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FACULTY OF LEADERSHIP AND ADMINISTRATION

15 BASIC AIR STAFF COURSE OFFICERS

BOOK – 12

CONTENTS OF THIS BOOK ARE RESTRICTED AND NEED

TO BE HANDLED AS PER THE PROVISIONS OF IAP 3902.

NOTE: - READ THE STARTER KIT WHICH HAS BEEN SENT TO YOU. IN CASE OF
DOUBTS YOU MAY CONTACT FACULTY OF LEADERSHIP AND ADMINISTRATION
(F L&A) ON TELE: (0422)-2367000/ 7322 AND AF NET: 43277322

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BOOK – 12: I N D E X
Chapter No Chapter Page No
MAINTENANCE
1. Maintenance Policy. 5–9
2. Maintenance Organisation in IAF. 10 – 14
3. HQ Maintenance Command & Units of MC. 15 – 17
4. Role of Mechanical Transport in IAF. 18 – 20
5. Maintenance Safety. 21 – 25
6. Concept of Flight Safety. 26 – 40
METEOROLOGY
7. Meteorology. 42 – 53
LOGISTICS
8. Logistics Management, Organisation and Administration. 55 – 64
9. Equipment Administration. 65 – 68
10. Local Purchase of Stores. 69 – 85
11. IMMOLS. 86 – 93
12. Ration and its Distribution 94 – 97
MEDICAL
13. Armed Forces Medical Services. 99 – 106
14. Medical Evaluations and Categorisation. 107 – 113
15. Injury Report - IAFF (P) – 23. 114 – 116
16. Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV)/ Acquired Immune
117 – 123
Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS).
17. Counselling and Suicide Prevention. 124 – 138
MANAGEMENT
18. Management: Its Nature, Importance and Principles. 140 – 148
19. The Functions of Management. 149 – 151
20. Personnel Management. 152 – 156
21. Development of Leadership Concepts. 157 – 165
22. Motivational Theories. 166 – 167

NOTE: - It has been the endeavour of F L&A to update courseware with the
latest Policies/ Orders/ Instructions. However the contents of this book are to be
used as course material, and not to be quoted as authority at any stage. Officers
may refer to the references quoted in the text for official use.

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AMENDMENT RECORDS

Date Amendment Page No. Authority

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MAINTENANCE

Reviewed by

Gp Capt DS Rajput

Nov 2012

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CHAPTER - 1

MAINTENANCE POLICY

Chapter Objectives

After reading this chapter, you should:

 Know the maintenance policies in vogue in the IAF.
 Understand the maintenance philosophy behind these policies.

Structure
1. Introduction.
2. Aim of servicing policy.
3. Categories of servicing of aircraft.
4. Periodic servicing.
5. Servicing based on flying hours.
6. Servicing based on calendar.
7. Conclusion.

Introduction
1. Maintenance with reference to aircraft and other equipment means
performance of all tasks necessary for the purpose of ensuring that aircraft/
equipment are air worthy/ operation worthy and safe for operations. It includes
servicing, modifications, repairs, replacements, overhaul, process treatment tests
and inspections of aircraft, aircraft component and equipment. There are four kinds
of maintenance being undertaken in the Indian Air Force, namely:-
(a) Preventive Maintenance. It is the maintenance carried out at
predetermined intervals (Flying hours or Calendar basis) to keep aircraft and
equipment in serviceable and reliable condition.
(b) Condition Monitoring. Servicing performed depending on condition
of the component.
(c) Corrective Maintenance. Done to rectify or repair component when it
becomes unserviceable.
(d) Time Based Servicing. Periodical servicing carried out with the
periodicity of servicing based on flying hours and calendar basis.

Aim of Servicing Policy

2. (a) To reduce to a minimum, the number of random defects arising.
(b) To obtain most economic use of available technical manpower and
resources.

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3. Proper servicing is achieved by:-

(a) Application of basic knowledge and skill.
(b) Employment of specialized tradesmen.
(c) Use of relevant publication and complying with the instructions therein.
(d) Complete and accurate documentation.
(e) Reporting defects for remedial action.
(f) Using correct tools and correct spares.

Categories of Servicing
4. There are four categories of servicing which are stated in the succeeding
paragraphs.
(a) First Line Servicing. It consists of routine activities that are carried
out on an aircraft to maintain it fit for immediate use. It is the technical process
normally within the capacity of user units (e.g. aircraft squadrons), which are
established for daily servicing. The agency that normally carryout the first line
servicing are Daily Servicing Sections of flights under the aircraft squadrons.
First line servicing includes:-
(i) First Flight Servicing (FFS). It consists of servicing checks
carried out just before flight, to ensure serviceability of aircraft. It
includes checks for leakage, examination of panels/ fairings for security
of attachment, check of alighting gear, tyre pressure etc.
(ii) Turn Round Servicing (TRS). This servicing is carried out
when the aircraft is expected to fly another sortie the same day. It
includes items such as replenishment of consumable items, fuel, oil,
compressed air, oxygen and ammunitions. TRS includes general
external examination to ensure that the aircraft is ready for further
flight.
(iii) Last Flight Servicing (LFS). It consists of servicing operations
including replenishment, which are to be carried out after the last flight
of the day/night, irrespective of the state of the aircraft serviceability. It
includes checks such as replenishment of consumable items,
examination of the oleo leg for damage or leaks, examination of tyres
for correct pressure, cuts, securing of the aircraft and the fitting of
protective devices such as flying control locks, covers, etc.
(b) Second Line Servicing. Technical processes normally beyond the
capacity of unit or flight or squadron established for daily servicing, but carried
out with the immediate support of servicing sections of the Wing, such as
Repair and Servicing Section (R&SS). However, in some cases, the second
line activities may be transferred to the Third Line for convenience. The
agency that normally carryout the second line servicing are Repair and
Servicing Sections (R&SS) of wings which houses the aircraft squadrons. The
second line servicing activities include:-

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(i) Minor and Major servicing.

(ii) Missile preparation and dismantling.
(iii) Embodiment of prescribed modifications.
(iv) Compliance with STIs and SIs.
(c) Third Line Servicing. Technical processes normally beyond the
capacity of units or their supporting technical sections, but which do not need
facilities of a main base. Servicing under this range requires high degree of
technical knowledge and skill. It involves use of special equipment and
specialised knowledge. The agency that normally carryout the third line
servicing are Repair and Salvage Units (R&SU). Third line servicing
comprises of the following: -
(i) Salvage.
(ii) Repair on site.
(iii) Compliance with STIs.
(iv) Embodiments of modifications.
(d) Fourth Line Servicing. Fourth line servicing comprises technical
processes which require the facilities of base repair depots (BRDs) or civilian
repair agencies such as HAL. This includes: -
(i) Major repairs.
(ii) Reconditioning.
(iii) Overhauling of power plants and components.
5. Normally servicing can be divided into the following:-
(a) Predictable Servicing. Work carried out at predetermined
periodicities in set pattern. e.g. replenishments, lubrication etc.
(b) Un-predictable Servicing. Servicing carried out which are not
predictable. E.g. defect rectification.
Check Assimilation

Fill in the Blanks

1. The categories of aircraft servicing are ________, __________, ________

& ____________.
2. The agency that ensures embodiments of modifications is
________________________.

Periodic Servicing
6. All items due for attention at similar periodicities are serviced on a single
occasion along with those being done at more frequent intervals. Salient features of
periodic servicing are:-
(a) Minimises number of separate occasions of servicing.
(b) Enables maximum team size to concentrate in a planned manner.

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(c) Ensures sufficient time for required depth of servicing.

(d) Difficulty in rapid emergency recovery to full serviceability.
7. Periodic servicing is divided as:-
(a) Primary Servicing. It involves examination of aircraft for obvious
defects, essential functional checks and lubrication. It includes:-
(i) FFS - First Flight Servicing.
(ii) TRS - Turn Round Servicing.
(iii) LFS - Last Flight Servicing.
(b) Minor Servicing. It involves examination of aircraft for defects,
deterioration, corrosion and lubrication with greater degree. Affords
opportunity to carry out Modifications, STIs, and SIs of minor nature.
(c) Major Servicing. It involves detailed examination of aircraft, changing
parts, adjustments, calibration etc.

Servicing Based on Flying Hours.

8. Servicing carried out on an aircraft after having flown for certain
predetermined flying/ airframe hours as stipulated by the manufacturer. The
periodicities for undertaking such servicing may be 25h, 50h, 100h, 200h and an
overhaul.
9. The salient features of servicing which are based on flying hours are as
follows:-
(a) It depends on flying hours.
(b) It keeps down time low.
(c) The deterioration or likelihood of failure relating to number of
operations done is catered.
(d) The effects of surroundings i.e. temperature, humidity etc. are not
considered.
10. The advantages of servicing based on flying hours are as follows:-
(a) Possibility of under or over servicing due to random variation in
utilisation is avoided.
(b) Easy to revise frequency of servicing, if required.
(c) Easy to monitor outlived components.

Servicing Based on Calendar

11. It is a time bound servicing carried out at stipulated intervals as recommended
by the manufacturer. The salient features of calendar based servicing are as
follows:-
(a) Calendar servicing simplifies forward planning.
(b) Components not used/ operated for long durations are subjected to this
kind of servicing.

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(c) If flying effort is constant, calendar servicing and flying hours servicing
fall almost together.
12. The disadvantages of calendar based servicing are as follows:-
(a) Too much of flying results in under servicing.
(b) Less flying results in over servicing.

Conclusion
13. The maintenance policy in the IAF is geared towards keeping the IAF
equipment in full operational worthiness for its role and task. The maintenance policy
is planned and executed as per laid down SOPs and SIs which are exhaustive and
constantly reviewed to take into account the needs of a modern Air Force.

Bibliography/Reference

1. Précis of Air Force Technical College.

Check Assimilation: The Key

1. The categories of servicing are First line, Second line, Third line & Fourth
line.
2. The agency that ensures embodiments of modifications is Repair and
Salvage Units (R&SU).

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CHAPTER - 2

MAINTENANCE ORGANISATION IN IAF

Chapter Objectives

After reading this chapter, you should:

 Know the maintenance organisation in the IAF.
 Know the structure at Air HQ, Command HQ, Stations and Units.

Structure
1. Introduction.
2. AOM.
3. AOM‘s Branch.
4. Maintenance organization at operational command.
5. Maintenance organization at field formations.
6. Maintenance organization at squadrons.
7. Conclusion.

Introduction
1. Air Force Organisation at various levels (i.e. Air HQ, Commands and Stations)
follows a three prong system of:-
(a) Operations.
(b) Maintenance.
(c) Administration.
2. All Air Force activities are controlled from the Air HQ by the CAS. At Air HQ,
there are six PSOs in charge of four prongs. VCAS and DCAS look after Operations,
AOA and AOP look after Administration, AOM(Air Officer i/c Maintenance) looks after
Maintenance and DG(I&S) looks after Inspection and Safety.

Air Officer in charge Maintenance (AOM)

3. He is responsible for provisioning and maintenance of aircraft, stores,
engineering services, MT, ground electronics, safety equipment, engineering
support, maintenance plans, quality assurance and storage of aircraft and aircraft
equipment. In short all specialist aspects of aircraft and overall equipment
maintenance and provisioning of store in every weapon system.

AOM’s Branch
4. AOM is assisted by Director General (Aircraft), Director General (System) and
ACAS (Lgs) and ACAS (MP) in carrying out the maintenance functions of IAF at
Air HQ.

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(a) The DG (Aircraft) is assisted by ACAS(Eng A), ACAS(Eng B) and

ACAS (Eng T&H), whose functions are enumerated below :-
(i) ACAS (Eng A). An AVM of the AE Branch, who is responsible
for maintenance of all aircraft of Soviet origin. He is additionally
responsible for the LCA.
(ii) ACAS (Eng B). An AVM of the AE Branch, who is responsible
for maintenance of all aircraft of non-Soviet origin.
(iii) ACAS (Eng T&H). An AVM of the AE Branch, who is
responsible for maintenance of all Transport and Helicopter assets
maintenance.
(b) The DG (Systems) is assisted by ACAS (Systems) and ACAS
(Weapon) whose functions are enumerated below:-
(i) ACAS (Systems). An AVM of the AE Branch, who is
responsible for maintenance of all technical ground systems such as
radar, telecommunication equipment, explosives and safety equipment.
(ii) ACAS (Weapons). An AVM of the AE Branch, who is
responsible for maintenance of EW Systems, armament assets and its
safety standards.
(c) ACAS Maintenance Plans (MP). An AVM of the AE Branch who is
responsible for long term maintenance planning and the issue of maintenance
policies.
(d) ACAS (Lgs). An AVM is responsible for Fleet/ Weapon System
Management in terms of logistics provisioning, procurement, repairs &
overhauls, serviceability, AOG/MOG Management and IMMOLS etc.
5. Maintenance organisation at operational commands and Training Command
is headed by SMSO. Operational commands have under them ―Field units‖ i.e.
Wings, FBSUs. These wings exercise administrative and/ or functional control over
other small formations like squadrons. The Command Maintenance Staff working
under SMSO is responsible to ensure proper maintenance of all technical equipment
held by the field formations. For this purpose, C Eng O, C Sys O and CLMO and
other technical and logistics staff assist the SMSO.

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Maintenance Organisation at Operational Commands

6. The maintenance Organisation tree at Operational Commands is as shown
below:-

Maintenance Organisation at Field Formations (Station/ Units)

7. The maintenance organisation tree at Stations is as shown below.

CEO

MCC TECH ADJT

SE (AC) SE (L) SE (M) SLO

8. CEO heads maintenance Organisation at Field Formation (Station/ Wing).

The smaller formations on which the wing exercise administrative and/ or functional
control is called ―Lodger unit‖ of wing, which carry out single maintenance activities
i.e. first line servicing (carried out by its personnel). More complicated servicing is
carried in the station/ wing by squadron personnel under direct supervision and
control of wing specialist officers, who come under the CEO.
9. Maintenance Organisation at Squadrons. The squadron is the basic front
line fighting unit of the IAF. Squadrons are commanded by officer of the rank of
Gp Capt/ Wg Cdr. The entire command structure is designed to permit the

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squadrons to fulfil their functions. ‗C‘ flight is the technical echelon, which is
responsible for 2nd line servicing of aircraft of the squadron. O i/c DSS looks after
the first line servicing of the aircraft of the squadron.
Notes:
(a) Depending on the role of the squadron, the Squadron Engineering
Officer who is in charge of ‗C‘ Flight is assisted by various specialist officers,
such as the Squadron Armament Officer and the Signal Officer.
(b) The servicing echelon i.e. ‗C‘ Flt is detached and pooled under the
semi-centralised system of servicing, to the Technical Flight, and its
manpower is utilised to the best advantage by CEO, who has functional
control over them.
(c) As per the present policy the officers and men of ‗C‘ flight are posted to
the wing and are under CEO, who exercises both administrative and functional
control over them.
10. The organisation chart of the various Maintenance Sections is as shown
below:-

SE (Aircraft)

SE (AC)

Engine & Role Mech/Avionic AC Tech Flts SES

Eqpt Bay Bays & Labs

SE (M)

SE (M)

Workshop WSA & MT/MTR&S Refuelling ASV MMPU

Armoury

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SE (L)

SE (L)

Nav BCR Arrestor Photo Signals Commn AFNET/

Aids Barrier & IT Tropo
& CCR

SLO

SLO

Supply Section Transit Support Section

FSS IMMOLS R&D Section Air Crew Duty Crew

Transit

POL Storage & warehousing

LP Rations

Conclusion
11. The maintenance organization in the IAF is structured with the AOM as its
head and he assisted by his PSOs and the staff at the Air HQ followed by the various
commands having the SMSO as their maintenance head and he assisted by his
maintenance staff. At the stations the CEO and his staff look after the maintenance
and in the squadrons/ units the STO/ CTO looks after the maintenance.
Check Assimilation: The Key

1. The head of logistics branch in the IAF is ACAS (Lgs).

2. The PSOs who assist the AOM in the Air HQ are DG (System), DG (Aircraft),
ACAS (Lgs) and ACAS(MP).

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CHAPTER - 3

HQ MAINTENANCE COMMAND & UNITS OF MC

Chapter Objectives

After reading this chapter, you should:

 Know the functioning of Maintenance Command of the IAF.
 Know the establishments under MC that undertake the various
maintenance activities.

Structure
1. Introduction.
2. Formations under HQ MC.
3. BRDs.
4. EDs/ ASPs.
5. MCUs.
6. Conclusion.

Introduction
1. Maintenance Command (MC) has many units under it which are engaged in
major maintenance activities requiring large number of complicated specialist
equipment and highly skilled/ trained technical manpower. This command has also
under it many formations, which are responsible exclusively for provisioning, holding
and distribution of aircraft and stores (explosives and non explosives). Therefore, the
maintenance activities of HQ MC are looked after by two senior officers (instead of
one SMSO). They are SMSO and AOLM. There are many ‗Field formations‘ under
HQ MC. They are Base Repair Depots (BRD), Equipment Depots (ED), Air Stores
Parks (ASP) and MCUs.

Formations under HQ MC
2. The formations under HQ MC are BRDs with each BRD designated for a
particular type of system/ aircraft/ equipment, EDs with each ED dealing with a set of
stores. The ASPs generally deal with all stores related to aircraft rotables and
spares. The MCUs are the clearing and forwarding agents in the logistics parlance
tasked with the acceptance and delivery of all AF stores received from various
outside agencies/ countries and moving it to various AF units. AMSE a special unit is
set up for maintenance of all ADGES related equipment. Also RAME at Wadsar and
Guwahati has been set up for all telecommunication equipment. The formations
under HQ MC are as shown below.

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Maintenance Command

BRDs EDs ASPs MCUs

BRDs
3. BRDs have been established in the IAF to undertake major servicing, Cat ‗B‘
repairs of aircraft and repair/ overhaul of aero-engines and Rotables (items of aircraft
which when become unserviceable can be repaired and reused). BRDs are also
allotted with miscellaneous tasks like indigenous substitution etc.

EDs/ ASPs
4. The roles of ED/ ASPs are as follows:-
(a) To procure, store and issue technical and non-technical stores to units
as and when demanded.
(b) To clear urgent demands such as AOG/ IOR/ USR demands on
priority.
(c) To transcribe inabilities to Air Headquarters.
(d) To intimate Air HQ whenever the stock of particular item approaches
short stock figure, so that provisioning action can be taken at Air HQ/ HQ MC.
(e) To ensure that necessary routine storage servicing are carried out on
equipment held in storage.
(f) To take all necessary storage precautions so that stores do not
deteriorate during storage.
(g) To get all the items checked by quality assurance section on receipt
and before issue to units.
(h) To take necessary safety precautions where armament/ Explosive
stores are held.
(j) To take precautions to safeguard stores from being destroyed by fire.

MCUs
5. MCUs are established for the task of clearing and forwarding of equipment
and personnel during their transit from user/ field units to repair agency and
manufacturer and for routing of the spares and equipment from repair agency to user
units. The MCUs act as staging area for men and material. The stores that are
received through air, land or sea meant for the IAF are first taken by the MCU who
then dispatch it to the various EDs/ ASPs for onward dispatch to the units.

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Check Assimilation

Fill in the Blanks

1. The MCUs do the role of __________________ and _________________

of equipment and personnel.
2. ADGES equipment maintenance is undertaken by ______________.

Conclusion
6. The maintenance command of IAF is a dedicated setup and plays a vital role
in maintaining all equipment of the IAF is full operational readiness. It has various
establishments to carry out the tasks of provisioning and maintenance for this.

Check Assimilation: The Key

1. Carrying and forwarding of equipment and personnel.

2. AMSE.

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CHAPTER - 4

ROLE OF MECHANICAL TRANSPORT IN IAF

Chapter Objectives

After reading this chapter, you should:

 Understand the role of MT in the IAF.
 Know the various types of MT in use in the IAF.
 Understand the working of a typical MT section.

Structure
1. Introduction.
2. Role of MT.
3. Types of MT.
4. Working of a MT section.
5. Conclusion.

Introduction
1. In the IAF, which is primarily meant for Air Defence of the country, aircraft is
the most important equipment. But equally important is the mechanical transport
which helps in support and sustaining operations.
2. To look after the mechanical transport (MT) and to utilize it effectively and
economically so as to get maximum output, an organisation has been set up in IAF.
MT organisation is closely linked with technical operations. Hence the whole MT
organisation is placed under a directorate at Air Headquarters headed by an Air
Commodore AE (M). This Directorate of MT (DMT) is placed under AOL. At unit level
MT section looks after the provisioning of MT support and maintenance and is under
the STO (MT).

Role of MT
3. Mechanical Transport is needed to convey personnel and material from one
place to another, to refuel the aircraft, carry explosives etc. Some of the most
common and daily uses of MT in the IAF are:-
(a) To convey personnel from place to place.
(b) To collect rations for Messes.
(c) To provide rescue support for aircraft while landing and takeoff through
Airfield Crash Tender and ALR/ SAR Jeep.
(d) To tow an aircraft, bomb trolley, missile trolley from one place to
another by tractors.
(e) Ambulance to convey sick personnel.

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(f) To convey water through bowsers.

(g) To lift heavy equipment through crane and fork lifters.

Types of MT
4. There are two types of mechanical transports in IAF:-
(a) Common User Vehicles. These vehicles are used by more than one
service and are centrally procured by Air HQ and distributed to all the units of
Air Force. These are the commonly available vehicles of generic nature
performing all common transportation roles. Few examples are motor cycle,
staff Car, Gypsy, Air crew van etc.
(b) Specialist Vehicles. These vehicles are particular to the type of
aircraft, operations, and other weapon systems. Few examples are Fork Lifter,
Aircraft refuellers, Tractor Light and heavy, APPA – Starting Aggregate etc.

Working of a MT section
5. MT section is one of the most vital sections in an AF station and performs the
role of MT support to all the activities of the station. The MT detail is the front desk of
the MT section addressing all user queries regarding the section. The MTDs and the
MT fitters and technicians address all the first line and second line servicing of the
vehicles. The IAF (T) 901 is the MT requisition form. The MT can also be hired on
payment by raising the requisition form IAF (T) 905 and the rates of hiring are given
from time to time (Ref No 76218/(I)/Q/ST-11/3734/D(QS)). The car diary is the form
IAF (Z) 2209 which is the record of all the runs/uses of the MT. The MT state and
kilometer age return is raised in for IAF (T) 900.
6. MT Accident. In the event of an accident the MTD of the MT vehicle is to: -
(a) Complete, sign and detach the accident slip (Page 4 bottom portion)
from IAFF (T) 970 and hand over it to the driver of the other vehicle involved
or if no vehicle is involved, to the injured person or to the person whose
property is damaged or if the recipient is illiterate, to the police man.
(b) Report to the Civil Police/ AF Police.
(c) Complete the front page of IAFF (T) 970 and sketch on the reverse of
the form. If the driver is illiterate he has to report to the officer concerned and
the necessary filling of the form along with the sketch is to be completed by
the officer or SNCO i/c MT Section.
(d) As soon as possible, and in any case within 24 hours of the completion
of the journey or return to the unit he is to report to O i/c MT Section. Else
disciplinary action would be taken against the offender.
(e) In case on move, the accident is to be reported to the nearest AF
Station, who will be responsible for the completion of IAFF (T) 790 and
forward it to the parent unit of the MTD.
7. MTDs are not to admit any liability for the accident by word or act.
8. When the driver (Civilians) of an AF vehicle is unable to write in English, the
O i/c MT Section will ensure Accident slip attached to IAFF (T) 970 is filled with
name and number of the driver and BA No, Make and type of the vehicle.

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Check Assimilation

Fill in the Blanks

1. The car diary is the form ___________.
2. MT can be hired on payment using form ___________.

Conclusion
9. Mechanical Transport plays an important role in the functioning of the IAF.
Availability of MT in a serviceable condition and MT operators is vital for discharging
all tasks that require the MT.

Check Assimilation: The Key

1. The car diary is the form IAF (T) 2209.

2. MT can be hired on payment using form IAF (T) 905.

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CHAPTER - 5

MAINTENANCE SAFETY

Chapter Objectives

After reading this chapter, you should:

 Understand certain aspects of maintenance safety.
 Understand the various factors that contribute to safety.

Structure
1. Introduction.
2. Maintenance safety.
3. Factors of SCE.
4. Conclusion.

Introduction
1. Flight Safety implies a condition where the flying is safe and free from
accidents, dangers or hazards. Accidents cause loss of precious aircrew lives and
aircraft, which is unacceptable. Accident prevention appears to be the only logical
answer. The acceptability of flight safety in war is same as during peacetime.
Modernisation of Air Force aircraft and equipment is a continuous process to keep
pace with the ever changing complex defence scenario. The usage of technologically
advanced equipment necessitates very high standards of maintenance by well
trained personnel. Maintenance safety plays a vital role in flight safety.

Maintenance safety
2. Maintenance safety is a condition allowing maintenance task accomplishment
with minimum wastage of human and material resources. Maintenance safety
encompasses factors such as correct maintenance practices, use of correct tools
and spares, comprehensive instructions and adherence to it and healthy work
environment. In military operation, it is important that the primacy of a healthy
maintenance culture is recognised by one and all. A good maintenance culture is
required to meet the stiff demands of military operations. To meet the maintenance
challenges in this environment, it is necessary to develop a strong military culture
that includes knowledge, faith, integrity and moral courage that are essential for safe
maintenance practices in military operation. The techniques of men and material
management thus, have to change with requirements. Various factors that affect
correct maintenance practices are:-
(a) State of training and availability of technicians.
(b) Competency of supervisors.
(c) Healthy work environment.
(d) Availability of correct spares.

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(e) Availability of correct tools.

(f) Clarity of organisational objective.
(g) Relevance and availability of directives and publications.
(h) Motivation.
(j) Morale.
3. Negligence on any of the above factors could lead to a very common human
tendency of taking shortcuts and making inflated claims of higher aircraft
serviceability. In aircraft maintenance, there can be only one correct way of dealing
with rectification or servicing activity. The correct way is the only safe way.
4. It is quite true that only a small percentage of the reported accidents/ incidents
are attributable to the Servicing Crew Errors (SCE), but there are a number of
incidents, which go unreported. A large number of them are attributable to SCE.
Prevention of SCE is therefore, of great importance. One of the major activities that
are primarily oriented towards ensuring Flight Safety is Maintenance. SCE are the
lapses at all levels of servicing from the first to the fourth line.

Factors of SCE
5. SCE may be attributed to the following factors:-
(a) Attitude.
(b) Ability.
(c) Attention.
(d) Perception or misjudgement.
(e) Design.
(f) Situation.
(g) Supervision.
6. Attitudinal Factors. These include negligence or lack of care/ caution. The
various attitudinal factors are:-
(a) Casual Attitude. Incidences such as tools being left behind in air
intake and loose articles going in air intake are attributable to casual attitude
of the individuals. The remedies for such acts are:-
(i) Improving motivation of the individuals.
(ii) Creating an awareness and understanding of importance of their
work.
(iii) Creating working environment reflecting critical aspects of their
job.
(b) Breach of Discipline. It implies disobeying the laid down instructions
e.g. unauthorised driving of vehicles (Tractor, Refuellers, etc) by servicing
crew (not authorised and not competent). Reasons for such acts are a spirit of
adventure; desire to flout regulations, over keenness or over enthusiasm
(intention to avoid delays, good intention but lack of discretion). The breach of
discipline is to be dealt with ruthlessly.

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(c) Taking Things for Granted. Acting on the basis of assumption e.g.
rocket left out in the rocket pod and weapon fitter zeroing the circuit in the
cockpit. The remedies are:-
(i) Clear line of distinction on assuming things.
(ii) Positive requirement to check everything what one does oneself
or what others do.
7. Ability Factors. Two aspects affect the ability factors. They are:-
(a) Lack of Knowledge. It affects the quality of servicing in Air Force. The
remedy is imparting knowledge through: -
(i) Ab-initio training.
(ii) TETTRA.
(iii) On job training (OJT).
(iv) Continuity training.
(b) Lack of Experience. Knowledge and experience are complimentary.
Improvements in knowledge and working skill together can be termed as
experience. Urge to absorb the complexity of aircraft and continuity on the job
would add onto experience. Otherwise, a 20-year experience becomes one-
year experience repeated 20 times.
8. Attention failure. Managers, supervisors and servicing crews are all human
beings prone to attention failures. The reasons for such failures are:-
(a) Too many items to be attended to.
(b) Preoccupation of one‘s mind with some aspects unrelated to the job on hand.
(c) Distraction due to some happenings in one‘s surroundings.
(d) Fatigue.
(e) Emotional disturbance.
9. The remedies for attention failures are:-
(a) Too many jobs should not be given to a worker at the same time.
(b) Critical jobs must have distraction free environment.
(c) Pre-occupation and emotional disturbance cases should be identified
and solved as far as possible.
(d) Educate the supervisors and servicing crew to check the onset of
fatigue towards the end of working day.
(e) Allotment of tasks should be such that the probability of attention failure
is minimised.
10. Design Factors. Scope for making error is increased by design defects in a
machine (e.g. each machine has Murphy areas). The remedies are: -
(a) One should be urged to be on constant look out for ‗Murphy‘ areas.
(b) Devise methods of avoiding Murphy errors by colour coding, making,
and using different sizes and shapes of connections etc.

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(c) Effectively disseminate this information to workers and supervisors.

Check Assimilation

Fill in the Blanks

1. The various factors that contribute to maintenance safety are ________,
_________, _______________, ____________, _____________,
_______________, ___________.
2. The various factors that are detrimental to maintenance safety are
_________, ____________, _______________, _________________,
____________, _______________.
11. Perceptional Factor. Errors due to misjudgement of distance clearances etc
fall under this category. The remedies are:-
(a) Men are to be deployed mandatorily at specific points like wing tips,
pitot heads, tail plane, hangar doors etc., during towing of aircraft.
(b) Ensure that various demarcating lines like FOD lines, aircraft
movement lines, refuellers/ ground equipment positioning lines are painted
promptly (as applicable) on the tarmac area. Personnel must adhere to the
laid down norms in following the instructions for these lines/ lanes.
(c) Providing good lighting especially in the areas where the clearance
between aircraft tips and adjoining objects is marginal. There exists
considerable scope for proper planning, education and vigilance in this area.
12. Situational Factor. It is an environmental or circumstantial factor. There
exists a wide difference between expediting a job and hurrying a job. ‗Hurry‘ element
tends to take shortcuts. This should be well understood by the supervisors as well as
the workers. The only way to avoid this situational factor is to resist the word ‗Hurry‘
in junction with the job to be undertaken.
13. Supervision Factor. Supervision is an important aspect of aircraft servicing.
Supervisor means ―A wise head over broad shoulder‖. Supervisor is a vital member
of servicing crew. Exceptional skill is not mandatory but thorough familiarity with
practical aspects of servicing is a pre-requisite of servicing. The supervisor has to be
highly competent and professionally sound. The role of supervisors is to prevent
commission of an error, to detect and correct an error committed (e.g. failure to carry
out laid down checks, failure to secure parts correctly, lapse in servicing).

Conclusion
14. Maintenance safety is a vital aspect of safe flying environment in the IAF.
Correct maintenance practices, availability of spares and tools, trained manpower
etc ensure high levels of maintenance safety. Various factors that reduce safety like
attitudinal deficiency, ability factors, lack of training spares and tools etc are to be
constantly monitored and guarded against.

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Check Assimilation: The Key

1. The various factors that contribute to maintenance safety are training,

availability, competency of supervisor, spares, tools, motivation and morale.
2. The various factors that are detrimental to maintenance safety are attitude,
ability, attention, design, supervision, and situation.

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CHAPTER - 6

CONCEPT OF FLIGHT SAFETY

Chapter Objectives

After reading this chapter, you should:

 Understand the certain aspects of flight safety.
 Understand the various factors that contribute to flight safety.

Structure
1. Introduction.
2. Flight Safety.
3. Flight Safety Journal.
4. Aim Flight Safety Meeting.
5. Role of Flight Safety Council.
6. Accidents in Air Force.
7. Causes of Accidents.
8. Foreign Object Damage (FOD).
9. Methods of Prevention of Accidents.
10. Operational Hazard Report (OHR).
11. Conclusion.

Introduction
1. The aim of flight Safety is to develop an individual‘s capacity to identify the
areas of accident/incident producing hazards and to action and exercise precautions
to minimize the hazards keeping in view the operational capability of the IAF.
2. The foremost objective of flight safety is to prevent any aircraft accident/
incident, which causes an unwanted waste of valuable human life, and material
resources, besides incurring irreparable loss to the IAF. Further, the exercise of
vigorous accident prevention measures is expected to achieve mission
accomplishment, which is the prime concern of the IAF personnel in an air operation.
Additionally the objective of flight safety is to identify and reduce hazards in all areas
which may directly or indirectly impact a safe flying environment and may jeopardise
operational efficiency.

Flight Safety
3. Flight safety is a state of safe flying environment allowing mission
accomplishment with minimum expenditure of human effort and material resources.
Due to the high risk involved in flying and related activities, zero accident incident
rates are extremely difficult and almost impossible. However, the aim of all those
involved in the field of aviation is to reduce the errors. A mistake leads to an

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accident. It is important therefore to identify and control potential hazards leading to

accident. One of the major activities involved in flight safety is maintenance.
4. Few of the abbreviations related to flight safety are given below.

