See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/40455337

Collective Narcissism and Its Social Consequences

Article in Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · December 2009

DOI: 10.1037/a0016904 · Source: PubMed

CITATIONS READS
501 12,874

4 authors:

Agnieszka Golec de Zavala Aleksandra Cichocka

Goldsmiths, University of London University of Kent
97 PUBLICATIONS 3,796 CITATIONS 121 PUBLICATIONS 12,672 CITATIONS

SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE

Roy Eidelson Nuwan Jayawickreme

Independent Researcher Manhattan College
40 PUBLICATIONS 2,836 CITATIONS 34 PUBLICATIONS 1,092 CITATIONS

SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE

All content following this page was uploaded by Nuwan Jayawickreme on 03 June 2014.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

 Collective Narcissism 1

Running head: COLLECTIVE NARCISSISM AND ITS SOCIAL CONSEQUENCES

Collective Narcissism and its Social Consequences

Agnieszka Golec de Zavala

Middlesex University

&

Aleksandra Cichocka

University of Warsaw

Roy Eidelson

Eidelson Consulting

Nuwan Jayawickreme

University of Pennsylvania

Key words: collective narcissism, intergroup aggression

Agnieszka Golec de Zavala is a Senior Lecturer at School of Health and Social

Sciences at Middlesex University, UK. Aleksandra Cichocka is a PhD candidate at University

of Warsaw, Poland. Roy J. Eidelson is president of Eidelson Consulting and is the former

Executive Director of the Solomon Asch Center for Study of Ethnopolitical Conflict at the

University of Pennsylvania. Nuwan Jayawickreme is a Ph.D. Candidate in Clinical

Psychology, Center for the Treatment and Study of Anxiety, University of Pennsylvania.

Portions of this manuscript were presented at the Annual Meetings of International

Society of Political Psychology, July 2007, Portland and July 2008, Paris. Studies 3 and 4

were partially supported by the research grant from the Polish Ministry of Science and Higher

Education (1 H01F 052 30) awarded to Agnieszka Golec de Zavala. We would like to thank

David Goodwin for his invaluable comments on an early version of the Collective Narcissism
 Collective Narcissism 2

Scale; Jan Swierszcz for his help with conducting studies 3 and 4; Gianmario Candore,

Christopher M. Federico, Neil Martin, Clark McCauley, Robert T. Schatz, Robbie Sutton,

and three anonymous reviewers for their very helpful comments on earlier versions of this

manuscript. Correspondence regarding this article should be sent to Agnieszka Golec de

Zavala, Department of Psychology, Middlesex University, The Town Hall, The Burroughs,

Hendon, London NW4 4BT, UK. Email: a.golec@MDX.ac.uk Phone +44 2084114902

Abstract

This paper introduces the concept of collective narcissism - an emotional investment in an

unrealistic belief about the in-group’s greatness – aiming to explain how feelings about an in-

group shape a tendency to aggress against out-groups. The results of 5 studies indicate that

collective, but not individual, narcissism predicts inter-group aggressiveness. Collective

narcissism is related to high private and low public collective self esteem and low implicit

group esteem. It predicts perceived threat from out-groups, unwillingness to forgive out-

groups and preference for military aggression over and above social dominance orientation,

right wing authoritarianism, and blind patriotism. The relationship between collective

narcissism and aggressiveness is mediated by perceived threat from out-groups and perceived

insult to the in-group. In sum, the results indicate that collective narcissism is a form of high

but ambivalent group esteem related to sensitivity to threats to the in-group’s image and

retaliatory aggression.
 Collective Narcissism 3

Collective Narcissism and its Social Consequences

Research has demonstrated that certain forms of positive in-group identification and

group esteem are more likely than others to be accompanied by out-group enmity (e.g.

Brown, 2000; Rubin & Hewstone, 1998; but see also Heaven, Rajab & Ray, 1984; Sherif,

1958; Sumner, 1906; Tajfel & Turner, 1986; in the context of national groups see e.g. de

Figueiredo & Elkins, 2003; Federico, Golec & Dial, 2005; Feshbach, 1987; Kosterman &

Feshbach, 1989; Mummendey, Klink, & Brown, 2001; Struch & Schwartz, 1989; Viroli,

1995). Despite the insights this rich literature provides, there is no agreement as to what kind

of in-group attachment is most likely to produce out-group negativity, and why. In this paper

we propose a concept of collective narcissism which describes an in-group identification tied

to an emotional investment in an unrealistic belief about the unparalleled greatness of an in-

group. By introducing this concept we seek to shed new light on the capacity of positive

group esteem to inspire intergroup aggressiveness.

The concept of collective narcissism extends into the intergroup domain the concept

of individual narcissism: an excessive self love or inflated, grandiose view of oneself that

requires continual external validation (e.g. Crocker & Park, 2004; Emmons, 1987; Horney,

1937; Morf, & Rhodewalt, 2001; Raskin & Terry, 1988; Rhodewalt & Morf, 1995;

Rhodewalt & Sorrow, 2003)1. Following the studies that project ego related processes onto a

group level (e.g. Bizman & Yinon, 2004; Bizman, Yinon & Krotman, 2001; Crocker &

Luhtanen, 1990; Eidelson & Eidelson, 2003; Hornsey, 2003; Luhtanen & Crocker, 1992), we

expect that if people can be narcissistic about their personal identities, they can also be

narcissistic about their collective identities. A similar search for the group level equivalent of

individual narcissism can be found in recent work of Bizumic and Duckitt (2008). These

authors suggest that ethnocentrism understood as group self-importance and group-

centeredness can be seen as group narcissism. The account presented in this paper is
 Collective Narcissism 4

different. We assume that collective narcissism is an exaggerated and unstable collective self-

esteem. What lies in the core of collective narcissism is an inflated image of an in-group,

rather than the self. Thus, while group self-importance and centeredness are part of the

concept of collective narcissism, we also assume that the positive image of the in-group is

excessive and difficult to sustain. Our predictions about the intergroup effects of collective

narcissism are an extension of Threatened Egotism Theory (Baumeister, Bushman &

Campbell, 2000; Bushman & Baumeister, 1998) into the intergroup relations.

Individual and Collective Narcissism

Collective narcissism is seen as an extension of individual narcissism to the social

aspects of self. It is an in-group, rather than an individual self, that is idealized. A positive

relationship between individual and collective narcissism can be expected since the self

concept consists of personal self and social identities based on the groups to which people

belong (Hornsey, 2003). Idealization of self may be followed by idealization of in-groups

(see Rocass, Klar & Liviatan, 2006). It has been demonstrated that the evaluation of novel

in-groups (created in minimal group paradigm tasks) is shaped by peoples’ evaluations of

themselves: individuals with high personal self-esteem evaluate their new in-groups more

positively than individuals with low self-esteem (Gramzow & Gaertner, 2005). Collective

narcissists may see groups as extensions of themselves and expect everybody to recognize

not only their individual greatness but also the prominence of their in-groups. It has also been

suggested that especially in collectivistic cultures individual narcissism may stem from the

reputation and honor of the groups to which one belongs (e.g. Warren & Caponi, 1996).

However, narcissistic idealization of a group may be also a strategy to protect a weak

and threatened ego. This possibility has been suggested by Adorno (1998) (see also Arendt,

1971; Vaknin, 2003), Fromm (1941), and status politics theorists (Gusfield, 1963; Hofstadter,

1965; Lipset & Raab, 1970). These authors suggest that narcissistic identification with an in-
 Collective Narcissism 5

group is likely to emerge in social and cultural contexts that diminish the ego and/or socialize

individuals to put their group in the centre of their lives, attention, emotions and actions.

Thus, the development of narcissistic group identification can be fostered by certain social

contexts independently of individual-level narcissism.

Therefore, one form of narcissism does not have to automatically lead to another and

people can be narcissistic only at an individual or only at a collective level. The relationship

between individual and collective narcissism, although positive, is likely not to be high. Most

importantly, collective narcissism is expected to predict intergroup attitudes and actions,

whereas individual narcissism is expected to be related to interpersonal actions and attitudes

(see Abrams & Hogg, 1988; Crocker & Luhtanen, 1990; but see also Jordan, Spencer, &

Zanna, 2005).

Collective Narcissism and Intergroup Aggression

The Threatened Egotism Theory provides an explanation for numerous findings

linking individual narcissism and interpersonal aggressiveness and hostility (Baumeister,

Smart & Boden, 1996; Bushman & Baumeister, 1998; Baumeister et al., 2000; Raskin,

Novacek& Hogan, 1991; Rhodewalt & Morf, 1995; 1998), interpersonal dominance

tendencies (Ruiz, Smith & Rhodewalt, 2001), and the inability to forgive (Exline,

Baumeister, Bushman, Campbell & Finkel, 2004) accompanied by a tendency to seek

vengeance (Brown, 2004).

