching conclusions pointing to
critical challenges in governing the e-waste sector inclusively, as well as mechanisms that
could steer e-waste markets towards greener and fairer outcomes. These insights are
particularly relevant for countries like China and India, which process a significant portion of
the world’s e-waste, but they also offer valuable lessons for other regions grappling with
similar challenges in managing their own growing volumes of domestically-generated
electronic waste, which are already being managed by thriving informal markets.
 Firstly, effective regulation must be inclusive, taking into account the individuals
and enterprises, especially the poorest or smallest, already operating within the
sector and their existing practices. Regulatory incentives should empower rather
than hinder these entities, enabling them to adopt greener practices. Policymakers
need to acknowledge the effectiveness and diversity of the informal economy,
while also addressing existing structural and power imbalances.

 Secondly, any interventions must align with the economic realities, institutional
frameworks, and incentives currently shaping e-waste management. This includes
understanding the pricing dynamics within established informal markets and
ensuring that formal sector initiatives are economically viable and attractive.
Incentives should encourage different organizational models along the e-waste
value chain, involving stakeholders throughout the process.

 Thirdly, refurbishment and reuse should be recognized as greener alternatives and

integral parts of current informal sector models. Policies and regulations should
emphasize the importance of reusable e-waste, benefiting both the informal
economy and low-income consumers, while also reducing environmental impacts.

 Fourthly, local bodies such as municipalities and panchayats play a crucial role in
supporting the functioning of informal sectors by providing funding for upgrading
to more sophisticated recycling methods. They are essential stakeholders in
efficient solid and e-waste management, contributing to local sustainability
efforts.
  Fifthly, enhancing public awareness through better information and education
channels is essential to influence consumer behavior. Understanding existing
consumer attitudes, household and office practices, and cultural norms is vital for
effective policy design that resonates with the public.

 Sixthly, engaging electronic equipment manufacturers and retailers is critical to

fostering experimentation and innovation in inclusive e-waste management
models. This engagement should move beyond mere rhetoric to practical
participation in multi-stakeholder initiatives aimed at scaling up successful
approaches.

 Seventhly, developed countries have a responsibility to enhance international law

enforcement to prevent illegal shipments of e-waste to developing nations. This
underscores the need for global cooperation in managing e-waste sustainably and
ethically.

Designing and scaling hybrid e-waste management models is a challenging task. These
models should aim not only for environmental protection and economic efficiency but also for
social welfare synergies. Careful consideration is required regarding the incentives needed to
engage diverse stakeholders, as well as potential barriers and inequalities. Hybrid approaches
must mitigate risks such as power imbalances, prevent exploitation, and ensure that informal
worker organizations are strengthened rather than undermined.

Moreover, addressing two major interconnected challenges remains critical for designing
greener and more inclusive e-waste models: creating appropriate pricing incentives to channel e-
waste into safe and clean recycling channels, and addressing the livelihoods lost in hazardous
recycling practices. These issues highlight the global concern over the polluting nature of e-
waste management techniques and the urgency to recover valuable materials from discarded
electronics.
 While the environmental impact of e-waste is significant, the solutions must also
prioritize equity, protecting vulnerable populations and integrating measures that contribute
to poverty reduction and social protection. Managing e-waste effectively involves navigating
complex economic, social, and environmental dynamics, demanding collaborative efforts
among governments, industries, communities, and consumers worldwide.