Station Flight Safety and Inspection officer (SFS & IO)

DFS Director of Flight Safety

EDP Electronic Data Processing

IFS Institute of Flight Safety

AAIB Aircraft Accident Investigation Board

MSIO Maintenance Safety and Inspection Officer

UFSIO Unit Flight Safety and Inspection Officer

5. Flight Safety Organisation

(a) Air HQ

CAS

DIRECTOR GENERAL (I & S)

ACAS (S & I)

DFS DASI DMI D ADMN I AEB

Air Cmde F (P) Air Cmde F (P) Air Cmde (AE) Air Cmde Gp Capt F (P)

JDFS-I JDFS-II JDFS-III JDFS-IV ADMN O i/c AAIB IFS

EDP

O i/c Publicity O i/c RAW CI Trg

Safety Aviation Maint Safety Aero Accident

Management Psychology Management Dynamics investigation

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(b) Command HQ
AOC-in-C

SASO

CFSIO

DY CFSIO/CMSIO

(c) Station

AOC/STN CDR

CO COO CEO

UFS & IO SASIO Stn Maint Safety

Officer

All air crew All ground crew

(d) Unit
CO

Flt Cdr UFS & IO SEO

Air Crew Unit Maint Safety Officer

All ground crew

Flight Safety Journal

6. A new era began in the history of flight safety, when a flight safety journal was
introduced in the beginning of 1960's. It was envisaged that introduction of a
magazine on flight safety would bring in immense effects in the programme of
accident prevention. The Institute of Flight Safety started publishing flight safety
journal.
7. Flight safety journal are issued every month by O i/c Publicity (IFS of Air Head
Quarters). This journal is published once in a month and is distributed to all the
stations/ wings/ units and to all other relevant places directly or indirectly concerned
with flying.
8. This monthly magazine brings out the matters concerning flight safety, in an
informal way. The aim of the journal is to establish a dialogue between the staff and

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field operators in the form of a general exchange of views and ideas on flight safety.
It also encourages free expression of instances previously unpublished or published
else where, by means of thoughtful editorial. The journal endeavours to enhance the
flight safety awareness amongst all readers.
9. Flight Safety meetings; council-meetings and journals help in active
participation and up dating of knowledge of all personnel related to flight safety.
These measures also help develop general awareness towards flight safety amongst
all personnel.
Aim of Flight Safety Meeting
10. The principal purpose of flight safety meetings at all levels is to exchange
freely, views on areas that are potentially hazardous towards a safe flying
environment. This gives an opportunity to all concerned with aircraft operations for a
direct dialogue among the personnel of IAF. It therefore, becomes vital to ensure that
these meetings are conducted properly at specific intervals. The agenda points
should be circulated well in advance. Discussions on various points relating to
accidents that have taken place should be carried out and the reasons analysed to
evolve preventive measures.
Role of Flight Safety Council
11. The role of flight safety council is to assist the AOC/ Stations Commander in
evaluating the accident preventing Programmes and in co-ordinating the various
accident prevention activities. Hence, it is necessary to organise flight safety council.
The Council is primarily concerned with 'before-the fact-activities'. Its membership
should be based upon the requirements in connection with the accident prevention
programme. In addition to regular members, other personnel may be invited to
participate when council business involves their responsibilities.
12. The council offers an excellent means for reviewing potential accidents area.
It will increase the awareness of the staff and supervisory personnel towards the
responsibilities in the accident prevention programme. It is a body that evaluates and
recommends corrective action in the affairs of flight safety. It also keeps monitoring
until the required action is completed.

ACCIDENTS IN AIR FORCE

Meaning of Accident
13. Aircraft accidents/ incidents can take place due to numerous reasons such as
bird hit, human error, FOD, failure/ malfunctioning of airborne systems, material
failure etc. This causes loss of service and/ or civil property and at times human life.
It also affects morale at all levels. There is a need therefore to prevent these
accidents/ incidents and to get to the root cause and try to eliminate recurrence by
way of instituting corrective measures.
14. Aircraft Accident is an occurrence, not directly caused by enemy action,
involving one or more aircraft in the air or on the ground, which results in damage to
aircraft or property and/ or injury to one or more persons. Damage or injury caused
by enemy action is termed as battle damage/ casualty.

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15. Aircraft Incident is an occurrence involving one or more aircraft, in the air or
on the ground, which does not result in any injury or damage to aircraft or property
but might have resulted in an accident.
16. Flying Accident/ Incident is an aircraft accident/ incident occurring during the
period of operation of an aircraft, as defined in Para 13 of the AFO 07/93. For the
purpose of reporting and investigation, the term flying accident/ incident will also
include a ground accident/ incident.
17. Ground Accident/ Incident, is an aircraft accident/ incident that takes place
outside the period of operation of an aircraft during an activity in direct support of
flying operations. The term includes accidents/ incidents that take place during
scheduled servicing, ground run, tarmac operations, refuelling, towing, etc.

CATEGORY AND CLASSIFICATION OF ACCIDENTS

Category of Accident Classification of Accident

Cat Definition Class Definition

I The aircraft airframe is destroyed or Serious All Cat I accidents

damaged beyond repair or is accident
missing or cost of the damage/
repair, excluding damage to aero
engine exceeds 50% of the total
cost of the aircraft.

II The aircraft sustain extensive FATAL An accident resulting

damage and the cost of damage/ in fatal injuries to one
repair, excluding damage to the or more aircrew on
aero engine is 31% to 50% of the flying duty.
total cost of the aircraft.

III The aircraft sustains major damage Major All Cat I, II & III
and the cost of damage/ repair, accident
excluding damage to the aero
engine is 11% to 30% of the total
cost of the aircraft.

III Damage to service or civil property Minor All Cat IV

(other than aircraft) is more than Rs accident
25 lakhs

III One or more persons (service or Minor All Cat IV

civilian) are fatally injured as a direct accident
result of the accident even when
cost of damage to the aircraft or
property is less than Rs 25 lakhs.

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IV Minor damage to the aircraft Incident -

(airframe) where the cost of damage
is up to 10 % of the total cost of the
aircraft (excluding engine).

IV Any category of damage to the Incident -

aero-engine as a result of an
accident.

IV Any injuries to civilians. Incident -

IV Serious injuries to any service Incident -

personnel.

IV Any damage to service or civilian Incident -

property (other than aircraft) where
the act of damage does not exceed
Rs 25 lakhs.

V All flying incidents, considered worth Incident -

reporting in the interest of flying
safety are categorised as Cat V.

CATEGORY OF DAMAGE OF AIRCRAFT AND AERO ENGINE

Category of Damage Assessment of cost

Cat Definition Agency Definition
'E' The aircraft/ aero-engine is destroyed CEO Cat 'E' damage to aircraft/
or damaged beyond repair or the aero-engine
aircraft has been declared missing
'B' The damage is not repairable at site. Concerned Cat 'B', B (patch) B(Site) to
The damaged aircraft/ aero-engine repair aero-engine
will have to be sent to the concerned agency Cat AC damage to aircraft/
repair agency for repair aero-engine
'B' The damage is beyond the capacity of Concerned -
(patch) the unit or R&SU resources, but the agency
aircraft can be patch repaired and
flown to the repair agency for proper
repair
AC The damage is repairable at site with - -
the help of an R&SU party
A The damage is repairable at base - Cat ‗A‘ damage to ac/ aero
from within the local resources engine. Damage to service
property in consultation
with specialist officer.
U Un-damaged - -

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CAUSES OF ACCIDENTS

18. Every aircraft accident is analysed to determine its cause or causes. When
factual evidence is insufficient to clearly establish cause/ causes, an effort is made to
determine probable cause/ causes. When the uncertainty is too great to reach any
reasonable conclusion, the cause is termed as 'undetermined'. In the broad sense,
the causes are categorised as ' Material Failure' or 'Human Error'. In some cases
design deficiency is considered to be an additional category and can be assessed as
a premier cause. Design deficiency is more often considered to be an underlying
influence on the failure of material or personnel and as such appears as a
contributing cause factor in accident investigation findings. There are other causes
such as weather, bird strikes and aircrew incapacitation etc. Human error has
constantly accounted for approximately 70% of Air Force accidents over the past
years. Materials failure has caused approximately 20% while bird strikes and other
causes account for about 10% of the accidents.

Causes of Accidents
19. Aircraft accidents can be caused by the following:-
(a) Material failure.
(b) Bird hit.
(c) Rodent activities
(d) Human error.

Material Failure
20. Material Failure causes are those where the accidents are as a result, failure
of components in air or on ground which could not be detected earlier. Detailed
analysis of the cause of failure is required to be done within the Air Force and also
be outside repair agencies to effect improvement on the components. In many
cases, material failures are difficult to separate from the maintenance lapses.
Components failures, which result from improper installation like servicing errors,
may also lead to material failure. However, the design aspect more often than not
prevent improper fitment.

Bird Hit
21. Birds are a potential hazard to safe operation of aircraft. In the early days of
aviation, collision between aircraft and birds were rare and infrequent. Today it is
estimated that more than 5000 bird strikes takes place in the world over civil and
military aircraft every year. As a result, a large amount of money is lost in repair/
replacement of parts/ aircraft. There has been a sudden increase in fatalities on
single engine jet aircraft due to bird strikes. There are cases of bird strikes taking
place even at night. The first recorded bird strike in IAF took place on 27Jan 1954,
when a Dakota aircraft suffered a bird strike, while on a routine flight. With the
advent of the jet age, bird strike accidents are reaching alarming proportions.

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22. Reasons for Bird Hit. Following are the reasons of bird hit:-
(a) Increased speed of the aircraft.
(b) Increase in air traffic.
(c) High suction levels of air intakes of turbojets.
(d) Increase in bird activity. (Population of birds)
(e) Because of increase in population, cities have become larger and
encompass airfields. This has lead to an increase in
(i) Slaughter houses.
(ii) Garbage dumps.
(iii) Tanneries.
(iv) Slums and unauthorized constructions.
(v) Unauthorized eating places with poor hygienic conditions.
23. Remedial Measures. Remedial measures for bird hits are as follows:-
(a) Avoid throwing food items near the airfield.
(b) Avoid trees near airfields to prevent birds from nesting.
(c) Ban Slaughter houses near airfields.
(d) Ban garbage dumping near the airfields.
(e) Prevent unauthorized construction around airfields.
(f) Deployment of BHCT.
24. BHCT (Bird Hazard Combat Team). This team is deployed under close
direction of COO to monitor bird activity and to carry out bird hazard control.
25. Rodent Activities.
(a) The menace of rodents in lab ducts, hangars and aircraft parked for
long duration waiting servicing is well established.
(b) There is a need to undertake structured steps to control this menace,
to avoid unnecessary maintenance work and expenditure.
(c) Rat-traps, rodent guards and ultrasonic tweeters are to be used for this
purpose as per local requirement.
26. Human Error. The 'Human Error' contributing to the aircraft accidents can be
mainly either pilot error or servicing personnel errors. The main area, which needs
attention to prevent human error, is TRAINING. As relates to servicing personnel, it
involves an adequate training on the aircraft, equipment on which they are required
to work, enforcing adherence to the correct servicing procedures and practices with
effective supervision.
27. Types of Errors.
(a) Error of omission and commission.
(b) Professional errors.
(c) Inadvertent errors.
(d) Supervisory lapses.

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28. Errors of Omission and Commission. Officer i/c and Supervisors are to
institute corrective actions to avoid the following commonly observed lapses:
(a) Failure to carry out laid down checks (cases of negligence, ignorance,
lack of supervision)
(b) Failure to secure parts correctly (cases of loose rivets, frayed cables
and improper locking and loose caps)
(c) Lapses in compliance of servicing.
(d) Failure to take precautions (cases of fire due to fuel leak, shortcuts in
Armament Circuitry Check, etc).
(e) Foreign Object Damage.
29. Professional Errors. These are caused due to the lack of knowledge, skill
and attitude. Supervisors are to ensure that servicing crew develops the correct
attitude. Other reasons for errors are:
(a) Non-availability of publications (Poorly printed and ambiguous
instructions).
(b) Instructions not getting updated and disseminated.
(c) Lack of clarity and precision in instructions.
(d) Amendment to schedule of activities by the unit, aimed to reduce time/
difficulty in servicing.
(e) Lack of proper tools, cleaning material and test equipment.
30. Inadvertent Errors. Inadvertent or incorrect operation of controls (Ejection
Seat Firing, Drop tank/ Podded Equipment getting jettisoned on ground etc.).
(a) Reversal in fitment of components.
(b) Walking into hazard zones, like air intake areas while engine is
running.
(c) Collision of vehicles/ ground equipment.
31. Supervisory Lapses.
(a) Incorrect procedures being adopted without being questioned.
(b) Non-compliance of single star and double star items.
(c) Lack of co-ordination among various tradesmen while carrying out an
activity (such as – Rear Fuselage removal, jet nozzle diameter check and
throttle operations involving multiple trade activities).

FOREIGN OBJECT DAMAGE (FOD)

Meaning of FOD
32. Number of accidents and incidents are attributed to foreign object damage
(FOD) of aircraft, aero-engines and tyres. It has been experienced that there is a
repetition of various servicing operations to locate and retrieve the foreign object
which has gone into a system inadvertently, thus wasting valuable man-hours. FOD

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has an impact on the operational preparedness of IAF and lot of money and man-
hours get wasted every year. The accidents and incidents caused by FOD are
avoidable, provided men in the field are vigilant.
33. Causes. Following are the some FO‘s, which are found time and again
(a) Tools left at the working place in an aircraft
(b) Leaving behind spares in the aircraft
(c) Dropping of loose item such as buttons, coins, keys etc. in the aircraft
(d) Leaving behind servicing debris such as wires, drilled rivets, split pins,
rubber seals etc.
(e) Extra panels left in the aircraft.
(f) Sundry cases of left over food, leading to presence of rodents, nest of
wasps and birds.

Remedies
34. FOD is the biggest enemy of an aircraft, which causes heavy loss to lives and
national property. Some of the remedial action to be followed to avoid FOD is given
below.
(a) Use proper and authorised tools and check for full tool kit before
starting and completion of work.
(b) Never enter an aircraft with articles carried in flapless pockets of
overall.
(c) Never leave rags in the aircraft/engine after cleaning.
(d) Never leave any loose articles near an aircraft and in servicing areas.
(e) Prohibit transfer of tools between tradesmen.
(f) Disposal of servicing debris (like locking wire, split pins, seals etc.)
should be done in FOD bins only.
(g) FOD parade is to be conducted before first flight and night flying.

FOD Parade on Tarmac

35. Tarmac area is to be kept absolutely clean at all times. WO i/c shift is to
conduct FOD parade on completion of FFS (prior to start up). Adequate number of
personnel is to be employed in FOD parade to ensure close scrutiny of tarmac
surface, for foreign objects. Meticulous records are to be maintained for FOD
parades conducted. In addition, it is to be ensured that the tarmac area/aircraft
operational area is swept particularly before night flying.

METHODS OF PREVENTION OF ACCIDENTS

Human Factor Limitations Physical and Psychological

36. The three elements of aviation the man, the machine and the environment are
not easy to separate; because the man is involved in all of them. The man designs,

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manufactures, maintain the aircraft and controls the flight. It is the man not machine
or environment, which plays a dominant role in aviation. In accident prevention
therefore our prime concern is man, because the largest percentage of accidents is
caused by human factors.
37. Everyone connected with flying operation should be aware of physical and
psychological limitations that may affect air/ ground crews or any other member of
the team collaborating in flying mission. Illness, fatigue, emotional disturbance,
complacency, etc are a few of the many human limitations that produce errors.
Recognition of these limitations is the first step in preventing the errors and
education alone will ensure their recognition and thus help to prevent errors.
Precautions against Human error
38. Aircraft servicing needs disciplined and a professional approach to ensure
maintenance and flight safety. Inability to cope with modern technology, lack of
professionalism, over confidence and excessive dependence on memory, paucity of
time and other resources, non congenial environmental conditions and mental stress
are some of the contributory factors to servicing crew errors. Concerted efforts to
avert HES are to be ensured at all levels.
Workmen Error
39. The errors created by the workman are due to lack of knowledge, skill and
experience. Improving these qualities will reduce error.
(a) Lack of Knowledge. A Technician should have the knowledge of the
aircraft/equipment on which he is working. All technicians are trained in their
respective trade up to a certain standard. When he goes to a unit, his attitude
and interest to gain knowledge helps to augment his skill and knowledge
further. The technician should be willing to learn to improve his knowledge. In
this sphere there is lot of scope for improvement. Since these are individual
traits, they have to be developed from within and 'spoon feeding' is not
possible. The only solution to this is to motivate the technicians to develop
these traits by continuity training and making his job more challenging.
(b) Skill and Experience. Skill is an ability to do a job efficiently and within
a well-defined time frame, which comes only with experience. Commitments
of postings, rotation of technicians results in loss of experienced and skilled
technicians to a unit. This increases the possibility of inspection and servicing
errors. Since postings are inevitable, the only way to improve skill and
experience is by OJT. Records of past snag diagnosis and rectification could
help in improving the knowledge, skill and experience of a technician.
Supervisory Errors
40. Effective supervision makes all the difference between safety and accident.
Supervision has to be done carefully, adequately and appropriately. Supervision is
necessary for the completion of task. It involves planning, direction and control. It
means attention to details, training, management and guidance. It also involves
supervision of oneself (self discipline) concentration and a high sense of devotion to
duty. It includes developing safety consciousness in all, connected with aviation.
Supervision is to govern safety and the supervisor is a key figure in any organisation
where the quality of work output matters.

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Safety Aspects
41. Precautions by Personnel when Working on Aircraft.
(a) Personnel are to wear authorized overall only and the pockets are to
be empty.
(b) Carrying of any cigarette or lighter or matchboxes by personnel
working on aircraft is forbidden.
(c) Personnel are forbidden to carry matchboxes into hangars where
aircraft are parked.
42. Precautions against Fire.
(a) Aircraft and associated equipment are to be protected against damage
due to fire. Such an outbreak can take place due to a grass fire, fuel/ oil fire,
electrical short circuit, cotton waste/ rags dipped in oil/fuel, etc.
(b) Smoking inside hangars is STRICTLY PROHIBITED and NO
SMOKING boards are to be prominently displayed in the hangar.
(c) Welding, brazing or any other operation involving risk of fire or
explosion is not to be carried out on aircraft containing fuel or in a
compartment in which inflammable materials are housed.
(d) No oil/ fuel or any other inflammable materials are to be stored in
hangars having aircraft parked inside.
(e) During start-up of aircraft engines, CO2 fire extinguisher trolley is to be
positioned in a pre-designated place close to the aircraft. This extinguisher is
to be manned by two personnel.
(f) Earthing of all portable, electrically operated tools or equipment is to be
ensured before their usage on aircraft/ ground equipment.
43. Safety Requirement of Hand Tools. Tools facilitate prompt and efficient
execution of tasks. They are to be handled with care, properly maintained and used.
The following precautions are to be ensured on the tools:
(a) Select proper and serviceable tools for the task.
(b) Use tools only for the work for which they are intended.
(c) Tools like files are never to be used without handles.
(d) Never use pliers as a spanner.
(e) Precision instruments are to be cleaned and oiled after use.

OPERATIONAL HAZARD REPORT (OHR)

44. All accidents and incidents involving IAF aircraft are reported to Command
Headquarters and Air Headquarters. The purpose of an OHR as the term implies, is
to report any factor that in the opinion of the observer is or is likely to be a hazard for
flying. Every single individual in a flying station is directly or indirectly involved in

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flying activity. An effort, therefore, must be made by the Station Flight Safety
Committee to continuously educate all personnel on the basic purpose of an OHR.

Preparation and Disposal of OHR

45. "Operation Hazard Report" corners are to be set up at several strategic
locations throughout the Technical area, e.g. DSS, CR & SS, and Air & Ground Crew
Rest Rooms etc. In these corners, blank forms of OHR should be kept along with
instructions as to indicate their purpose, completion and disposal. Effort should be
made to make the OHR corners attractive and colourful.
46. The forms can be filled up by any category of personnel, air and ground crew,
MT drivers, tractor drivers etc, whenever an incident, near miss or hazard has
occurred in the air or on the ground for which they were observers. The observation
made on the OHR must be accurate. It is not mandatory to append the name of the
reporter. A specimen OHR is given at the end of this chapter as Appendix.

Disposal of OHR
47. In each OHR corner a 'post box' is to be fixed. OHR should be posted in these
boxes. At a fixed time every day, the Station Flight Safety and Inspection Officer or
his representative is to tour the station and collect the OHR. These boxes are not to
be opened by any other person other than SFSIO.
48. After collecting all OHR, the SFSIO is to study them and decide which report
requires further investigation and action to prevent possible flying or ground
accidents. He is to maintain a register of all OHR reported. This register is to be
made available for inspection by visiting Inspecting Team. Action taken on OHR
must be indicated and such information is to be made available to all air/ ground
crew during Flight Safety meetings.
49. All OHR are to be numbered serially for the year by the Wing/Station
concerned, e.g., 9WG/1 of 04, 1 BRD/3 of 04 etc. The OHR are to be numbered by
forwarding Wing/ Station and reference number is to be put next to main centre
heading.
50. Units are to forward three copies of OHR to controlling Command HQ and two
copies direct to Air Headquarters.

Action at Command Headquarters

51. Command Headquarters are to endorse their comments in the relevant
column and forward one copy to Air Headquarters and return one copy to Unit and
retain the third copy.
52. The Command Headquarters concerned is to automatically intimate Air
Headquarters the action contemplated or taken by it on any OHR on which action by
Parent Command Headquarters/ Air Headquarters is recommended by the
forwarding unit.

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Conclusion

53. Flight Safety is every one‘s business. All air warriors must be vigilant and take
proactive measures to improve the safe flying environment. Flight safety should not
be limited to Flight Safety meetings, slogans and posters. It should also encompass
social and environmental areas where thrust must be given to improve the basic
requirements of all personal who are directly or indirectly involved in flying.

Bibliography

1. AP 3030 Flight Safety Manual

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Appendix
(Refer to para 46 of Chapter 6)

SPECIMEN OF OPERATIONAL HAZARD REPORT

To From

SASIO

(Optional, Name, Rank & Service No.)

Type AC Type/No./ Material / Facilities / Admin / Health Hazard Involved

Description of Hazard (Date, Time, Summary-Who, What, When, Where &

How)

Recommendations (By originator-not mandatory)

Date received Remarks by SASIO/CFSIO

Date forwarded

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METEOROLOGY

Reviewed by

Gp Capt Rajiv Srivastava

Sep 2012

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CHAPTER- 7

METEOROLOGY

Chapter objectives

After reading this chapter, you should:-

 Know about the Met organisation in the world/ country and in the
Indian Air Force (IAF).
 Be conversant with the Met services/types of Met sections in the
IAF and the nature of Met observations.
 Understand the characteristics/ features of various meteorological
elements.

Structure
1. Introduction.
2. World Met Organisation.
3. India Meteorological Department.
4. Met services at AF Stations / Units.
5. Nature of Met observations.
6. Meteorological elements.
7. Conclusion

Introduction
1. Meteorology is the study of weather and climate. This study consists of
physics, chemistry and dynamics of the atmosphere. It also includes many of the
direct effects that the atmosphere has upon Earth‘s surface, the oceans and life in
general. The goals often ascribed to meteorology are complete understanding and
accurate prediction of atmospheric phenomena.
2. Meteorology is subdivided into a large number of specialised sciences. The
treatment of meteorology progresses from the overall fundamentals of meteorology
to a thorough description of atmospheric physics and circulation, air masses, fronts
and meteorological elements.

World Meteorological Organisation (WMO)

3. The rapid scientific developments in meteorology during late 19 th century and
early 20th century led to generally accepted opinion that research in Met on global or
regional scale can be arranged only through international co-operation between
countries. The WMO came into being 23 mar 50 as a specialised agency of the
United Nations and this day (i.e., 23 March) is celebrated every year by all WMO
member countries as ‗World Meteorological Day‘. It has 186 members as on Nov 06.
The organisation of WMO consists of Executive Council, 08 Technical Associations,

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06 Regional Associations and a Secretariat, apart from other working groups under
them. The Secretariat is located at Geneva, Switzerland.

India Meteorological Department (IMD)

4. India Meteorological Department (IMD) was established in 1875. It is the
National Met Service of the country and the principal Government agency in all
matters relating to Meteorology. Seismology and allied subjects.
5. Organisation. The IMD is headed by Director General of Meteorology (DGM)
with headquarters at New Delhi. He is assisted by 09 Deputy Director Generals
(DDG), 03 Additional Director Generals (ADG) and one Finance Officer. For
convenience of administration and tech control, there are 06 Regional Met Centres
(RMCs), each under a Director, with Headquarters at Mumbai, Kolkata, Chennai,
New Delhi, Gauhati and Nagpur. In addition, there are 12 separate directorates to
deal with specialised subjects like Agricultural Met, Aviation Met, Instruments,
Hydromet, Indian Ocean and Southern Hemisphere Analysis Centre (INOSHAC),
Radar Met, Satellite Met, Telecommunication and Training.

Meteorological Services for the IAF

6. Meteorological services of the IAF are established to provide:-
(a) Accurate meteorological observations at desired frequency for aircraft
operations from prepared or unprepared surfaces and under special
conditions from off-shore platforms.
(b) Cautions / Warning on rapid and transient fluctuations of vital met
parameters and local severe weather phenomena that restrict or prevent the
air operations or cause damage to the aircraft or installations on ground.
(c) Routine forecasts with suitable overlap.
(d) Pro-active advice for planning and execution of air operations in terms
of meteorological conditions.
7. The service is also to assist civil aircraft of the Indian Union and foreign
aircraft (civil and military) operating from and through Air Force airfields, where IAF
Meteorological Sections are established and civil met facilities are not readily
available (Para 1301, Chapter XXIV of Regulations for the Air Force).

Types of Met Sections

8. At each flying station, a met section is established, based on the watch hours
of Air Traffic Control (ATC) section. Met sections, however, maintain an additional
watch of six hours over that of ATC. Depending upon observational and forecasting
watch hours, the met sections are of the following types:-
(a) Type ‘A’ Met Section. Type ‗A‘ Met section maintains 24-hours
observational and forecasting watch.
(b) Type ‘B’ Met Section. Type ‗B‘ Met sections are established for
maintaining 24-hours observational and 18-hours forecasting watch.
(c) Type ‘C’ Met Section. Type ‗C‘ Met sections maintain 24-hours
observational and 12-hours forecasting (dawn to dusk) watch.

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Meteorological Services at AF Stations/ Units

9. At AF Stations / Units, the Met Flight is looked after by Flt Cdr Met Flt and is
the part of the Ops Group. The main elements of a Met Flight are:-
(a) Observational Element.
(b) Communicational Element.
(c) Forecasting Element.
(d) Administrative Element.
10. Observational Element. For conduct of air operations, observations of
accurate weather elements and their prompt dissemination are essential. In the IAF,
clouds and visibility are measured visually, while pressure, temperature, winds,
humidity, rainfall etc. are measured using instruments / sensors. Currently, these
instruments are conventional barometers, thermometers, rain-gauge and
anemometer. Each Met Flight has an observatory to enable standardisation of the
exposure conditions, where thermometers and rain-gauge are housed. These
observations are taken hourly / half-hourly and given to the ATS as METARs and
SPECIs. Modernisation of equipment has resulted in acquisition of various modern
equipment (e.g, Automatic Weather Stations & Wind profilers) and soon fully
automated meteorological observations will be operationalised.
11. Observations of weather elements over a larger area and their mutual
exchange with least delay are essential for forecasting. It needs a good and reliable
communication network to achieve this. AFNET is the main network for exchange of
data within Air Force and Civil Met data is fed into this network by Air HQ. Mausam
on Line (MOL) developed by Dte of Met is a versatile webpage on the AFNET
domain, for exchange of Met information within IAF.
12. Meteorological data, satellite images and various other information
downloaded from India Meteorological Department (IMD) website is processed using
software called metGIS (Meteorological Geographical Information System). The
processing of the satellite images is done through SIRAVDS V.3 (Satellite Imagery
Reception and Video Display System - Version 3) which is integrated with the
metGIS system. The surface and upper air data is plotted and analysed using
metGIS. The system also provides facility for overlay of satellite imagery on the
analysed charts for enhancing forecasters‘ appreciation of the prevailing synoptic
situation. Additionally, Air Force Centre for Numerical Weather Prediction
(AFCNWP) also provides the same data through AFNET to all the Met Flights of the
IAF.
13. Recently, Directorate of Meteorology at Air Head Quarters has installed 20
Digital Meteorological Data Dissemination (DMDD) System at various field units.
Through this system the field units receive meteorological data transmitted by IMD
through INSAT-3C. This data consists of processed cloud imageries, analysed
charts, coded weather messages and other relevant meteorological information as
prescribed by the World Meteorological Organisation (WMO). It can be visualized
and processed through the metGIS at the Met Flights.
14. Forecasting Element. The final product from the active input is the forecast
of weather and various met elements. The Met Flight at any AF Station/Unit issues
the following forecasts:-

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(a) Trend Forecasts (valid for two hours).

(b) Local and Area Forecasts (valid for 12 hours)
(c) Terminal Aerodrome Forecasts.
(d) Route Forecasts (for flights originating from the unit).
(e) Mission Forecasts (for Planning/Execution).
15. In addition, Met Flts in stations also conduct station mass briefing for aviators
in particular and all officers in general. The purpose is to update & apprise the
operators on meteorological developments; and forecast for the next 12 hours; so as
to facilitate safe operation. This briefing is conducted at base ops/met briefing halls
as designated. All vital and relevant information required by the aircrew for local
flying or air operation in particular is presented. The following information is generally
given:-
(a) Summary of past weather.
(b) Synoptic Situation as on the latest chart and the forecast development.
Important features such as depressions, cyclones, jet streams and their
movement must be clearly brought out.
(c) Satellite imageries.
(d) Upper air patterns. Highlight significant changes in profile leading to
CAT (Clear Air Turbulence) or LLWS (Low Level Wind Sheer).
(e) Latest current weather and trend of base and neighbouring/
diversionary airfields, together with latest radar reports (plotted on a polar
diagram) and in-flight reports, if any. Weather warnings, if any at base and
diversionaries and their period of validity.
(f) Local forecast for the next 6 to 12 hours for area 50 km around, giving
details of winds and temperature for various altitudes, variations of different
elements, freezing level, mintra level, CAT, icing, mountain waves etc. If low
flying and cloud flying areas are outside this area, detailed forecasts for such
areas also should be spelt out separately.
(g) Climatological information and clarification of doubts, if any.
(This information is also uploaded into LAN/WAN and gradually the
concept of daily mass briefing is being replaced with this technology.)
16. Administrative Element. This element deals with the day to day functioning,
policy matters and other administrative matters.

Nature of Met Observations

17. Meteorology like every other science depends on careful and precise
measurement of the various elements. Meteorologists observe the atmosphere using
two basic approaches. Direct method, also called in situ for ‗in place‘, measures the
properties of the air that are in contact with the instrument being used. Indirect
methods also referred to as remote sensing obtains information without coming into
physical contact with the region of the atmosphere being measured. All observations
involving human intervention are taken periodically, which could be half hourly or
hourly. Automated instruments are designed to take continuous observations.

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Remote sensing using satellites, radar etc are taken periodically unless the weather
warrants continuous watch. For the sake of transfer of data the periodic observation
of hourly data is mainly used in Met Aviation Reports (METAR) and 03 hourly for
plotting on Meteorological charts called SYNOPS.
18. Network of Stations. Network of synoptic and climatological stations have
been established throughout the world. WMO has recommended that basic land
station for synoptic purpose should not be more than 150 km apart and upper air
stations not more than 300 km apart.
19. Types of Observations. Following are the types of observations:-
(a) Synoptic Observations. These are made at specified time intervals
called as synoptic hours and plotted on geographical maps, which are used
for prediction of weather. These consist of present and past weather, wind
direction and speed, cloud type, amount and height of base, visibility, air
temperature, humidity and atmospheric pressure. These may also include
tendency and characteristic of pressure, extreme temperature, precipitation
amount, state of ground, direction of cloud movement and some special
phenomena.
(b) Climatological Observations. At principal climatological stations,
observations are made in respect of weather, wind, cloud, visibility,
temperature, humidity, pressure, snow, and sun-shine and soil temperature.
(c) Aeronautical Observations.
(d) Agricultural Observations.
(e) Special Observations.

Check Assimilation-1

Fill in the Blanks

1. ____________ is celebrated every year by WMO member countries as
World Meteorological Day.
2. ____________________maintains 24 hours _______________and 12
hours __________watch.
3. ____________ forecasts are valid only for ____________________.

20. Time of Observation. In case of synoptic observations, the actual time of

observation is the time at which the barometer is read. In meteorology, it is
convenient to use 24 hours clock. Midnight is 0000 h or the beginning of a new day.
The standard time of surface synoptic observations are 0000, 0600, 1200 and 1800
UTC (Universal Coordinated Time), with intermediate observations at 0300, 0900,
1500 and 2100 UTC. Atmospheric observations are therefore be made exactly at
these times, for the purpose of timely dissemination of data. Elements other than
pressure should be observed within ten minutes preceding this time.

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METEOROLOGICAL ELEMENTS

21. Some of the important meteorological elements are Atmospheric Pressure,

Temperature, Moisture (i.e., Humidity), Surface and Upper Winds, Precipitation,
Visibility, Clouds etc. Some of these are explained in the subsequent paragraphs.

Atmospheric Pressure
22. Definition. Knowledge of the distribution of air pressure over the earth is vital
in understanding Earth‘s fascinating weather patterns. The pressure of the
atmosphere on a given surface is the force per unit area exerted by the virtue of its
weight and is thus equal to the weight of a vertical column of air of unit area above
the surface in question extending to the outer limits of the atmosphere. Although the
pressure varies on a horizontal plane from day to day, the greatest pressure
variations are with changes in altitude. Nevertheless, horizontal variations of
pressure are ultimately important in meteorology because the variations affect
weather conditions. Atmospheric pressure has been traditionally measured using
mercury barometer (Kew Pattern). These days in addition aneroid and digital
barometer are in use. Air planes use aneroid barometer called altimeter. Pressure is
measured in terms of ‗Hectapascal (hPa)‘ (or Millibar). One atmosphere of pressure
is 29.92 inches / 760 mm of mercury or 1013.25 hPa.
23. Vertical Distribution. The atmospheric pressure decreases with altitude
because the weight of the atmosphere decreases. The relation between height and
pressure is not a linear one. It has been found that the pressure decreases by half
for each 18,000-foot (5,400-meter) increase in altitude. Thus, the average pressure
at 5,400 meters is about 500 hPa. On an average, pressure decreases in the vertical
by 1 hPa per 30 feet in the lower troposphere.
24. Semi-diurnal Variation of Pressure. The atmospheric pressure at a given
locality varies continuously, which can be regular or irregular. Irregular variations are
sometimes due to the passage of pressure systems. The development or decay of a
pressure system may also produce changes of this type. The regular variations have
various periods. The most important regular oscillation has a period of about twelve
hours (or 1/2 day). It is therefore called the ‗Semi-diurnal Variation of pressure‘.
Pressure maxima occur around 1000 and 2200 local mean time, with minima at
about 0400 and 1600 h.
25. Q-Codes for Pressure. Altimeter (aneroid barometers calibrated to read
height instead of pressure) used in aircraft are fitted with a sub scale in hPa (or
millibars). This subscale can be set to eliminate the effect of the difference between
the actual pressure obtained at a reference level and the pressure for the same level
in International Standard Atmosphere (ISA). The pressure, which is set on the
subscale, is usually referred to by its abbreviation in the international Q-Code, which
is as follows:-
(a) QFE (Station Level Pressure). It is the observed pressure at the
level of the barometer cistern, reduced to the recognized level of the
aerodrome (datum level). In other words, it is the pressure obtained from
barometer to which various corrections have been applied. With the QFE
setting the altimeter reads zero on landing. While in the air, the QFE gives
approximate height of the aircraft above the aerodrome.