According to the Threatened Egotism Theory, individual narcissism is a ‘risk factor’

that contributes to a violent and aggressive response to perceived provocation: unfair

treatment, criticism, doubts or insult. Interpersonal aggression is a means of defending the

grandiose self-image. Narcissists invest emotionally in their high opinion of themselves,

demand that others confirm that opinion and punish those who seem unlikely to do so. Since

they require constant validation of unrealistic greatness of the self, narcissists are likely to
 Collective Narcissism 6

continually encounter threats to their self image and be chronically intolerant of them

(Baumeister et al., 1996). Individual narcissists are suggested to possess high but unstable

personal self-esteem (e.g. Kernis, 1993). Such personal self-esteem is vulnerable to sudden

drops that produce heightened sensitivity to ego threats, in turn leading to hostility (Bushman

& Baumeister, 1998; Kernis, 1993). Thus, individual narcissism is related to cognitive,

motivational and emotional functioning that impairs interpersonal relations (e.g. Morf &

Rhodewalt, 2001) even though it is, at the same time, associated with subjective well-being

(Sedikides, Rudich, Gregg, Kumashiro & Rusbult, 2004). Few studies suggest that defensive

personal self-esteem that is proposed to characterize individual narcissists (Jordan, Spencer,

Zanna, Hoshino-Browne & Correll, 2003) may be also related to intergroup bias (Jordan,

Spencer & Zanna, 2005).

The Threatened Egotism Theory explains the link between individual aggressiveness

and retaliatory aggression in interpersonal contexts. We argue that collective (rather than

individual) narcissism explains variance in intergroup (rather than interpersonal)

aggressiveness and hostility. The mechanism underlying this relationship should be

analogous to the mechanism underlying the link between individual narcissism and

interpersonal aggressiveness (see Baumeister et al., 1996; Emmons, 1987; Staub, 1989 for

suggestions that some form of group level narcissism should be linked to intergroup

aggressiveness). Collective narcissists are assumed to be emotionally invested in a grandiose

image of their in-group. This image is excessive and demands constant validation. Therefore,

it is vulnerable to challenges from within (e.g., internal criticism) or from outside (e.g. from

out-groups that endanger or put into doubt the prominence of an in-group). It is expected that

intergroup hostility and aggression are a means of protecting the group’s image. Thus,

collective narcissists are expected to be particularly prone to interpret the actions of others as

signs of disrespect, criticism or disapproval of an in-group and react aggressively. They are
 Collective Narcissism 7

also expected to react aggressively to actual criticism and other situations that threaten a

positive image of an in-group. They are expected to often feel unfairly and unjustly treated in

an intergroup context since no treatment or recognition is seen as good enough for the

deserving in-group. Moreover, it is expected that collective narcissists are not willing to

forgive and forget previous insults or unfairness to an in-group experienced from other

groups. Thus, they are likely to hold prejudice towards out-groups with whom they share a

history of mutual grievances and wrongdoings. Collective narcissism is also expected to

predict a preference for violent and coercive actions towards out-groups in intergroup

conflicts and a likelihood of perceiving intergroup situations as conflictual even before they

turn into open conflicts. In an intergroup situation that is not yet an open conflict, people who

are sensitive to signs of disrespect are more likely to interpret ambiguous events in an in-

group threatening manner and react aggressively.

Aims of the Present Studies

In order to test the above predictions and demonstrate the construct validity and

explanatory power of the concept of collective narcissism, we conducted a series of 5 studies.

In Study 1 conducted among American participants, we look at collective narcissism with

reference to a national in-group. We test the factorial structure, the reliability, the divergent,

convergent and predictive validity of the Collective Narcissism Scale. Most importantly, we

test the hypothesis that collective narcissism predicts the perception of threat to the in-group,

intergroup aggressiveness and the inability to forgive past wrongdoings by out-groups,

independently of other variables frequently associated with out-group enmity, such as blind

patriotism (Schatz, Staub & Lavine, 1999), social dominance orientation (Pratto, Sidanius,

Stallworth & Malle, 1994) and right wing authoritarianism (Altemeyer, 1996). The study was

conducted in the context of the war on terrorism.

 Collective Narcissism 8

In Study 2 conducted in Britain, we test the prediction that collective and individual

narcissism, although positively correlated, are separate variables. We test the hypothesis that

individual rather than collective narcissism predicts interpersonal aggressiveness, whereas

collective rather than individual narcissism predicts out-group negativity. In this study we

examine collective narcissism in the context of ethnic in-groups.

In Study 3 conducted among Polish participants, we look at the relationship between

collective narcissism and an aspect of individual narcissism associated with unconstructive

interpersonal behavior that is psychological entitlement (Campbell, Bonacci, Shelton, Exline

& Bushman, 2004). We test the assumption that only collective narcissism predicts out-group

negativity. The narcissistic identification with a national in-group is measured.

In Study 4, conducted in Poland, we examine feelings and beliefs about the in-group

underlying national collective narcissism and we test the hypotheses that collective

narcissism is predicted by an interaction between private collective self-esteem (Crocker &

Luthanen, 1990) and negative implicit national group esteem as well as a high private and

low public collective self-esteem.

In Study 5, conducted in a Mexican sample, we test the hypothesis, derived from the

Threatened Egotism Theory, that the tendency to perceive ambiguous out-group behaviors as

disrespectful to the in-group mediates the relationship between collective narcissism and

intergroup aggressiveness. In this study, social dominance orientation and right wing

authoritarianism are expected to be related to different perceptions and different behavioral

preferences.

Study 1: Development and Validation of the Collective Narcissism Scale

In the first study we test the psychometric propensities of the Collective Narcissism

Scale. In order to initially test the divergent validity of the scale, we examine the relationship

between collective narcissism and personal self-esteem. We assume that this relationship may
 Collective Narcissism 9

be positive but should not be strong and may not even reach the level of statistical

significance. We hypothesize that collective narcissism may be positively associated with

individual narcissism. Individual narcissism is related to high and unstable, personal self-

esteem (Kernis, 1993; Rhodewalt et al, 1998; for discussion of the relationship between

individual narcissism and personal self-esteem see also Sedikides et al., 2004). Empirical

evidence indicates that level and stability of personal self-esteem are distinct and, at least

partially, autonomous dimensions (Kernis & Waschull, 1995; Kernis, 2005)2. Thus, although

likely to be associated with high and unstable, personal self-esteem, collective narcissism is

not necessarily equally likely to be linked to general assessment of individual self-worth.

In order to test the convergent and predictive validity of the Collective Narcissism

Scale we examine the relationships between collective narcissism and national group

identification, patriotism, right wing authoritarianism and social dominance orientation. In

addition, we test an assumption that these variables and collective narcissism independently

predict intergroup aggressiveness, perceived in-group threat and inability to forgive out-

groups for wrongs done to the in-group.

Collective Narcissism, National Group Identification and Patriotism

We expect that national collective narcissism will be positively related to national

identification and blind rather than constructive patriotism. Studies show that blind patriotism

is an uncritical idealization of the nation, whereas constructive patriotism does not avoid

criticism of the national group but welcomes it as a prospect of betterment. In addition, blind

patriotism is related to out-group negativity, prejudice and aggressiveness, whereas

constructive patriotism is associated with tolerance and more benevolent intergroup attitudes

(Schatz & Staub, 1997; Schatz et al., 1999).

Collective narcissism and blind patriotism overlap in the uncritical approach towards

the national in-group. However, collective narcissism is a broader concept than blind
 Collective Narcissism 10

patriotism. It is assumed that people can narcissistically identify with groups other than their

nation. Moreover, collective narcissism is likely to be primarily preoccupied with validating

and protecting the in-group’s image, less so with securing its dominant position. This last

concern is, however, often associated with blind patriotism (Schatz et al., 1999; see also Bar-

Tal, 1996; de Figueiredo & Elkins, 2003).

Collective Narcissism and Social Dominance Orientation

We expect that collective narcissism will be positively related to social dominance

orientation - a desire for hierarchical social order and unequal relations among social groups

(Pratto et al., 1994; Sidanius & Pratto, 1999). Social dominance orientation is composed of

two factors: support for group-based dominance and generalized opposition to equality

regardless of the in-group’s position in the power structure. The group based dominance is

theorized to be responsible for the in-group favoritism associated with social dominance

orientation (Jost & Thompson, 2000) and this is where this variable intersects with collective

narcissism. The two variables overlap in their preoccupation with the in-group’s greatness.

However, collective narcissism is expected to be unrelated to opposition to equality. For

collective narcissists, the persistence of social hierarchies is not likely to be a vital concern.

Importantly, the grandiose image of an in-group does not have to be based on its power,

social status or economic dominance. Any other excuse or group characteristic can be used to

support the belief in the uniqueness and greatness of an in-group. In addition, social

dominance orientation and collective narcissism are likely to predict intergroup

aggressiveness for different reasons. For social dominance orientation the primary reason is

securing the dominant position of an in-group, whereas aggressiveness related to collective

narcissism is responsive to perceived threats to the in-group’s image.

Collective Narcissism and Right Wing Authoritarianism

 Collective Narcissism 11

These two variables are expected to be positively correlated. Right wing

authoritarianism is defined as the convergence of (1) submissiveness to established and

legitimate social authorities; (2) adherence to social conventions that are endorsed by society

and its authorities, and (3) aggressiveness against those who question or endanger social

order and those indicated by authorities (e.g. Altemeyer, 1998). Both collective narcissism

and authoritarianism are concerned with the coherence and homogeneity of an in-group. In

the case of authoritarianism, the cohesiveness secures order and predictability in social

environment and reduces the possibility of experiencing undesirable cognitive uncertainty

(e.g. Duckitt, 2006; Jost, Glaser, Kruglanski & Sulloway, 2003; Kruglanski & Webster,

1996). For collective narcissists, in-group coherence is likely to confirm the assumed,

unanimously accepted greatness of the in-group. Authoritarianism and collective narcissism

are likely to predict sensitivity to threat to the in-group and out-group negativity (for the

relationship between authoritarianism and responsiveness to threat see e.g. Duckitt & Fisher,

2003). However, while in the case of authoritarianism, aggressiveness serves to protect the

group as predictable social environment; collective narcissism is likely to be more concerned

with securing the in-group’s positive image.