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(b) QNH (Mean Sea Level Pressure). It is the station level pressure
reduced to the mean sea level (msl) in accordance with the ISA. With the
QNH setting, the altimeter reads airfield elevation on landing. While in the air,
the QNH gives approximate altitude of the aircraft above msl.
(c) QFF. It is the value of pressure reduced to msl according to standard
met practices. Here instead of ISA the actual met parameters at a station are
used to reduce the station level pressure to msl. This value is used only in the
preparation of surface charts.

Temperature
26. Definition. One of the most important properties of the atmosphere is its
ability to absorb and lose heat. The temperature of a body is the condition, which
determines its ability to communicate heat to other bodies or to receive heat from
them. Meteorologists are interested in the temperature of the air, the soil and water
bodies.
27. Temperature Scales and Units. Some of the scales and units to measure
temperature are Fahrenheit, Celsius and Absolute (Kelvin) scales. These are the
scales used by the meteorological services of all the countries in the world. These
can be described as:-
(a) Fahrenheit Scale. The Fahrenheit scale has 180 divisions or
degrees between the freezing (32°F) and boiling (212°F) points of water.
(b) Celsius Scale. This scale has reference points with respect to
water of 0°C for freezing and 100°C for boiling. In converting Celsius
values to Fahrenheit values, the formula is: - F = (9/5) C + 32
(c) Absolute Scale (Kelvin). On this scale the freezing point of water is
273°K and the boiling point of water is 373°K. The absolute zero value is
considered to be a point at which theoretically no molecular activity exists.
This places the absolute zero at a minus 273° on the Celsius scale, since the
degree divisions are equal in size on both scales.
28. Vertical Distribution. Earth‘s atmosphere is divided into layers or zones
according to various distinguishing features. These divisions are for reference of
thermal structure (lapse rates) or other significant features. Various layers of the
atmosphere as per the meteorological classification are:-
(a) Troposphere. The troposphere is the layer of air enveloping Earth
immediately above Earth‘s surface. It is approximately 9 km (29,000 ft) thick
over the poles, about 12.5 km (40,000 ft) thick in the mid-latitudes and about
19 km (61,000 ft) thick over the Equator. The troposphere is thicker in
summer than in winter and is thicker during the day than during the night.
Almost all weather changes occur in the troposphere. However, some
phenomena such as turbulence, cloudiness (caused by ice crystals) and the
occasional severe thunderstorm extend to the tropopause or stratosphere.
The temperature in the troposphere usually decreases with height, but there
may be inversions (increase of temperature with height) in relatively thin
layers at any level.
(b) Tropopause. The tropopause is a transition layer between the
troposphere and the stratosphere. It is not uniformly thick and is not

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continuous from the equator to the poles. The tropopause is characterised

by little or no increase or decrease in temperature with increasing altitude.
(c) Stratosphere. The stratosphere directly overlies the tropopause and
extends to about 48 km (160,000 ft). Temperature varies little with height in
the stratosphere through the first 9 km (30,000 ft); however, in the upper
portion, the temperature increases approximately linearly to values nearly
equal to surface temperatures. This increase in temperature through this zone
is attributed to the presence of ozone that absorbs incoming ultraviolet
radiation.
(d) Stratopause. The stratopause is the top of the stratosphere. It is the
zone marking another reversal with increasing altitude (temperature begins to
decrease with height).
(e) Mesosphere. The mesosphere is a layer approximately 32 km
(100,000 ft) thick directly overlaying the stratopause. The temperature
decreases with height.
(f) Mesopause. The mesopause is the thin boundary zone between the
mesosphere and the thermosphere. It is marked by a reversal of
temperatures, i.e., temperature again increases with altitude.
(g) Thermosphere. The thermosphere, a second region in which the
temperature increases with height, extends from the mesopause to the
exosphere.
(h) Exosphere. The very outer limit of Earth‘s atmosphere is regarded as
the exosphere. It is the zone in which gas atoms are so widely spaced they
rarely collide with one another and have individual orbits around Earth.
29. Diurnal Variation of Temperature. The temperature attained by the ground
depends on the nature of surface. The rise in temperature by absorption is inversely
proportional to the specific heat of the substance. Water having higher specific heat
experiences relatively smaller temperature changes, while the solid materials of the
earth‘s surface have a smaller specific heat and temperature changes are therefore
greater on land. During day, ground temperature may be much higher than the air
temperature, sometimes by as much as 10ºC. Maximum temperature is reached
about 2 hours after midday. At night, the ground cools because the earth emits long
wave radiation. At the time of the minimum temperature, the ground is colder than
the air close to it, sometimes by about 5ºC when the sky is clear and radiation effect
is at its maximum. Minimum temperature is reached near about sun-rise time. The
diurnal variation of air temperature near the ground is least over the oceans and
highest over the interior of continents. Other things being equal, diurnal variation is
greatest when the sky is clear and the wind is calm.

Moisture
30. Moisture in the atmosphere is found in three states: - solid, liquid, and
gaseous. As a solid, it takes the form of snow, hail, ice pellets, frost, ice-crystal
clouds, and ice-crystal fog. As a liquid, it is found as rain, drizzle, dew, and as the
minute water droplets composing clouds and fog. In the gaseous state, water exists
as an as invisible vapour. Water vapour is the most important element in the
atmosphere responsible for production of clouds and other visible weather
phenomena.
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31. Water Vapour Measurements. There is a limit to the amount of water

vapour that air, at a given temperature, can hold. When this limit is reached, the air is
said to be ‗saturated‘. The higher the air temperature, the more water vapour the air
can hold before saturation is reached and condensation occurs. Unsaturated air,
containing a given amount of water vapour, becomes saturated if its temperature
decreases sufficiently; further cooling forces some of the water vapour to condense
as fog, clouds, or precipitation. Various terms used to specify the moisture content in
the atmosphere are:-
(a) Relative Humidity.
(b) Absolute Humidity.
(c) Specific Humidity.
(d) Mixing Ratio.
(e) Dew Point Temperature.

32. Instrument for Measuring Surface Atmospheric Humidity. Instruments

used for measuring humidity or water vapour content of the atmosphere are called
Hygrometers. The two main types of instruments used for measuring the humidity of
the air near the earth‘s surface are:-
(a) Wet and dry-bulb Hygrometers (also known as Psychrometers).
(b) Hair Hygrometers.

Surface Winds
33. Wind velocity is a vector quantity, having both a magnitude and a direction.
The magnitude of the wind velocity is called the wind speed. The wind direction is
regarded as the direction from which it is blowing. The surface wind velocity is
usually subjected to rapid fluctuations.
Check Assimilation- 2

Answer the following

1. What is Sensory observation?
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
2. In which layer of atmosphere do most of the weather changes occur?
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
3. Which are the states in which moisture is found in the atmosphere?
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________

34. Surface Wind Direction. The wind direction is regarded as the direction from
which the wind is blowing. It is expressed in degrees measured clockwise from

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geographical north, or in terms of the points of the compass. The surface wind
direction is usually indicated by a wind vane. In order to function properly, the vane
should be mounted on bearings that will reduce friction to a minimum. It should also
be properly balanced about its axis and should be exactly vertical. It should also be
correctly orientated with respect to true north. For synoptic weather reports, the
mean direction over a 10-minute period prior to the observation is required. For
aviation purposes, remote recording is desirable.
35. Surface Wind Speed. The speed of the wind should be given in ‗knots‘ (i.e.,
a speed of one nautical mile per hour or about 0.51 meter per second or 1.853
kmph). The surface wind speed is rarely constant over any appreciable period of
time and usually varies rapidly and continuously. The gustiness of the wind produces
variations, which are irregular both in period and in amplitude. For Met purposes, an
average wind is required. For instance, the mean speed of the surface wind over a
period of 10 minutes is needed for synoptic reports. It should be determined to the
nearest knots. Calm should be reported when the wind speed is less than one knot.
The simplest way to measure surface wind speed is direct observation of the effect
of the wind at earth‘s surface without recourse to instruments. The ‗Beaufort Wind
Scale‘ is of this type and was developed by Admiral Sir Francis Beaufort in 1905 for
use at sea. Instruments used for measuring the surface wind speed are called as
‗Anemometers‘. These are of two main types:-
(a) Rotation Cup Anemometers.
(b) Distant Reading Wind Instruments.
36. Variations in the Surface Wind. Meteorologists use specific terms to
describe changes in the wind direction and speed. When the wind direction changes
in a clockwise (anti – clockwise) direction, it is called as ‗veering‘ (‗backing‘). Some
other important terms related to the wind are:-
(a) Gust. Gust is irregular, transient and frequent oscillations of speed
and direction of the wind. Sudden increase from the mean value is called as
‗Gust‘ and decrease as ‗lull‘.
(b) Gale. Persistent strong wind with mean speed exceeding 33 Kt is
called as ‗gale‘. It is associated with strong pressure gradients and
depressions. It need not always be associated with Cb clouds.
(c) Squall. Sudden and rapid increase of wind speed by at least three
stages (16 Kt) on the Beaufort Scale (BF), lasting for at least one minute and
the actual wind speed going up to at least BF 6 (22 Kt) is called squall. It is
associated with Cb clouds.
(d) Squally Weather. It is the weather state, when frequent squalls
persist over long periods. Usually, this state is associated with depressions
and cyclones.
(e) Hurricane Winds. Persisting winds with speed exceeding 63 Kt are
called as ‗Hurricane Winds‘. These are associated with severe cyclonic
storms.

Clouds
37. A cloud may be defined as a visible aggregate of minute particles of water, or
ice, or of both, in the free air. The aggregate may include larger particles of water or

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ice. There are two main groupings of clouds. ‗Cumuliform clouds‘ refer to cumulus-
type formations (heap-type), in which the clouds are usually separated from each
other by clear spaces. On the other hand, ‗Stratiform clouds‘ (sheet-type) form layers
covering large areas of the sky. The names of clouds are descriptive of their type
and form. The word ‗Nimbus‘ (shower) is added to the names of clouds, which
produce precipitation. The prefix ‗Fracto‘ (broken) appears at the beginning of the
name of broken, wind-blown clouds. The word ‗Cirrus‘ (a hair) is used to indicate a
cloud of hair like appearance.
38. Cloud Genera. Ten main groups of clouds can be distinguished. Each is
called as ‗genus‘, the plural being denoted by the word genera. Clouds are grouped
into the ten following genera:-
(a) Cirrus (Ci).
(b) Cirrocumulus (Cc).
(c) Cirrostratus (Cs).
(d) Alto Cumulus (Ac).
(e) Alto Stratus (As).
(f) Nimbostratus (Ns).
(g) Stratocumulus (Sc).
(h) Stratus (St).
(j) Cumulus (Cu).
(k) Cumulonimbus (Cb).
(m) Towering Cumulus (TCu).
Check Assimilation- 3

State True or False(if false give correct answer)

1. Wind velocity has a magnitude but not a direction.
__________________________________________________________________
2. The word ‗Cirrus‘ is used to indicate a cloud of hair like appearance.
__________________________________________________________________
3. Clockwise or anti-clockwise change in direction of the wind is called
‗Veering‘.
__________________________________________________________________

39. The stages, in which six of the genera are found, are as follows:-
(a) Ci, Cc and Cs for the high stage (high level clouds).
(b) Ac for the middle stage (middle level clouds).
(c) Sc and St for the low stage (low level clouds).
40. With regard to the other four genera, the following remarks may be made:-
(a) ‗As‘ is usually found in the middle stage, but it often extends to higher
levels.

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(b) ‗Ns‘ is almost invariably found in the middle stage, but it usually
extends both downwards into the low stage and upward into the upper stage.
(c) ‗Cu‘, TCU and ‗Cb‘ usually have their bases in the low stage, but their
vertical extent is often so great that their tops may reach into the middle and
high stages.
41. Cloud Recognition. Although the classification of clouds into typical forms is
of great use, the problem of identifying cloud forms is not always an easy one. It
does not overcome the difficulties that arise from the gradual transition between the
various types of clouds. Natural clouds do not always confirm to the types described
above. At times, the clouds may be intermediate between two types. Reliable
observations of cloud can best be made, by keeping close and continuous watch on
their development. It is not always sufficient merely to make a brief examination of
the sky at the observation hour.
42. Cloud Observation and Reporting. Visual observation is the only practical
means of estimating the cloud amount. The unit of measurement of cloud is octa (i.e.,
one eighth of the area of the sky).
43. Reporting of Cloud Amount. Reporting of cloud amount to various users,
i.e., ATC, Transmission on Duplex channel etc., will be as follows:-
(a) 1/8 to 2/8 will be reported as FEW (Few).
(b) 3/8 to 4/8 will be reported as SCT (Scattered).
(c) 5/8 to 7/8 will be reported as BKN (Broken).
(d) 8/8 will be reported as OVC (Overcast).
(e) Sky Obscured will be reported as SKY OBSC.

Conclusion
44. The Meteorological organization in IAF primarily aims at accurate Met
observations for aircraft operations, issuing of warnings in cases of rapid fluctuations
in weather, routine forecasts and pro-active advice for execution of air operations. It
is, therefore, necessary to be familiar with the nature, scope and organization of Met
services in the IAF.
Check Assimilation- 1: The Key
1. 23 March.
2. Type ‗C‘ Met Sections, observational, forecasting
3. Trend, 2 hours
Check Assimilation- 2: The Key
1. Observation made by using human senses especially that of sight, is called
sensory observation.
2. Most of the weather changes occur in Troposphere.
3. Moisture is found in the atmosphere in solid, liquid and gases states.
Check Assimilation- 3: The Key
1. False, it has both magnitude and direction.
2. True.
3. True.

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LOGISTICS

Reviewed by

Wg Cdr P Chauhan

Oct 2012

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CHAPTER - 8

LOGISTICS MANAGEMENT, ORGANISATION AND

ADMINISTRATION

Chapter Objectives

After reading this chapter, you should:-

 Understand the functioning of Logistics management in IAF.
 Be familiar with the logistics organisation being followed in the
IAF at various levels and their responsibilities.
 Know the requirement of Logistics planning and provisioning.
 Understand the factors effecting procurement of Foreign and
Indigenous Equipment/ spares.
 Briefly assimilate the stocking, distribution and disposal system
in the IAF.

Structure
1. Introduction.
2. Organisation.
3. Logistics Functions.
4. Logistics Planning & Forecasting.
5. Provisioning.
6. Procurement.
7. Stock Holding Policy.
8. Distribution.
9. Disposal.
10. Conclusion.

Introduction
1. In the military parlance, the term ‗logistics‘ means the art of movement and
supply to troops. But this definition slightly gets changed when applied to Air Force.
The basic aim of Logistics in the Indian Air Force is to provide means to:-
(a) Fight i.e. weapon systems.
(b) Move i.e. transport, fuel etc.
(c) Live i.e. food, clothing, emergency shelter etc.
2. The Logistics planning and infrastructure in the Air Force has been designed
to attain these basic aims.

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Logistics Functions
3. Logistics branch in the Indian Air Force is responsible for providing all the AF
weapon systems, equipment, their spares etc which it does in conjunction with the
maintenance branch at all levels. Therefore, the major logistics functions in the Air
Force can be summarized as:-
(a) Planning & Provisioning.
(b) Procurement.
(c) Stocking.
(d) Distribution.
(e) Disposal.
4. Logistics Support Structure of IAF. The above functions are achieved
through a robust structure of the Logistics branch in the IAF that is based a sound
stock holding policy. The overall direction and administration of the Logistics branch
in the IAF is with the Air Headquarters under the Air Officer-in-charge Maintenance.
The logistics organisation consists of a network of Equipment Depots (EDs), Air
Stores Parks, (ASPs) Base Repair Depots (BRDs), Liaison Establishments etc at
different locations along with monitoring and policy making bodies at various levels in
the organisation. These units are placed under the control of Headquarters
Maintenance Command. At the lower level, the Logistics organisation extends up to
wings and stations, which are self-accounting and provide material support to their
own units and the lodger units.

Organisation
5. The organisation of logistics branch at various levels is discussed below:-
(a) Air HQ.
(i) AOM. The Air Officer-in-charge Maintenance is of the rank of
Air Marshal and is responsible to the Chief of Air Staff for efficient
administration and organisation of the maintenance services of the IAF.
This includes the logistics support aspects as well as the maintenance
services which go hand in hand to make the weapon systems
serviceable and to keep them airworthy at all times. The organisation
chart of AOM branch at Air HQ is given at Appendix A to this chapter.
(ii) ACAS (Lgs). ACAS (Lgs) under AOM is responsible for efficient
administration and organization of the logistics services of the IAF.
(b) Command Headquarters. Logistics Organisation at a Command
Headquarters forms an integrated part of the Maintenance Organisation of the
Command. The Command Logistics Management Officer (CLMO) assists the
Senior Maintenance Staff Officer in logistics administration of the units under
the Command Headquarters except in HQ MC wherein CLMO assists AOLM
who is another PSO along with SMSO & SAASO directly reporting to AOC-in-
C.
(c) Field Level. An organisation chart showing the organisation of a
typical Station Logistics Section is placed at Appendix B. Depending upon the
strength of personnel, role of the station/ wing, the number and type of lodger
squadrons/ units, this organisation would vary to suit the local conditions.

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Logistics Planning & Provisioning

6. Any organisation that is responsible for supply chain management
endeavours to provide right item to the right consumer at the right place of right
quantity & quality at the right time at optimum costs. This requires extensive planning
by the organisation, without which either a breakdown occurs in the supply system
leading to reduction in operational status of costly equipment/ weapon system or
high costs of procurement affecting the overall budget. Therefore, planning in the IAF
for procurement of weapon systems/ spares is done with the coordination of various
specialist directorates at the Air HQ/ HQ MC levels. The process involved in
procuring a new weapon system and provisioning is given in subsequent
paragraphs.
7. New Weapon System. The plan for induction of new weapon system is
formulated well in advance. The responsibility for initial planning for induction of a
new weapon system rests with the Directorate of Air Staff requirements (DASR). The
broad requirements in terms of weaponry are spelt out by the user Directorates
under the VCAS. The DASR holds extensive consultations with various agencies
including R & D and users to work out the various permutations and combinations.
After these discussions, a decision is taken to go in for a weapon system. Details of
the force, overall flying effort required, and amount of training that would be
necessary, number of new installations etc is worked out as accurately as possible.
Then the search begins for a suitable system globally. A detailed evaluation is then
carried out while keeping MOD in picture. This process generally takes years. The
final recommendations are put up to the Cabinet Committee on Political Affairs
(CCPA) for approval. The budget is allocated and negotiations are carried out with
the approved manufacturers/ suppliers for drawing out the contract. The finance
Ministry representatives are closely associated with this process throughout. At Air
HQs, officers from various branches are involved before finalizing the contract so
that all aspects are coordinated before finalization. Majority of aspects covered in the
contracts have an impact on the supply system consisting of spares, tools, test and
ground equipment, fuels, gases, specialist clothing and special support equipment.
8. Provisioning. For procurement of spares of weapon systems in use by the
IAF, a process involving forecasting of future requirements on the basis of past
usage, present trends in consumption and future planned utilization of aircraft or
equipment is undertaken. This process is known as provisioning. It can be further
divided into:-
(a) Initial Provisioning. In order to procure spares of a weapon system
for the first time during or after its induction, manufacturer‘s recommendations
are considered for the quantity to be procured as there is no past data
available for formulating a consumption pattern. This process continues till
sufficient database is built up for regular provisioning of items, In order to
arrive at our own norms of consumption in the peculiar conditions prevailing in
our country as compared to those of manufacturing country, consumption
pattern is monitored on a continuous basis.
(b) Subsequent Provisioning. For spares which have sufficient past
consumption data within the IAF, the process involves forecasting future
requirements on the basis of past consumption or usage, present trends in
consumption and future planned utilization of aircraft and equipment and

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ascertaining of net requirement of spares for the purposes of procurement.

Procurement may be either central or local depending upon availability,
source of supply i.e. foreign/ indigenous and value of the transactions.
9. The process. At Air HQs, in order to facilitate proper provisioning, Weapon
System Cells are formed under the AOM which consider the conditions of the
contract, the size of the force planned, the rate of flying effort, deployment,
anticipated rate of wastage etc. along with maintenance and stock holding policies in
vogue. With the introduction of Integrated Materials Management Online System
(IMMOLS) and de-centralization of financial powers to local commanders, following
responsibilities pertaining to provisioning of spares are managed electronically by
logistics and maintenance elements at Air HQ, HQ MC, supported by EDs and BRDs
with requisite data:-

(a) Monitoring of consumption data.

(b) Provisioning reviews and calculation of requirements.
(c) Preparation and placing of indents.
(d) Monitoring progression of deliveries.
(e) Day to day supply problems.
(f) Allotment of aircraft and aero engines.
(g) Issue of repair task.
(h) Indenting/ supply of breakdown spares required by the repair
agencies.
(j) Analysis of AOG demands.
(k) Exploring of indigenous sources of supply.
(l) Audit objections and audit paras.

Procurement
10. The procedure involved in converting the net requirements as a result of
provisioning into actual assets is known as procurement. IAF follows two types of
procurement, i.e. central procurement and local procurement.
(a) Central Procurement. This type of procurement is a result of
provisioning reviews and is centrally carried out by the Air HQ and HQ MC
depending upon the value of the transactions and the source of supply i.e.
foreign/ indigenous. Foreign procurement is exclusively carried out by Air HQ.
(b) Local Procurement. This type of procurement need not necessarily
be a result of central provisioning actions/ reviews, as it is also resorted to
obtaining items that are urgently required and commonly available in local
market, the provisioning of which is decentralized to the local units. Local
procurement can be carried out through two different procedures i.e. Local
purchase and Local contract which has been dealt in subsequent chapters in
detail.

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11. Factors Affecting the Procurement of Foreign Eqpt. The following have
a direct bearing on the procurement and subsequent supply status of spares.
(a) Internal/ administrative lead-time due to internal procedures and
supplier‘s lead-time due to time taken by supplier for supplying the items.
(b) Cost escalation and its impact on finalization of contracts.
(c) Redundancy in the manufacturing countries.
(d) Non-availability due to certain problems such as political instability
etc in the manufacturing country.
(e) Peculiar system of production and planning adopted in certain
countries like Russia involving projection of our requirements well in
advance and at a particular date and month in a year.
12. Factors Affecting the Procurement of Indigenous Eqpt. As far as the
indigenous items are concerned, the following problems are inherent:-
(a) Reluctance of indigenous manufacturers to undertake manufacture
due to our requirements being very small.
(b) Unwillingness on the part of the manufacturers to go through the
long process of government procedures for supply and payments.
(c) Difficulties in adhering to right specification, especially for airborne
equipment.
(d) Problems of commonality between our requirements and commercial
requirements.
(e) Difficulties in procurement of basic raw materials from abroad.

Stock Holding Policy of Air Force Equipment

13. In order to maintain a continuous supply of spares, every organisation
maintains inventories at various levels in the form of stocks. The quantity of stocks to
be maintained depends upon the time it takes to procure them, the acceptable level
of unserviceabilities by the organisation coupled with the costs it takes to hold and
maintain such stocks. Indian Air Force has adopted centralized stock holding policy
for AF equipment.
(a) The Concept. The stocking of the spares is done on the concept of
mother depot wherein efforts are made to store spares of a particular weapon
system at a single depot. This system of stocking has its own advantages
wherein, requirement of multi users can be met centrally from a single location
and resultant reduction in overall inventory holdings.
(b) Equipment Depots (EDs). EDs hold the spares required to carry out
first and second line maintenance of weapon systems at the field units under
the mother depot concept. The stocking is done at depots in such a manner
that all the stocks for a particular range of weapon system and major
equipment are held centrally at a particular ED, barring a few weapon
systems wherein they are stocked at multi-locations due to operational
reasons.

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(c) ASPs. The concept of mother depot also has a disadvantage of

increased lead times (time elapsed between origination of demand & receipt
of item by the user) due to distances involved between depots and field units.
Hence, in order to overcome this disadvantage, Air Stores Parks (ASPs) have
been created for geographical convenience which are authorized to hold stock
of six months requirements of all ranges of equipment needed by the
operating units catered by them within their geographical reach.
(d) Base Repair Depots (BRDs). BRDs are the agencies that carry out
the third and fourth line maintenance of certain weapon systems. Therefore all
the third and fourth line spares appropriate to the tasks of the BRDs are held
at Logistics Support Wings (LSWs) of BRDs and at some places equipment
depots located alongside BRDs.
(e) AFLEs. The third and fourth line maintenance of some of our weapon
systems are also undertaken by organisations like HAL. In order to liaise with
these organisations, Air Force Liaison Establishments (AFLEs) have been
established. AFLEs are primarily responsible for monitoring the servicing task
given to HAL apart from handing over/ storing repairables of these weapon
systems called Rotables to the HAL. (Rotables are all those spares which are
repairable, costly, scarcely available and notified as Rotables by Air HQ).
Rotables of those weapon systems serviced and overhauled by BRDs are
held by the LSWs or EDs located alongside those BRDs.
(f) Mini EDs. For stocking of spares of weapon systems that operate
from a single base (Mirages, Kirans, SU-30s, IL-76 etc), mini EDs have been
setup alongside the base to cater for their specific to type requirements.

Distribution
14. Activities undertaken for movement of spares/ equipment from the
manufacturer to the end consumer and vice-versa is called distribution.
(a) Modes. IAF uses almost all modes of transportation for movement of
equipment and spares to meet the operational requirements of users
throughout India. Modes such as civil air for AOG items, service air for
delicate and fragile items, civil trucks and rail for bulky items such as clothing
and ammunition, speed post and courier services for items of smaller
dimensions and lesser weight are being used.
(b) Network. The process of distribution in the IAF is based on integrated
system wherein, the consignment is moved through the above modes from
the depots to the user units through the concept of nodal points or popularly
called hub centres in civil parlance. These points are again based on
geographical convenience and are responsible to receive, consolidate and
onward dispatch the consignments. The Movement Control Units (MCUs),
ASPs and certain designated units act as nodal points in the IAF.

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Check Assimilation

State True or False (If false, give the correct answer)

1. Complete responsibility of provisioning & procurement of third and fourth line

overhaul spares rests with the concerned BRD.
________________________________________________________________
2. Problems of compatibility between military and commercial specifications are
specific to the indigenous equipment.
________________________________________________________________
3. The overall direction and administration of the Logistics branch in the IAF is
with the Air Headquarters under the Air Officer-in-charge Maintenance.
_________________________________________________________
Fill in the Blanks

4. Delay due to internal administrative procedures is termed as ___________

lead time.
5. The lowest tier of logistics support is provided by ____________________.
6. Serviceable & repairable Rotables pertaining to weapon systems overhauled/
repaired by HAL are stored by _____________________________.

Disposal
15. Disposal of surplus, salvage, inactive and obsolete equipment is an important
facet of sound resource management and it is given due consideration to relieve
valuable storage space, manpower and capital while retrieving value from them. The
process and activities involved in categorising and disposing off items forms the
function of disposal. Various types/ categories of stores that require disposal are
given below:-
(a) Surplus Stores. Stores that cannot be utilised against present or
anticipated future requirements and have been declared surplus by the
competent authority.
(b) Salvage. The term salvage denotes repairable stores beyond
economical repair and unserviceable, stores that have been utilized and
served their purpose and have been condemned under proper authorities to
be of no value except as scrap. Generally these stores are categorized as Cat
`E‘
(c) Obsolete Equipment. Equipment that has been withdrawn from
service due to technical inefficiency to carry out the intended work that
includes items:-
(i) For which required role has disappeared.
(ii) That has been completely superseded by another eqpt.
(d) Inactive stores. All aircraft major ground/ signal equipment withdrawn
from the service and their specific to type spares, ground and ancillary
equipment including equipment declared obsolete through Air HQ RO Pt IV.

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16. Procedure for Disposal. All the above conditions of stores for the purpose
of disposal would have to be declared first as either surplus or salvage by the
competent authority. The procedure involved in disposing off such items is:-
(a) Surpluses (AFO 19/2000). The procedure for declaration and
disposal of surplus stores and phased out aircraft, aero-engines and their
associated equipment consist of three distinct steps namely:-
(i) Identification of surpluses and declaration as surpluses by CFA.
(ii) Re utilization checks.
(iii) Physical disposal.
(b) Salvage. The procedure of disposal of salvage mostly involves actions
at the unit level only. Commanders have unlimited financial powers for
disposal of salvage stores which are not required to be exercised in
consultation with IFA. Salvage required to be disposed off is to be reported to
Metal Scrap Trading Corporation (MSTC) (a government organisation that is
responsible for conducting the auctions on behalf of other government
organisations)/ Govt auctioneer directly or through Command HQs at least
once a quarter or on accumulation of substantial lot.
17. Methods of Disposal. Physical disposal of stores declared as surplus or
salvage is carried out through the following methods:-
(a) Disposal through local auction.
(b) Disposal through M/s MSTC
(c) Disposal through approved Govt. Auctioneer.

Conclusion
18. In order to support a weapon system throughout its life cycle from its inception
to its disposal, it is very important to keep the variables that affect its survivability to
minimum. This is only possible with absolute adherence to laid down processes,
accurate planning and continuous monitoring at all levels which is core competence
of the logistics branch in order to achieve the dual aim of continuous supply at
optimum costs.
Check Assimilation: The Key

1 False. Air HQ, HQ MC & BRD together.

2. True
3. True.
4. Internal/ administrative lead time.
5. Wing/ unit logistics section.
6. AFLE.

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Appendix A
(Refers to para 5 (a) (i) of Chapter 8)

ORGANISATION CHART OF AOM BRANCH AT AIR HQ

AOM

ACAS [ENG ACAS [ENG ACAS (SYS) ACAS (MP) ACAS (LGS)
(A)] (B)]

ACAS (INV MGT) ACAS (PROC) PD MA PD

IMMOLS

TECH ADV GP
PDMT PD (PROC)

PD (PROV) D (BUD) & LEGAL

MATTERS

D STORES

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Appendix B
(Refers to para 5 (c) of Chapter 8)

ORGANISATION OF WING/ UNIT LOGISTICS SECTION

SLO

LGS ORD ROOM

DATA & PROV STORAGE & SUPPLY-I STORAGE & SUPPLY-II AUX
SERVICES
REGISTRY CLO & BARRACK FSS ST

LP & LC POL TECH SALVAGE

STORES
AOG CELL MT SPARES R&D

PUBLICATIONS

SA IMMOLS

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CHAPTER - 9

EQUIPMENT ADMINISTRATION

Chapter Objectives

After reading this chapter, you should:-

 Understand the responsibilities of Air Force personnel at all levels
in respect of equipment.
 Be familiar with various equipment publications that guide
efficient logistics administration in the IAF.

Structure
1. Introduction.
2. Responsibilities of Commanders.
3. Responsibilities of Logistics Officers.
4. Responsibilities of the Accountant Officer.
5. Responsibilities of the Flt and Section Commanders and Inventory Holders.
6. Important Equipment Publications.
7. Conclusion.

Introduction
1. The importance of equipment and its administration for an efficient force is
paramount and should be regarded by all personnel as one of their major
responsibilities. The responsibilities are to be carried out in letter and spirit in order to
achieve a high degree of efficiency of equipment administration.

Responsibilities

2. Commanders. The responsibilities of Air or other Officers at higher

formations in respect of equipment administration are:-
(a) Supervision of all transactions concerning Air Force Equipment,
which occur in his command.
(b) Immediate investigation of any irregularity or defect, which may
be disclosed by inspection, or otherwise, and initiation of suitable action.
(c) Maintenance of state of readiness of any special reserves of
equipment held within his command.
(d) Supervision of establishment of Air Force equipment
(e) Issue of suitable standing orders.