Method

Participants and Procedure

The first study was conducted among 263 students at a large American university in

late 2005. Their ages ranged from 17 to 26 (M = 18.69; SD = .99; 2 students failed to provide

information about age). There were 191 women and 72 men. Participants were asked to

complete an online questionnaire containing several psychological measures in return for

research participation credit.

Measures
 Collective Narcissism 12

Item Generation. In order to create the Collective Narcissism Scale, items were

generated based on the definition of the construct and existing inventories of individual

narcissism, mostly the Narcissistic Personality Inventory (NPI) (Emmons, 1987; Raskin &

Terry, 1988) and Millon Clinical Multiaxial Inventory (MCMI-III). We used the items that

corresponded to the core aspects of the concept of individual narcissism but at the same time

could be meaningfully translated onto a group level. More specifically, we used items loading

on Leadership/Authority, Exploitativeness/Entitlement, Superiority/Arrogance factors

differentiated by Emmons (1987) or Authority, Superiority, Exploitativeness and Entitlement

factors differentiated by Raskin and Terry (1988). Only a few items from the Self-absorption/

Self-admiration factor differentiated by Emmons (1987) and Vanity, Self-Sufficiency and

Exhibitionism factors differentiated by Raskin and Terry (1988) were used, since most of the

items that loaded on these factors reflected opinions about physical aspect of the self,

individual actions or relationships between self and others that cannot be meaningfully

converted into group actions (e.g. “I like to look at myself in the mirror a lot” or “Everybody

likes to hear my stories”).

We used items corresponding to perceived exceptionality, superiority and authority

over others (e.g. “People always seem to recognize my authority” became “I wish other

groups would more quickly recognize authority of my group” or “I have a natural talent for

influencing people” became “My group has all predispositions to influence and direct

others”); a special contribution or significance of the self (e.g. “If I ruled the world it would

be a much better place” became “If my group had a major say in the world, the world would

be a much better place”); self-absorption (e.g. “I am an extraordinary person” became “My

group is extraordinary”); the need to be the center of attention (e.g. “I like to be the center of

attention” became “I like when my group is a center of attention”); special deservingness

and entitlement (e.g. “I will be never satisfied until I get all I deserve” became “I will never
 Collective Narcissism 13

be satisfied until my group gets all it deserves”; “I insist upon getting the respect that is due

to me” became “I insist upon my group getting the respect that is due to it” or “I want to

amount to something in the eyes of the world” became “I want my group to amount to

something in the eyes of the world”) and items reflecting sensitivity to criticism and lack of

recognition, adopted mostly from MCMI-III (e.g. “People have never given me enough

recognition for the things that I have done” became “Not many people seem to fully

understand the importance of my group”).

For selected items, beliefs about the self were replaced with beliefs about one’s in-

group and whole sentences were adjusted where necessary. The construct of collective

narcissism and the items selected to measure it were then discussed with experts in the fields

of political and social psychology, clinical psychology, political science and conflict

resolution practitioners. After this discussion the wording of some items was again adjusted

to better reflect the crucial aspects of the concept of collective narcissism. Twenty-three items

were generated for further analyses (see Table 1). For Study 1, the scale was constructed in

which participants were asked to think about their national in-group and indicate the degree

to which they agreed with a given item using a 6-point scale (1 = “I strongly disagree” and 6

= “I strongly agree”).

----------------------Insert Table 1 about here----------------

In order to assess the divergent, convergent and predictive validity of the Collective

Narcissism Scale, additional measures were included in the questionnaire. The 7-point Likert

scale (1 – “totally disagree” to 7 – “totally agree”) was used throughout the rest of the

questionnaire.

Personal self-esteem. (M = 5.07; SD = 1.57). Participants were asked to what extent

they agree with the statement “I have high self-esteem”.

Constructive patriotism and blind patriotisms. Five items measuring constructive (α =

 Collective Narcissism 14

.71; M = 4.00; SD =.55) and 5 items measuring blind patriotism (α =.78; M = 2.17; SD = .65)

were randomly selected from the original scale proposed by Schatz and colleagues (1999).

Social dominance orientation. An abbreviated 10-item version of the Social Dominance

Orientation Scale (Sidanius & Pratto, 1999) was used (α = .85; M = 2.25; SD = .64) following

its successful application by McFarland (2005). According to the suggestions of Jost and

Thompson (2000), we constructed a group based dominance (α = .83; M = 2.48; SD = .78)

and an opposition to equality (α = .82; M = 1.92; SD = .69) subscale.

Right wing authoritarianism. The abbreviated version of the original Right Wing

Authoritarianism Scale proposed by Altemeyer (1988) was used (α = .82; M = 2.17; SD =

.60) following McFarland (2005).

National group identification. A six-item scale (α = .82; M = 3.01; SD = .58) was

adapted from Brown, Condor, Matthews, Wade, and Williams (1986) in order to assess the

strength of identification with the national in-group.

Unwillingness to forgive out-groups. In order to measure this variable, we adapted 4

items (α = .63 M = 2.73; SD = .61) from the scale proposed by Hewstone et al. (2004).

Perception of threat to the United States from out-groups. This variable was measured

by the following 3 items: “Islamic fundamentalism is a critical threat to the U.S.;”

“Unfriendly countries with nuclear weapons are a critical threat to the U.S.;” and

“International terrorism is a critical threat to U.S.” (α = .73; M = 3.77; SD = .69).

Preference for military aggression. The scale measuring this variable consisted of the

following 10 items: ;” “Military strength is more important than respect abroad;” “U.S.

military spending should be increased;” “Military strength is more important than economic

strength”; I supported going to war against Iraq;” “U.S. made the right decision going to

war with Iraq;” “The situation in Iraq is improving;” “Most Iraqis want the U.S. to leave”

(reversed); “Iraq gave support to Al Qaeda;” “U.S. military has tried to avoid civilian
 Collective Narcissism 15

casualties in Iraq;” and “President Bush should have built more international support for

war in Iraq” (reversed) (α = .89; M = 2.43; SD = .64).

Results

Factor Structure of the Collective Narcissism Scale

In order to test the factor structure of the Collective Narcissism Scale, a maximum

likelihood exploratory factor analysis was performed on the data collected in Study 1. A

scree plot analysis indicated that a one-factor solution was most appropriate. The one factor

explained 26% of the variance (eigenvalue = 5.91; the second factor had an eigenvalue of

1.31 and explained only 4% more variance over and above the first). However, a maximum

likelihood confirmatory factor analysis showed that the one-factor model underlying all 23

items did not fit the data very well (Table 2).

Thus, the initial 23-item scale was shortened to 9 items. These items were selected on

the basis of their face validity as evaluated by experts, the strength of their factor loadings,

and the strength of their contribution to the overall reliability of the scale. Experts in political,

social and clinical psychology evaluated the relevance and representativeness of the items.

Items with factor loadings of .60 and higher were retained. One item with factor loading .58

was also retained due to its face valid connection to the concept of collective narcissism.

However, items 10 and 11, with similar factor loadings did not receive expert consensus due

to their excessive resemblance to items measuring nationalism, national pride and group

identification and they were dropped from the scale (Simms & Watson, 2007). The results of

the maximum likelihood confirmatory factor analysis indicate that the corrected model with

nine items relating to one latent factor had a very good fit to the data that improved after

adjusting for correlated error variances. The same solution with one latent factor measured by

nine items was confirmed in a Polish validation sample of 401 students and in a British

validation sample of 47 students (Table 2)3.

 Collective Narcissism 16

----------------------Insert Table 2 about here----------------

Collective Narcissism Scale Reliability

The final 9-item Collective Narcissism Scale has high internal consistency. The

Cronbach’s alpha of the Scale in Study 1 is .86 (M = 3.18; SD = .58). The scale produced

item-total correlations greater than .24. The mean inter-item correlation was .42. In both

validation samples, the 9-item scale had reasonable to high reliability (α = .74 in the Polish

study and α = .84 in the British study).

Collective Narcissism Scale Validation: Relationship with Social Dominance Orientation,

Right Wing Authoritarianism, National Group Identification and Patriotism.

In Study 1 participants are asked to think about their national group while completing

the Collective Narcissism Scale. Therefore, in order to test the convergent validity of the

scale, correlations of collective narcissism with national group identification, blind and

constructive patriotism are assessed. We also examine correlations between collective

narcissism and right wing authoritarianism and social dominance orientation, especially its

group based dominance factor (Table 3).