3. Commanding Officers. Commanding officers of Station or units are directly

responsible for all Air Force equipment and for the maintenance of the accounting

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records relating to those which may be under their control. The delegation of certain
duties to their subordinates in no way relieves them of their responsibilities. They are
responsible for ensuring that the equipment regulations are strictly observed and
consequently they should make frequent inspections to ensure that:-
(a) Air Force equipment is not being used other than for the public service
without special authority.
(b) No change or modification of pattern is made without proper authority.
(c) Special reserves of equipment, if held, are being dealt in accordance
with the regulations issued.
(d) Ledgers, account books and other documents or records in respect of
Air Force equipment and supplies held by their stations are kept in accordance
with the regulations and are not allowed to fall in arrears.
(e) Periodic stock taking is being carried out in accordance with the stock
taking programme.
(f) All articles-in-use are placed specifically under the charge of individuals
appointed as inventory holders.
(g) All receipts and issues of equipment are properly accounted for in
accordance with the current regulations.
(h) All objections, observations etc. raised in audit are promptly dealt with.
(j) Stores are kept clean, items neatly binned, stacked and stored in
accordance with IAP 1502.
4. Commanding Officers are to co-ordinate the duties of the Logistics and
Accountant Officers ensuring that flights and sections are adequately served, that
Flight and Section Commanders render proper assistance to Logistics and
Accountant Officers and that safe custody and adequate storage accommodation is
arranged for all equipment held by the station or unit.
5. Commanding Officers should ensure that instructions laid down are strictly
observed so as to provide an accurate record of holding for planning purposes, and
that the procedures for equipment accounts are not by-passed thereby defeating the
very purpose of equipment accounting.
6. Logistics Officer. The Logistics Officer is responsible to the Commanding
Officer for the demand, receipt, and custody while in store and issue of all IAF
equipment. He/ she is also responsible for the maintenance of accounting records for
ensuring that adequate stocks are held within the authorised establishment, to meet
the requirements of the unit.
7. Accountant Officer. The Accountant Officer is responsible for maintaining
records of all the equipment in use at a unit, the preparation and issue of inventories
and custody of completed vouchers. He/ she is responsible to the CO on the matters
concerning equipment accounts.
8. Flight/ Section Commanders and Inventory Holders. Great responsibility
with regard to the economic use of equipment is vested in Flight and Section
Commanders and Inventory Holders. This responsibility should be exercised with the
greatest care and constant vigilance must be maintained to ensure that personnel do
not waste equipment through carelessness or by improper use. Certificate of

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condition of repairable equipment on either return or exchange vouchers must be

given with particular care.
9. Should any holder consider that he cannot adequately control the equipment
in his charge, he should represent the facts in writing to his Commanding Officer,
who will take necessary remedial action.
10. It is to be clearly understood that the holder of the equipment is financially
responsible for any loss or damage to that equipment, unless he has taken every
reasonable precaution to prevent loss or damage. Special precautions are to be
taken when a holder knows that he is going to be absent from duty.
Check Assimilation

State True or False

1. SAO is responsible for co-coordinating audit of all transactions at a unit.

_________________________________________________________________
2. The preparation and issue of inventories and safe custody of completed
vouchers is the responsibility of logistics officer.
_________________________________________________________________
3. SLO of a unit is responsible to the Commanding Officer for the demand,
receipt, and custody while in store and issue of all IAF equipment.
_________________________________________________________________

Equipment Publications
11. Regulations for the efficient administration and organisation of the Logistics
Branch in the IAF are laid down in Air Publications. These regulations are to be
strictly complied with by all personnel. Elucidation of these regulations, which are
issued in AFIs, AFOs, Policy letters and Air HQs Routine Orders are also to be
strictly complied with. It is the responsibility of the Logistics officer of a unit to
maintain all important publications, amended up to date, in order to ensure efficient
administration. These regulations, apart from facilitating efficient administration are
also authority for holding, transacting and processing of AF Equipment.
12. Some of the important equipment publications are as follows:-
(a) IAP 1501 (Indian Air Force Equipment Regulations (Administration
and Accounting). The general subject of maintenance of equipment can be
classified into two main parts.
(i) The first includes all factors arising prior to an article being
received into the service and taken on charge, including design,
placing of orders, control on manufacture and inspection.
(ii) The second covers the action required in respect of articles of
equipment on receipt and after acceptance for use in the service and
throughout the time they are held on charge.
(b) This book of regulations deals with second part of maintenance of
equipments and prescribes rules for the receipt, custody, storage, distribution,
use and disposal of Air Force stores, together with the appropriate accounting
procedure.

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(c) IAP 1502 (Regulations for Storage and Packing of all Air Force
Equipment). The detailed instructions regarding storage of equipment and
packing for dispatch are laid out in this publication.
(d) IAP 1503 (Scales of Equipment). This publication lays down the
scales of AF Equipment authorised for users. Users need to quote this
publication for drawing of equipment from the logistics section. This
publication is subdivided into four parts:-
(i) Part A. It specifies scales and contents of tool kits for use by
tradesmen i.e. scales A-1, A-2, A-3 etc.
(ii) Part B. This part specifies scales of Barrack and Hospital
Equipment i.e. Scales B1, B2 etc.
(iii) Part C. It lays down scales of clothing and necessaries for
airmen, aircrew and aircraft apprentices‘ i.e. Scales C-1, C-2, etc.
(iv) Part D. Scales of equipments for units and formations i.e.
scales D1, D2 etc.
(e) IAP 1541-Manual of Provisioning.

Conclusion
13. The laid down regulations and responsibilities towards the equipment
administration are binding on all personnel dealing with equipment at stations/ units.
Equipment publications provide due guidelines on the subject for effective decision
making by the commanders.

Check Assimilation: The Key

1. True
2. False
3. True

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CHAPTER - 10

LOCAL PURCHASE OF STORES

Chapter Objectives

After reading this chapter, you should:-

 Understand the occasions when LP is carried out.
 Know the financial powers of various CFAs.
 Assimilate the procedures involved in local purchase.
 Appreciate the purposes for which contracts are entered into at an
AF Station.
 Understand the fundamental principles to be followed while
entering into contracts.
 Know the procedures involved in inviting tenders for contracts.

Structure
1. Introduction.
2. Purchase of Stores [Schedule- VIII (A)].
3. Inclusion of Liquidated Damage Clause in LPO.
4. Amendments to Local Purchase Orders with Concurrence of IFA.
5. Association of IFA in Tendering at EDs/ BRDs in Local Purchases cases
beyond the Financial Power of AOCs/ COs.
6. Conclusion.

Introduction
1. In Air Force, the concept of local purchase is to purchase the items locally
from the market to meet the unit‘s urgent requirements. This concept in purchase
management is called decentralized purchases. As this concept is now gaining more
and more momentum to provide the user its requirements at the required time, the
importance of its efficient functioning, needs no emphasis. The laid down procedures
being followed by all Air Force units, are covered by way of Command instructions,
AOC‘s Directives and other guidelines/policies issued from time to time.

Purchase of Stores [Schedule- VIII (A)]

2. Range. All Air Force stores and equipment including medical stores.
3. Occasions. Local purchase of stores can be resorted on following occasions.
(a) The powers of local purchase (per transaction) are to be exercised only
in respect of such items of authorized equipment as are urgently required and
only after it has been ascertained that supplies are not available or cannot be
obtained expeditiously from the normal source of supply. The use of the
powers of local purchase should be exception rather than the rule.

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(b) These Financial powers are also applicable to purchase of spares of

MT and Marine Craft/ Diesel Petrol generating set and medical stores. Powers
in respect of stores relates only to purchase of indigenous stores and not in
respect of stores from abroad.
(c) This will also include local purchase of ASC stores viz condiments and
ASC items. CFA for ASC items will be determined w.r.t. total estimated annual
requirements of the command as a whole. All contracts for ASC stores/ ASC
items will preferably be concluded at Command level taking into account the
estimated annual requirements. Tenders for such supplies will be invited from
ASC registered vendors and vendors registered with Air Force.
(d) For purchase, repair, calibration etc and for all maintenance
requirements for all ranges of equipment whose maintenance philosophy is
―Local repair‖ by units or through vendors.
(e) Wherever financial powers of CFAs are with financial concurrence/ in
consultation with IFA, concurrence of IFA is to be obtained at each stage of
procurement. As per laid down rules of IFA system, are invariably to be
involved in following stages of procurement in respect of local purchase under
schedule VIII.
(i) Acceptance of necessity.
(ii) Selection of mode of tendering i.e. OTE/ LTE/ STE at the time of
TE stage.
(iii) Approval of sources in case of LTE and STE/Selection of
vendors.
(iv) Vetting of draft tender enquiry.
(v) Participation in Tender opening and vetting of CST. (All tenders
are to be opened in the presence of bonafide reps. of firms).
(vi) Participation in TPC/ PNC at units.
(vii) Vetting of draft supply orders and recording of Financial
Concurrence No (FC NO) & Date.
(viii) Concurrence of DP (delivery period) Extension, waiver of
LD(liquidated damages) and Security Deposit.
(ix) Concurrence of Amendments to Contracts.
4. However, for proposals upto Rs 5 lakhs which cover powers delegated to
AOC, self accounting establishments, the concurrence of IFA will be combined at
two stages. First stage will cover necessity angle concurrence, mode of tendering
concurrence and vetting draft tender inquiry. The second stage will cover holding of
PNC, if required, and expenditure angle clearance. Moreover, this provision will be
followed till the time a dedicated IFA is posted to the concerned units/ self
accounting establishment.
5. It is further clarified that tendering/ contracting procedures for central
purchase apply mutatis mutandis to local purchase. No such distinction has been
made in any MOD orders/ GFR/ FR/ DFPR.

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6. In case of financial powers without concurrence, normal tendering/

procurement procedures will be followed, though IFA will not be associating. All such
sanctions are subject to audit by CDA (AF)/ JCDA (AF) as the case may be.
7. Registration of Vendors. Separate lists of suppliers will be maintained by
Air Force Units for local purchase and direct purchase and periodically reviewed for
additions/ deletions. Vendors already registered with Army, Navy, Ordnance
Factories, DRDO and Defence PSUs and DGS&D will be automatically considered
for issue of LTE.
8. IFA, being a resourceful Officer locally available having knowledge of
financial, accounting and contractual matters and working experience of other
departments of MOD, may be invariably consulted in the process of registration of
vendors, particularly with regard to verification of financial and commercial
capabilities of vendors. As such, the registration work is a multi-disciplinary and
techno commercial exercise.
9. Acceptance of Necessity. Due justification from acceptance of necessity is
to be furnished to local IFA/ LAO for scrutiny. In case of provisioned items, non-
availability certificate from concerned depot is to be invariably obtained. If it is the
first time procurement, full details of the case along with justification for procurement
is to be furnished for scrutiny of IFA/ CFA.
10. Estimated Cost. The value of local purchase proposals are to be estimated
before issue of Tender Enquiry as follows:-
(a) Last purchase price, which should not be more than 3 years old.
(b) LPP should not be escalated as per C.V.C guidelines. Wherever any
variation in the estimated cost is proposed it should be worked out in a
realistic and objective manner among other things on the basis of prevailing
market rates, RBI indices, and economic indices for the raw material/ labour,
other input cost. IEEMA formula wherever applicable is to be used in
assessment, based on intrinsic value and prevailing foreign exchange rates
as promulgated by RBI.
(c) Year of last purchase price and date and no. of supply order.
(d) Budgetary quotations where LPP are more than three years old.
Manufacturer‘s price list and current discount rates may be obtained.
(e) In case of price list or LPP is not available; the basis of arriving at the
price of each item is to be indicated.
(f) Where price lists/ LPPs are not available, prices are to be assessed in
consultation with specialist officers by clearly annotating that prices have been
assessed.
11. After acceptance of necessity is concurred by IFA (where applicable i.e. CFA
powers are with concurrence) and approved by CFA, LTE should be issued to
established and registered suppliers concurred by IFA/ CDA and approved by CFA,
duly recording adequate reasons.
12. IFA Is to be involved in Vetting of Draft Tender Enquiries Draft Supply Orders.
13. In case of local purchases, the tenders are being invited and CST is prepared
at unit level. This CST will be vetted by IFA with regard to original quotations to

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ensure that rates-taxes, duties, and charges have been properly accounted for on
the CST. The last procurement rate and source should be indicated in the CST and
verified.
14. Draft Supply Order is to be vetted with regard to standard terms & conditions
of contracts, GOI guidelines, quantities, rates, taxes, duties and charges, payment
terms, period of delivery, L.D. clause, security deposit etc. A specimen copy of draft
abridged SO is enclosed at Appendix A.
15. While vetting, FC No of IFA with date are to be indicated on draft supply
order.
16. Tendering. In all cases of local purchase except cash purchases under
Schedule XVI (C), tenders are to be invariably invited. Quotations on letter pad/ head
should not be accepted. A sample tender enquiry format is placed at Appendix B.
17. As per rule 150 of GFR open tendering is to be resorted to for procurement of
all items of Rs.25 lakhs and above. TPC including CFA and IFA can resort to LTE
recording adequate reasons. IFA‘s concurrence for mode of tendering will be
obtained at acceptance of necessity stage.
18. Further selection of vendors for issue of LTE is to be approved by chairman of
TPC i.e. CFA and concurred by IFA, amongst others.
19. However, the concurrence of IFA will not be obtained in respect of LTE up to
Rs.1,20,000/- in case of units commanded by Air Cmde..All cases of LTE exceeding
Rs.1,20,000/- upto Rs 25 Lakhs are invariably to be issued with prior concurrence of
IFA .
20. Total financial powers against single tender without concurrence of IFA are
only Rs. 15000 as per Delegated Financial Powers issued vide Air HQ/ 95378/ 1/ Fin
P/ 2520/ US (RC)/ Air-II/ 06 dated 14 Jul 2006.
21. Issue of PAC. Any item being proprietary in nature is to be procured from the
OEM (Original Equipment Manufacturer) the PAC (proprietary Article certificate) in
terms of Rule 154 of GFR should be issued. PAC should be issued in favor of
OEM/Authorised dealer, duly recording reasons. Reasonability of rates, among other
things, is to be assessed with regard to cost break-up, price analysis and effective
comparison with rates of similar items.
22. When purchases are to be made from sole manufacturer or from authorised
distributor, the percentage of rebate to be allowed by the manufacturer/ distributor
should be seen and the same has been indicated in TPC/ Formal sanction is to be
ensured. Reasons for proprietary purchase are standardization, fitness and single/
known source.
23. The powers of PAC purchases under sch I,VIII,XI,XV,XVI,XX and XXII ,the
powers to purchase items on PAC basis will be same as the powers provided to
CFAs in the respective schedule.
24. Unit Level TPC/ PNC for local Purchase. TPC/ CLPC at Unit level has been
laid down by MOD. This comprises of,
(a) AOC/ CO Depot.
(b) Representative of IFA.

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(c) CQAO.
(d) C Lgs O or representative.
(e) Representative of user section.
25. Association of IFA to AOC/ CO in TPC in respect of purchases exceeding
value of Rs. 1 lakh with or without financial concurrence is mandatory.
26. As per the latest CVC guidelines and rule 160 XII of GFR negotiation with
bidders after bid opening.
27. Incorporation of Standard Terms And Conditions of Contract In Local
Purchase Order. As per rules, all standard terms and conditions of contract viz.
among other things, security deposit, delivery period, liquidated damages,
arbitration, payment terms, terms of delivery, inspection etc are to be incorporated in
the local purchase order. Tenders incorporating standard terms and conditions are to
be invited for all such purchases except cash purchases under Schedule XVI. A
tender on acceptance becomes a contract. Security deposit cannot be waived
without prior concurrence of IFA. The requirement of Earnest Money, Security
Deposit and LD will be as per Rule 203 ,Rule 213 FR part-1Vol-1,and Rule 273 &
Rule 12 of GFR. CFA, may, however, use his discretion in respect of cases up to
Rs. 1,00,000/-.
28. All security deposits in all approved forms are to be pledged in favour of IFA.
29. Alternatively a system of permanent Security Deposit can be instituted where
each Registered Vendor will submit SD of suitable amount to be decided in
consultation with IFA which will be kept valid during the currency of registration In
such a system, there is no need for the vendor to submit SD each time for each
Contract.

Inclusion of Liquidated Damage Clause in LPO

30. As per GOI decision, Para 8 of Rule 12 GFR, liquidated damage clause is
applicable in all contracts. Local purchase order is also a contract. L.D. is recovered
for delay due to defaults on the part of the contractor, @2% pm or part thereof, not
exceeding 10% of total contract value. L D cannot be waived without concurrence of
local IFA.

Amendments to Local Purchase Orders With Concurrence of IFA

31. No purchases can be made without inviting tenders except from Forests and
Jails department. A tender on acceptance becomes a contract. Any amendment to
contract i.e. local purchase orders with regard to quantity, rate, delivery period,
payment terms, having financial bearing, require prior concurrence of IFA or
representative of IFA.
32. The UO no. and date of IFA is to be invariably prominently shown on supply
order as well as amendments to supply order.

Association of IFA in Tendering At EDs/ BRDs in Local Purchases Cases

beyond the Financial Power of AOCs/ COs
33. In cases of local purchases beyond the financial powers of AOCs/COs, where
tenders are being invited by Unit authorities, IFA is to be involved in all stages right

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from the stage of acceptance of necessity, determining mode of tendering, selection

of vendors to participation in TPC/ PNC, though concurrence will be accorded by
appropriate IFA as per delegation of financial power. This is applicable in cases
where financial powers of higher CFAs are with financial concurrence of higher IFAs.
34. Procedure. The user section is to raise a local purchase Proforma (LPP),
which should give the following details. This should be submitted to both IFA and
CFA, where such financial powers are with concurrence of IFA, before issue of TE.
IFA will examine the same from acceptance of necessity.
(a) Details of items required (including specific brand) with justification of
the requirement.
(b) Qty of item required.
(c) Assessed/expected cost of items.
(d) Non-availability from stores.
(e) Reason why item is to be procured locally eg. Urgently required,
commonly available, demand not materialised etc.
(f) User should certify that qty being procured is barest minimum.
(g) Proprietary article certificate if applicable duly countersigned by Section
Commander/ AOC is to be enclosed in case proprietary purchase is
proposed.
35. The S Lgs O will provide LPPs for commonly available items required. The
LPP should provide following detail:-
(a) Details of items required.
(b) Qty of item required to be procured which should be based on
following.
(i) Scale/maximum establishment
(ii) Stocks.
(iii) Dues in, if any.
(iv) Net requirement
(c) Last purchase price if available with year of purchase. If annual
contract is finalized the contract approved rate is to be quoted.
(d) Proprietary article certificate if applicable.
36. In case Air HQ/ Command HQ authorizes procurement of an item through
local purchase, the local purchase proforma is to be raised by the S Lgs O. Air HQ/
HQ MC while authorizing any such purchase is to clearly give the following details:-
(a) Approval of AHSP.
(b) Inspection agency.
(c) List of all firms registered with AHSP/ Air HQ/ HQ MC for purchase of
the item. The words ―Likely source of supply‖ are not to be used while
decentralizing such purchase. In case only one firm is registered proprietary
purchase should be authorized.

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37. Where sanctions are issued with concurrence of IFA at Air HQrs/ Commands,
local IFA is to be invariably associated in tendering/contracting and post contract
management.
38. Budget. Budgetary control is to be done by Senior Accounts Officer for the
full financial year. He is to maintain budgetary expenditure and commitment register
for all code heads under which funds are allocated to the unit. Parallel budgetary
registers are not to be maintained by the purchase section since full responsibility of
budgetary control is of the Senior Accounts Officer. He will render monthly
expenditure report to local IFA, endorsing copy to CDA (AF)/ JCDA (AF) as the case
may be, including latest allotment against various code heads or any other
information required by local IFA.
39. Code Head. The expenditure shall be incurred to respective local code head
of the revenue budget.
40. Budget Projection. Budget projection will be made by SAO of units based on
following inputs.
(a) Expenditure details based on its budgetary control register.
(b) Commitment details based on its budgetary control register.
(c) Additional funds requirement for current year and funds requirement for
next year is to be obtained from respective purchase officers. Local IFA is to
be associated in entire budget exercise.
41. Paying Authority and Mode. The payment will be made by accounts officer
in the unit by cheque as and when the bills are submitted along with the contractors‘
bill (IAFA-68 revised) duly vetted and signed by the logistic Officer. It is the
responsibility of the Accounts officer to ensure that funds are available before
making payment. All third party payments are to be made through Contractors bill.
42. Difference of Opinion Between CFA and IFA. In matter within the delegated
powers, it is open to the CFA to overrule the advice of IFA by an order recorded in
writing containing the gist of objections of IFA and reasons for overruling advice. A
copy of the order overruling financial advice will be endorsed to the next higher CFA
and IFA. In such cases, the local IFA should also be intimated. It will be open to the
IFA to report the matter to the next higher IFA for perusing the matter with the higher
CFA or dropping it as deemed fit (Refer para 2 (b) of Govt. OM No.10 (3)/ 02-D (Air-
II) Dt:-01/04/2002).
43. Check List for CFA and IFA. It is entirely the responsibility of local purchase
officer to submit the following information along with necessary documents for
consideration of IFA and CFA:-
(a) The items are authorised Air Force Equipments.
(b) Items are urgently required.
(c) Items are not available in unit/ ED.
(d) Items cannot be obtained expeditiously from normal source of supply.
(e) LP is resorted to in exceptional cases and not as a matter of routine.
(f) Purchase proposal is within the delegated financial powers of IFA and
CFA.

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(g) Whether CST has been signed by authorized gazetted officer and
ranking statement has been vetted by IFA/ rep of IFA.
(h) Tender-opening has been conducted properly by board of officers
including rep of IFA in presence of authorized representatives of firms.
(j) Where the financial powers are with concurrence, it is to be ensured
that the concurrence of the IFA has been obtained right from the acceptance
of necessity, determining the mode of tendering, selection of vendors, vetting
of draft tender & CST, TPC/PNC (in case of purchased exceeding Rs.1 lakh
etc).
(k) Competitive tenders/ quotations have been invited as per rules.
(l) If the items are required for stock, then they are not to exceed more
than three months requirement.
(m) Items are not of short shelf life and not likely to become unfit in store.
(n) Scales laid down are not exceeded.
(o) Local purchase order has not been split up to avoid necessity of
obtaining sanction from higher authority.
(p) Where higher rates are accepted, reasons in detail are to be given by
TPC before accepting the tender other than L1.
(q) Sanction from higher authority is obtained where such sanction is
required to be obtained whenever it exceeds the delegated financial power of
local IFA and CFA.
44. Audit of Sanctions. Ink signed copy of all sanctions issued by CFAs with or
without concurrence of IFA will be endorsed to CDA (AF)/ JCDA (AF) for audit of
sanctions. Ink signed copy of Supply Orders endorsed to CDA (AF)/ JCDA (AF) for
audit of sanctions, at the time of placement of Supply Order.
45. Necessary Subject file containing Original tenders/quotations, CSQ, NA
certificate and other supporting documents should be made available to CDA (AF)/
JCDA (AF) for audit of sanctions.
46. This is separate from post-audit which is to be undertaken by CDA (AF)/
JCDA (AF) after payment by AF Accounts Branch.
47. Post-Audit. After payment by IAF Account Branch, the following documents
are to be invariably submitted to CDA (AF)/ JCDA (AF) for audit viz.
(a) Original copy of the Supply Order duly enfaced with ‗Paid and
Cancelled‘.
(b) Contractor‘s bill (IAFA 68 Revised).
(c) CRV/ A&I Note.
(d) Inspection Note.
(e) Guarantee/ Warranty Certificate where applicable.
(f) CST along with original Quotations/ Tenders.
(g) Minutes of the TPC/ PNC where applicable.
(h) Copies of amendments including DP extensions.

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48. The post-audit function is different from audit of sanctions, which is

undertaken immediately after issue of sanctions/ supply orders. On the contrary,
post-audit is undertaken after payment is made.
49. Time schedule for processing LP. Local purchase is an important function
of logistics. This is an effective process which helps the system going under all
circumstances. The time required to meet user requirement can be counted from the
moment the user places a demand specifying the urgency. The minimum time
required in processing the LP at various stages are given below:
(a) Filling up details by S Lgs O in LPP 1 working day
(b) Filling up of details in LPP by SAO 1 working day
(c) Financial vetting by IFA 5 working days
(d) Floating of quotations Within 2 working days of Approval of IFA & CFA.
Preparation of CSQ and submission of CLPC proceeding to IFA and CFA.
Within 5 working days from the date of Opening of Tenders. Placement of
order Within 2 working days of Concurrence of IFA and approval by CFA.

Conclusion
50. The above provisions are applicable for all local procurement done from
public funds by IAF units where the purchase is required to be done from the reputed
firms/ suppliers already listed/registered. The basic premise for carrying out the
Local Procurement is to ensure continuity of supply to the unit at best possible cost
to the state.

Bibliography

1. IAP 1501 Chap – 9.

2. Delegated Financial Powers issued vide Air HQ/ 95378/ 1/ Fin P/ 2520/ US
(RC)/ Air-II/ 06 dated 14 Jul 2006.

3. Schedule – VIII A.

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Appendix A
(Refer para 14 of chapter 10)
Name of the Unit

Address

NAME OF THE VENDOR/ FIRM:

No.______________Dt.__

MAILING ADDRESS:

LOCAL PURCHASE ORDER/ ACCEPTANCE OF TENDER

1. It is hereby communicated that your quotation vide letter No. _____________

DT. ______ has been accepted for items of following specifications with standard
terms & conditions mentioned herein.
SCHEDULE OF REQUIREMENT

SL SEC/REF DESCRIPTION QTY UNIT/BASIC ED % SALES CST SC/MST/ ANY ANY TOTAL
NO NO. (3) EA PRICE IN Rs VALUE TAX (8) UPTT OTHER OTHER AMOUNT
(1) (2) (4) (5) (6) (7) (9) TAXES CHARGE (12)
(10) S % VALUE
(11) % VALUE
% VALUE
% VALUE

(a) Specification No:

(b) Type approval/ LCA No:
2. Inspection Authority. CQA/ UNIT
3. Place of Inspection. At Firm‘s / Consignee‘s premises.
4. Specifications mentioned against item, may be obtained on payment from the
Inspection Authority / Inspection Officer, if required.
5. Identification and Packing Instruction. The stores shall be securely packed
as per relevant clauses of the specification without any additional cost to the
Government to avoid loss or damage during transit so as to reach the consignee in
perfect serviceable condition and fit for the condition.
6. Mode of Despatch: By Road / Rail. The stores shall be dispatched to the
consignee by the supplier on his own arrangement. In case FOR is other than the
consignee, the stores be dispatched by Road / Rail as deemed fit.

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7. Terms of Delivery. FOR DESTINATION: - CONSIGNEE UNIT

8. Delivery Schedule. (THE ESSENCE OF THE CONTRACT): 1 month from
the date of supply order.
9. Security Deposit. Every Contractor shall deposit security deposit at the rate
of 5% (five percent) of the total value of each contract they secure before or within
20 days of the receipt of acceptance of tender along with acknowledgement copy of
Supply Order, failing which the Purchaser may cancel the contract and invoke where
such other remedies as may be open to the purchaser including Contractor's
deregistration.
10. The security deposit would be in any of following approved forms in favour of
IFA/CDA(AF) and should be valid during the currency of contract unless otherwise
specified viz, Bank Deposit Receipts or Fixed deposit receipts or Demand Drafts or
bank guarantee of any of the scheduled commercial banks, NSC or KVP on post
office cash certificates or any other approved securities.
11. If the Contractor fails or neglects to observe or perform any of his obligations
under the contract, it shall be lawful for the purchaser to forfeit either in whole or in
part, the security deposit furnished by the Contractor. Save as aforesaid, if the
contractor duly performs and completes the contract in all respect and presents
absolute "NO DEMAND CERTIFICATE " in the prescribed form and returns in good
conditions, the specifications, drawing and samples or other property belonging to
the purchaser, the Purchaser shall refund the security deposit to the contractor after
deducting all costs and other expenses that the purchaser may have incurred and all
does and other moneys including all losses and damages which the purchaser is
entitled to recover from the Contractor.
12. Failure And Termination. If the contractor fails to deliver the stores or any
installment thereof within the period fixed for such delivery or at any time repudiates
the contract before the expiry of such period, the Purchaser may without prejudice to
the right of the Purchaser to recover damages for breach of the contract. Recover
from the contractor as agreed liquidated damages including administrative expenses
and not by way of penalty a sum equivalent to 2% of the price of any stores which
the contractor has failed to deliver within the period fixed for delivery in the schedule
for each month or part of a month during which the delivery of such stores may be in
arrears where delivery thereof is accepted after expiry of the aforesaid period,
provided that the total damages so claimed shall not exceed 10% of the total
contract price.
13. Option Clause. The purchaser reserves the right to increase or decrease the
contracted quantity upto 50% that may be ordered at the same rates and on the
same terms & conditions at any time during the currency of the contract.
14. Paying Officer: - Senior Accounts Officer, IAF Unit
(b) Head of Account: MAJOR HEAD:
MINOR HEAD:
CODE HEAD:
15. Terms of Payment. 100% payment within 30 days of receipt of materials in
acceptable condition on submission of following documents viz,

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(a) Contractor‘s bill (IAFA-68 revised ).

(b) Original Supply Order .
(c) Guarantee/ Warranty Certificate.
(d) Article in Use Note & Inspection note / Documentary proof of receipt.
(e) ED/ ST Certificate where applicable.
(f) Or any other document as required as per Tender.
16. Warranty/ Guarantee Clause. The contractor/ seller here by will submit a
certificate declaring that the goods, stores articles sold/ supplied to the purchaser
under this contract shall be of the best quality and workmanship and new in all
respects and shall be strictly in accordance with the specification and particulars
contained/ mentioned in this contract. The contractor/ seller hereby guarantees that
the said goods/ stores/ articles would continue to the description and quality
aforesaid for a period of twelve months, from the date of delivery of the said
goods/stores/articles to the purchaser and will rectify any defect or defects free of
cost during aforesaid warranty period.
17. Arbitration. All disputes, differences or questions between the parties prior to
touching the subject matter of the agreement or the respective rights or duties or
liabilities of the parties under/ or in respect of this agreement shall be referred to the
sole arbitration of the Air Officer Commanding/ Commanding Officer of Unit, Indian
Air Force or person appointed by him on his behalf and the decision of such
arbitration shall be final and binding on both the parties. The venue of arbitration
shall be the place from which formal acceptance of tender is issued or such other
place as the AOC/ CO/ OC at his discretion may determine.
18. Jurisdiction of Courts. The courts of the place from where the acceptance
of tender has been issued shall alone have jurisdiction to decide any dispute arising
out of or in respect of the contract.
This has the concurrence of IFA / Unit vide FC no. _________ DT. ________

Signature of the Purchase Officer

Copy to:
LAO (AF) 26ED, Bangalore (Concerned IFA)
Jt.CDA (AF), Nagpur (For post-audit of vouchers and audit of sanctions)
HQMC,IAF (budget holder)

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Appendix B
(Refer para 16 of chapter 10)

Signature of the Purchase Officer

Name of the unit

NAME OF THE VENDOR / FIRM:

No. ____________Dt:_

MAILING ADDRESS:

LOCAL PURCHASE: TENDER ENQUIRY

1. Sealed Tender to reach this Unit by ……. Hours on or before ……………. The
sealed tender should be dropped in the sealed tender box in the unit. No
responsibility will be taken by the unit for postal delay / non-receipt of tenders. Fax
Quotations/ Telegrams will not be considered.
(a) Time and date of opening of the Sealed Tender: ……. Hours on …….
The sealed quotations will opened in the presence of bidders/ authorised
representatives of bidders.
(b) Validity: Tender shall remain open for acceptance for 30 days from the
date of opening i.e. up to
(c) Tenderer's_______________________________________________
Quotation No___________________ dated_____________________
Tel. No.__________ Fax No.___________ E-Mail________________
(d) SCHEDULE OF REQUIREMENT: -
SL SEC/REF DESCRIPTION QTY UNIT/BASIC ED % SALES CST SC/MST/ ANY ANY TOTAL
NO NO. (3) (4) PRICE IN Rs VALUE TAX (8) UPTT OTHER OTHER AMOUNT
(1) (2) (5) (6) (7) (9) TAXES CHARGE (12)
(10) S % VALUE
(11) % VALUE
% VALUE
% VALUE

(e) Specification No:

(f) Type Approval / LCA No:

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NB: Please quote rates in figures as well as in words. Unit basic price and all
Government duties and taxes should be indicated separately. Government duties /
taxes etc should be specified and spelt out clearly giving the current rate applicable.
2. Inspection Authority. CQA, UNIT.
3. Place of Inspection. At Firm‘s Consignee‘s premises.
4. Specifications mentioned against item, may be obtained on payment from the
Inspection Authority / Inspection Officer, if required.
5. Identification And Packing Instruction. The stores shall be securely packed
as per relevant clauses of the specification without any additional cost to the
Government to avoid loss or damage during transit so as to reach the consignee in
perfect serviceable condition and fit for the condition.
6. Mode of Despatch: By Road / Rail. The stores shall be despatched to the
consignee by the supplier on his own arrangement. In case FOR is other than the
consignee, the stores may be dispatched by Road /Rail, as deemed fit.
Terms of Delivery: F O R Destination: - Consignee Unit
7. Delivery Schedule: (The Essence of The Contract). 1 month from the date
of supply order.
8. Security Deposit. Every Contractor shall deposit security deposit at the rate
of 5% (five percent) of the total value of each contract they secure before or within
20 days of the receipt of acceptance of tender along with acknowledgement copy of
Supply Order, failing which the Purchaser may cancel the contract and invoke where
such other remedies as may be open to the purchaser including Contractor's
deregistration.
9. The security deposit would be in any of following approved forms in favour of
CDA(AF)/IFA and should be valid during the currency of contract unless otherwise
specified viz, Bank Deposit Receipts or Fixed deposit receipts or bank guarantee of
any of the scheduled commercial banks, NSC or KVP on post office cash certificates
or any other approved securities.
10. If the Contractor fails or neglects to observe or perform any of his obligations
under the contract, it shall be lawful for the purchaser to forfeit either in whole or in
part, the security deposit furnished by the Contractor. Save as aforesaid, if the
contractor duly performs and completes the contract in all respect and presents
absolute "NO DEMAND CERTIFICATE " in the prescribed form and returns in good
conditions, the specifications, drawing and samples or other property belonging to
the purchaser, the Purchaser shall refund the security deposit to the contractor after
deducting all costs and other expenses that the purchaser may have incurred and all
does and other moneys including all losses and damages which the purchaser is
entitled to recover from the Contractor.
11. Failure And Termination. If the contractor fails to deliver the stores or any
installment thereof within the period fixed for such delivery or at any time repudiates
the contract before the expiry of such period, the Purchaser may without prejudice to
the right of.
12. The Purchaser to recover damages for breach of the contract. Recover from
the contractor as agreed liquidated damages including administrative expenses and

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not by way of penalty a sum equivalent to 2% of the price of any stores which the
contractor has failed to deliver within the period fixed for delivery in the schedule for
each month or part of a month during which the delivery of such stores may be in
arrears where delivery thereof is accepted after expiry of the aforesaid period,
provided that the total damages so claimed shall not exceed 10% of the total
contract price.
13. Option Clause. The purchaser reserves the right to increase or decrease the
contracted quantity up to 50% that may be ordered at the same rates and on the
same terms & conditions at any time during the currency of the contract.
14. Unsolicited Letters/ Canvassing/ Post tender corrections: Canvassing by
tenderers in any form including unsolicited letters on tenders submitted or post
tender corrections shall render their tenders liable for summary rejection.
15. Paying Officer: - Senior Accounts Officer IAF Unit
(b) Head of Account: MAJOR HEAD:
MINOR HEAD:
CODE HEAD:
16. Terms of Payment. 100% payment within 30 days of receipt of material in
acceptable condition. Non-acceptance of payment terms could entail rejection of
tenders.
17. Warranty/ Guarantee Clause. The contractor/ seller here by will submit a
certificate declaring that the goods, stores articles sold/supplied to the purchaser
under this contract shall be of the best quality and workmanship and new in all
respects and shall be strictly in accordance with the specification and particulars
contained/ mentioned in contract. The contractor/seller hereby guarantees that the
said goods/ stores/ articles would continue to the description and quality aforesaid
for a period of twelve months, from the date of delivery of the said goods/ stores/
articles to the purchaser. And will rectify any defect or defects free of cost during
aforesaid warranty period.
18. Arbitration. All disputes, differences or questions between the parties prior to
touching the subject matter of the agreement or the respective rights or duties or
liabilities of the parties under/or in respect of this agreement shall be referred to the
sole arbitration of the Air Officer Commanding/Commanding Officer of Unit, Indian
Air Force or person appointed by him on his behalf and the decision of such
arbitration shall be final and binding on both the parties. The venue of arbitration
shall be the place from which formal acceptance of tender is issued or such other
place as the AOC/ CO /OC at his discretion may determine.
19. Jurisdiction of Courts. The courts of the place from where the acceptance
of tender has been issued shall alone have jurisdiction to decide any dispute arising
out of or in respect of the contract.