----------------------Insert Table 3 about here----------------

Positive correlations were expected and found between collective narcissism and

national group identification, blind patriotism and social dominance orientation and right

wing authoritarianism. Both factors of social dominance orientation - group based dominance

(r(260) = .56; p < .001) and opposition to equality (r(260) = .29; p < .001) - are related to

collective narcissism. The factors are positively correlated (r(260) = .45; p < .001). Thus, in

order to assess the unique relationship between collective narcissism and aspects of social

dominance orientation, we performed the multiple regression analysis in which group based

dominance and opposition to equality were included as predictors and collective narcissism

was a criterion variable (controlling for age and gender). The results confirm that collective
 Collective Narcissism 17

narcissism has a unique and positive relationship only with group based dominance (b = .40;

SE = .04; p < .001), but not with opposition to equality (b = .04; SE = .05; p =.46; F (2,256) =

29.57; p < .001; R2 = .316).

The data show that collective narcissism is positively correlated with blind and

negatively correlated with constructive patriotism. Constructive and blind patriotism are

negatively correlated. Thus, in order to assess the unique relationship between collective

narcissism and each form of patriotism, we performed the multiple regression analysis in

which two forms of patriotism were included as predictors and collective narcissism was a

criterion variable (controlling for age and gender). The results reveal that collective

narcissism is independently related only to blind (b = 55; SE = .05; p < .001), but not to

constructive patriotism (b = 08; SE = .06; p = .16; F(4,256) = 35.03; p < .001; R2 = .354).

These results confirm the convergent validity of the Collective Narcissism Scale.

In addition, in order to preliminarily test the divergent validity of the Collective

Narcissism Scale, we examined its correlation with a variable corresponding to attitude

towards the self that should not bear common variance with collective narcissism that is

personal self-esteem. The correlational analyses reveal that the relationship between

collective narcissism and personal self-esteem is positive, very small and not significant

(r(260) = .002; p = . 98).

Predictive Validity of the Collective Narcissism Scale: Relationship with Perceived Threat

from Out-Groups, Inability to Forgive and Support for Military Aggression

We examine the predictive validity of the Collective Narcissism Scale looking at the

relationship between collective narcissism, the inability to forgive for wrongs done to the in-

group by other groups, perceived threat from out-groups’ aggression and support for military

aggression. We expect that collective narcissism will account for the variance in all three

dependent variables over and above other related variables such as social dominance
 Collective Narcissism 18

orientation, right wing authoritarianism, patriotism, and national group identification. We

also assume that the pattern of relationships between collective narcissism and the dependent

variables may be complex. More specifically, we expect that the relationship between

collective narcissism and support for military aggression is likely to be mediated by

perceived threat to the in-group.

In order to test the hypotheses, we performed the path analysis that tested a model

assuming that collective narcissism, national group identification, social dominance

orientation, authoritarianism, blind and constructive patriotism independently predict all

dependent variables. In addition, this model assumed that the relationship between collective

narcissism and preference for military aggression is partially mediated by perceived threat to

the in-group. Most research in social sciences confirm the direction of causality assumed in

this model suggesting that broader ideological orientations and basic in-group identification

constrain specific attitudes, such as opinions about the use of force in international relations

or perceived threat (rather than vice versa; see e.g. Cohrs, Moschner, Maes, & Kielmann,

2005; Duckitt, 2006; Duckitt & Sibley, 2006; Feshbach, 1994; de Figueiredo & Elkins, 2003;

Sidanius, Feschbach, Levin & Pratto, 1997).

The analyses were conducted using Lisrel 8.80 (Jöreskog & Sörbom, 2006). The data

were analyzed using maximum likelihood estimation. We ran all the analyses controlling for

age (centered at the sample mean) and gender (dummy coded on the -1/1 basis). Then we

deleted all non-significant links. Age, gender, national group identification and constructive

patriotism were dropped from the initial model since they did not significantly explain the

variance in the dependent variables. In addition, we allowed the indirect relationship between

blind patriotism and military aggression through perceived threat suggested by model

modification indices and consistent with the theory.

 Collective Narcissism 19

The improved model has a very good fit to the data. The standardized path

coefficients for this model are displayed in Figure 1. This model was tested against an

alternative model in which the effects of collective narcissism were not taken into account.

The results indicate that the alternative model has worse fit to the data (Table 4). The

difference between chi-squares amounts to 16.53 (df = 3) and is significant (p < .001).

----------------------Insert Table 4 about here----------------

The improved model reveals that collective narcissism (b = .38; SE = .13; p < .01),

social dominance orientation (b = .34; SE = .11; p < .01), authoritarianism (b = .51; SE = .11;

p < .01) and blind patriotism (b = .32; SE = .12; p < .01) independently predict support for

military aggression. In addition, perceived threat from out-groups predicts support for

military aggression (b = .27; SE = .09; p < .01). Perceived threat partially mediates the

relationship between collective narcissism (IE = .05; p < .01) and blind patriotism (IE = .02; p

< .05) and support for military aggression. Collective narcissism (b = .34; SE = .07; p < .01)

and social dominance orientation (b = .18; SE = .06; p < .01) independently predict the

inability to forgive the wrongdoings of the out-groups. The inability to forgive is not related

to military aggression or the threat of aggression of others. Taken together the independent

and mediating variables account for approximately 45 % of the variance in military

aggression. Collective narcissism and blind patriotism account for 18% of the variance in

perceived threat. Collective narcissism and social dominance orientation account for 21 % of

variance in the inability to forgive.

----------------------Insert Figure 1 about here----------------

Discussion Study 1

The results of Study 1 establish the reliability and validity of the Collective

Narcissism Scale used with reference to a national in-group. In addition, the data from the

Polish validation sample indicate that the scale can be effectively used with reference to other
 Collective Narcissism 20

social groups (e.g. religious, political, social class). The common characteristic that these

groups seem to share is the fact that they are realistic social groups (Reynolds, Turner &

Haslam, 2000) with high entitativity (Yzerbyt, Castano, Leyens & Paladino, 2000). The

results collected in three different countries (the American sample and Polish and British

validation samples) indicate that the Collective Narcissism Scale can be meaningfully used in

different socio- cultural contexts.

The results of the correlational analyses and path analyses confirm the divergent,

convergent and predictive validity of the Collective Narcissism Scale. They show that

collective narcissism is not associated with personal self-esteem but it is related to variables

that indicate identification with a national group, high and uncritical positive attachment to a

national group (blind patriotism), belief in its greatness and superiority (social dominance

orientation, especially group based dominance component) and attachment to its authorities

(right wing authoritarianism).

Moreover, collective narcissism predicts aggressiveness and support for violence in

intergroup relations, a tendency to perceive threat from out-group aggression and

unwillingness to forgive out-groups for wrongs done to an in-group in the past. The results

reveal also that the relationship between collective narcissism and out-group aggression is

partially mediated by perceived threat to the in-group from the aggression of others. These

results provide a preliminary support for the assumption that the link between collective

narcissism and intergroup aggressiveness is mediated by perceived threat to the in-group and

its positive image. Most importantly, the results indicate that collective narcissism has

predictive value over and above the contribution of related variables such as blind patriotism,

social dominance orientation and right wing authoritarianism.

While the results of Study 1 confirm the convergent and predictive validity of the

Collective Narcissism Scale, the verification of its divergent validity should be treated as
 Collective Narcissism 21

preliminary. Although, the results show that collective narcissism is different from personal

self-esteem, it is vital to demonstrate that collective narcissism is not just a form of individual

narcissism. Thus, in Studies 2 and 3 we test the hypothesis that collective and individual

narcissism are separate, although positively related variables. Most importantly, the two

variables are assumed to predict different attitudes and behaviors. We also examine whether

that the Collective Narcissism Scale can be effectively used with reference to an ethnic

group.

Study 2: Collective and Individual Narcissism, Interpersonal Aggressiveness and Intergroup

Antagonism

In Study 2 we test predictions regarding the relationships between individual and

collective narcissism and interpersonal and intergroup hostility. Collective and individual

forms of narcissism are expected to be positively but not highly related. Firstly, these

variables correspond to different levels of functioning of the self: individual and social (for a

discussion of the relationships between processes associated with individual and collective

self see e.g. Schopler & Insko, 1992). Secondly, the two forms of narcissism can develop

separately. They are also likely to have different effects on attitudes and behaviors. Individual

narcissists are chronically intolerant of criticism and doubts regarding the greatness of the

self and are likely to react with anger and hostility in interpersonal relations. They are likely

to find signs of provocation in behavior of others (Baumeister et al., 1996; Bushman &

Baumeister, 1998). Thus, we expect that individual, but not collective narcissism, will be

related to interpersonal aggressiveness.

The relationship between individual narcissism and intergroup negativity has rarely

been studied. The few studies into this relationship indicate that individual narcissism is

positively, although moderately, related to ethnocentrism (Bizmuic & Duckitt, 2008) and that

defensive personal self-esteem (which is related to individual narcissism) predicts ethnic

 Collective Narcissism 22

prejudice (Jordan, et al., 2005; Kernis et al., 2005). We expect that when the common

variance of collective and individual narcissism is controlled for, only collective narcissism

will reliably predict intergroup aggressiveness. Collective narcissists are emotionally invested

in a grandiose image of their in-group and are on constant guard for perceived criticism or

disrespect towards an in-group. We expect that collective narcissism will be related to

negativity towards ‘typical’ out-groups with whom the in-group shares a history of mutual

grievances. In Study 2, we use the Collective Narcissism Scale in a sample of Black and

White British participants and we explore ethnic, rather than national collective narcissism as

a predictor of intergroup animosity.