Signature of Purchase Officer

Name of the Unit

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SCHEDULE VIII
POWERS IN RESPECT OF PURCHASE/ REPAIR OF STORES
(In Rupees)
FINANCIAL LIMITS
Competent Financial authority Without IFA With IFA
Consultation Consultation
1 2 3
(A) Purchase/ Repair of stores
(i) VCAS/DCAS/AOM/AOP/AOA/DG 1,00,000 25,00,000
(ii) ACsAS Nil 5,00,000
(iii) AOC - IN -C 1,00,000 25,00,000
(iv) AOLM/SMSOs at Command HQ Nil 10,00,000
(v) AOC Self Accounting Unit 1,20,000 5,00,000
(vi) OC Self Accounting Unit 60,000 3,00,000
Remark : The powers of local purchase (per transaction) are to be exercised only in
respect of such items of authorised equipment which are required after it has been
ascertained that supplies are not available or cannot be obtained within reasonable
time from the normal source of supply. Local purchase be resorted for commonly
available items required for authorised equipment under this schedule as there is no
central provisioning of these items.
(AI) Powers for Indenting and payment of Aviation Fuel, Oil and Lubricants
(i) AOC/Stn Cdr/CO of Self Accounting 10,00,00,000 Nil
Unit
(B) Powers to purchase ATG/MTG items (per
transaction).
(i) VCAS/DCAS/AOM/AOP/AOA/DG 1,00,000 50,00,000
(ii) AOC - IN -C 1,00,000 50,00,000
(iii) SAASO/SASO Nil 10,00,000
(iv) IAF Self Accounting Trg 1,00,000 2,00,000
Establishment Commanded by Air Cmde &
above
(v) IAF Self Accounting Trg 50,000 2,00,000
Establishment commanded by Gp Capt &
below
(vi) AOC Self Accounting Unit 50,000 2,00,000

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(vii) OC Self Accounting Unit 30,000 1,00,000

(viii) For unlisted Items - AOC-in-C/AOP 50,000 5,00,000
(C) Participation of Air Force personnel in Seminars, Symposia, short
courses, workshops, annual conventions at civil professional/academic
organisations and institutions in India.
(i) PSOs at Air HQ/AOC-in-C 25,000 Full Powers
(ii) PSOs at Command HQ Nil 5,00,000
(iii) AOC Self Accounting Unit Nil 20,000/- per
head with
annual ceiling
of Rs.2 lac.
(iv) CO Self Accounting Unit (Gp Capt Nil 10,000/- per
and Wg Cdr) head with
annual ceiling
of Rs.2 lac.
(D) Organization of Seminar/Work shop by Air Force.
(i) PSOs at Air HQ/AOC-in-C 25,000 20,00,000
(ii) AOC/Stn Cdr Self Accounting Unit 5,000 2,00,000
(E) Powers to sanction expenditure for inviting guest lecturers for training
courses.
(i) VCAS/AOP/AOC-in-C 5,000/- per 50,000/- per
head head subject
to annual
ceiling of Rs.
5 lac.
(ii) AOC/Stn Cdr/CO of Trg Nil 25,000/- P.A.
establishment
Remarks:

(1) All financial powers authorised to the Comeptent Financial Authorities in this
Schedule are with respect to each transaction.

(2) Powers in respect of stores relate only to purchase of Indigenous stores and
not in respect of stores from abroad.

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CHAPTER - 11

IMMOLS

Chapter Objectives

After reading this chapter, you should be able:-

 To understand the term IMMOLS and its benefits to logistics
activities of the IAF.
 To appreciate the functioning of IMMOLS in the IAF.

Structure
1. Introduction.
2. Concept.
3. Functioning.
4. The Impact.
5. Management Controls.
6. Modules.
7. Conclusion.

Introduction
1. IAF has been a function based organization, i.e. all departments/ sections,
were working independent of each other. For example, user section never comes to
know the status of its demand till either one of their representatives visit logistics
section or they are intimated by the logistics section about arrival of their item.
Similarly, logistics section never comes to know about status of payments to their
vendors from accounts section till notified. Requirement of readily available
information is a must for planning and decision making at all levels. Hence, the
concept of Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) brings in seamless integration in the
system by converting function based organization into a process based organization
obviating the above drawbacks through re-engineering the processes and
implementation of customized software.

Concept
2. Complexity, of logistics management in the IAF emanates from the
geographical diversity of weapon system sites and technological diversity of
weapon systems and spares. High costs and high lead times of military aviation
standard items/ spares further enhance the complexity of logistics management.
Integrated Materials Management On Line System (IMMOLS) is one such system
which is a manifestation of IAF's initiative to fine tune materials management. Project
IMMOLS was conceptualized to develop an on-line materials management system
with a view to increase the transparency of processes, visibility of spares leading to
better utilisation of equipment, decision making, improved serviceability of weapon
systems and to finally reduce inventory costs by minimizing non-moving inventory. It

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is customized ERP software akin to the ones available in the commercial sector in
the form of SAP, Oracle etc.

Functioning
3. IMMOLS is software that connects all users of equipment with the logistics
element within the station which in turn is connected to all logistics organisations
throughout the IAF through a common database. An on-line system which would
make all items, spares available in units i.e. weapon system sites, ASPs, EDs and
BRDs visible to maintenance/ logistics hierarchy is not only desirable but also
necessary to ensure that no weapon system is awaiting operationalisation while
relevant item or spare is available within the IAF at some unknown location. Also, an
on-line system spanning right up to the users' end would ensure accurate capture of
all necessary data as against the concept of central data entry system, wherein, the
data is first captured on forms and then entered centrally. The demands raised by
users whether satisfied or not by supply agencies would remain available within the
database and may thus form the realistic basis for provisioning. This is considered a
paradigm shift from supply based provisioning to demand based provisioning. These
two critical factors i.e. visibility of all items/ spares across the formations and demand
as the basis for provisioning would become the scientific method for successively
eliminating the two major drawbacks of manual system i.e. poor forecasting of
requirements and poor exploitation of non- moving inventory.

The Impact
4. IMMOLS, when fully operational, is expected to make the following impact on
the logistics management system:-
(a) On-line asset visibility as well as transit asset visibility at all
echelons of hierarchy will help top management in decision support and would
enhance the exploitation of available material resources and bring about
quantum reduction in down time of weapon systems by enhancing the
exploitation of available material resources.
(b) Quality of provisioning data would get a definite boost since- it would
be based on realistic demand figures and trends. This is not feasible to be
achieved in a Depot based logistics management system, since there are no
computerized databases at the users' end to capture realistic demands/
trends. Also, manual capture of data on forms and stationary retains the
randomness of impurities applicable to any manual system.
(c) IMMOLS captures the entire logistics business logic of the IAF and
thus ensures standardization across various types of units/ formations.
(d) On-line availability of data is expected to bring non-moving items in
sharp focus. Their dilution would then be a corollary of this knowledge under
the directions of top management.
(e) Concept of Global Item Gallery called GIG, an electronic item
dictionary, as the core of IMMOLS functionality ensures accurate assessment
of IAF inventory and its dynamism. Purification of data in GIG would be a by
product of its utilization. This concept is built in the design of IMMOLS. It is
expected that in years to come we will have almost 100% pure data in the
GIG.

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(f) IMMOLS design and methods have been cleared by audit and
equipment account. Progressively, IMMOLS would be in a position to provide
historical cost of any item/ spares without manual intervention/ interpretation.
This may then become an objective tool for price negotiations at each level of
logistics hierarchy.
(g) IMMOLS aided by Equipment Accounting On-Line System (EQUOLS)
and Audit On Line System (AUDOLS) is the only functional system cleared for
On Line audit. Therefore, the available on line data is audit vetted and
tenable for financial usage.
(h) IMMOLS is expected to usher-in the era of greater accountability with
regards to quality of services offered since scientific bench marking of
services offered would be available on-line for the top management.

Management Controls
5. The on-line monitoring tools would provide the following leverages for various
management controls in IMMOLS:-
(a) AOG Management. IMMOLS would provide real time information on
outstanding AOG demand Vs IAF inventory status through its query interfaces
and through numerous customized AOG reports designed for the perusal of
the top management. This will facilitate effective utilization of pan-IAF
inventory.
(b) Rotable Management. IMMOLS would provide detailed information of
stock status and life of each rotable held in the squadron inventories and
logistics stores. The stock visibility across IAF would help in undertaking
accurate and timely census of rotables and help in realistic provisioning.
(c) Contracted/ Not Issued Spares. IMMOLS application software
dynamically consolidates Contracted/ Not-issued spares i.e. dues in and
dues out status and provides updated output through its Global item gallery
interface and through customized reports. The document tracking facility
provided in IMMOLS would help in viewing and ascertaining the current
supply status of outstanding material transfer requests at the consignor end.
(d) Asset Visibility and Inter Unit Transfers. IMMOLS provides visibility
of entire IAF assets at Air HQ and HQ MC and asset visibility of units to each
operational command. This online stock visibility would help instant inter and
intra command assets transfers. This would directly contribute to reduction in
downtime of weapon systems by effective utilization of available assets.
(e) Asset Monitoring. IMMOLS provides online bin location and stock
status of each and every item. This facility can be utilized for undertaking
surprise checks of high value stores and bring in better accountability in the
system.
(f) Budget Monitoring. IMMOLS application software dynamically
consolidates and updates the budget details of all relevant code heads by
accessing data from the e-procurement documents generated in the system.
This would help top management in efficient budget management.
(g) Financial Concurrence and Sanction. IMMOLS provides facility to
accord online concurrence and sanction of e-documents within and across

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units. This would help in substantial reduction in processing time involved in

physical dispatch of paper documents.
(h) Procurement and Contract. IMMOLS provides interface to monitor
procurement and contract processes. It provides data on last purchase rates
and supplier performances through its query interfaces and reports.
(j) Personal Work Folder. IMMOLS application software helps in instant
consolidation of liabilities and assets and generation of realistic provisioning
reviews based on demand analysis. At station level, the inventory fixation
module helps in fixation of the maximum and minimum holdings of an item.

Modules
6. The regulations and procedures are catered in various business procedures
(referred to as modules). Major modules are:-
(a) Demand and Issue.
(b) Transportation.
(c) Stores Procedures.
(d) Provisioning.
(e) Procurement.
(f) Payment.
(g) Local Contract.
(h) Repairs.
(j) Budgeting.
7. The Process. How does it differ from the existing system? Well, for this let us
take an example of a normal demand and issue procedure that has been followed in
the past and compare it with the system followed in IMMOLS.

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Demand and Issue Procedure (Old System)

Following data inserted:-

- Demand Serial No.
(Q) 447 raised by user in - Flight/Section
triplicate - Date
- Details of item
- DOQ
- Qty required
Forwarded to Lgs Section in - Reason for demand
duplicate - Authority
- Subsidiary accounting
- Priority

Following points scrutinized

- General accuracy & completeness
Lgs Section scrutinizes - Identification details of the items
demand - Demand number
- Reasons for demand
- Relevant scale/authority for issue
- Correct class of stores
- Qty within scales laid down
- Subsidiary accounting action
- Demand is signed by inv holder/ Flt Cdr

OK Not OK

Demand Approved Demand returned to user

for amendments

IN/ IV No. allotted by Passed to Stock Holding

Voucher Registry Group for issue action

Group holder annotates bin

location & balance on voucher Item issued & ‘Qty supplied’ column
completed on duplicate

Rep of user collects items,

signs on both copies and
takes duplicate copy of
voucher

Inv holder checks the item

completes triplicate copy and
amends Inventory

Forwards the duplicate copy to Entry posted on SSRC and original

accounts section after Flt Cdr voucher passed to accounts
appends signature on duplicate

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Accounts Section Check the following:-

-Both copies match to signatures and qty
supplied column
-All postings have been made
-All alterations are signed

Updates subsidiary books and

files both the vouchers in the
voucher registry for post audit

Demand and Issue Procedure (IMMOLS)

Login by Inv holder at work site

Following data is to be selected from
pull down Menu
Main Data
Registration of demand from - Demand type
application menu by entering data - Nature (forecast)
- Demand date
- Material Group (say Mig-21)
- Priority (normal, AOG etc)
- Date item required
- Inv number (for inv action)
- Ac number
- Subsidiary document
Item Data
- Select relevant item from GIG
(All details will be displayed
automatically)
- Enter personal details
- Set Recommending/ Approving/
Closing/ Cancelling.

Submit & Save

Unique demand number is

generated

Dues out (Item pending to be issued) is

added against demanded item

The demand entry is shown as outstanding in

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Recommended and Approved online by

respective authorities

Once demand gets approved, it gets replicated to

Air HQ/ HQ MC

Authorized store keeper logs in

Ascertains pending demands through

demand query

Demands will be populated for which stock

is available in store

Selects demand, demand details displayed

Enters the issue qty

Set Recommending/ Approving/ Closing/

Cancelling.

Submit and save

Recommended and Approved online by respective

authorities

Issue & SOC

Note: For detailed procedures of above modules please refer to IMMOLS

Application Training Manual of Series Phase available with all logistics sections.
8. The Difference. Even though, the steps involved in the new system seem to
be more, we need to understand that the steps are in fact actions broken down to
their last level for the computer to execute the instructions. The basic operating
differences between the new system and the old system are:-

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(a) Most of the details are already available in the database which need
not be replicated as in the manual system. This reduces the time taken to fill
in the data and obviates errors completely.
(b) Details that have been entered in the computer are recorded
permanently in the database for a bigger purpose of provisioning reviews
unlike the manual system. This also helps update the stock positions, dues
out etc that used to be done manually in the old system.
(c) Recommendations and approvals are faster due to accurate details
lesser number of errors.
(d) Users can track the status of their demands online from their work
places without having to send their representatives to check the status as
being done earlier.
(e) Online auditing is carried out thereby reducing the time wasted on
producing documents to the auditors in the old system.

Conclusion
9. In nutshell, IMMOLS is a truly IT enabled service since it reaches out to the
last person i.e. the user in the chain of logistics management. We may say that
IMMOLS is a comprehensive online solution for logistics management and has all
the four requisite functions i.e. demand, supply, subsidiary or equipment accounting
and auditing embedded within it. IMMOLS when fully operationalised would aid in
realizing the IAF vision of lean and dynamic logistics organisation by embedding the
three core concepts viz total assets visibility, transit asset visibility and auto
information triggers. In this era of technology and constraints of manpower
resources, it has become necessary to adopt the electronic database systems in
order to increase efficiency of the logistics management. This has also been
necessitated by ever growing needs of the technology driven assets of the IAF as
well as the exorbitant costs of the inventory which can only be controlled by
continuous monitoring through the electronic media.
References
1. IAP 1501.
2. IMMOLS Application Training Manual, Series Phase.
3. Air Cmde PK Srivastava, VSM ―What we must know about IMMOLS‖, IAF
Maintenance Journal, Dec 2006.

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CHAPTER - 12

RATION AND ITS DISTRIBUTION

Chapter Objectives

After reading this chapter, you should:-

 Know the types of rations.
 Understand the procedure for demand and procurement of
rations.
 Be aware of the procedures for issue of rations.
 Be aware of the types of flying rations.

Structure
1. Introduction.
2. Types of rations.
3. Demand of rations.
4. Local purchase of rations.
5. Issue of rations.
6. Flying rations.
7. Pre-payment of rations.
8. Conclusion.

Introduction
1. It is said that the army marches on its stomach. Regular supply of ration is as
vital as the supplies of arms to a combatant and has a direct bearing on the morale
of the forces.

Types of Rations
2. Free ration that is supplied in the Air Force is of two types:-
(a) Dry Rations. It includes cereals, sugar, cooking oil, solid fuel,
condiments and other items whose storage life is longer.
(b) Fresh Rations. It includes meat, vegetables, fish, eggs, milk and such
other items whose storage life is short and has to be consumed quickly to
avoid waste.
3. Air Force Units are to draw dry rations on a weekly basis from the Army
Service Corps (ASC) depots for their current consumption. In addition to weekly
indents, all Units are required to maintain certain ‗reserve‘ of rations (6-13 days)
depending upon the distance of Air Force units from the dependent ASC depot. All
rations are supplied by ASC as per the approved specifications.

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Demand of Rations
4. Dry Rations. Dry rations are demanded from the dependent ASC depot on a
weekly basis whereas fresh rations are demanded on a daily basis. Where the ASC
depot is co-located with AF units, the unit is responsible for collection of rations from
the depot. When the depot is located far away (more than 40 km) the contracts for
supply of fresh ration are entered into by Army authorities but the contracts are
operated by the AF Units. For this purpose, certain AF Unit Commanders have been
designated as DDO‘s (Direct Demanding Officer). Certain amount of tinned reserve
is also maintained at the Ration Stand to meet the contingencies of failure on the
part of the supplier to meet the demand of fresh rations. In this case, when the failure
of fresh ration supplies by the contractor takes place, risk and expense purchase can
be resorted to.
5. Fresh Rations. They are normally drawn daily from ASC on the estimated
daily strength of the unit and indents are forwarded to ASC Depot 24 hours in
advance. In cases where no local ASC is available, supplies are delivered to Units
by ASC contractors, under the arrangements made by Army Sub-Area.

Local Purchase
6. Fresh Rations. Air Force Units far away from their parent bases can resort to
local purchase of fresh ration with the prior approval of competent ASC authorities
after meeting all the legal requirements as per laid down procedures.
7. Local Purchase of Condiments. A total of 16 items of condiments and
garam masala are issued at 16 grams and 10 grams per capita per diem for airmen
and flight cadets respectively. These items are obtained by the Flt Cdr Ration Flt
under local contract arranged annually by the AOC/ Stn Commander Air Force
Station and payments for the same are made to the contractor as per the conditions
of contract.

Issue of Rations
8. Issue of Ration to Messes. Bulk rations on receipt from ASC depots are to
be held in separate ration stores independent of the rations for Airmen Messes,
SNCOs‘ Messes or any other mess which is dependent on the ration store for its
daily rations. Demands by messes are to be raised daily by Catering Officer on
Form Q 481 in duplicate based on actual or estimated strength of personnel entitled
to free messing. Catering Officer must ensure that each commodity demanded is
within the prescribed scale of the number of personnel quoted.
9. Issue of Air Force Scale of Rations to Army and Naval Personnel.
When common messing arrangements are to be made for the personnel of Army
and Navy attached to or forming part of Air Force Units, the Air Force scale of ration
will be admissible to them.
10. Free Issue for Living-Out Airmen. Living-out airmen are permitted to draw
living-out ration allowance in lieu of free rations as authorised from time to time.
11. PORs are promulgated on six monthly basis in April and October every year
authorising LORA to individuals.

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12. LORA is ceased on leave, TD, detachment and on posting.

13. Free Issue of Rations to Officers. AF Officers are authorised to draw free
rations as per scales approved by Government. This scale is common to all three
services of the Armed Forces. Officers posted to locations where it is
administratively not possible to draw rations in kind are authorised to draw cash in
lieu of rations.
14. Hospitalisation. With the introduction of free rations to officers in peace
area, no hospital stoppages will be levied. Last Ration Certificate has to be carried
by Officers from the Stations of their duty.
15. Temporary Duty. The officers proceeding on temporary duty can exercise
the option of either drawing ration in kind or cash in lieu.
16. Entitlement during Leave. Officers entitled to draw ration while on leave
are authorised to claim cash in lieu of rations at a rate as fixed from time to time.
17. Flying Rations. There are three kinds of flying rations available at the
stores:-
(a) Ordinary Flying Rations. It is provided in packed metal containers for
normal use during flight of six hours or more.
(b) Emergency Flying Rations. It is provided in packed fibre case with
belts for strapping on the back. They are issued to aircrew for use only in
extreme situations.
(c) Aircrew Ration. All aircrew who are detailed for flying and whose
names are published in flying programme of the day are authorised for
aircrew ration which is to be consumed as pre-flight meals.

Check Assimilation

Fill in the Blanks

1. Dry rations of the unit are indented on a ______________________ basis.
2. AF units for away from their parent bases can resort to ________________
of fresh ration with the prior approval of competent ASC authorities.
State True or False (If false, give correct answer)
3. Officers are not entitled draw cash in lieu of ration while on duty at their
parent stations.
________________________________________________________________
4. Ration for Army/Navy personnel attached to AF Units are drawn as per AF
scale of ration.
________________________________________________________________
5. Explain briefly ‗Emergency Flying Ration‘.
_______________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________

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18. Pre-Payment Issues. All personnel of Air Force are authorised to draw
certain commodities of ration from the Station Ration Stand on pre-payment for their
families, children and servants. Ration cards are made for the individuals after being
duly sanctioned by the Commanding Officer and the scale of commodities to be
drawn reflected in the Ration Card. Dates for ration recovery are published in SROs
in advance. As per the revised procedure, the respective section commander is to
make out a consolidated voucher for all the personnel of his section and forward to
Stn Logistics Section for necessary vetting and entitlement check. Thereafter, the
same is forwarded to the Accts Section for recovery action. After the payment has
been made, the concerned individuals draw their ration from the ration stand.

Conclusion
19. Issue of rations is of very vital importance which has a direct bearing on the
morale of personnel. All individuals concerned with this aspect must pay utmost
attention towards the quality and timely issue of rations to all personnel.

Bibliography
1. AFI 129/ 70 as amended from time to time.

Check Assimilation: The Key

1. Weekly.
2. Local purchase.
3. False. They can do so when it is administratively difficult to draw rations.
4. True.
5. It is provided in packed fibre case with belts for trapping on the back. They are
issued to aircrew for use only in extreme situation.

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MEDICAL

Reviewed by

Sqn Ldr P Ghorai

Sep 2012

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CHAPTER - 13

ARMED FORCES MEDICAL SERVICES

Chapter Objectives

After reading this chapter, you should:

 Be aware of the organisation of Medical Services in the Armed
Forces.
 Be aware of the definitions in respect of medical attendance.

Structure
1. Introduction.
2. Medical Services in the Armed Forces.
3. Definitions.
4. Medical Services of IAF.
5. Conclusion.

Introduction
1. The Medical Services of the Armed Forces consist of the Medical Services of
the Army, Navy and Air Force and functions under the Director General Armed
Forces Medical Services (DGAFMS).
2. Each Medical Service has a separate Director General who is the Medical
Advisor to the Chief of Staff of the respective service and is responsible to him for
the day to day administration and proper functioning of the service under him.

Medical Services in the Armed Forces

3. The DGAFMS is the medical advisor to the Ministry of Defence and is also the
chairman of the Medical Services Advisory Committee (MSAC), which is constituted
as follows:-
Chairman - DG AFMS
Members - DGMS (Army)
DGMS (Navy)
DGMS (Air)
Secretary - Dy DG AFMS
4. The MSAC is responsible to the Chiefs of Staff Committee. It may make any
recommendations on matters of medical organisation or policy to the Government
through the Chiefs of Staff Committee. The MSAC is responsible for the co-
ordination of the over-all medical policy of the Government and its implementation is
the responsibility of the respective DGsMS.

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5. The personnel of the Medical Services of the Armed Forces consist of:-
(a) Officers of the Army Medical Corps (AMC) including AMC Non –
Technical officers; Officers of the Army Dental Corps (AD Corps); Members of
the Military Nursing Service (MNS); AMC and AD corps Officers seconded to
Navy and Air Force; Ward Master Officers of the Navy and Probationer
nurses.
(b) Junior Commissioned Officers (JCOs), Other Rank (OR) of the AMC,
Medical Assistants of the Navy and Air Force.
(c) Civilians of categories sanctioned periodically by the Government.

General duties of the Medical Services of the Armed Forces

6. The Medical Services of the Armed Forces are maintained with a view to the
preservation of health of the members of Armed Forces and their families, prevention
of diseases and care of the sick and wounded.

Definitions
7. Definitions for the purpose of medical attendance are as follows:-
(a) Armed Forces Personnel. Officers, Nursing Officers, JCO, OR and
NCs(E) of the Army and equivalent ranks of the Navy and Air Force, whose
emoluments are debitable to the Defence Services Estimates.
(b) Officer’s Families. For the purpose of medical attendance, officer‘s
wife/ husband, wholly dependent parents and the unmarried children,
including step children or adopted children and widowed daughters who are
dependent on the officer are considered family. It also includes the officer‘s
servants but not his/ her family. It does not include children adopted by an
unmarried officer, or an officer‘s children given away in adoption, or children
adopted by an officer widower/ widow, unless the child was adopted before
the officer became widower/ widow or unless the officer has other children
who are entitled to medical attendance. The children of a divorced officer are
not included unless the officer has been made their legal custodian, even
though the officer may contribute to their maintenance. The wife of an officer
legally separated from him and his children (under 18 years) in her custody
will also be included, so long as the officer is responsible for their
maintenance.
(c) Families of PBORs. For PBORs, the family for the purpose of medical
attendance includes his wife, wholly dependent parents and unmarried
children, which include step children or adopted children who are dependent
on him. It does not include children adopted by an unmarried PBOR, or the
children adopted by PBOR widowers, unless the child was adopted before he
became widower or unless he has other children of his own who are entitled
to medical attendance. The children of a divorced PBOR are not included
unless he has been made their legal custodian, even though he may
contribute to their maintenance. It also includes his wife legally separated from
him and his children (under 18 years) in her custody, so long as the PBOR is
responsible for their maintenance.

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(d) Families of Civilians (Defence Services employee). For the

purpose of medical attendance the family of a Government servant will be his/
her wife or husband, as the case may be, and parents, children and step
children are wholly dependent on the Government servant. It does not include
children adopted by an unmarried civilian or an official‘s children given away
in adoption, or children adopted by a civilian widower/ widow, unless the child
was adopted before the official became widower/ widow or unless the official
has other children who are entitled to medical attendance. The children of a
divorced civilian are not included unless the official has been made their legal
custodian, even though the official may contribute to their maintenance. It also
includes the official‘s wife legally separated and the children (under 18 years)
in her custody, so long as the official is responsible for their maintenance.
(e) Dependent Parents. For the purpose of medical attendance wholly
dependent parents means, parents, who normally reside with the Armed
Forces Personnel and whose total monthly income does not exceed the pay
plus dearness pay (where applicable) of the Armed Forces Personnel subject
to the maximum income of the parents being Rs. 1,500 per month.

Medical Services of the Indian Air Force

8. History. The Medical Branch of the IAF was formed in 1940 by an order of
the Government of India, which stated that the medical requirements of the IAF will
be met by the grant of temporary commissions in the IAF Medical Branch to the
Indian commissioned officers of the IMS. AFI (I) No. 116/40 laid down the terms and
conditions of the service of the IAF Medical Branch.
Check Assimilation

Fill in the Blanks/ State True or False (If false, give correct answer)
1. The Director General, Armed Forces Medical Services is the ____________
of the Medical Services Advisory Committee.
2. The Medical Services Advisory Committee (MSAC) is responsible to the
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
3. The children of a divorced officer are entitled for free medical attendance.
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
4. Medical attendance includes children adopted by an unmarried PBOR, or
the children adopted by PBOR widowers.
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
5. Sqn Ldr IM Kool is unmarried but has adopted a 5 year old boy. Is the boy
entitled for free medical attendance through AFMS?
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
9. In 1939-40, both RAF and the IAF in India comprised a very small force.
Before World War II, casualties suffered by the RAF had shown that out of every 100

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pilots, 90 went to hospital or were killed due to aircraft accidents caused by human
factors. This high casualty rate necessitated the introduction of a separate Medical
Branch for medical care of flying personnel. Proper selection methods, medical
examination, and care of the flier had to be introduced in the IAF.
10. IAF Medical Training Centre was formed in 1943 at Chaklala to train nursing
orderlies group (M) for the IAF. Later, the name ‗Nursing Orderly‘ was changed to
Medical Assistants.
11. The Air Force Medical Services consists of mainly three groups of personnel,
namely:-
(a) Medical and Dental Officers seconded from Army Medical and Dental
corps.
(b) Members of the Military Nursing Service.
(c) Medical Assistants of the Air Force.
12. Medical Units. Following are the medical units:-
(a) Command Hospitals. It provides tertiary medical care to defence
personnel. It is a centre of post graduate medical teaching.
(b) Military/Air Force Hospitals. Military/Air Force Hospitals are
designed to provide indoor and outdoor medical cover to entitled Defence
Service personnel and their families.
(c) Institute of Aerospace Medicine. It imparts knowledge in the field of
Aviation Medicine, conducts departmental research on aero-medical problems
and conducts medical boards of aircrew including those operating high
performance aircraft.
(d) Medical Training Centre. Trains recruits and makes them efficient
airmen and medical assistants and imparts in-service training to senior
medical assistants.
(e) Rapid Action Medical Teams. RAMTs arranges evacuation of all
casualties from the airfields, sorting them out according to the priorities and
provides resuscitation, in-flight nursing and urgent medical/ surgical aid.
(f) Aero-Medical Training Centres. AMTC units have a Decompression
Chamber and indoctrinate all aircrew including flight cadets in the
physiological effects of high altitude, dis-orientation etc.
(g) Air Force Institute of Dental Sciences. It imparts specialized dental
treatment.
(h) Air Force Dental Centre. Provides dental care to AF personnel and
their families.

Organisation
13. The organisation of medical services at Air HQ, Command HQ and at station
levels are given at Appendix A, B and C respectively.

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Conclusion
14. The fit and healthy armed forces are a national requirement. The medical
services to the armed forces personnel and their families are provided by a well
established organisation of medical personnel of the three services.
Check Assimilation: The Key

1. Medical adviser.
2. Chiefs of Staff Committee.
3. False. The children of a divorced officer are not included unless the officer
has been made their legal custodian, even though the officer may contribute to their
maintenance.
4. False. It does not include children adopted by an unmarried PBOR, or the
children adopted by PBOR widowers, unless the child was adopted before the he
became widower or unless he has other children of his own who are entitled to
medical attendance.
5. No. It does not include children adopted by an unmarried officer, or an
officer‘s children given away in adoption, or children adopted by an officer
widower/widow, unless the child was adopted before the officer became
widower/widow or unless the officer has other children who are entitled to medical
attendance.

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Appendix A
(Refers to para 13 of Chapter 13)

ORGANISATION OF DGMS (AIR) OFFICE

CAS

AOA

D GMS (Air)

ACAS (Med)

PDMS (A) PDMS (S)

(Air Cmde) (Air Cmde)

Med 1 Med 2 Med 3 Med 5 Med 7 DMS (CA) Med 8

DMS (P) DMS (E &S) DMS (O&P) DMS (H) MS (MB) Gp Capt DMS (AM)
Gp Capt Gp Capt Gp Capt Gp Capt Gp Capt Gp Capt

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Appendix B
(Refers to para 13 of Chapter 13)

ORGASNISATION OF MEDICAL SERVICES AT COMMAND

AOC in C

SOA

PMO (AVM/Air Cmde)

DPMO I (GD) DPMO II (PSM/ AM )

Med 1 Med 2 Med 3 Med 5 Med 7 Med 8 Med 9

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Appendix C
(Refers to para 13 of Chapter 13)

ORGANISATION CHART OF SMC

AOC/CO

Sqn Cdr (Med)/ SMO (Gp Capt/ Wg Cdr/ Sqn Ldr/ Flt Lt)

MO i/c MO i/c Med store WO i/c SMC MO i/c SHO

Med attendance and records
and treatment

MI Room Med store Discipline and office JWOi/c/SNCO i/c

Dispensary Red Cross stores Barrack store Health asst
Treatment room Med stats MT Lab /Asst
Male ward AFMSF I Catering Class IV
Lab /ECG Med board AML
Physiotherapy Med Exam Family planning

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CHAPTER - 14

MEDICAL EVALUATIONS AND CATEGORISATION

Chapter Objectives

After reading this chapter, you should:

 Know the importance of medical examination.
 Be aware of the medical evaluation/examination system.
 Know the medical categories for air/ground crew categories and
their employability.

Structure
1. Introduction.
2. Medical Evaluation System.
3. Important Medical Evaluations.
4. Annual Medical Examinations.
5. Medical Categories of Officers, Cadets and Airmen.
6. Equivalent Categories of Army, Navy and Air Force.
7. Conclusion.

Introduction
1. The AF medical services are responsible for maintaining a high standard of
physical and mental fitness of all AF personnel so as to ensure maximum operational
efficiency of the human element of the force. Selection into the AF should be of
individuals who are medically fit to perform duties under all conditions of peace and
war, in all terrains, in all climatic conditions and in any part of the world. Once
selected, maintenance of good health and fitness is paramount. For those who
develop disease or disability there is a need to provide suitable employability within
the service. This can be done such that both the service and the individual are
protected and involve the process of medical categorization with its employability
restrictions. Since medical fitness is intrinsically related with the ability to perform
assigned service duties in an efficient manner, a number of service requirements are
linked to the fitness standard of an individual. Therefore, it is important to ensure that
service personnel are examined periodically and, if any disease or disability is
detected, a suitable medical standard is applied. Therefore, medical examinations
and medical boards encompass the conduct of a comprehensive initial medical
examination to exclude pre existing or potential disease on all aspirants who wish to
join the AF. It also includes periodic medical evaluation to ensure in-service
continuation of medical fitness. Medical examination and boards are conducted on
personnel who are afflicted with any ailments during the course of their service
careers to determine the impact of service conditions on the occurrence and course
of such disease or disability and to determine suitable employability. Liability of the
service, which affects retirement benefits of the individual, is also an important

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consideration in such cases. It is in this context that medical examination at the time
of release from service is necessary to assess the physical state when an individual
leaves the service and also to finalize the service liability, if any.
2. Periodic medical examinations, therefore, have a two-fold aim. Firstly, they
help in primary detection of disease so that early treatment and rehabilitation can be
provided. Such examinations also provide valuable information necessary for
developing methodologies for arresting and reversing the sub-clinical disease
processes. Secondly, they determine an individual‘s capacity to carry out the service
tasks required of him or her. In cases where a disease or disability has occurred, or
has been detected, the criteria for medical fitness should be the individual‘s ability to
satisfactorily discharge his or her duties in peace and war and to ensure that the task
does not impose any risk to the individual or to the service, because of an
individual‘s physical handicap. Certain restrictions on employability may become
necessary to ensure that the health of an individual is not adversely affected by
service conditions. These restrictions are imposed in the form of lower medical
category, which should be clearly indicative of restriction of employability.
3. These medical examinations must, therefore, be carried out meticulously and
in accordance with a uniform procedure that is based on sound scientific criteria.
Medical standards are thus laid down to secure uniformity in conduct of medical
examinations and interpretation of findings as well as assessment of physical fitness
for the specific job, as is required (of the individual), by the Service.