Method

Participants and Procedure

Study 2 was conducted among 92 undergraduate students of a British, London-based

university in early 2008. There were 52 women and 40 men aged from 18 to 49 (M = 28.80;

SD = 7.10). Forty eight participants identified their ethnicity as Black and 44 as White. The

age and gender distribution in both groups was similar. All participants were British citizens.

Participants were asked to complete a questionnaire in return for research participation credit.

Measures

Collective narcissism. (α = .82; M = 3.30; SD = .99) This was measured by the newly

constructed 9-item Collective Narcissism Scale scale. We asked participants to provide their

answer using a scale from 1 - “I strongly disagree” to 6 - “I strongly agree” while thinking

about their ethnic group. The maximum likelihood exploratory factor analysis and scree plot

indicated a one-factor solution that explained 46.57% of variance (eigenvalue = 2.79; no

other eigenvalues greater than 1).

Individual narcissism. (α = 91; M = 2.97; SD = .78) This variable was measured by

the Narcissistic Personality Inventory (NPI, Emmons, 1987). Instead of the forced choice
 Collective Narcissism 23

format, typically used while administering the Narcissistic Personality Inventory, we

employed a less time and space consuming approach and asked participants to respond using

a scale from 1 “not like me at all” – to 5 “definitely like me” to the items indicating individual

narcissism (following the successful application of this method in earlier studies; see Ang &

Yusof, 2006; Bazinska & Drat-Ruszczak, 2000).

Interpersonal aggressiveness. (α = .90; M = 2.15; SD = .88) This was measured by a

shortened version of the Aggression Questionnaire (Buss & Perry, 1992) proposed by Bryant

and Smith (2001). This scale measures a tendency for physical and verbal aggression towards

other people as well as a tendency to get angry and hostile in interpersonal relations.

Pro-Black antagonism. (α = .83; M = 3.23; SD = .70) This variable reflects Blacks’

perceived relative deprivation in comparison with Whites and anti-White sentiment. It

consists of following items adopted from the measure of symbolic racism (Henry & Sears,

2005): “Over the past few years, Blacks have gotten less than they deserve from society”;

“Over the past few years, Whites have gotten more economically than they deserve”; (the

answers were provided on a scale from 1 – ‘I strongly disagree’ to 5 – ‘I strongly agree’)

“How much discrimination against Blacks do you feel there is in the UK today, limiting their

chances to get ahead” and “How much of the racial tension that exists in the UK today do

you think Whites are responsible for creating”; (the answers were provided on scale from 1 –

‘none’ to 5 – ‘a great deal’). In addition, participants responded to a statement: “Please

indicate which statement best describes your feelings?”. The answers were provided on a

scale from 1 – ‘strongly prefer White people to Black people’ to 5 – ‘strongly prefer Black

people to White people’ with a midpoint 3 – ‘like Black people and White people equally’.

The higher the score in this scale the higher the belief in Blacks’ relative deprivation and

preference for Blacks over Whites. Low scores in this scale indicate rejection of the belief
 Collective Narcissism 24

that Blacks in Great Britain are disadvantaged in comparison with Whites and preference of

Whites over Blacks.

Results

The correlations presented in Table 5 confirm that collective and individual forms of

narcissism are positively and moderately related. They also reveal that individual, rather than

collective, narcissism is significantly related to interpersonal aggressiveness but the

relationship between individual narcissism and pro-Black antagonism is non-significant (p =

.15). Collective narcissism is positively and significantly related to pro-Black antagonism and

positively but not significantly related to interpersonal aggressiveness.

----------------------Insert Table 5 about here----------------

Individual and Collective Narcissism and Interpersonal and Intergroup Negativity

In order to test the hypothesis that individual, rather than collective, narcissism

predicts interpersonal aggressiveness, we performed a multiple regression analysis using

collective and individual narcissism as predictors and interpersonal aggressiveness as the

criterion variable (controlling for age, gender and ethnic group). The analysis confirms that

only individual narcissism significantly predicts interpersonal aggressiveness (b = .52; SE =

.11; p < .001; F(5,86) = 5.92; p < .001; R2 = .26; for collective narcissism , b = .02; SE = .10;

p = .85).

In order to test the hypothesis that collective, rather than individual, narcissism

predicts pro-Black antagonism, we performed a hierarchical multiple regression analysis

testing two models. In Model 1 we look at the first order effects of the ethnic group and both

forms of narcissism on pro-Black antagonism (controlling for age and gender). In the second

model, we test two interaction effects: between collective narcissism and the ethnic group and

between individual narcissism and the ethnic group. The dichotomous variables – gender and

the dummy variable for the ethnic group – were coded on a -1/1 basis. We test the hypothesis
 Collective Narcissism 25

that collective narcissism will be positively related to the belief in Blacks’ deprivation and

animosity against Whites among Black participants and negatively related among White

participants. We expected no such relationships for individual narcissism.

The results for Model 1 reveal a significant first order effect of the ethnic group:

Blacks in Great Britain tend to believe in their group’s deprivation and prefer Blacks over

Whites, whereas Whites tend not to believe in Blacks’ deprivation and prefer Whites over

Blacks (b = -.46; SE = .08; p = .001; F(5,86) = 11.39; p < .001; R2 = .398). The relationship

between collective narcissism and pro-Black antagonism is positive but not significant (b =

.11; SE = .07; p = .12). The relationship between individual narcissism and pro-Black

antagonism is negative and not significant (b = -.04; SE = .11; p = .89). The addition of the

interaction terms in Model 2 leads to a significant increase in the amount of variance

explained by the model (∆ R2 (2,84) = .11; p < .001). Only the interaction between an ethnic

group and collective narcissism is significant (b = -.23; SE = .07; p < .001). In order to probe

this interaction we compute simple slopes for the relationship between collective narcissism

and pro-Black antagonism among White and Black participants according to a procedure

proposed by Cohen, Cohen, West & Aiken (2003). This analysis indicates that among Black

participants collective narcissism is related to belief in Blacks’ deprivation and anti-White

sentiment (b = .33; SE = .08; p < .001), whereas among White participants collective

narcissism is related to the rejection of belief in Blacks deprivation and anti-Black sentiment

(b = -18; SE = .10; p < .05) (see Figure 2).

----------------------Insert Figure 2 about here----------------

Discussion Study 2

Results of Study 2 indicate that although individual and collective forms of narcissism

are moderately and positively related, they predict aggressiveness on different levels of

individual functioning. Individual, but not collective, narcissism is related to a tendency to

 Collective Narcissism 26

get angry and physically or/and verbally aggress against other people in interpersonal

relations. On the other hand collective, rather than individual, narcissism is related to pro-

Black antagonism. Thus, individual and collective narcissism do not account for the same

variance in intergroup attitudes. The results of Study 2 indicate the existence of dissociation

and tension between Blacks and Whites in Great Britain. These results corroborate earlier

findings of few studies that investigated this issue (e.g. Hodson, Hooper, Dovidio & Gaertner,

2005).

In Study 2 we used the Narcissistic Personality Inventory in order to assess all factors

of individual narcissism and used the aggregate measure in the analyses. However, recent

studies suggest that psychological entitlement - a pervasive sense that one deserves more

than others (Campbell et al., 2004) - may be the aspect of individual narcissism that is

responsible for most of its destructive social effects and its relationship with interpersonal

aggressiveness (Campbell et al., 2004). Therefore, in Study 3 we investigate the relationships

between collective narcissism, psychological entitlement and prejudice.

Study 3: Collective Narcissism, Personal Entitlement and Prejudice

In Study 3 we test the hypothesis that collective narcissism is a variable that is distinct

from a component of individual narcissism that inspired a separate domain of research that is

psychological entitlement. Psychological entitlement was demonstrated to relate to

unconstructive interpersonal behavior such as competitive choices in commons dilemma,

selfishness in romantic relationships, and interpersonal aggression following ego threat

(Campbell, et al., 2004). In Study 3 we test the assumption that collective narcissism and

psychological entitlement are positively correlated but only collective narcissism is related to

ethnic prejudice. More specifically, in a Polish sample we test the assumption that only

collective narcissism is associated with anti-Semitism.

Method
 Collective Narcissism 27

Participants and Procedure

Study 3 was conducted among 148 students of a large Polish university in early 2008.

Their ages ranged from 18 to 45 (M = 23.12; SD = 4.90) and there were 135 women and 13

men. Participants were asked to take part in an on-line questionnaire containing several

psychological measures in return for research participation credit and the possibility to

participate in a prize draw.

Measures

Collective narcissism. (α = .77 M = 3.27 SD = .67) The 9- item Collective Narcissism

Scale was used. We asked participants to think about their national group and provide their

answers using a scale from 1 - “I strongly disagree” to 6 - “I strongly agree”. The same

translation of the Collective Narcissism Scale as in the Polish validation study was used. The

maximum likelihood exploratory factor analysis and scree plot indicated a one-factor solution

that explained 30.41% of variance (eigenvalue = 2.74; no other eigenvalues greater than 1).

Psychological entitlement. (α = .83 M=3.59 SD=.99) This variable was measured by a

Polish translation of the 9-item Psychological Entitlement Scale proposed by Campbell et al.

(2004). Here and in all cases where no published version of the scale existed in Polish, items

were translated from English and back-translated by an independent social psychologist who

was also fluent in Polish, so as to ensure equivalence of meaning.

Anti-Semitic prejudice. (α = .71 M = 5.62 SD = 1.01) Prejudice against Jews was

measured using an adjusted Social Distance Scale adopted from Struch and Schwartz (1989).

Four items measured desirable social distance from persons of Jewish origin: ‘Would you like

a Jew to be your neighbor?’; ‘Would you like a Jew to be your friend; ‘Would you mind your

child playing with a Jewish child?’ (reverse coded), ‘Would you mind your child marrying a

person of Jewish origin?’ (reverse coded). Participants were asked to respond to the four
 Collective Narcissism 28

items, using a scale from 1 - “Definitely no” to 7 - “Definitely yes”. The higher the number

the higher anti-Semitic prejudice it indicates.

Results

Correlational analyses indicate there is a significant but low, positive relationship

between collective narcissism and psychological entitlement (r (147) = .18; p < .03). Most

importantly the results reveal that collective narcissism (r (146) = .33; p < .001), but not

psychological entitlement (r (146) = .07; p = .37), is related to anti-Semitism.

Collective Narcissism, Psychological Entitlement and Anti-Semitism

In order to confirm that only collective narcissism significantly explains the variance

in anti-Semitism, we perform multiple regression analysis in which collective narcissism and

psychological entitlement are included as predictors and anti-Semitic prejudice is a criterion

variable (controlling for age and gender). The results confirm that collective narcissism (b =

.66; SE = .16; p < .001; F(4,142) = 7.17; p < .001; R2 = .168) but not psychological

entitlement (b = .07; SE = .11; p = .54) is positively related to anti-Semitism.

Discussion Study 3

Study 3 reveals that collective narcissism and psychological entitlement, an aspect of

individual narcissism associated with interpersonal aggressiveness, are positively, but not

strongly correlated. Moreover, Study 3 reveals that collective narcissism, but not

psychological entitlement, accounts for variance in intergroup attitudes. Thus, Study 3

replicates the results of Study 2 in a different cultural and social context using the Collective

Narcissism Scale with reference to a different social group. After confirming that collective

narcissism is not just a form of individual narcissism, in Study 4 we examine what kind of

feelings and beliefs about the in-group lie behind collective narcissism.

Study 4: Collective Narcissism and Explicit and Implicit Collective Self-Esteem

 Collective Narcissism 29

We use the theoretical accounts of individual narcissism in order to shed light on the

group based feelings that lie behind collective narcissism. Although the phenomenon of

individual narcissism has been discussed in psychology for long time, it has been recently

emphasized that it is a complex phenomenon that psychology has only started to untangle

(Morf & Rhodewalt, 2001). Most accounts of individual narcissism agree that a grandiose

self image and seeking external admiration are among its defining features. Thus, individual

narcissism can be interpreted as personal self-esteem that is contingent on the approval and

validation from others (Crocker & Park, 2004). According to this account “narcissists put the

goal of self-worth above other goals and are caught up in the question of whether they are

worthless or wonderful” (Crocker & Park, 2004; p. 404). People with contingent self-esteem

feel a need to validate their self-worth in the domains on which the self-worth is contingent.

Thus, narcissists are motivated to monitor expressions of external approval and admiration

vs. criticism or disapproval of their self-image. Since people with contingent self-worth tend

to exaggerate failures and underestimate successes in the domains of contingency, the

acknowledgement of the in-group by others is never satisfactory (Crocker & Park, 2004;

Kernis, 2003; Morf & Rhodewalt, 2001). Narcissists quickly develop ‘tolerance’ to known

sources of social admiration and they are constantly on the lookout for the new signs of

disrespect and criticism (Baumesiter & Vohs, 2001; Morf & Rhodewalt, 2001; see also

Crocker & Park, 2004).

In addition, in a recent review Bosson et al. (2008) report that current, popular, social

and personality psychological account of individual narcissism (the ‘mask model’) suggests

that narcissists are motivated to seek external validation of their inflated self image because

their heightened self-esteem is accompanied by suppressed feelings of shame and low self-

esteem. This assumption has recently begun to be tested and the empirical evidence is mixed.

Several studies found that high level of individual narcissism is related to defensive, personal
 Collective Narcissism 30

self-esteem (Jordan, Spencer, Zanna, Hoshino-Browne, et al., 2003; Jordan, Spencer, &

Zanna, 2003) or a discrepancy between explicit and implicit personal self-esteem (Bosson,

Brown, Zeigler-Hill & Swann, 2003; Kernis et al., 2005; Zeigler-Hill, 2006) both

operationalized as interaction of high explicit self-esteem (e.g. measured by the Rosenberg’s,

1956 classic self report scale) and low implicit self-esteem (e.g. measured by the Implicit

Association Test (IAT) proposed Farnham, Greenwald & Banaji (1999) or the Name Letter

Test (e.g. Kitayama & Karasawa, 1997). However, in their review, Bosson and colleagues

(2008) report meta-analyses of published and unpublished data revealing that the support for

the ‘mask model’ is not consistent. The authors suggest that both the theory of narcissism and

the assessment of implicit attitudes need refinement.

We propose that collective narcissism, analogously to individual narcissism, can be

seen as collective self-esteem that is contingent on admiration and acknowledgement from

others. Since the need for social admiration is never fulfilled, collective narcissism should

integrate high regard for the in-group with a belief that others do not sufficiently

acknowledge it. In Study 4, we test the prediction that collective narcissism is related to high

private (which reflects the positive regard of the in-group) and low public (which reflects the

belief that other people do not evaluate the in-group positively) collective self-esteem

(Crocker & Luhtanen, 1990; Luhtanen & Cocker, 1992). In addition, we test the prediction

that collective narcissism can be interpreted as high but ambivalent collective self-esteem.

We examine explicit and implicit in-group evaluations underlying collective narcissism

following the conceptualization of narcissism proposed by the ‘mask model’. We test the

hypothesis that collective narcissism is related to an explicit, highly positive evaluation of the

in-group combined with the lack of its positive evaluation on the implicit level. We expect

that the level of collective narcissism will be the highest among people who report high,

private collective self-esteem but at the same time, their implicit group esteem is low.
 Collective Narcissism 31

Method

Participants and Procedure

Study 4 was conducted among 262 students of a large Polish university in 2007. Their

ages ranged from 19 to 53 (M = 24.96; SD = 5.72). There were 239 women and 22 men

among the participants. In an online study, participants were asked to log into a secure

website and they were first asked to perform the adjusted IAT that measured their implicit

evaluative associations with Poland versus other countries. Next, they were asked to respond

to the 9-item Collective Narcissism Scale and the Collective Self-Esteem Scale. After

responding to all the measures, participants were thanked and debriefed. They were given a

research credit for their participation.

Measures

Collective narcissism. The Polish version of the 9-item, national Collective

Narcissism Scale (α = .84; M = 3.21; SD = .75) was used as in previous studies. The

maximum likelihood exploratory factor analysis and scree plot indicated a one-factor solution

that explained 44.23% of variance (eigenvalue = 3.98; no other eigenvalues greater than 1).

Collective self-esteem. The Collective Self-Esteem Scale (α = .85; M = 4.31; SD =

.81) (Luhtanen & Crocker, 1992) was used in order to measure this variable and its four

components using Member (α = .56; M = 4.64; SD = .96); Identity (α = .76; M = 3.58; SD =

1.17); Private (α = .85; M = 4.99; SD = 1.22) and Public Collective Self-Esteem Sub-Scales

(α = .79; M = 4.03; SD = 1.04). Participants were asked to think about their national group

while responding to the items.

Implicit national esteem. The web version of the Implicit Association Test (IAT; see

Greenwald, McGhee & Schwartz, 1998; Nosek, Greenwald & Banaji, 2005) measured

positive versus negative associations with Polish symbols versus symbols of other nations.

The test was constructed analogously to the implicit self-esteem IAT, where words associated
 Collective Narcissism 32

with the self (e.g. me, I, mine) are contrasted with words signifying unidentified others (e.g.

he, they) (Bosson, Swann & Pennebaker, 2000; Farnham et al., 1999; Greenwald & Farnham,

2000; Pinter & Greenwald, 2005; see also Cunningham, Preacher & Banaji, 2001;

Cunningham et al., 2003; Lane, Mitchell & Banaji, 2003). In the IAT measure constructed for

Study 4, Polish symbols (e.g. flag, the outline of the map, typical sites) were contrasted with

similar symbols of other countries pre-tested as difficult to identify and unknown to typical

Polish students (e.g. Korea, Indonesia etc). The pleasant vs. unpleasant words were adopted

from Greenwald and Farnham (2000) following their successful application in earlier studies

in Poland (e.g. Maison & Mikolajczyk, 2003). Reaction times were measured when the

Polish national symbols versus foreign symbols were combined with pleasant versus

unpleasant words. The corrected d coefficient (d – 2SD) was calculated according to the

algorithm provided by Greenwald, Nosek and Banaji (2003) (M = .21; SD = .32; Minimum =

-.68; Maximum = 1.18). The greater the corrected d, the higher implicit national esteem

indicated.