Medical Evaluation (Surveillance) System

4. The following types of medical evaluation are carried out: -
(a) Medical Inspection. It is a brief medical check up wherein an
individual is examined to detect any disease or disability, which will interfere
with his/her capability to perform the specific duties of his branch or trade as
well as to detect effects of occupational hazards.
(b) Medical Examination. This is a more detailed examination and is
recorded on a prescribed form. Complete and comprehensive assessment of
an individual‘s physical and medical condition to perform Air Force duties of
his/ her branch/ trade in a specific medical category is affirmed/ reaffirmed.
(c) Medical Board. This is an assessment of an individual by a board of
medical officers (including specialist medical officers) with a view to determine
the physical and mental status of an individual and need for protected
employment.

Important Medical Evaluations

5. Some of the important medical evaluations are:-
(a) Initial Medical Examinations. In case of candidates for
commissioning in the officers‘ cadre this examination is to be carried out at
AFCME/IAM, while for enrolment for Airmen/ NCs (E) it is to be carried out at
Airmen Selection Centres (ASCs). The purpose of this medical evaluation is to
ensure that each candidate fulfils the medical qualifying standards for his
branch or trade into which he or she is seeking entry. Every effort is made to
detect any disease or infirmity, which may at a later date affect the physical

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and mental capacity of the individual adversely. During the initial medical
examination, the benefit of doubt regarding fitness or otherwise goes to the
State. This is to avoid likely drop-outs and subsequent invalidments due to
disabilities when sizeable expenditure on training has been incurred by the
State. The appeal of pre-commission medical examination is held at
Directorate of Medical services, where as that of recruits held at designated
appeal centres.
(b) Annual Medical Examination. Annual medical examination is the
most important part of medical surveillance. This evaluation is carried out once
a year and is aimed at:
(i) Early detection of disease.
(ii) Early institution of remedial measures, if required; with periodic
follow-up to check progress.
(iii) Early return to full duties or, if necessary, gradually in a phased
manner.
(iv) Provision of necessary advice on many important aspects of
diseases, like Obesity, Diabetes Mellitus, Hypertension, IHD Psychiatric
illness (anxiety / depression) and defects in hearing or visual acuity,
whose early detection is possible by routine checks.
(c) Release Medical Exam/ Boards. Release Medical Exam/ Boards are
conducted to assess the fitness of the individual at the time of his/ her release
from service so as to assess the effects of service career on his/ her health, if
any, and to decide fitness for commutation of pension. In cases of prior
disability the attributability/ aggravation factors, percentage of disablement and
frequency of review and fitness for civil employment after release from service
are also decided in a release medical board. The part III of the board
proceeding is to be endorsed by Commanding Officer.
(d) Invaliding Medical Boards. These are held when, due to disease or
disability, an individual can no longer perform his or her service duties. Such
cases are invalided out of service. The part III of the board proceeding is to be
endorsed by Commanding Officer.

Annual Medical Examination-Officers

6. AMA will conduct Annual Medical Examination (AME) of officers every year as
per the following time schedule, to coincide with the Annual Confidential Reports.
The responsibility and conduct of AME is laid out in Air HQ Human Resource Policy
Part I/PO/Misc/02/2002 as circulated vide Air HQ/C 98838/1/PO-5 dated 22 Jan 02.
The policy regarding refusal to undergo medical examination/ medical boards is spelt
out in Air HQ/ 26481/Med-7 dated 17 Jun 1991. The due dates for AME of officers as
per rank (except Medical and Dental branch) are as follows:-
(a) Fg Offrs & Flt Lt – 30 Nov
(b) Sqn Ldr & Wg Cdr – 30 Jun
(c) Gp Capt & Air Cmde – 30 Sep
(d) AVM & Air Mshl – 30 Nov

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7. Medical/ Dental Branch. The due dates for officers belonging to Medical/
Dental branches are:-
(a) Wg Cdr & above - Nov – Dec
(b) Sqn Ldr & below - Apr – May
8. A confirmation of completion of such annual medical examination will be
submitted by units to Command HQs by 30th of the month following the last date for
completion of medical examination.
9. These medical examinations are to be carried out thoroughly with appropriate
investigations, where required. If any defect or disease is detected, the officer should
be thoroughly investigated and opined upon by the concerned specialist (s).
Depending on the specialists‘ opinion, the officer may be brought before a medical
board. For aircrew, aviation medicine specialists, when available locally, should
conduct the AME.

Airmen, NCs (E) and DSC between 30 to 40 Years of Age

10. Annual medical examination of all airmen and NCs (E), between the age of 30
and 40 years/ or at the time of first medical for ACR purpose on completion of 9
years of service, is to be conducted annually with a view to ensure physical fitness
and detect diseases at an early stage.
11. All personnel on courses and temporary duty during Jan, Feb and Mar will be
examined at the station where they are undergoing course or on temporary duty. The
results and the AFMSF-3B will be sent to their parent unit for insertion into the
AFMSF-1 of the individual.

Check Assimilation- 1

State True or False (if false, give correct answer)

1. All personnel on courses and temporary duty during Jan, Feb and Mar will
be examined at their parent unit after the completion of their courses/ TD.
__________________________________________________________________
2. Initial medical examination for commissioning in IAF is conducted at the
nearest Air Force Station.
__________________________________________________________________
3. All Flt Lt are to complete their AME before 30 Jun.
__________________________________________________________________

Airmen, NCs (E) and DSC above 40 Years of Age

12. Annual Medical Examination of this category of personnel will be carried out
during the following months:-
(a) Warrant Ranks - Aug to Oct
(b) Other Airmen and NCs (E) - April to July
13. If any disease/ disability is detected; the individual should be thoroughly
investigated and opined upon by the concerned specialist. Depending on the

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specialist‘s opinion, the individual may be brought before a medical board to award
an appropriate medical category.

MEDICAL CATEGORY

14. Medical Category is the term used to state the mental and physical functional
capacity of the Armed Forces personnel for the performance of service duties.
Medical boards are held to assess the physical state of an individual following injury
or disease and to determine his employability and need for protected employment.
Duly constituted Medical Board also decides whether the injury/ disease are
attributable to/ aggravated by service.

Medical Categories Officers, Cadets, Airmen and NCs(E)

15. Aircrew Categories and Employability.
A1 - Fit for all flying duties. Fit to fly any type of aircraft.
A2 - Fit for all flying duties with minor impairment well compensated
by experience. May use glasses for correction of vision. May have limitations
in flying certain type of aircraft and capable of unrestricted flying in others.
A3 - Fit for flying duties with limitations specified by Med Board.
A4 - Unfit to fly as an aircrew. Fit to fly as a passenger only.
At - Temporarily unfit for flying. However fit to fly as a patient when
so considered by the authorised Medical Attendant.
Ap - Permanently unfit for flying. However fit to fly as a patient when
so considered by authorised Medical Attendant.
16. Ground Duty Categories and Employability.
G1 - Fit for all ground duties in any part of the world.
G2 - Fit for all ground duties but slightly below the G1 standard in any
parts of the world.
G3 - Fit for all ground duties not involving unusual stress. May have
restrictions for employability in areas above 2700 meters AMSL.
G4 - Fit for routine duties not involving severe physical and mental
stress in areas below 2700 mtrs AMSL.
Gt - Temporarily unfit for any form of ground duties.
Gp - Permanently unfit for Air Force duties.
17. Medical category awarded to an officer or airman aircrew indicates Aircrew
category and Ground Duty category. Full medical category to an aircrew is A1G1
and that for ground duty officers and airmen is A4G1.

Validity of Medical Category

18. Normally, the medical category awarded during an annual medical
examination will be valid for one year, other than in cases where a medical category
is awarded by a medical board for a lesser period (e.g. T-12, T-24 etc.).

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Check Assimilation- 2

Answer the following

1. Which Medical Category is awarded to an officer who is temporarily unfit for

any ground duties?
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
2. Normally for how long is the category awarded during Annual Medical
Examination valid?
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________

Equivalent of Ground Medical Category Army, Navy and Air Force

19. ―SHAPE‖ system of classifying functional capacity mainly relates to the ‗G‘
factor of AF medical category. Therefore, as a general guide, the following are to be
considered equivalent in the system of medical categorisation in Army, Navy and AF.
SHAPE A FACTOR G FACTOR
(ARMY) (NAVY) (AIR FORCE)
1 A1 G1/G2
2 A2 G3
3 A3 G4
4 A4 G (t)
5 As G (p)

Conclusion
20. Medical examinations, periodical medical reviews, medical boards etc are
routine functions undertaken by the medical authorities in the three services to
ensure optimum health of all personnel. These measures ensure that not only
medically and physically fit personnel are inducted into the armed forces, but also
ensures that the all the medical conditions of the serving personnel are attended to
in a systematic and professional manner.

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Check Assimilation- 1: The Key

1. False. They will be examined at the station where they are undergoing
course/ TD.
2. False. Initial medical examination for commissioning in IAF is conducted at
AFCME/ IAM
3. False. All Flt Lt are to complete their AME before 30 Nov.

Check Assimilation- 2: The Key

1. At Gt
2. One year

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CHAPTER – 15

INJURY REPORT - IAFF (P) – 23

Chapter Objectives

After reading this chapter, you should:

 Be conversant with occasions, purpose and procedure of raising
injury reports.
 Be conversant with how attributability is determined of injuries.

Structure
1. Introduction.
2 Occasions.
3. Purpose.
4. Procedure.
5. Attributability.
6. Disposal.

Introduction
1. IAFF (P) – 23 will be raised in all cases of accidents or self-inflicted injuries to
Air Force Personnel including NCs (E). Initiation of injury report is the duty of the first
Medical Officer attending the case. It is raised separately for each individual case,
within 48 hrs of occurrence of the injury.

Occasions
2. IAFF (P)-23 is raised in four copies for all on the following occasions:-
(a) Death due to injury.
(b) Absence from duty for 48 hrs or more due to injury.
(c) Absence from duty for less than 48 hrs, but medical officer considers
that injury may be exciting cause of disability at a later stage.

Purpose
3. The main purpose of initiating Injury Report is:-
(a) To establish the cause of injury.
(b) To certify whether disability is attributable to service.
(c) To assess the condition whether disability aggravated due to service
conditions or due to individual‘s own negligence.

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Procedure
4. The following procedure is adopted while initiating Injury Report IAFF (P) –
23. This has four parts.
(a) Particulars of the individual, Date and time of accident.
(b) Short statement by injured person, under which circumstances injury
has taken place with exact location, time & date of accident.
(c) Description of injuries.
(i) Diagnosis
(ii) ICD No.
(iii) Classification of injuries like – RTA, GA, FA or other accident.
(iv) In case of suicidal attempt mode of suicide to be mentioned.
(v) Whether the injury is serious in nature or is it of such nature that
may be exciting cause for injury later.
(vi) Whether the personnel is admitted to hospital or not and if so,
the name place of the hospital number of days of ED/SIQ and whether
or not Medical comfort was provided.
Note - Medical comforts – Items of food and drinks provided to the
patients in non-dieted hospital.
(d) The Commanding Officer‘s Statement.
(In case injury is not investigated, then a dispensing certificate is to be given).

Attributability
5. Attributability in injury cases is decided on the Injury Report Form, IAFF (P) –
23, with or with out COI. The CO of the individual decides the attributability of the
Injury to Air Force service. Henceforth the decision about attributability will be taken
by the authority next higher to the CO which, in no case shall be less than the rank of
Air Commodore. In the present Injury Report form a separate sheet will be pasted
whereupon the remarks of the next higher authority will be endorsed.
Check Assimilation

State True or False (If false give correct answer)

1. Attributability of an injury sustained by an officer is decided by his CO.

__________________________________________________________________
2. Initiation of injury report is the duty of the DMO attending the case.
__________________________________________________________________
3. IAFF (P)-23 is raised in five copies.
_________________________________________________________________
6. The next higher authority in Air Force will be as under:-
(a) If CO is initiating the injury report is of the rank of Gp Capt and below
the approving authority would be AOC.

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(b) If CO is initiating the injury report is the Stn Cdr/ AOC, the approving
authority would be SOA at Command HQs.
(c) For units under Air HQs the approving authority would be AOA.

Disposal
7. The disposal of the injury report is as under:-
(a) Officers – 3 copies – Air HQs
1 copy – AFMS F – 1 (U/C)
(b) Airmen/NCs (E) – 2 copies – AFRO
1 copy – AFMS F – 1 (U/C)
1 copy – File for submission with disability
claims.

Important points
8. (a) When injury sustained in an accident, name of the individual are
(civilian or service personnel) to be included in Col No.2 of statement.
(b) In case injury sustained by more than one person, particular of all other
persons is to be mentioned in each injury report.
(c) Medical officer attending case first is responsible for initiating the
IAFF (P) – 23.
(d) Injury report should be initiated within 48 hrs of occurrence.
(e) Non-effectiveness for 48 hrs or more than that is to be reported on
IAFF (P) – 23.
(f) Medical Officer‘s signature is to be obtained and particulars are to be
mentioned in signature block.
(g) When a person is not in a condition to make statement in Col No.2 of
(P) – 23, a separate statement is to be obtained as soon as he is able to
make it.

Conclusion
9. Injury reports are important routine documents required to be maintained on
all injuries of service personnel. The determination of attributability to service of such
injury is an important aspect that will determine the liability of the government in
deciding upon the additional benefits a service person become eligible on his/her
retirement.

Check Assimilation: The Key

1. True
2. False. The first medical officer attending the case is to initiate the injury
report.
3. False. Four.

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CHAPTER - 16

HUMAN IMMUNODEFICIENCY VIRUS (HIV)/ ACQUIRED IMMUNE

DEFICIENCY SYNDROME (AIDS)

Chapter Objectives

After reading this chapter, you should:

 Be aware of how HIV/AIDS is spread.
 Learn preventions/precautions against getting infected by AIDS.
 Understand role of IAF agencies in handling AIDS.

Structure
1. Introduction.
2. Transmission of infection.
3. Progress of the disease.
4. HIV and the Armed Forces .
5. Prevention of HIV Infection in the Armed Forces.
6. AIDS Control Organisation.
7. HIV Testing of foreigners.
8. HIV Control in IAF.
9. Role of various agencies in the AF Stn.
10. Conclusion.

Introduction
1. Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS) is a condition caused by the
Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV). These viruses attack a particular group of the
white blood cells known as the helper T lymphocytes or the T Cells. They are also
called CD4 cells because of the presence of a protein called CD4 on their surface.
Helper T cells play a central role in normal immune responses by producing factors
that activate all the other immune system cells. These include B lymphocytes, which
produce antibodies needed to fight infection; cytotoxic T lymphocytes, which kill cells
infected with a virus; and macrophages and other effecter cells, which attack
invading pathogens. AIDS results from the loss of most of the helper T cells in the
body. When HIV infects a CD4 cell, it replicates within the cell to produce new HIV
virus. The newly formed virus then leaves the cell destroying the CD4 cell in the
process. An average healthy person has over 1,000 CD4 cells per ul of blood. In a
person infected with HIV, the virus steadily destroys CD4 cells over a period of
years, weakening the immune system. When the density of CD4 cells drops below
200 cells per ul of blood, the infected person looses his ability to fight against
infections and becomes susceptible to a number of opportunistic infections and rare
cancers, which take advantage of the weakened immune system and produce a set
of symptoms (Syndrome).

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Transmission of infection
2. HIV is transmitted from one person to another only through the following three
ways:-
(a) Through unprotected Sex. HIV transmission occurs commonly
during intimate sexual contact with an infected person, including genital, anal,
and oral sex. The virus is present in the infected person‘s semen or vaginal
fluids. During sexual intercourse, the virus gains access to the bloodstream of
the uninfected person through openings in the mucous membrane and
through breaks in the skin of the penis.
(b) Through contaminated blood. Direct contact with HIV infected blood
occurs when people share contaminated hypodermic needles, syringes or
other surgical instruments. Sharing of contaminated needles among
intravenous drug users is very common. The risk of infection through blood
transfusions in hospitals has drastically reduced after the strict implementation
of screening of all blood and blood products for HIV before transfusion. Less
frequently, HIV infection results when health professionals accidentally stick
themselves with needles containing HIV-infected blood or expose an open cut
to contaminated blood.
(c) Parent to child transmissions (PTCT). HIV can be transmitted from
an infected mother to her child during pregnancy or, more commonly, during
childbirth. The virus can also be transmitted through the mother‘s breast milk
during breastfeeding. Mother-to-child transmission accounts for 90 percent of
all cases of AIDS in children.
3. HIV is not spread through casual contacts with an infected person, such as a
handshake, hugging, or kissing, sharing dishes or bathroom facilities, insect bite or
inhaling virus-infected droplets from an infected person‘s sneeze or cough usually do
not cause transmission of HIV.

Progress of the Disease (from HIV infection to AIDS)

4. During the first month after the infection, most of the people experience
influenza like symptoms such as fever, headaches, sore throat, skin rashes, tender
lymph nodes and a vague feeling of discomfort. During this period known as the
Acute Retroviral Syndrome, the HIV multiplies rapidly in the blood. At this time, the
normal defence system of the body is activated and the battle reduces but does not
eliminate the HIV from the body. The infected person enters a symptom free period
lasting for months (to several years) depending on the individual‘s immune status.
Though the individual may remain in good health during this period the virus
continues to multiply in the body progressively destroying the immune system. This
is the most dangerous period since the infected person remains unaware of the
infection and continues to transmit the virus to others.
5. Subsequently the infected person enters an Early Symptomatic Period by
which time the number of CD4 cells reduced to 200+ per ul of blood. This stage is
characterised by a variety of symptoms that are not life-threatening but may be
debilitating. These include extensive weight loss and fatigue (wasting syndrome),
periodic fever, recurring diarrhoea, and thrush, a fungal mouth infection. This phase
is severe enough to compel a person to seek medical aid.

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6. The Late Symptomatic Phase develops when the CD4 cell levels drop below
200 per ul of blood. This is AIDS, the final stage of HIV infection. This phase is
characterised by appearance of several opportunistic infections and rare cancers.
The most common opportunistic infections are Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia,
Tuberculosis, Mycobacterium avium infection, herpes simplex infection, bacterial
pneumonia, toxoplasmosis, and cytomegalovirus infection. In addition, patients can
develop dementia and certain cancers like Kaposi sarcoma and lymphomas. Death
ultimately results from the relentless attack of opportunistic pathogens or from the
body's inability to fight off malignancies.
7. Mere Infection with HIV does not necessarily mean that a person has AIDS.
Some people who have HIV infection may not develop any of the clinical illnesses
that define the full-blown disease of AIDS for several years. At present even though
there are no medicines available to eradicate the HIV from human body, modern day
medicines can prolong the period between infection and development of AIDS and
help an infected person to prolong his useful life by a few more years. Till such time
the medical science develops a definite cure, HIV infection and AIDS remain a major
threat to human life and therefore, its prevention remains of paramount importance.

HIV and the Armed Forces

8. HIV/ AIDS has emerged not only as a major health problem in the country but
has also affected the Armed Forces. There has thus been a steady increase in the
detection of cases of HIV/AIDS in the services since 1991. Besides, there have been
changes in the concepts of disease management and control.
9. HIV/ AIDS cases in the Armed Forces for the past four years have
consistently been around 480 – 530 new cases of HIV/ AIDS have been occurring
amongst Armed Forces personnel. This amounts to an average of 45 uniformed
personnel succumbing to infection of this invariably fatal disease each month.
10. The cumulative effects of the disease has far reaching consequences not only
on available medical resources which would be stretched to the utmost, but also on
the functional efficiency and morale of the troops.
11. A study group constituted at the office of DGAFMS identified the following
features of HIV/ AIDS that presently guide the AIDS prevention strategy in the Armed
forces:-
(a) Most cases acquire HIV infection from promiscuous heterosexual
exposure to Commercial Sex Workers (CSW)
(b) Most of the HIV infection is acquired during first 10 yrs of service of
individuals and the majority of the cases are acquiring infection in 25-29 yrs
followed by 30-34 yrs age group.
(c) Common factors that predispose young serving personnel to HIV
infection risk are:-
(i) Financial independence at a relatively young age.
(ii) Lack of familial and social influence.
(iii) Long period of separation from spouses due to requirements of
service (non-family stations, non-availability of accommodation etc.)
(iv) Peer pressure and false sense of ―Manliness‖.

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(v) Period of transit through areas of high prevalence of HIV while

proceeding on leave/ posting/ TDs.

Prevention of HIV/ AIDS and its Monitoring in Armed Forces

12. As of now the incidence of the dreaded disease in the IAF is lowest among
the three services. It stands at 0.0621% in IAF as compared to 0.3939% in the Army
and 0.8621% in the Navy.
13. If preventive measures are not undertaken seriously and consistently at all
levels to contain HIV/ AIDS, an epidemic may hit us in the near foreseeable future.
As we know there is no treatment for this modern day scourge, the only way to guard
ourselves is though preventive strategies. The latter appears to be successful as
revealed by the fact that during the period 2000 to 2003 there has been a marginal
decline in the yearly incidence from 551 to 491 cases. This is akin to the happenings
in other advanced countries and therefore it can be safely presumed that we are on
the right track.
14. Pre – Employment Screening. A pre employment screening of all new
entrants has been permitted in the National AIDS Prevention and Control Policy.
However, due to the admin difficulties the study group recommended only to
determine the prevalence of HIV infection in the recruits and to highlight the change
in the zero prevalence if any from that found before arriving at a decision to introduce
Pre-employment screening.
15. AIDS/ Immunodeficiency Centres. AIDS/ immunodeficiency centres set up
major hospitals and their functions are:-
(a) Screening/ testing for HIV.
(b) Surveillance reports.
(c) Administration of Antiretroviral Therapy.
(d) Follow-up monitoring and availability of drugs.
(e) Post Exposure Prophylaxis.
(f) Prevention of Parent to Child Transmission.
(g) Follow up of HIV positive mothers, their spouses and children.
(h) Preventive measures.

AIDS Control Organisation

16. AIDS Control Organisation. The AIDS Control Organisation (ACO) set up in
1992 at AFMC aims at effective health education and monitoring of the population:
(a) To attend to the needs of suspected and confirmed cases.
(b) To eliminate fear, misconception and prejudice associated with AIDS.
17. The activities of AIDS Control Organisation are:-
(a) Policy formulation. Draft policies on all aspects of prevention and
control of HIV infection including surveillance, testing, disinfections, treatment
and disposal procedures.

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(b) Information, Education and Communication (IEC) activities.

Development of IEC strategies, advocacy plans and various types of
prototype health education material for use in Armed Forces.
(c) Surveillance. Maintaining a computerised surveillance system of HIV
infection in the Armed Forces and publishing periodic surveillance reports.
(d) Training. Training through workshops, visits and consultations.
(e) Coordination. Liaison and coordination for blood safety and blood
banking services.
(f) Research. Research activities related to HIV/AIDS prevention in
Armed Forces.

HIV/ AIDS Testing of Foreigners

18. All foreign personnel undergoing any course at the defence establishments
are to produce a certificate stating they are free from HIV/ AIDS from a WHO
recognized authority or if not are screened for HIV/ AIDS at the place of their course
and if found positive are sent back to their respective countries.

Implementation of HIV/AIDS Control Programme in the IAF

19. Establishment of Information Education and Communication (IEC)
Nodes. As part of the on going efforts to implement the National AIDS Control
Programme, in the Armed Forces a total of 17 IEC nodes have been established in
the IAF. Efforts are being made to expand these activities to stations, where IEC
nodes are not located.
20. The IEC nodes have been tasked to impart information, education and
communication activities, to the personnel under their medical care and to participate
in the implementation of HIV/AIDS control programme. The importance of this
programme makes it incumbents for participation at all levels. A long term
comprehensive strategy on above mentioned control programme will necessitate
involvement of each and every medical attendant at all levels, irrespective of whether
the station has a designated IEC node or not.

Role of Various Agencies in the Air Force Stations

21. AOC/ Station Commander. The overall responsibility of implementation of
AIDS preventive measures and counselling of AIDS related cases remain with AOC/
Station Commanders. Under his jurisdiction all the personnel of the station have to
implement this programme to cover the dependant population including school
children and civilian not covered by any other agencies in surrounding areas.
22. C Adm O.
(a) Coordination and provision of various facilities to all involved in AIDS
prevention activities.
(b) Tightening of security, in station for unwanted visitors.
(c) Frequent vigilance in ‗Red Light Areas‘, for visitors from station.
(d) To look after welfare of the HIV/AIDS cases under surveillance or/ and
ex-servicemen and their families.

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Check Assimilation

Answer the following

1. What are the common factors that predispose young serving personnel to
HIV infection?
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
2. Which is the major route of HIV transmission?
_________________________________________________________________
3. What are the preventive measures against spread of HIV infection?
_________________________________________________________________
23. Commanding Officers.
(a) Towards cases under surveillance as a counsellor:-
(i) To provide general information about the disease and
prevention.
(ii) To share the responsibility of parent and/ or dependant.
(iii) To accept him as a normal member of the unit.
(iv) To counsel him repeatedly to accept HIV/AIDS as part and
parcel of remaining life.
(v) To provide him medical, psychological and social support.
(vi) To motivate him to adopt physical and spiritual yoga to over
come AIDS psyche.
(vii) To make him feel at home and provide sheltered job.
(b) Towards healthy personnel:-
(i) To educate the personnel about HIV/ AIDS & its prevention.
(ii) To caution them about the consequences of disease.
(iii) To appraise them about their responsibility towards self, family,
society and nation.
(iv) To involve them in various entertainments, sports, cultural &
social activities.
(v) Avoid idle hours for all categories of personnel.
(vi) Frequent interactions to know their grievances/problems.
(vii) Buddy system for trainees and living in personnel to avoid
loneliness.
(viii) Strict observation of personnel for any unexpected changes.
24. Senior Medical Officer. With the help of SHO, IEC Node, Medical and Para
medical staff, following actions are to be undertaken.
(a) Lectures, exhibitions, video shows and talks to improve awareness
about HIV/AIDS.

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(b) Provision of sterilized disposable syringes & needles for clientele.

(c) Sex education for all children of 10th class and above.
(d) Counselling of cases to be tested for HIV/ AIDS and their monitoring
after being found positive.
(e) Training of peer group educators/ mentors.
(f) Provisions for and promotion of use of condoms
(g) Monitoring of HIV/ AIDS cases and their follow up.
(h) Screening of high-risk group as Para-medical staff, repeated blood
recipient (dialysis, blood-cancer) STD cases, person-giving history of sex with
other than wife, pregnant ladies in the first trimester, TB patients, drug addicts
etc.
(k) Liaison with local civil authorities and NGO‘s for better implementation
of Nation AIDS control programme.
25. Peer Group Educator/ Mentors.
(a) Motivate people according to their state of mind to practice abstain/ sex
only with spouse.
(b) Evade sex by unmarried persons.
(c) Single sex partner.
(d) Promote use of condoms.
(e) Motivate people towards physical activity and Yoga.
(f) Educate for moral upliftment of society.

Conclusion
26. HIV/ AIDS is a dreaded disease for which no full cure has been possible till
date. Prevention and care for the victims is the responsibility of the services.
Education has been found to be the best measure to contain the disease.

Bibliography
1. IAP 4303, IAP 4307, RMSAF1

Check Assimilation: The Key

1. (a) Financial independence at a relatively young age.

(b) Lack of familial and social influence.
(c) Long period of separation from spouses due to service requirements.
(d) Peer pressure and false sense of ―Manliness‖.
(f) Period of transit through areas of high prevalence of HIV while
proceeding on leave/ posting/ TDs.
2. Unprotected sex with an infected person.
3. Safe Sex, Sterile Sharps and Screened Siblings.

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CHAPTER – 17

COUNSELLING AND SUICIDE PREVENTION

Chapter Objectives

After reading this chapter, you should be able to:-

 Identify causes of suicide amongst armed forces personnel.
 Discern various visible factors and warning signs that lead to
suicide.
 Identify risk groups and act upon symptoms in your sphere of
influence.
 Help cope with stress and strains and overcome one’s thoughts of
suicide.

Structure
1. Introduction.
2. Magnitude of Problem.
3. Suicidal ideation.
4. Suicidal gestures and attempts.
5. Causal factors of suicide.
6. Behaviour Analysis.
7. General Stages of Adaptation.
8. Suicide and mental illness.
9. What to do when someone is suicidal.
10. High Risk Profile group.
11. Warning signs of suicide.
12. Tackling an individual appearing suicidal.
13. Action through safe, supportive steps.
14. Daily coping strategies.
15. Keeping individuals safe.
16. Children at risk of suicide.
17. Message to Parents.
18. Leave - Suicide Relationship in Armed Forces.
19. Relation of Stress and Efficiency.
20. Display of Indication in Individuals who committed suicide.
21. Role of Junior Leadership.
22. Suicide Prevention Implementation Challenges.

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23. Perspective.
24. Campaign and Formats.
25. Conclusion.

Introduction
1. Suicide (Latin suicidium, from sui caedere, to kill oneself) is a willful, self-
inflicted, life threatening act which results in terminating one's own life. Many
dictionaries also note the metaphorical sense of "willful destruction of one's self-
interest". Suicide may occur for a number of reasons, including depression, shame,
pain, financial difficulties, or other undesirable situations. The common purpose of
any suicide is to seek a solution to a perceived crisis; it is not a random, pointless or
purposeless act.
2. The predominant view of modern medicine is that suicide is a mental health
concern, associated with psychological factors such as the difficulty of coping with
depression, inescapable suffering or fear, or other mental disorders and pressures.
Suicide is sometimes interpreted in this framework as a "cry for help" and attention,
or to express despair and the wish to escape, rather than a genuine intent to die.
Most people who attempt suicide do not complete suicide on first attempt; those who
later gain a history of repetitions are significantly more at risk of eventual completion.

Magnitude of Problem
3. Suicide is a major public health problem. Nearly one million people worldwide
die by suicide annually, making it one of the world's leading causes of death. There
are an estimated 10 to 20 million attempted suicides every year.
4. Very high rates of suicide have been reported from India and the developing
world. In India about 1,20,000 suicides are committed every year.
5. Comparison of Suicide rates (No. of persons attempting suicide per lakh).
IAF ranks the highest in the rate of suicides among all services. It is estimated at 16
per lakh while in Army and Navy it is estimated at about 9 per lakh. The suicide rate
for the civilian population is estimated at around 10 per lakh.

Suicidal Ideation
6. Suicidal ideation is a medical term for thoughts about suicide, which may
range from vague or unformed urges to meticulously detailed plans and posthumous
instructions. The condition requires professional intervention to determine its extent,
including the presence of a suicide plan and the patient's means to commit suicide.
Severe suicidal ideation is a medical emergency requiring immediate treatment.

Suicidal Gestures and Attempts

7. Sometimes, a person will make actions resembling suicide attempts while not
being fully committed. This is called a suicidal gesture. Prototypical methods might
be a non-lethal method of self-harm that leaves obvious signs of the attempt, or
simply a lethal action at a time when the person considers it likely that he /she will be
rescued or prevented from fully carrying it out.

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8. On the other hand, a person who genuinely wishes to die may survive, due to
lack of knowledge, unwillingness to try methods that may end in permanent damage
to her- or himself (in the event of an attempt which does not result in death),
unwillingness to try methods which may harm others, an unanticipated rescue,
among other reasons. There may be conflict, whereby a genuinely suicidal person
can be desperate enough to want to kill themselves but at the same time, too afraid
to go through with the extreme measures that are needed to guarantee death. It may
be incorrect to state that a person who survived an overdose was issuing a 'cry for
help' when in reality it was a suicide attempt that simply did not result in death. This
highlights a basic fact that it is not easy to kill oneself in a way that is not traumatic or
painful, hence the phenomenon of assisted suicides. This is referred to as a suicide
attempt.
9. Distinguishing between a suicide attempt and a suicidal gesture may be
difficult. Intent and motivation are not always fully discernible since so many people
in a suicidal state are genuinely conflicted over whether they wish to end their lives.
One approach, assuming that sufficiently strong suicide intent will ensure death,
considers all near-suicides to be suicidal gestures. This, however, does not explain
why so many people whose suicide attempts do not result in death end up with
severe injuries, often permanent, which are most likely undesirable to those who are
making a suicidal gesture. Another possibility is those wishing merely to make a
suicidal gesture may end up accidentally killing themselves, perhaps by
underestimating the lethality of the method chosen or by overestimating the
possibility of external intervention by others. Suicide-like acts should generally be
treated as seriously as possible, because if there is an insufficiently strong reaction
from loved ones from a suicidal gesture, this may motivate future and ultimately
more committed attempts.
10. In the technical literature the use of the terms parasuicide, or deliberate self-
harm (DSH) are preferred – both of these terms avoid the question of the intent of
the actions.
11. Nearly half of all suicides are preceded by an attempt at suicide that does not
end in death. Those with a history of such attempts are 23 times more likely to
eventually end their own lives than those without. Those who attempt to harm
themselves are, as a group, quite different from those who actually die from suicide;
females attempt suicide much more frequently than males, however males are four
times more likely to die from suicide.

Causal Factors of Suicide

12. There are a variety of reasons posited or given for suicide:-
(a) Mental disorders.
(b) Suffering.
(c) Unrequited love.
(d) Stress.
(e) Grief.
(f) Withdrawal or discontinuation of psychoactive substances.
(g) As philosophically or ideologically motivated move.

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(h) To escape punishment or an abusive environment.

(j) Guilt or shame.
(k) Catastrophic injury.
(l) Financial loss.
(m) Self sacrifice.
(n) As part of a military or social strategy (e.g. suicide attacks).
(o) Belief that life has no inherent value (e.g. absurdum, pessimism,
nihilism).
(p) As part of a religious or cult doctrine.
(q) Loneliness.
(r) To restore honour (e.g. seppuku).
(s) Curiosity for post-life occurrences.
(t) Fear of aging.
(u) Unresolved sexual issues.

Behaviour Analysis
13. Suicides result from stress, frustration and unfulfilled aspirations. The result of
this stress, frustration and unfulfilled aspiration are either Flight or Fight.
14. Individual tries to minimize stressors by either external withdrawal or internal
withdrawal. External withdrawal may be an aggression towards source or towards
persons and even inanimate objects. Internal withdrawal may result in apathy and
disinterest or he may resort to increased drinking. When fight is internalized and
individual resorts to internal withdrawal he may commit the act of suicide. If detected
in time individual may be enabled to cope with the situation.

General Stages of Adaptation

15. The behaviour pattern of an individual under undue stress can be divided into
stages of adaptation as follows.

Normal
Alarm level of
Resistance phase Exhaustion coping
Stage phase
Resistance

Alarm Phase
16. Initial phase is when individual is exposed to stressors. The stressor or
unfulfilled aspiration may result in shock. It may result in lowering coping capability of
individual.

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Resistance Phase
17. This is generally a prolonged and most crucial phase where individual
attempts to adapt. In this phase individual displays certain indications which may
enable intervention opportunities.
18. Resistance phase must be identified to assist in early detection and should be
used for enhancing coping mechanism.

Exhaustion Phase
19. This is a phase were normal level of coping is decreased, a small trigger tips
off the balance. Suicides can be prevented if these trigger situation are identified
including organizational triggers.
Suicide and Mental Illness
20. Studies show a high incidence of psychiatric disorders in suicide victims at the
time of their death with the total figure ranging from 98% to 87.3% with mood
disorders and substance abuse being the two most common. A person diagnosed
with schizophrenia may commit suicide for a number of reasons, including because
of depression. Suicide among people suffering from bipolar disorder is often an
impulse, which is due to the sufferer's extreme mood swings (one of the main
symptoms of bipolar disorder), or also possibly an outcome of delusions occurring
during an episode of mania or psychotic depression. Major depressive disorder is
associated with a higher than average rate of suicide, especially in men.
What to do when Someone is Suicidal
21. Hearing someone talk about suicide can be distressful and upsetting. One
may help him or her stay safe and get professional treatment. If not sure how to help,
whether to take talk of suicide seriously, or if any intervention might even make the
situation worse.
22. Certainly, not everyone who has thoughts of suicide or talks about suicide
actually attempts it. But most people who take their own life have expressed their
intention at some time. That's why it's important to take any talk or threat of suicide
seriously, especially when someone has depression or another mental disorder, is
intoxicated, or is behaving impulsively or recklessly.
23. While it may not be possible to prevent all suicides, active involvement may
make a difference in saving a life. Learn effective, compassionate ways to intervene
and guide someone toward professional help when he or she may be considering
suicide.
High Risk Profile group
24. Understanding who's at a higher risk of suicide can help prevent a tragedy.
While there is no necessity to constantly monitor someone who's at higher risk, one
needs to be more alert for possible problems. Factors that may increase someone's
risk of suicide include:-
(a) Previous suicide attempts.

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(b) Having a psychiatric disorder, such as depression, bipolar disorder,

schizophrenia or personality disorders.
(c) Alcohol or substance abuse.
(d) A family history of mental disorders or substance abuse.
(e) A family history of suicide.
(f) Family violence, including physical or sexual abuse.
(g) Firearms in the home.
(h) A significant medical illness, such as cancer or chronic pain.

Warning Signs of Suicide

25. It is not always possible to predict when an individual is considering suicide.
But there are some typical warning signs:-
(a) Talking about suicide, including making such statements as "I'm going
to kill myself," "I wish I were dead" or "I wish I hadn't been born".
(b) Securing the means to commit suicide, such as getting a gun or
stockpiling pills.
(c) Withdrawing from social contact and wanting to be left alone.
(d) Dramatic mood swings, such as being emotionally high one day and
deeply discouraged the next.
(e) Being preoccupied with death, dying or violence.
(f) Feeling trapped or hopeless about a situation.
(g) Increased use of alcohol or drugs.
(h) Changing normal routine, including eating or sleeping patterns.
(j) Engaging in risky or self-destructive behaviour, such as using drugs or
driving recklessly.
(k) Giving away belongings or getting affairs in order.
(l) Saying goodbye to people as if they won't be seen again.
(m) Developing personality changes, such as becoming very outgoing after
being shy.
26. Also, don't always expect to see warning signs of suicide. Some people keep
their thoughts of suicide secret or deny having suicidal intentions even when directly
asked. And many who consider or attempt suicide do so when you thought they
should be feeling better — during what may seem like a recovery from depression,
for instance. That's because they may finally muster the emotional energy to take
action on their suicidal thoughts.

Tackling an Individual Appearing Suicidal

27. The best way to find out if someone is considering suicide is to directly but
gently ask. Asking individuals won't give them the idea or push them into doing
something self-destructive. To the contrary, asking can decrease the risk of suicide

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by giving them an opportunity to talk about their feelings. If someone denies having
suicidal intentions but you're still worried, continue to gently raise the issue.
28. The questions should be open-ended questions about their feelings or specific
questions about suicide. Here are examples of questions one can ask someone who
is thought to be suicidal:-
(a) Are you thinking about dying?
(b) Are you thinking about hurting yourself?
(c) Are you thinking about suicide?
(d) Have you thought about how you would do it?
(e) Do you know when you would do it?
(f) Do you have the means to do it?
(g) How are you coping with what's been happening in your life?
(h) Do you ever feel like just giving up?
29. If an individual is considering suicide, he or she needs professional help. The
individual would be required to be taken to a mental health provider or a psychiatrist
or at least to a hospital.
30. If a suicide attempt appears imminent or has been made local emergency
services should be immediately activated and the individual evacuated to the
hospital.

Action through Safe, Supportive Steps

31. If someone is at imminent risk of suicide or harming himself or herself or has
made a suicide attempt, don't leave the person alone. Call local emergency services
provider right away. If necessary, take the person to a hospital emergency (SMC/ MI
ROOM/ AF HOSPITAL) department.
32. If the danger of suicide or self-harm isn't imminent, offer to work together to
find appropriate help. Someone who is suicidal or has severe depression may not
have the energy or motivation to find help on their own.
33. Many types of help and support are available to people considering suicide. If
one doesn't want to consult a doctor or mental health provider, suggest finding help
from a support group, crisis center, faith community, teacher or other trusted
confidante.
34. There's no way to predict with certainty who will attempt suicide. And although
no one is directly responsible for preventing someone from taking his or her own life,
one‘s intervention may help individual see that other options are available to stay
safe and get treatment.
35. One needs to be supportive and empathetic, not judgmental. Listen to his or
her concerns without interruption. Individual needs to be reassured that help is
available and that with appropriate treatment individual can feel better about life
again. Direct questioning, supportive listening and gentle but persistent guidance can
help bring hope and appropriate treatment to someone who believes suicide will offer
the only relief.

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36. Immediate help for Thoughts of Suicide. Talking to someone about your
suicidal feelings can help relieve the burden of despair and isolation, even if just
temporarily. It may help shift perspective and more clearly see that there are other
options instead of suicide.
(a) Contact a family member or friend.
(b) Contact a doctor, mental health provider or other health care provider.
(c) Contact a minister, spiritual leader or someone in your faith community.
(d) Go to your local hospital emergency room.
(e) Call a crisis centre or hot line.

Daily Coping Strategies

37. One may struggle with suicidal feelings frequently, perhaps many times a day
if one is in the depths of depression. Individual has to develop a strategy to cope with
those feelings in a healthy way. One has to consider asking a doctor, family member
or friend to help create a strategy tailored to his specific situation that will help
individual cope with thoughts of suicide.
38. That strategy may mean doing things individual doesn‘t feel like doing, such
as making the effort to talk to friends when one would rather stay in his bedroom all
day. Or it may mean going to the hospital for a mental health evaluation. But the
individual has to stick to a strategy, especially when he is in the grips of despair and
hopelessness. And if the individual is already taking treatment, he has to go to all his
psychotherapy appointments and take medications as directed.
39. Measures to be Considered:
(a) Keeping a list of contact names and numbers readily available,
including doctors, therapists and crisis centres that can help one cope with
suicidal thoughts.
(b) If suicide plans include taking an overdose the medications need to be
handed to someone who could preserve them and give appropriate dose
regularly.
(c) Rid home of knives, guns, razors or other weapons individual may
consider using for self-destructive purposes.
(d) Schedule daily activities for individuals that have brought them even
small pleasure in the past, such as taking a walk, listening to music, watching
a funny movie, knitting or visiting a museum. If they no longer bring least a
modicum of joy, however, try something different.
(e) Get-togethers should be arranged, even if one doesn't feel like it, to
prevent isolation.
(f) Avoid drug and alcohol use. Rather than numb painful feelings, alcohol
and drugs can increase suicidal thoughts and the likelihood of harming
oneself by making one more impulsive and more likely to act on self-
destructive feelings.

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(g) Individuals must be encouraged to write about their thoughts and

feelings. One should also remember to write about the things in their life that
they value and appreciate, no matter how small they may seem at the time.

Keeping Individuals Safe

40. Some mental health providers and support organizations recommend creating
a "plan for life," "safety contract" or similar plan of action that can be referred to when
someone is considering suicide or is in a crisis. Such plans offer a checklist of
activities or actions.
41. For instance, individuals plan may require him to contact certain people when
the individual begins considering suicide. It may also include commitments to take
medication as prescribed, to attend treatment sessions or appointments, and to
remind one self that his life is valuable.
42. One has to consider creating a list of specific activities to try when negative
thoughts start to intrude. The key is to engage individuals in activities which are
soothing for someone‘s negative feelings. These activities should be initiated before
one reaches the point of suicidal thoughts. Engage in healthy activities when the first
negative thoughts start to creep in. Also one has to make certain there are activities
that would normally offer enjoyment and that can help comfort individuals than cause
additional stress.
43. Individuals should be encouraged to follow certain activities and this can be
listed and placed in important locations in the unit.
(a) Practice deep-breathing exercises.
(b) Play a musical instrument.
(c) Take a hot bath.
(d) Eat your favorite food.
(e) Write in a journal.
(f) Go for a walk.
(g) See a funny movie.
(h) Contact family, friends or other trusted confidantes.
44. Even if the immediate crisis passes with these self-care strategies, consulting
a doctor or mental health provider, seeking help through a hospital emergency room
has no replacement. Good access to mental health providers is essential and must
be ensured. It ensures individuals with suicidal thoughts are getting appropriate
treatment for suicidal thoughts and feelings so that one doesn't have to continually
operate in a crisis mode.

Beyond Thoughts of Suicide

45. If an individual is in despair and feels hopeless he may consider suicide. This
may be the side effects of illnesses that can be treated. These emotions can be so
overpowering that they cloud individual‘s judgment and lead one to believe that
taking one‘s life is the best, or only, option.

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46. But even people who've had suicidal thoughts for months or years can learn
to manage them and to develop a more satisfying life through effective coping
strategies. Individuals with suicidal thoughts should be encouraged to take an active
role in saving their own life. These individuals should be encouraged to enlist others
for support; this enables individual‘s esteem and gives hope about the future. They
should be told to remember that suicide isn't a solution but aggravating the problems.

Children at Risk of Suicide

47. Children are under extreme pressure, especially during adolescence as it's a
time of tremendous possibility but it can also be a period of great confusion and
anxiety. There's pressure to fit in socially, to perform academically, and to act
responsibly. There's the awakening of sexual feelings, a growing self-identity, and a
need for autonomy that often conflicts with the rules and expectations set by others.
48. A teen with an adequate support network of friends, family, religious
affiliations, peer groups, or extracurricular activities may have an outlet to deal with
everyday frustrations. But many teens don't believe they have that, and feel
disconnected and isolated from family and friends. These teens are at increased risk
for suicide.
49. Factors that increase the risk of suicide among teens include:-
(a) A psychological disorder, especially depression, bipolar disorder, and
alcohol and drug use (in fact, approximately 95% of people who die by suicide
have a psychological disorder at the time of death).
(b) Feelings of distress, irritability, or agitation.
(c) Feelings of hopelessness and worthlessness that often accompany
depression (a teen, for example, who experiences repeated failures at school,
who is overwhelmed by violence at home, or who is isolated from peers is
likely to experience such feelings).
(d) A previous suicide attempt.
(e) A family history of depression or suicide (depressive illnesses may
have a genetic component, so some teens may be predisposed to suffer
major depression).
(f) Physical or sexual abuse.
(g) Lack of a support network, poor relationships with parents or peers,
and feelings of social isolation.
(h) Dealing with homosexuality in an unsupportive family or community or
hostile school environment
50. Suicide among teens often occurs following a stressful life event, such as a
perceived failure at school, a breakup with a boyfriend or girlfriend, the death of a
loved one, a divorce, or a major family conflict.
51. Warning Signs. A teen who is thinking about suicide might:-
(a) Talk about suicide or death in genera.
(b) Talk about "going away".
(c) Talk about feeling hopeless or feeling guilty.

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(d) Pull away from friends or family.

(e) Lose the desire to take part in favourite things or activities.
(f) Have trouble concentrating or thinking clearly.
(g) Experience changes in eating or sleeping habits.
(j) Self-destructive behaviour (drinking alcohol, taking drugs, or driving too
fast, for example).

Message to Parents
52. Children who commit or attempt suicide have given some type of warning to
parents, relatives or friends ahead of time. So it's important for parents to know the
warning signs so that children who might be suicidal can get the help they need.
Parents should watch out for any behavioural changes. It would be the responsibility
of parents that they do not put undue stress or demands on their children and make
their children perceive that they love them whatever their failures may be.
Reassuring them of your love most often, perhaps, is the best preventive measure.
53. Watch and Listen.
(a) A child who seems depressed and withdrawn should be kept under
close observation. Poor grades, for example, may signal that your teen is
withdrawing at school.
(b) It's important to keep the lines of communication open and express
concern, support, and love. If teen confides in you, show that you take those
concerns seriously. A fight with a friend might not seem like a big deal in the
larger scheme of things, but for a teen it can feel immense and consuming. It's
important not to minimize or discount what teen is going through, as this can
increase his or her sense of hopelessness.
(c) If a teen doesn't feel comfortable talking with his parent, suggest a
more neutral person, such as another relative, a clergy member, a coach, a
school counsellor, or child's doctor.
54. Ask Questions. Some parents are reluctant to ask teens if they have been
thinking about suicide or hurting themselves. Some fear that by asking, they will
plant the idea of suicide in their teen's head. It‘s always a good idea to ask, even
though doing so can be difficult. Sometimes it helps to explain why one is asking. For
instance one might say "I've noticed that you've been talking a lot about wanting to
be dead. Have you been having thoughts about trying to kill yourself?"
55. Get Help.
(a) If one learns that a child is thinking about suicide, child should be
immediately helped. Doctors can refer the child to a psychologist or
psychiatrist, or local hospital's department of psychiatry can provide a list of
doctors in respective areas. Local mental health association can also provide
references.
(b) If scheduled an appointment with a mental health professional,
individuals are to make sure to keep the appointment, even if the teen says he
or she is feeling better. Suicidal thoughts do tend to come and go; however, it
is important that teen gets help developing the skills necessary to decrease

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the likelihood that suicidal thoughts and behaviours will emerge again if a
crisis arises.
(c) If the teen refuses to go to the appointment it is important to discuss
this with the mental health professional .Efforts should be made to attend the
session and work with the clinician to make sure teen has access to the help
needed. The clinician might also be able to help devise strategies to help
teens wanting help.
(d) One should remember that any ongoing conflicts between a parent and
child can fuel the fire for a teen who is feeling isolated, misunderstood,
devalued, or suicidal. One should help to air family problems and resolve
them in a constructive way. Also let the mental health professional know if
there is a history of depression, substance abuse, family violence, or other
stresses at home, such as an ongoing environment of criticism.

‘Leave – Suicide’ Relationship in Armed Forces

56. Studies were conducted to establish any relation of individuals committing
suicides with their leave in the armed forces. It was observed 0.8% returned early
from leave, 12.8% individuals committed suicide during leave, 9.6% individual
committed suicide within one week after returning from leave and 3.2% within 15
days of returning from leave.
57. This study suggests that pre and post leave interviews should be carried out
by the supervisors at workplace. While sanctioning leave, Commanding Officers and
section officers should privately interview individuals availing leave.
58. Process for monitoring personnel on leave needs to be evolved. Post leave
monitoring particularly of living out persons needs to be ensured.
59. Relation of Stress and Efficiency. Optimum stress levels are essential for
maximum output, at times higher or lower stress levels leads to negative thoughts.
Section commanders should have an eye to balance the workload among all
subordinates.

P
E
R Desirable
F
O
Level
R
M
A
N
C Stress Levels
E
Lower Optimum Higher

Display of Indication in Individuals who committed suicide

60. Studies have revealed 66w% of people who committed suicide did have one
or other behavioural changes prior to the act. Majority of them showed withdrawal
(34%). Many showed signs of depression.

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40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0

61. Personnel displaying signs of depression and withdrawal are high risk
category and need to be monitored. Section commanders need to seek out these
indicators and enhance coping capabilities of personnel.
62. These indicators should be identified by warrant officers, section ICs through
inclusion in awareness and education programmes.

Role of Junior Leadership

63. Warrant Officers and Section Commanders should have increased
responsibility, awareness, involvement and accountability. Informal groups should be
available for providing information or any other indication. Each person should be
monitored and reported directly to CO. Buddy system should be reinforced.
64. Awareness amongst community needs to be increased. It can be through
planned and concerted awareness campaign. Confidentiality should be ensured
however, it may be beneficial to keep the authorities informed. AFWWA should be
involved in solving individual‘s domestic problems.

Tackling the Problem

65. Warrant Officers should be identified and trained in counselling for suicide
prevention. Capsule courses are held at Institute of Aviation Medicine (Bangalore)
every year.
66. Trained personnel/ Officers should further impart their knowledge in their
units. They should organize lectures; hold counselling sessions in their units. Hiring
of professional counsellors will go a long way in tackling many problems.
67. Help line should be available in all units. An officer should be made
responsible for such calls. Confidentiality should be maintained.
68. Establishing Samvedhana cell.

Perceived Causes of Stress and Suicide

69. Organizational Climate rates highest at 34% followed by hygiene factors 26%,
policy related causes at 18%, personnel and domestic matter 17%.

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Personal and Domestic Reasons for Stress and Suicide

70. Financial problems (45%), separation of families (18%) domestic problems,
marital disharmony, love affair, parental health, extra marital affair, and property
disputes were identified as the causes.

Suicide Prevention Implementation Challenges

71. Suicide needs to be perceived as a problem. Suicide is not a medical
problem, it is a social issue.
72. Family, organization and society all need to participate in reducing stress.
73. SMO‘s and C Adm O‘s need to synergize their efforts on problem of suicide.
74. There is requirement to adopt a systemic approach with leadership at the
helm of initiative.

Perspective
75. Suicide can be prevented. Suicide is not solely an individual or medical
problem but a matter of grave social concerns to entire air force community.
76. Suicide is an index of disturbed society.
77. Suicide prevention programs must be developed and such programmes must
address mental health concerns of individuals groups and community as a whole.
78. Improved mental health standards have a bearing on flight safety.
79. Highest level of leadership in Indian Air Force can lead the way for the
requisite cultural transformations that would strengthen life saving social support to
all air warriors and their families, especially those in personal crisis.
80. Promote and protect responsible help seeking behaviour. Encourage
interconnectedness among all ranks.

Campaign and Formats

81. Awareness lectures, programmes must be held regularly in units/ stations.
Display boards of helpline and availability of such facilities should be ensured.
82. Case lets should be brought to notice of Commanders/ Medical Officers/
Specialists. Individuals at risk should be sent for counselling or treatment. However,
confidentiality may be ensured; at the same time, it should not be promised.
83. Section commanders should have feed back formats. There should be list of
Dos and Don‘ts in each section.
84. There should be a check list at unit level for management of high risk group
personnel
85. Warrant officers should be encouraged to maintain Dairy and all information
regarding all personnel.
86. Stations should have feed back Performa.
87. Social networking plans need to be evolved in all sections where in the
individual is monitored by his seniors in close quarters.

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Social Networking
88. Most suicides have been observed to have taken place after the individual
has spent lot of time all alone by themselves. The loneliness is a safe haven for idle
minds and evil thoughts. One of the best ways to avoid this loneliness is to ensure
social networking. Friends, perhaps are the ones to whom one opens up and share
their feelings. An opportunity to open up or perhaps speak of their problems is often
analysed to be the best de-stressor. This opportunity to de-stress is a social
responsibility. The Air Force Administration can play a big role in this social
networking. Establishing good working relations within sections and units is the ideal
way. Section Commanders should ensure that individuals are not left alone in this
social circle. Giving opportunities to interact with colleagues informally during off duty
hours should be encouraged. Regular interviews and counselling sessions with
subordinates and superiors should be encouraged. SNCOs, Warranted ranks and
senior officers have a great role in this activity. The net work could be as shown in
the chart:-

OFFICER

WARRANT WARRANT
OFFICER OFFICER

SGT SGT

CPL/LAC CPL/LAC CPL/LAC CPL/LAC

Conclusion
89. Human life is precious and an individual has no right to commit suicide.
Attempted suicide is a crime that is punishable under India Penal Code (Sec 309)
and under AF Act (Sec 66). Suicide is not a solution to a temporary problem. There
is no problem that is so strong that it cannot be overcome. Human beings should be
strong enough to overcome their temporary problems and understand that the act or
attempt of suicide is just a cowardly act of escapism.
90. Suicide is not just killing oneself by his or her act of commission but in
somebody‘s suicide you and I are also involved through acts of commission and
omission. Individual should be able to overcome their problems and it is the
responsibility of every one to help prevent such tendencies among fellow human
beings. While suicidal thoughts and problems are temporary, the act of suicide is
permanent that achieve no purpose. One should understand that there are many
near and dear ones who love you and look forward to you for help and guidance.

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MANAGEMENT

Reviewed by

Wg Cdr RK Mall

Oct 2012

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CHAPTER – 18

MANAGEMENT: ITS NATURE, IMPORTANCE AND PRINCIPLES

Chapter Objectives

After reading this chapter, you should:-

 Know the meaning and the nature of management.
 Understand the various types of managers and their approach
to HR Management.
 Be conversant with general principles of management for better
HR Management in IAF.

Structure
1. Introduction.
2. Nature of Management.
3. Definition of Management.
4. Types of Managers.
5. The various roles of a manager.
6. General principle of Management.
7. Conclusion.

Introduction
1. One of the most important human activities is ‗managing‘. Managers at all
levels and in any enterprise, have the basic tasks of designing and maintaining an
environment in which the individuals, working together can accomplish selected
missions and objectives. In other words, managers are charged with the
responsibility for taking actions that will make it possible for the individuals to make
their best contribution to the group objectives. Although, we emphasise upon the
manager‘s task in designing an internal environment for effective performance, it
must never be overlooked that manager must operate in the external environment
of an enterprise as well as in internal environment of the various departments within
an enterprise. Clearly, managers cannot perform their tasks well unless they have
an understanding of and are responsive to the many elements of the external
environment like economic, technological, social, political and ethical factors that
affect their areas of operation.
2. The scope of management in the Air Force can be seen as the study of all
matters related to:-
(a) Creation of combat forces.
(b) Maintenance and support of combat forces.
(c) Employment of combat forces.

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(d) Endeavour to become more & more efficient and effective in

achievement of its objective.
Nature of Management
3. The nature of management can be expressed as follows:-
(a) Management is a continuous process.
(b) The idea of goal-oriented organisation is a fundamental arena of
managerial action.
(c) The concept of persons specifically charged with managerial
responsibilities compared to those who execute the task. It applies to
managers at all organisational levels.
(d) The aim of all managers is to increase productivity, which implies
effectiveness and efficiency. Productivity is also a measure of an
organisation‘s efficiency and can be achieved by minimum input to derive
maximum output within a timeframe with due consideration for quality.
4. Briefly then, management in the IAF is concerned with the guidance,
leadership and control of the efforts of a group of individuals towards, the common
goal. It is a special kind of activity, distinct from the actual performance of work. It
includes clarifying the group‘s goals, coordinating member‘s efforts, allocating
scarce resources, making tough decisions so that group activities may progress,
inspiring co-operative action, exercising discipline when a member is lazy or goes
off on a tangent. All these activities are necessary for effective and efficient group
actions to achieve desired results. To achieve these aims, groups of individuals with
varying degree of skills are to be guided and their efforts controlled and channelled
towards these aims.
Check Assimilation- 1

Fill in the Blanks

1. Management is a _______________________________ process.

2. The aim of all managers is increased productivity, which implies
_______________________ and ________________________________.

Definition of Management
5. Management is the process of planning, organising, leading, coordinating and
controlling the efforts of organisational members and optimum utilization of all other
organisational resources to achieve stated organisational goals.
6. ―Process‖ means a systematic way of doing things. We define management
as a process because all managers, regardless of their particular aptitude or skills,
have in a certain way inter-related activities in order to achieve their desired goals.
These are desired based on the inputs from the environment in which the
organisation exists. Various managerial functions which follow are:-
(a) Forecasting and planning.
(b) Organising and Staffing.

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(c) Leading/ Directing.

(d) Coordinating.
(e) Controlling.

Measurement of Performance
7. According to Peter F Drucker, a manager‘s performance can be measured
with two concepts: efficiency and effectiveness. According to him ―efficiency‖ means,
―doing a thing right‖, and ―effectiveness‖ means,‖ doing the right thing‖. Efficiency is
the ability to get things done the right way; effectiveness on other hand is the ability
to choose appropriate objectives. An efficient manager achieves outputs or results
that measure up to inputs such as labour, material and time. An effective manager
selects the right things to be achieved by management process.
Check Assimilation- 2

Answer in Brief

1. What are the functions of management?

_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
2. Define Management?
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________

Types of Managers
8. There are different types of managers, with diverse tasks and responsibilities.
Managers are grouped in two ways – by their level in the organisation, like first line,
middle and top managers and by the range of organisational activities like functional
and general managers.
9. First line managers are the lowest in an organisation, and direct operating
employees only. Middle managers direct the activities of other managers and
sometimes those of operating employees. Top managers are responsible for the
overall management of the organisation.
10. To have a better understanding of managerial levels, we can relate the above
classification to our organisation, which is as given below:-
(a) First Level Managers – Fg Offr & Flt Lt.
(b) Middle Level Managers – Sqn Ldr to Gp Capt.
(c) Top Level Managers – Air Cmde & Above.
11. The other major classification of managers is based on the range of the
activities they manage. A functional manager is responsible for only one
organisational activity, such as technical or finance. The general manager on the
other hand, oversees a unit or an independent station, e.g. COO, C Adm O and CEO

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in a flying Station may be classified as functional managers and AOC/ Stn Cdr may
be termed as general manager.
Check Assimilation- 3

Fill in the Blanks

1. The different levels of managers in IAF are ______________________,
_______________________and ____________________ level managers.
2. The C Adm O of a Wing may be classified as a _______________ manager.

12. Robert L Kartz, a noted contributor to the field of management has identified
three types of skills, which are needed by all managers. These skills are required
for managers at different levels, but in varying proportions. They are technical,
human and conceptual skills:-
(a) Technical skill is the ability to use rules, procedures and techniques in
a specialised field.
(b) Human skill is the ability to work with, understand and motivate other
people either as individuals or coordinate and integrate all the organisational
interests and activities.
13. There are three basic characteristics of a professional manager:-
(a) He must learn the necessary skills and gain competence from his
experience.
(b) His primary concern should always be the organisation he is working
for.
(c) He should feel responsible for his performance with regard to the
utilisation of the resources and achievement of task.
14. Henry Mintzberg describes three types of managerial roles at all levels, such
as interpersonal, informational and decisional roles, which he defined as organised
sets of behaviour. The interpersonal roles are often routine and help the managers
to run the organisation smoothly. As a ‗figure head‘ of a unit, a manager sometimes
performs certain ceremonial duties. The manager adopts the role of a leader - in
hiring, training, motivating and encouraging employees. He acts as a liaison person
between people, such as officers of other services, civilian officials, etc.
15. The informational role helps the manager in receiving reliable information to
take appropriate decisions. As a ‗monitor‗, the manager constantly looks for
information that can be used to his advantage. In the ‗disseminator‘ role, the
manager distributes important information to subordinates that would otherwise be
inaccessible to them. Finally, he plays the role of a ‗spokesperson‘ when he/ she
transmits some of the information he or she has collected, to individuals outside the
unit or even outside the organisation.

Managerial Skills and Roles

16. The decisional roles assist the managers in taking the right decisions at the
right time based on a specific problem. As an entrepreneur, the manager initiates
change voluntarily and try to improve the unit. Next, as a disturbance handler, the
manager responds to situations like quarrelling subordinates, breach of contract

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and so on. In the role of resource allocator, the manager is responsible for deciding
how and to whom the resources of the organisation and the manager‘s own time
will be allocated. Finally, as a ‗negotiator‘, the manager has to negotiate with many
people within the organisation and outside the organisation. Figure.1 shows the
various roles of a Manager.

THE VARIOUS ROLES OF A MANAGER

Manager

Interpersonal role Informational role Decisional role

Figure head Monitor Entrepreneur

Disseminator Resource
Leader allocator

Spokesman Disturbance
Liaison
handler

Negotiator
Figure: 1

A Leader and a Manager

17. In a defence organisation like ours, all managers are also supposed to be
leaders. It is because of our ability to motivate the men under our command, without
giving them any material incentives, to such an extent that he does not mind offering
the supreme sacrifice when the situation demands it. But in the corporate sector
where very few managers are leaders, people are motivated only to an extent and
that too, when they are offered some material and financial incentives.

Management Techniques & Management Training

18. Techniques are essentially ways of doing things and methods of
accomplishing a given task. Among these techniques are Budgeting, Cost
Accounting and Network analysis like PERT (Programme Evaluation & Review
Technique) or CPM (Critical Path Method), Rate of Return on Investment Method
and Management by Objectives (MBO), etc.
19. To develop managerial skills, it is necessary that managers be formally
trained so that they are equipped to handle various situations. Managers, who in due
course, would be promoted to take independent charge of higher responsibilities, are
sponsored from time to time to attend executive development programmes (EDP) to
improve their skills.

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20. The Interactive Nature of Management. In practice, management does not

involve four separate or loosely related sets of activities but a group of interrelated
functions. The model below represents a more complete model of management; it
talks of the major management activities i.e. planning, organising, leading and
controlling. These functions are greatly intertwined with each other and do not
function in isolation. These are shown in figure 2.

Planning
Managers use logic and
methods to think
through goals and
actions

Controlling Organising

Managers make sure an Managers arrange and

organisation is moving allocate work, authority
towards organisational and resources to
effectiveness achieve organisational
goals

Leading
Managers direct,
influence and motivate
employees to perform
essential tasks

Figure: 2
Check Assimilation- 4
Answer the following
1. Name the different types of skills which are required at different levels by all
managers.
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
2. Expand the following:-
PERT :
CPM :
MBO :

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General Principles of Management of Fayol

21. Based on studies conducted on management, three schools of thought
emerged. These are the Classical School, Behavioural School and the Modern
School. The Classical school has further two branches, namely the Scientific
Management School and Classical Organisation School. The Classical
Organisation theory arose from the need to find guidelines for managing complex
organisations, like factories. Henry Fayol was the first to investigate managerial
behaviour. Noting that principles of management are flexible, not absolute and
must be usable regardless of changing and special conditions, Fayol listed
fourteen principles based on his experience. They are summarised as follows:-
(a) Division of Work. This is the specialisation which economists
consider necessary to efficiently use labour. Fayol applies the principle to
all kinds of work, managerial as well as Technical. The object of division of
work is to produce more and better work with the same effort.
(b) Authority and Responsibility. Here Fayol finds authority and
responsibility to be related. He sees authority as a combination of official
factors - derived from the manager‘s position and personal factors - a
combination of intelligence, moral worth, past service, etc.
(c) Discipline. Seeing discipline as respect for agreements, which are
directed at achieving obedience, application, energy and the outward
marks of respect, Fayol declared that discipline requires good superiors at
all levels.
(d) Unity of Command. This means that employees should receive
orders from one superior only.
(e) Unity of Direction. According to this principle, each group of
activities with the same objective must have one head and one plan. As
distinguished from the fourth principle, it relates to the organisation of the
―body corporate‖, rather than to personal (Fayol did not in any sense mean
that all decisions should be made at the top).
(f) Subordination of Individual to General Interest. The interest of
one employee or a group of employees should not prevail over that of the
company or broader organisation when the two are found to differ.
Management must reconcile them.
(g) Remuneration. Remuneration and methods of payment should be
fair and afford the maximum possible satisfaction to employees and
employer. To maintain the loyalty and the support of the workers, they
must receive fair wages for the service rendered.
(h) Centralisation. Without using the term ―Centralisation of authority‖,
Fayol refers to the extent to which authority is concentrated or dispersed.
Individual circumstances will determine the degree that will ―give the best
overall yield‖. The appropriate degree of centralisation will vary from
concern to concern.

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(j) Scalar Chain. Fayol thinks of this as a ―chain of superiors‖ from

the highest to the lowest ranks, which should not to be departed from
needlessly nor be short-circuited. If it is not followed scrupulously, it would
be detrimental.
(k) Order. Breaking this into ―material‖ and ―social‖ order, Fayol
follows the simple adage of ―a place for everything (everyone) and
everything (everyone) in its (his or her) place‖. This is essentially a
principle of organisation in the arrangement of things and people.
(l) Equity. Loyalty and devotion should be elicited from personnel by
a combination of kindness and justice on the part of managers when
dealing with subordinates.
(m) Stability of tenure. Finding unnecessary turnover to be both
cause and effect of bad management, Fayol points out its dangers and
costs.
(n) Initiative. Initiative is conceived of as the thinking out and
execution of a plan. Since it is one of the ―keenest satisfactions for an
intelligent man of experience‖, Fayol expects managers to ―sacrifice
personal vanity‖ in order to permit subordinates to exercise it.
(p) Esprit de corps. This is the principle that in union there is
strength, as well as an extension of the principle of unity of command
emphasising the need for teamwork and the importance of communication
in obtaining it.