Results

Correlational analyses show that collective narcissism is positively related to private,

identity and membership aspects of collective self-esteem. In other words, collective

narcissists hold a positive image of their group, they tend to think that their national in-group

is an important part of their identity and that they are good members of their group.

Collective narcissism is negatively related to implicit national esteem but this relationship is

non-significant (p = .46) (Table 6). None of the aspects of collective self-esteem is related to

implicit national esteem. The similar lack of a significant relationship between explicit and

implicit measures of attitudes has been often reported (Hofman, Gawronski, Gschwendner,

Le & Schmitt, 2005; Karpinski, Steinman & Hilton, 2005). Since implicit and explicit
 Collective Narcissism 33

attitudes are formed and influenced by different processes, such discrepancies are likely to

occur (Gawronski & Bodenhausen, 2006; Wilson, Lindsey, & Schooler, 2000).

----------------------Insert Tables 6 about here----------------

Collective Narcissism, Explicit Collective Self-Esteem and Implicit National Esteem

In order to test the hypotheses that collective narcissism is predicted by the

discrepancy between explicit and implicit national esteem and that it is predicted by high

private but low public collective self-esteem, we perform a two-step, hierarchical multiple

regression analysis looking at private and public collective self-esteem and implicit national

esteem as predictors and collective narcissism as the criterion variable (controlling for age

and gender). In Model 1 we test the first order effects of private and public collective self-

esteem and implicit national esteem. Based on the theoretical hypotheses, in Model 2 we add

the interaction of private and public collective self-esteem and the interaction of private

collective self-esteem and implicit national self-esteem4.

The results for Model 1 reveal significant main effects of private (positive) and public

(negative) collective self-esteem. Most importantly, the results for Model 2 indicate that the

first order effects revealed by Model 1 are qualified by two significant interactions: between

private and public collective self-esteem and between private collective self-esteem and

implicit national esteem. The interactions are significant and in the expected direction. The

addition of the interaction terms leads to a significant increase in the amount of variance

explained by the model (∆R2(2, 248) = .03; p < .01). After the interactions are included in the

equation the significant negative relationship between implicit national esteem and collective

narcissism emerges.

In order to probe the interaction between public and private collective self-esteem, the

simple slopes are analyzed for the relationship between public collective self-esteem and

collective narcissism at one standard deviation below (for low level of private collective self-
 Collective Narcissism 34

esteem) and one standard deviation above (for high level of private collective self-esteem) the

mean of private collective self-esteem according to the procedure proposed by Aiken and

West (1991). The analyses indicate that the relationship between public collective self-esteem

and collective narcissism is negative and marginally significant on lower levels of private

collective self-esteem (b = .04; SE = .03; p = .10), and it is negative and significant on high

levels of private collective self-esteem (b = -.08; SE = .02; p < .001) (Figure 3). In order to

probe the interaction between private collective self-esteem and implicit national esteem, the

simple slopes are analyzed for the relationship between implicit national esteem and

collective narcissism at one standard deviation below (for low level of private collective self-

esteem) and one standard deviation above (for high level of private collective self-esteem) the

mean of private collective self-esteem. The results reveal that the relationship between

collective narcissism and implicit national esteem is non-significant on low levels of private

collective self-esteem (b = -.001; SE = .03; p = .85), but it is negative and significant on high

levels of collective self-esteem (b = -.07; SE = .03; p < .05) (Figure 4).

----------------------Insert Figures 3 and 4 about here----------------

Discussion Study 4

The results of Study 4 confirm both hypotheses assuming the complex nature of

group-based feelings underlying collective narcissism. The results reveal that collective

narcissism is highest among people who hold their in-group in positive regard but at the same

time believe that other people do not share their positive view of the in-group. In addition, the

results indicate that collective narcissism is highest among people who express positive

beliefs about their in-group and, at the same time, reveal rather negative (or at least lack of

positive) implicit evaluation of the in-group’s symbols as compared with symbols of other

groups, which, we claim, indicates low implicit group-esteem. The latter results suggest that

the ‘mask model’ of narcissism can be extended into the intergroup domain. These results,
 Collective Narcissism 35

however, should be treated as preliminary. Although they reveal the expected pattern of

relationships they have been obtained using at least one controversial measurement that is the

Implicit Association Test.

Although, the Implicit Association Test (IAT; Greenwald & Banaji, 1995; Greenwald

et al., 1998) has been successfully used in order to advance the theory of attitudes, stereotype

(e.g. Greenwald et al., 1998), prejudice (e.g. Dovidio, Kawakami, & Gaertner, 2002), self-

esteem and self-concept (e.g. Baccus, Baldwin, & Packer, 2004; Farnham et al., 1999;

Greenwald & Farnham, 2000; Greenwald et al., 2002; Schroder-Abe, Rudolph & Schutz,

2007; for recent review see Nosek, Greenwald & Banaji, 2007), it has been also suggested

that the probability for diagnostic inferences from IAT to attitudes may be quite low (Fiedler,

Messner & Bluemke, 2006).

We decided to use the modified version of the IAT in order to measure implicit

national esteem because the IAT as a measure of implicit self-esteem was used in numerous

studies that have demonstrated its satisfactory reliability and validity (e.g. Bosson et al.,

2000; Greenwald & Farnham, 2000; Schroder-Abe et al., 2007). The IAT was also used to

measure implicit personal self-esteem in the majority of studies relating discrepancy between

explicit and implicit personal self-esteem to individual narcissism. We constructed the

national group IAT measure and used the adjusted IAT score following the procedures and

precautions provided by the authors of the test (Greenwald & Franham, 2000; Greenwald et

al., 2003; Nosek et al., 2005; Pinter & Greenwald, 2005) in order to correct for possible

misinterpretations of the meaning of the score. We used this score to indicate implicit attitude

towards a nation, arguably in a way that may be questioned based on the argument of Fiedler

and colleagues (2006). In addition, it has been also noted that implicit measures of attitudes

such as IAT are context dependent and similar effects may not be obtained in different

national and historical context (e.g. Bosson et al., 2008). Thus, further studies using different
 Collective Narcissism 36

methods of assessing implicit collective self-esteem are needed in order to replicate our

results and provide a reliable account of the relationship between collective narcissism and

implicit collective self-esteem.

After analyzing feelings characterizing collective narcissism and describing its

correlates and predictions in the intergroup context, in the last study reported here we test the

assumptions regarding the link between collective narcissism and intergroup aggressiveness.

Study 5: Collective Narcissism, Perceived Insult and Intergroup Aggressiveness

In Study 5 we extend predictions of Threatened Egotism Theory related to individual

narcissism to an intergroup domain and to collective narcissism. We test the assumption that

only collective narcissism, but not related variables such as right wing authoritarianism and

social dominance orientation, is associated with the perception of ambiguous out-group

behavior as an insult to the in-group and only collective narcissism is therefore related to

intergroup aggressiveness.

Collective Narcissism, Social Dominance Orientation, Authoritarianism and Aggressiveness

in an Ambiguous Intergroup Situation

We have already demonstrated that social dominance orientation, right wing

authoritarianism and collective narcissism have similar effects in an intergroup situation that

is openly competitive and conflictual (in the war on terrorism in Study 1). These variables

may, however, make quite different predictions in ambiguous situations in which the meaning

of the actions of an out-group is not clear. In Study 5, we look at effects of all three variables

in the context of recent developments within American-Mexican relationships, specifically

the construction of the wall along the Mexican-American border by the U.S. Intergroup

relations are not openly conflictual and the act of constructing the wall can be, but does not

have to be, interpreted as an insult to the in-group by Mexicans. In this context, social

dominance orientation, authoritarianism and collective narcissism may be associated with

 Collective Narcissism 37

different perceptions of the intergroup situations and be related to different behavioral

choices.

People high on social dominance orientation are preoccupied with securing the

group’s position and maintaining a hierarchical social order. In the international context the

position of the U.S. is more prestigious and dominant than the position of Mexico. People

high on social dominance orientation may be motivated to protect this hierarchy and to react

positively to the dominant group, especially given that positive relations with this group can

advance the in-group’s position: the U.S., through commerce, provides an incentive to

Mexican economic and social growth. Authoritarians are concerned with the security of the

social group and the stability of the social order. Thus, people high on right wing

authoritarianism may perceive a positive relationship with their immediate and powerful

neighbor as worth preserving since the latter guarantees in-group security. However, for the

collective narcissist, the assumed greatness of the in-group is never stable, and is always

threatened and endangered. No objective achievements can reduce preoccupations with

possible criticisms, disrespect or doubts. Thus, ambiguous actions of out-groups are likely to

be interpreted as threatening the image of an in-group, which is likely to be related to

aggressive reactions.

Method

Participants

Study 5 was conducted among 202 students of a large Mexican university in 2006.

Their age ranged from 17 to 33 (M = 20.10; SD = 2.21). There were 147 women and 56 men

among the participants. Data from two participants were not included in the analyses due to

unreliable answers (one answer circled throughout the questionnaire).