Conclusion
22. Organisations are needed in our society because they accomplish things
that individuals cannot do, help provide continuity of knowledge, career
opportunities and service to society. The management of an organisation
involves taking inputs from the environment in which the organisation exists and
forms the very basis for its main objectives of planning, organising, staffing,
leading and controlling the work of organisation members for achieving stated
goals. In moving organisations towards their goals, managers adopt a wide range
of interpersonal, informational and decisional roles. Managers work with and
through other people. They are responsible and accountable. They must balance
competing goals and set priorities. They must be able to think analytically and
conceptually. They are motivators, mediators, planners, organisers, controllers
and decision-makers. Above all, managers must be alert to the need to change
roles as the occasion demands.

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Check Assimilation- 1: The Key

1. Continuous
2. Effectiveness, Efficiency.

Check Assimilation- 2: The Key

1. Planning, organizing, staffing, leading coordinating and controlling.

2. Management is the process of planning, organising, leading and controlling
the efforts of organisation members and of using all other organisational resources
to achieve stated organisational goals.

Check Assimilation- 3: The Key

1. first, middle, top.

2. Functional

Check Assimilation- 4: The Key

1. Technical, Human and Conceptual skills.

2. PERT : Programme Evaluation and Review Technique
CPM : Critical Path Method.
MBO : Management by Objectives

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CHAPTER - 19

THE FUNCTIONS OF MANAGEMENT

Chapter Objectives

After reading this chapter, you should:-

 Understand the salient functions of management.
 Apply the acquired knowledge for better HR management in IAF.

Structure
1. Introduction.
2. Planning.
3. Organising.
4. Staffing.
5. Leading.
6. Controlling.
7. Conclusion.

Introduction
1. The functions of a manager provide a useful framework for organising
management knowledge. These functions are broadly grouped under planning
organising, staffing, leading and controlling.

Planning
2. Planning involves selecting missions and objectives and the actions to
achieve them. It requires decision making that is, choosing future courses of action
from among alternatives. There are various types of plans, ranging from overall
purpose and objectives to the most detailed actions to be taken, such as, to order a
special stainless steel bolt for an instrument or to hire and train workers for an
assembly line. No real plan exists until a decision – a commitment of human or
material resources of any reputation/value – has been made. Before a decision is
made, all we have is a planning study- an analysis or a proposal, but not a real plan.

Organising
3. People working together in groups to achieve some goal must have roles to
play, much like the parts that actors fill in a drama, whether these roles are ones they
develop themselves are accidental or haphazard or are defined and structured by
someone who wants to make sure that people contribute in a specific way to group
effort. The concept of a ‗role‘ implies that ‗what people do has a definite purpose or
objective; they know how their job objective fits into the group effort and they have
the necessary authority, tools, and information to accomplish the task‖.
4. Organising is that part of managing, that involves establishment and an
intentional structure of roles for people to fill in an organisation. It is intentional, in the

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sense of making sure that all the tasks necessary to accomplish goals are assigned
and it is hoped - assigned to people who can do them best.
5. To design effective organisational structure is not an easy managerial task.
Many problems are encountered in making structures that fit situations, including
both defining the kind of jobs that must be done and finding the people to do them.
Check Assimilation- 1

Fill in the Blanks

1. Organising is the part of managing, that involves___________________and

an intentional structure of roles for people to fill in an _______________________.
2. No real plan exists until a ___________________________has been made.
3. Selection of ____________________ and _____________________is vital
to planning.

Staffing
6. It involves filling and keeping filled, the positions in the organisational
structure. This is done by identifying workforce requirements, taking stock of the
people available, recruiting, selecting, placing, promoting, planning the career,
compensating, and training or otherwise developing both candidates and current job
holders to accomplish their tasks effectively and efficiently.

Leading
7. Leading is influencing people so that they will contribute to the organisation
and group goals; it has to do predominantly with the interpersonal aspects of
managing. All managers would agree that their most important problems arise from
people. It is their desires and attitudes, their behaviour as individuals and as groups
that managers need to understand to be effective leaders. Since leadership implies
followership and people tend to follow those who often serve the means of satisfying
their own needs, wishes and desires. It is understandable that leading involves
motivation, leadership styles, approaches and communication.

Controlling
8. Controlling is the measuring and correcting of activities of subordinates, to
ensure that events conform to plans. It measures performance against goals and
plans, shows where negative deviations exist and by putting into motion actions to
correct deviations, helps ensure accomplishment of plans. Although planning must
precede controlling, plans are not self-achieving. The plan guides managers in the
use of resources to accomplish specific goals. Thereafter, activities are checked to
determine whether they conform to plans.
9. Control activities generally relate to the measurement of achievements. Some
means of controlling are, daily aircraft or equipment serviceability state, monthly
training state, checks on trial balances of NPF and so on. If deviations are found,
correction is indicated. But what is corrected? Nothing can be done unless one
knows who is responsible for the functions. Compelling events to conform to plans
means, locating the persons who are responsible for results that differ from planned

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action and taking necessary steps to improve performance. Thus, outcomes are
controlled by controlling what people do.
Check Assimilation- 2

Fill in the Blanks

1. Controlling is the _________________ and ___________________of

activities of subordinates, to ensure that events conform to plans.
2. If _____________________ are found, _______________________ is
indicated.
3. People tend to follow those who are likely to _______________________
their needs and desires.

Conclusion
10. A popular way of describing management is that ‗it is getting things done
through people‘. Seen in this light, the ultimate analysis in management is action. All
the functions are interdependent and interconnected. Depending upon the specific
situations, some or all of the component functions are carried out as one single
activity in management.

Bibliography
1. Personnel Management by CB Mamoria.
2. Précis of College of Defence management.

Check Assimilation- 1: The Key

1. Establishment, organization.
2. decision
3. missions, objectives

Check Assimilation- 2: The Key

1. measuring, correcting.
2. deviations, correction
3. satisfy

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CHAPTER - 19

PERSONNEL MANAGEMENT

Chapter Objectives

After reading this chapter, you should:-

 Understand as to what is Personnel management and its
characteristics.
 Appreciate the human factors of management.

Structure
1. Introduction.
2. Definition of Personnel Management.
3. Characteristics of Personnel Management.
4. Human Factors in Management.
5. Conclusion.

Introduction
1. An Organisation, whether a business or an industrial enterprise, needs four
important ‗M‘ for its growth, further development, continuance and survival. These
are money, material, machinery and men. It is on the effective combination and
dovetailing of these factors that the success or failure of an organisation depends. Of
these, however, the management of men is a very important and challenging job;
important - because it is a job, not of managing men or work, but of administering a
social system. The management of men is a challenging task because of the
dynamic nature of human beings.
2. No two persons are similar in mental abilities, traditions, sentiments and
behaviour. They differ widely in groups as well and are subject to many and varied
influences. People are responsive - they feel, think and act. Therefore, they cannot
be operated like a machine or shifted and altered like a template in a room layout.
Therefore, they need tactful handling by the management. If manpower is properly
utilized, it may prove to be a dynamic motivated force for running an enterprise at its
optimum efficiency. It also works as an elixir for maximising individual and group
satisfaction in relation to the work performed.
3. Manpower management is a crucial job because ―managing people is the
heart and essence of being a manager.‖ It is concerned with activities relating to
human elements in an organisation. Material elements, however, are beyond its
domain.

Definition of Personnel Management

4. ―It is a method of developing potentialities of employees so that they get
maximum satisfaction out of their work and give their best effort to the organisation.‖

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Characteristics of Personnel Management

5. On the basis of the definition given above, the following basic facts and
characteristics about personnel management may be noted:-
(a) Personnel management is concerned with employees, both as
individuals as well as a group, which aims at getting better results with their
collaboration.
(b) It is concerned with helping the employees to develop their
potentialities and capacities to the full, so that they may derive the greatest
satisfaction from their work.
(c) The management of personnel does not only refer to labourers. It
covers all types of personnel, including blue-collared employees (craftsmen,
foremen, operatives and labourers), and white-collared employees
(professional, technical and kindred workers).
(d) Since recruitment, selection, development, utilization, providing
accommodation to people, etc. are the integral part of any organised effort;
personnel management is inherent in any organisation.
(e) Personnel management is of a continuous nature.
(f) Personnel management attempts at getting the willing co-operation of
the people for the attainment of the desired goals.

Human Factors in Management

6. An organisation, whether formal or informal, large or small, is composed of
people – the human resource – who come from different walks of life and who are
different from one another in their psychological makeup. Human resources consist
of the total knowledge, skills, creative abilities, talents and aptitudes of an
organisation‘s work force, as well as the values, attitudes and beliefs of the
individuals involved in it. They are the sum total of inherent abilities, acquired
knowledge and skills represented by the talents and aptitudes of the employees.
7. The quantity and quality of human resources are modified by such
environmental factors as education, training and development. With the help of
acquired knowledge and talents, a human being is capable of producing new ideas,
developing and improving capital goods and modifying the available physical (land)
and financial (capital) resources in order to achieve greater productivity, satisfaction
and the goals set by an organisation.
8. Knowledge of Human Behaviour. The handling of physical, material and
financial resources is quite different from that of human resources because the latter
are not standardized, interchangeable or passive–like the resources of the materials
or of inanimate objects. Human beings differ from one another in their basic mental
abilities, personality, motor-skills, interests, skills, intelligence, attitudes, aspirations,
energy, education, qualifications, training, experience and behaviour. To get work
from people, the management needs to:-
(a) Have full knowledge of human behaviour and about the contribution it
has made to organisational development, i.e., why men behave in a particular
way.

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(b) Know what satisfies the employees - mere money or something else.
By studying their needs and motives, try to motivate them.
(c) Provide a congenial working environment, if the performance of human
resources is to be effectively enhanced, for, this will encourage personal
growth and development as well as creative thinking, i.e., the idea should be
to work with the people, not with things.
9. Understanding Human Behaviour. It is, therefore, of prime importance to
understand human behaviour and influence it in a particular direction for the
attainment of the desired goals. This would help in getting the maximum contribution
from the work force employed for increased productivity and satisfaction of the
employee concerned. Understandings of human behaviour, organisational
philosophy, inter-personal relations, group dynamics, etc. all describe the behaviour
of individuals and the groups in which they work.
10. Motives behind Human Behaviour. The manager should know that every
type of human behaviour has a cause; and to know this, he must examine the nature
of employee needs and the causes that motivate an individual to achieve a certain
goal or fulfil his needs.
11. Actions are Goal-Oriented. An important fact to be noted is that the actions
of all human beings are goal-oriented. Human behaviour is directed towards the
fulfilment of some aspirations, needs, wants and drives. It is, therefore, necessary
that the manager should understand properly what an individual wants and why. ―A
motive is an internal factor which arouses, directs, and integrates a person‘s
behaviour,‖ i.e., it goads him into action. These motives are:-
(a) Homeostatic motives (such as thirst, hunger, rest, sleep.)
(b) Sexual motives are powerful motives and their influence upon work
behaviour can be very pronounced.
(c) Emotional motives (such as fear, anger, rage, hate, terror, anxiety,
love, etc.) Individuals commit themselves to occupations, jobs, organisations
and work-groups as a result of their emotional motives.
(d) Intrinsically motivated behaviour such as curiosity and cognition.
(e) Social motives (achievement-motivation and affiliation-motivation).

Check Assimilation

State True or False (if false, give correct answer)

1. Personnel management is of a continuous nature.

_______________________________________________________________
2. Human behaviour is goal-oriented.
______________________________________________________________
3. The motive to earn appreciation for his work is a lower level human need.
______________________________________________________________

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12. The main characteristics of human relations are:-

(a) Human relations are an integral process through which an individual‘s
attitude and work are integrated with a view to effecting a willing co-operation
on his part in the achievement of the interests of an organisation as a whole.
(b) Members of the organisation contribute their might to get individual and
group satisfaction, i.e., the producers must receive satisfaction in the same
way as the consumers.
(c) The satisfaction desired by an employee may be economic (in the form
of monetary benefits), social (in the form of acceptance by, and
belongingness to, the group), and psychological (in the form of pride, prestige,
status, etc).
13. Objectives of Human Relations. An understanding of human behaviour can
therefore:-
(a) Assist the manager to develop a better realisation of how his own
attitudes and behaviour play a part in everyday affairs.
(b) Assist him to develop a keener sensitivity towards other people.
(c) Help him to develop an improved understanding of the problems of
reconciling his own interests and capabilities with the needs and goals of the
organisation.
(d) Enable him to anticipate and prevent problems, or at least to resolve
more effectively those that he cannot avoid, and
(e) Assist him to see things as they are and not as they should be or as he
would like them to be.

Conclusion
14. It can be seen that management of Human resources is one of the important
and challenging tasks in any organisation. This is owing to the fact that human
nature is complex and dynamic and any successful manager has to adapt to different
types of workgroups to meet their varied needs without losing sight of the
organisational goal. In doing so, managers need to adopt a wide range of
interpersonal, informational, and decision-making roles. Time and human
relationships are crucial parts of these roles. The task of the manager is therefore
more devoted to the study of human behaviour and creating the right type of
environment for the personnel to perform. This is also true in the case of armed
forces where the supervisors need to don the role of managers.

Bibliography
1. Personnel Management by CB Mamoria.
2. Précis of College of Defence management

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Check Assimilation: The Key

1. True.
2. True.
3. False. It is a higher level of need i.e., Social need.

Note: - This chapter is for general reading and awareness and you will
not be tested on this chapter during the ET and FE.

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CHAPTER - 21

DEVELOPMENT OF LEADERSHIP CONCEPTS

Chapter Objectives

After reading this chapter, you should:-

 Understand the nature and characteristics of leadership.
 Know the different styles of leadership.
 Appreciate the continuum of leadership styles.
 Assimilate the grid approach to leadership.

Structure
1. Introduction.
2. Nature of Leadership.
3. Characteristics of Leadership.
4. Military Leadership.
5. Styles of Leadership.
6. Continuum of Leadership Styles.
7. Authoritarian Leader.
8. Democratic Leader.
9. Nurturant Task (NT) leadership.
10. Grid Approach to Leadership.
11. Conclusion.

Introduction
1. Leadership is a very fascinating subject. In fact, it is a very important aspect of
human behaviour. It gives a positive direction to the use of human resources and
brings out the best in a man. Leadership is also a natural phenomenon of a man‘s
work-life. It is related to the principle of gradation and hierarchy, which is a universal
order of things created by God and man.

Nature of Leadership
2. Leadership most broadly conceived, is a relation between leader and the led
in which the leader influences more than he/ she is influenced. It is because of the
leader, those who are led, act or feel differently than they otherwise would. Koontz
and O‘Donnell (1955), however, moved quite close to the behavioural aspect of
leadership when they defined leadership as, the activity of persuading people to co-
operate in the achievement of a common objective. This process was augmented by
Fiedler (1967) who observed that, by leadership behaviour we generally mean the
particular acts in which a leader engages in the course of directing and coordinating

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the work of his/ her group members. This may involve such acts as structuring the
work relations, praising or criticising the group members and showing consideration
for their welfare and feelings.
3. However, after the Second World War a definite shift took place wherein
leadership was perceived more as a three-pronged interactive process between the
leader, the group and the situation rather than as merely the role and activities
performed by the leader. Pursuing this line of thought, Hemphill (1954) said, ―To lead
is to engage in an act that initiates a structure in the interaction as part of the
process of solving a mutual problem.‖ This definition of leadership was taken forward
by Henry Harris, when he wrote, ―Leadership is a collective function: collective in the
sense that it is the integrated synergized expression of the group‘s efforts: it is not
the sum of individual dominances and contributions; it is their relationship‖. In so far
as a person contributes to the collective leadership function he/ she will realise that
the ultimate authority and true sanction for leadership, at every point where it is
exercised, resides not in the individual, however dominant, strong or efficient he/ she
may be, but in the total situation and in the demands of the situation.
4. It is the situation that creates the need, not the individual. It would be
appreciated that this definition considers leadership as a dynamic process and
balances the importance of the leader, the group and the situation in it. Figure 1.1
illustrates this point further.

LEADER

GROUP SITUATION

Figure 1. 1: Leadership as a Dynamic Process

Characteristics of Leadership
5. The skill of leading comprises of at least four major ingredients. They are:-
(a) The ability to use power effectively and in a responsible manner.
(b) The ability to comprehend, that human beings have different motivating
forces at different times and in different situations.
(c) The ability to inspire, and

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(d) The ability to act in a manner that will develop a climate conducive to
responding to and arousing motivation.
6. Application of these abilities depends on the following:-
(a) People.
(i) Subordinates and followers.
(ii) Peer groups who influence behaviour.
(iii) Superiors to leaders, who set limitation-to-goal, authority and
organisational climate.
(b) The willingness of followers to accept the leader‘s authority and his/her
status.
(c) Unequal distribution of power between leaders and subordinates.
(d) Bi- directional influence between leader and subordinates.
(e) Number of ways available to influence subordinates (greater the
number of power sources available, greater will be the potential to influence).

Military Leadership
7. Field Marshal Montgomery said, ―Leadership is the capacity and will to rally
men and women to a common purpose and the character which inspires confidence.
8. Field Marshal Slim defined leadership as ―Leadership is the projection of
personality. It is the combination of persuasion, compulsion and example that makes
other people do what you want them to do.‖

Styles of Leadership
9. The styles of leadership are discussed under the following heads:-
(a) Continuum of Leadership Styles.
(b) Nurturing - Participative - Authoritarian styles.
(c) Grid Approach to Leadership.
(d) Life Cycle Model.
10. Though there is a certain amount of overlap in the discussion of these styles,
yet, each has its point of emphasis. These definitely help in understanding the
phenomenon of leadership better.

Continuum of Leadership Styles

11. The focus in the behavioural approach to leadership is on observed
behaviour. A broad range of styles emerge as a continuum, moving from
authoritarian on one end to democratic behaviour on other end (as shown in Figure
1.2). Often this continuum is extended beyond democratic leader‘s behaviour to
include Laissez faire style.
12. Laissez‘ faire style of behaviour permits members of the group to do whatever
they want to do. This has been excluded from the diagram as such a style and
atmosphere represents an absence of formal leadership. The authoritarian style of
behaviour emphasises the concern for task and the democratic style - the concern

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for men. The significant function of each important style in the continuum is
described above.
Authoritarian Democratic
Task oriented Relationship Oriented

Use of authority by leader

Source
Area of
of Authority
Freedom of
Subordinates

Leader permits
Leader makes decision subordinate to function
and announces it (tolls) within defined limits

Leader sells Leader defines limits: asks

decision group to make decision

Leader presents problems,

gets suggestion and makes
Leader presents idea and decision
invites questions

Leader presents tentative decision subject to change

Figure 1.2: Continuum of Leader’s Behaviour

Authoritarian Leader
13. He/ she is a replica of our zamindar in the village. He/ she determines all
policies and formulates all strategies of goal achievement for his/ her group. He/ she
forms work teams and assigns tasks and duties to each member of the group. He/
she is personal in praising and criticizing group members, and is not always
objective in doing so. He/ she maintains a respectable distance from the group and
often functions through ―proper channels‖. It has been found that an authoritarian
leader is very much required to tackle an emergent or crises ridden situation. He/
she is the best person to deliver the goods when vital interests of the organisation
are at stake. He/ she gets things moving fast and is very efficient in achieving short-
term results.
14. Researches conducted by Milgram (1974) have revealed that most human
beings have a ―dependency syndrome‖, and like to associate themselves with an
authorisation figure. This gives them a feeling of adequacy. Also, obeying the orders
of a person in power gives meaning to their lives. According to JBP Sinha (1970),

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one of the typical characteristics of Indians is being dependence prone. It means

that they have a strong tendency to lean on other for help, support, advice and/ or
emotional reassurance even in situations where such leanings are neither called for
nor functional. Udai Pareek (1976) is of the view that this tendency is strongest
among those who have been subjected to feudalistic type of socio-political system
for long. It has also been found that the more confidently and fully a leader assumes
his/ her mantle, the more willingly his/ her subordinates accept the roles assigned to
them. And the more powerful the leader, the greater is the sense of satisfaction
derived by followers in obeying such a person.
15. On the other hand, studies have also revealed that high authoritarianism is
positively correlated with emotionally warped family background, low educational
achievements and low social acceptance of the leader. Moreover, neither the person
with a very high score on authoritarianism nor with a very low score is capable of
creating a cohesive group; this feat is better achieved by a person who makes a
moderate score on the test of authoritarianism. It is interesting to note here that
among the military personnel, authoritarianism and orientation towards superiors
decreases with the increase in military experience (Campbell and Mc Cormack,
1957). This could have two reasons; the harsh experiences of military life has a
significant mellowing effect on authoritarianism and the higher sense of responsibility
of a senior officer serves as a counter-balance against authoritarianism.
Democratic Leader
16. A democratic leader is the one who is group oriented. He/ she involves all
group members in making policy decisions. He/ she consults the experts and a
technical member of his/ her group and listens to the suggestions made by others
attentively. He/ she allows the members to choose their own companions in the
formation of task-teams. He/ she encourages the development of those with
marginal performance but is not harsh on those who achieve low results. He/ she is
objective in praising and criticising his/ her group members. He /she keeps little
formal distance from them and joins in their activities as often as possible. A
democratic leader runs a happy and satisfied team though not necessarily a very
productive one. The members of his/ her group take more time in producing results
especially at the planning stage of a task. However, he/ she generates a self-
propelling process in his/ her group members which continues working even when
the person himself/ herself is not physically present among them. The morale of the
members of a group led by a democratic leader is high and personnel turnover in his/
her group is low.
17. A democratic leader is very good in achieving long term results. In the
defence services, he/ she is likely to perform well if posted to an office in the service
headquarters. A democratic leader works with persuasion than with positional
authority or coercive power. He/ she is most suited to lead a team of technically
qualified persons. He/ she can put up with their urge for autonomy and assertion,
and yet provide a moderating touch, encouraging them to work in an interdependent
and cohesive manner. Also, a democratic leader can achieve much better results in
a situation where group members are required to work in an innovative and creative
manner.
18. Both the authoritarian and democratic types of leaders have a fair sense of
purpose and direction. They differ only in their methods of approaching the problem

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and achieving results. Both types of leaders have concern for group members
though an authoritarian leader expresses it indirectly and formally where as a
democratic leader shows it openly and informally.
19. An authoritarian leader‘s forte lies in achieving immediate results while the
strength of the democratic leader comes forward when he/ she is working on long-
term plans. But a group led by a laissez-faire leader is found wanting in all these
matters. He/ she lacks organisational clarity and unity, and has poor sense of
accomplishment. The person, therefore, proves incapable of organising a group to
achieve results. In other words, a laissez-faire leader fails to provide a meaningful
work atmosphere to his/ her group members. As a result of this, the members get
frustrated and become restless. This leads to virtual loss of control. The example of
sensitivity training situation provides us an apt example of laissez-faire leadership.
This may be acceptable for a training programme for certain types of managers and
leaders, but, it is least suited to an organisation like the Air Force, where time-bound
objectives have to be achieved by persons assigned to specific tasks. Laissez-faire
leadership, therefore, has no place in the Defence Services. There are some leaders
who behave in a laissez-faire manner and call themselves as democratic leaders.
There is a need for them to reflect about their behaviour and modify it.

Nurturant Task (NT) leadership

20. The results of a study conducted by JBP Sinha have revealed that Indian
executives are positively inclined to accept the nurturant task (NT) leadership than
authoritarian (A) or participative (P) type of leadership. The NT leader was perceived
by the respondents as ―active, strong, dominant, firm, independent, alert,
encouraging and extrovert‖. He/she is strict and can get work done. He/she is
different from an authoritarian (A) leader who was found to be autocratic, influential,
insecure, impractical, dissatisfying and hence not respected by others. The two types
of leaders, i.e., NT and A, however, do have some overlap. Both are strict, both push
their ideas through, and try to dominate subordinate‘s activities.
21. The NT type was found to be closer to the participative (P) leader who was
reported to be democratic, respected, satisfying, secure and skilful, though weak. NT
as well as P type of leaders were found to be encouraging and giving due credit to
the members without losing control. A closer look would reveal that NT leadership is
quite close to the paternal type of leadership which has been practiced by the
officers of our Defence Services since the British times.
22. The source of human relationship lies in the family system and socio-cultural
norms of a society. The Indian home provides a good deal of affection, warmth and
stimulation for the growth of its children. The child, when he/ she grows up and joins
an organisation, carries highly personal and emotional ties with him/ her. He forms
his/ her relationships in the organisation on the basis of those ties. An Indian, in the
form of a leader, carries the image of a benevolent father or elder brother/ sister to
his/ her organisation. This image is not relevant to Western countries where a
radically different type of family structure and filial relationships exist.
23. Keeping this aspect in mind, Dayal (1976) draws the following list of
expectations of Indian subordinates from their leader:-
(a) Nurturance, personal attention, and help from superiors in learning and
problem-solving just as they used to get these in their family.

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(b) Acceptance of an individual as an extension of oneself in a family like

network of affiliations. That is, the relationship has to be personalised rather
than contractual. It must reflect his/ her prestige and power and he/ she must
be recognized by his/ her superior.
(c) Reward for loyalty along with efficiency and other criterion measures.
Disregarding or discouraging loyalty may be taken as betrayal of personal
confidence and trust. It might let a subordinate down and interfere with his/
her role behaviour.
24. The officers of our defence services, by and large, have been following the
above mentioned observations of Dayal. They have worked well over the years.
However, there is a need to conduct a survey for determining whether any significant
change has taken place in the effectiveness of men in the defence services.
Grid Approach to Leadership
25. The grid approach to leadership has been developed by RR Blake and JS
Mouton who were practicing behavioural scientists. It was primarily developed for
assessing the personality of a leader in terms of his/ her concern for task and
concern for people, and later, attempting behavioural modification in him/her through
Managerial Grid training programme. Since each axis of the grid has 9 steps, a
leader‘s performance can be plotted anywhere on 81 small boxes of grid by
obtaining his/ her score with the help of a questionnaire. However, for the purposes
of studying the styles of leadership the grid can be divided into five main areas.
These are shown in Figure 1.3.

High 9
1.9 9.9 Team
8 Country Club

7
Concern for People
(Consideration)

6 High Consideration High Structure and

and Low Structure High Consideration
5 5.5 Middle
Road
4
1.1 9.1 Task
3
Impoverished
2 Low Structure and High Structure and
Low Low Consideration Low Consideration
1

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Low High
Concern for Production
(Initiating Structure)
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Figure 1.3 Blake and Mouton’s Behavioural Grid
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Check Assimilation

Fill in the Blanks

1. The leadership styles discussed in this chapter are ___________________,

________________________ and ________________________________.
2. ___________________________________ of leadership permits members
of the group to do whatever they want to do.
3. A ___________________ leader is personal in praising and criticizing
group members, and is not always objective in doing so.
4. A __________________ leader consults the experts and technical
members of his group and listens to the suggestions made by others attentively.
5. A ________________________ leader is one who is said be democratic,
respected, satisfying, secure and skilful though weak.

26. Let us now discuss each one of these areas and their related leadership
styles one by one.
27. 9, 1 Style (Task). This style represents the task or mission oriented leader.
He/ she cares little about the feelings of his/ her group members. Such a person
believes in close supervision and is impatient with the slackness, delay or failure on
the part of group members. Such a leader may be well suited as a platoon
commander who has to deal with raw recruits. This type of behaviour of leader may
also become necessary under certain types of emergency conditions.
28. 9, 9 Style (Team). The leader whose score falls in this quadrant of the grid
tries to integrate both mission accomplishment and welfare of men. He/ she helps
the development of those members of his/her group who are committed to the
achievement of organisational goals. Such members, with their stake in the
organisation‘s purpose, co-operate with each other and work in an interdependent
manner. They trust and respect each other and that helps them in creating a
congenial work environment. This makes the task of the leader easy. He/she works
with conviction that people support what they help to create. His/her main job,
therefore, is to get his/her group involved in a creative process.
29. 1, 9 Style (Country Club). The leader belonging to this quadrant of the grid
is also called the club manager. His/ her concern for the welfare of people is his/her
sole aim. He/ she may, therefore, slip in achieving organisation‘s time bound
objectives. Since his/ her heart is full of compassion and cannot see people suffering
he/ she is least suited to perform operational duties in the battlefield. He/ she lives
with the idea that a happy team produces the best results, but such a dictum has a
very limited use in the defence services.
30. 1, 1 Style (Impoverished). This is the non-involved type of leader. He/she
neither causes any event nor directs any event taking place on its own. He/she
considers that mission accomplishment and welfare of people are conflicting goals.
The best results are achieved if the procedures established in the past are allowed to
continue. He/ she does not want to rock the boat. An organisation headed by such a
leader can consider itself lucky if it could just maintain the standards of efficiency
achieved under an earlier dynamic leader.

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31. 5, 5 Style (Middle Road). This is the leader who follows middle-of-the-road
policy. He/ she thinks that by being firm but fair, he/ she can achieve the best results.
He/ she is a compromiser. He/ she strives to achieve results without unduly upsetting
the people. Such a leader is best suited to play the role of a conciliator in the labour
management conflicts. He/ she may also do well during peace time conditions in the
defence services.
32. Military Leadership 9, 5 Style. So far as the style of leadership suitable to a
military officer is concerned, the advocates of Grid Approach have recommended 9,
5 as the style most applicable to him/ her. Taking into account the nature of his/her
duties and the circumstances under which he/ she has to perform them, the
advocates of Grid see no scope for him/ her to compromise mission
accomplishment. That must remain always on the top of his/ her mind. However,
since the mission is to be accomplished through men, he/ she must have concern for
their welfare too.

Conclusion
33. In this chapter, we have discussed the behavioural approach to leadership.
Various styles of leadership form basis for the study of leadership. The grid theory of
leadership which attempts to study leadership on the basis of concern for task and
concern for people was very popular in the 1950s and 1960s and was extensively
used for leadership training. However, it may be noted that this is a two dimensional
model which does not take into account the impact of the environment in which the
leaders and followers have to function. It will be appreciated that for any leader to be
effective, not only the leader and followers, but also the situation should be
appropriate. This gave rise to the situational approach to leadership. The days of
imitating a style of leadership are over. The need today is to know ourselves, accept
ourselves, and act ourselves. The leadership behaviour based on this premise is
sure to appeal to our soldiers, sailors and airmen, and thereby prove effective.

Bibliography
1. Personnel Management by CB Mamoria.
2. Précis of College of Defence management.

Check Assimilation: The Key

1. Authoritative, Democratic and Nurturant.

2. Laissez faire style.
3. Authoritative.
4. Democratic.
5. Participative

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CHAPTER - 22

MOTIVATIONAL THEORIES
Chapter Objective

After reading this chapter, you should:-

 Understand Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs theory.

Structure
1. Introduction.
2. The Hierarchy of Needs Theory.
3. The Needs Hierarchy.
4. Conclusion.
Introduction
1. One of the important functions of a manager is also to motivate the people
working in the organisation. This motivation keeps the individuals working for the
organisation happy thereby deriving satisfaction and producing higher output.
Management scholars have carried out a great deal of research to understand what
motivates an individual in the performance of his work. There are various theories
dealing with motivation such as McGregor‘s Theory of X & Y, Traits theory,
Contingency theory, Group Theory and Life Cycle Theory, etc. This chapter deals
with only the basic motivation theory namely the Maslow‘s Theory of Hierarchy of
Needs.
The Hierarchy of Needs Theory
2. One of the, most widely mentioned theories of motivation is the ―Hierarchy of
Needs‖ theory put forth by the psychologist Abraham Maslow. His theory has three
important elements:-
(a) Need classification scheme.
(b) The Deprivation/ Domination proposition.
(c) The Gratification/ Activation proposition.
The Needs Hierarchy
3. Maslow saw human needs in the form of a hierarchy, in an ascending order of
importance as shown in Figure 1. These are:-
(a) Physiological Needs. These are basic needs for sustaining human
life itself, such as food, water, warmth, shelter, sleep, exercise, rest and sex.
(b) Security or Safety Needs. These are the need to be free from
physical harm, job security, property, need for shelter, orderly and neat
surroundings.
(c) Love Needs. Also known as affiliation or acceptance needs. These
are the feeling of belongingness to a group which includes group participation
and other social needs.

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(d) Esteem Needs. These are needs for recognition, prestige, confidence,
achievement and ability, competence, strength and intelligence.
(e) Need for Self-Actualization. Maslow regards this as the highest need
in the hierarchy. It is the desire to become what one is capable of becoming,
to maximize one‘s potential. Some elements of self-actualization are the
realization of one‘s potential, or doing things purely for the aesthetic
appreciation and the acceptance of reality.
4. According to Maslow, those needs that are largely unsatisfied tend to create
tension within people that leads them to behave in ways that are aimed at reducing
the tension and restoring internal equilibrium. Once a certain need or set of needs
becomes satisfied, it loses it potency as a motivating force until it again becomes
manifest (or activated). For instance, when a person‘s physiological needs (say, for
food), have been met they will no longer motivate behaviour until the person is
hungry again. Until such time according to Maslow, the individual would be motivated
by other needs. In other words, many of these needs are cyclical.

SELF - ACTUALISATION

SELF ESTEEM

SOCIAL OR AFFILIATION

SAFETY OR SECURITY

BASIC OR PHYSIOLOGICAL

5. Unique to Maslow, however, is his second fundamental premise, where,

Maslow argues that the needs which individuals pursue are universal across various
populations and that they are arranged sequentially in a hierarchical form. That is,
once the lower needs are satisfied, the individual moves up the hierarchy one level
at a time and attempts to satisfy the next higher-order needs.

Conclusion
6. It is very important for the manager to know what motivates his subordinates.
Understanding the various needs of each person helps the manager to understand
his behaviour and the individual becomes predictable. This will help the managers to
evaluate and task his men in a better and productive manner.

Bibliography

1. Personnel Management by CB Mamoria.

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