Measures
 Collective Narcissism 38

Collective narcissism. The 9-item Spanish Collective Narcissism Scale was used (α =

.70; M = 3.85; SD = .77). The scale was translated from English to Spanish by a bilingual

translator and was back translated by a bilingual social psychologist in order to ensure the

equivalence of meaning of the items in both languages. The maximum likelihood exploratory

factor analysis and scree plot indicated a one-factor solution that explained 27.5% of

variance (eigenvalue = 2.48; no other eigenvalue above 1). Participants answered using a

scale from 1 – “totally disagree” to 7 – “totally agree” throughout the questionnaire.

Social dominance orientation. The 14-item Spanish Social Dominance Orientation

Scale (α = .87; M = 2.64; SD = .72) was used (Silvan-Ferrero & Bustillos, 2007; Pratto et al.,

1994). Two subscales were also constructed measuring the group based dominance (α = .84;

M = 3.27; SD = 1.12) and opposition to equality (α = .83; M = 2.01; SD = 1.07) aspects of

social dominance orientation.

Right wing authoritarianism. Participants were asked to respond to the items of the

Spanish translation of the abbreviated version of the original Right Wing Authoritarianism

Scale (see Altemeyer, 1988; McFarland, 2005).) used in Study 1 (α=.71, M = 3.16, SD = .87).

The same method of translation as in case of the Collective Narcissism Scale was used.

Perception of the construction of the wall as an insult. The following items were used

to construct this measure: “The construction of the wall along Mexican-American border by

the US is offensive for Mexico and Mexicans;” “The construction of the wall indicates the

lack of respect of the Americans towards Mexicans;” “The construction of the wall

demonstrates American arrogance” and “The construction of the wall demonstrates the

prejudice American have against Mexicans.” (α = .86; M = 5.52; SD = 1.61).

Perception of the U.S. as helpful to Mexico’s growth. (M =3.32, SD = 1.89). One item

was used to measure this variable: “Thanks to the U.S., Mexico can export and grow”.
 Collective Narcissism 39

Preference for destructive actions towards the U.S (M =4.57; SD = 2.27). One item

was used in order to measure preference for destructive actions against the U.S. was used

“Mexicans should boycott American companies and products on the Mexican market”.

Results

The correlations presented in Table 8 confirm that the perception of the construction

of the wall as an insult is positively related to the proposition to boycott American

companies, whereas the perception of the U.S. as support for Mexican growth is negatively

related to this proposition. Collective narcissism is positively and social dominance

orientation and right wing authoritarianism are negatively related to the perception of the

construction of the wall along the American-Mexican border as an insult to Mexico and

Mexicans. Social dominance orientation and authoritarianism are positively related to a belief

that the commerce with the U.S. helps Mexico grow. The relationship between

authoritarianism and this belief is marginally significant (p = .052). Collective narcissism is

negatively related to this belief and the relationship is also marginally significant (p = .10).

Only collective narcissism is positively related to the proposition to boycott American

products and companies in Mexico as a response to the construction of the wall by the U.S.

Social dominance orientation and right wing authoritarianism are negatively related to this

proposition.

Interestingly, the results reveal also that in the Mexican sample collective narcissism

and social dominance orientation and authoritarianism are not correlated, although the latter

two variables are positively correlated. In this socio-political context, the differentiation

between the group-based dominance and opposition to equality aspects of social dominance

orientation proved important. The two components of social dominance orientation are

significantly and positively correlated (r(199) = .36; p < .001) and only after the factors are

differentiated a weak, positive correlation between group based dominance and collective
 Collective Narcissism 40

narcissism is found (r(198) = .14; p < .05). The correlation of collective narcissism with

opposition to equality is not significant (r(198) = .02; p = .82). The results of multiple

regression analysis that used the components of social dominance orientation as predictors

and collective narcissism as a criterion variable (controlling for age and gender) confirm that

collective narcissism is independently related to group based dominance (b = .13; SE = .06; p

< .03; F(4,192) = 2.92; p < .02; R2 = .06) but not to opposition to equality (b = -.07; SE = .07;

p = .27).

----------------------Insert Table 8 about here----------------

Collective Narcissism, Social Dominance Orientation, Right Wing Authoritarianism and

Intergroup Aggressiveness in an Ambiguous Situation

In order to test the hypothesis that the perception of the construction of the wall as an

insult to the in-group mediates the relationship between collective narcissism and preference

for destructive actions against the out-group, we performed mediational analyses (Baron &

Kenny, 1986). In addition, using the same analyses we examine whether the relationship

between right wing authoritarianism and rejection of the boycott is mediated by the

disagreement that the wall is an insult to the in-group and whether the relationship between

social dominance orientation and rejection of the boycott is mediated by the perception that

the U.S. helps Mexico grow associated with this variable.

The analyses reveal that the positive relationship between collective narcissism and

support for the proposition to boycott American companies and products in Mexico is

mediated by the perception of the actions of the U.S. as disrespectful: IE = .24; Sobel z =

2.40; p < .02 ; Goodman’s z = 2.46; p < .01 (Figure 5).

----------------------Insert Figure 5 about here----------------

The negative relationship between authoritarianism and the support for the boycott of

American companies is mediated by disagreement with the notion that the construction of the
 Collective Narcissism 41

wall is disrespectful towards Mexico and Mexicans: IE = -.15; Sobel z = -1.95; p < .05 ;

Goodman’s z = -2.01; p < .04 (Figure 6). The relationship between social dominance

orientation and opposition to boycotting American companies and products in Mexico is

mediated by the perception of the U.S. as helping Mexico’s national growth: IE = -.06; Sobel

z = -1.67; p < . 05; Goodman’s z = - 1.76; p < .05 (Figure 7).

----------------------Insert Figures 6 and 7 about here----------------

Discussion Study 5

The results of Study 5 confirm the predictions resulting from extending the

Threatened Egotism Theory (Bushman & Baumesiter, 1998; Baumeister et al., 2000) into the

intergroup domain and allow for an initial explanation of the link between collective

narcissism and intergroup aggressiveness. We assumed that since collective narcissists invest

in the grandiose image of the in-group, they demand its constant validation in intergroup

situations and are likely to react aggressively to perceived lack of acknowledgement,

criticism or insult. The results of Study 5 confirm that collective narcissism is related to

increased likelihood of interpreting intergroup situations as threatening the image of the in-

group. The perception of actions of the out-group as an insult to the in-group mediates the

relationship between collective narcissism and intergroup aggressiveness. These results

suggest that aggressiveness associated with collective narcissism serves retaliatory purposes.

Importantly, Study 5 reveals that social dominance orientation, right wing authoritarianism

and collective narcissism are related to sensitivity to different aspects of social situations and

different perceptions of that situation mediate their relationships with different choices of

intergroup actions.

In addition, the results of Study 5 confirm that collective narcissism is unrelated to the

opposition to equality aspect of social dominance orientation but it correlates positively with

its group based dominance component. This relationship, however, seems to be weaker in the
 Collective Narcissism 42

Mexican than in the American sample in Study 1. Moreover, collective narcissism is

unrelated to right wing authoritarianism among the Mexican participants.

These results seem to corroborate earlier findings suggesting that the effects and

predictions of social dominance orientation and right wing authoritarianism are dependent on

social context (e.g. Dambrun, Duarte & Guimond, 2004; Guimond, Dambrun, Michinov &

Duarte, 2003; Lehmiller & Schmitt, 2007; Reicher & Haslam, 2006; Schmitt, Branscombe &

Kappen, 2003). More importantly, the finding that the relationship between collective

narcissism and group based dominance is stronger in a group of a higher international

position is consistent with earlier findings and the concept of collective narcissism. The level

of collective narcissism should be comparable in groups of different social standing; however

the level of group based dominance is typically lower among members of subordinate and

lower status groups (Jost & Thompson, 2000; Sidanius & Pratto, 1999; Sidanius, Pratto, van

Laar & Levin, 2004). Thus, the relationship between collective narcissism and group based

dominance can be expected to be weaker in the context of lower status and less dominant

social groups.

The lack of correlation between collective narcissism and authoritarianism in the

Mexican sample may be due to the specific form that authoritarianism takes in the Mexican

context. It seems to be defined mostly by submission to strong, charismatic and idealized

leaders (caudillos; e.g. Garner, 1985) and less related to concern for in-group cohesiveness.

Since concern for group cohesiveness was the main assumed reason for the overlap between

the two variables, its lower importance in this context may explain the lack of the expected

relationship. Further studies are needed in order to examine the relationship between

authoritarianism and collective narcissism in different socio-political contexts.

General Discussion
 Collective Narcissism 43

In this paper we introduce a concept of collective narcissism: an emotional investment

in an unrealistic belief about the greatness and prominence of an in-group. This concept is

proposed in order to help explain the capacity of positive group esteem to inspire out-group

enmity. Results from five large samples drawn from studies conducted in four different

countries representing diverse cultural and social contexts and using three different languages

confirm validity, one factorial structure and reliability the Collective Narcissism Scale

constructed in order to assess individual levels of collective narcissism.

Collective Narcissism and Intergroup Aggressiveness

Present results indicate that collective narcissism is a form of group esteem that is

reliably associated with intergroup bias and aggressiveness. This link is mediated by the

tendency to perceive the actions of other groups as undermining the positive image of the in-

group. Aggressiveness related to collective narcissism seems to be provoked by perceived

insult (Study 5) or threat to the in-group (Study 1). Apart from being related to retaliatory

aggressiveness in response to the image threat, collective narcissism is associated with

prejudice and intergroup negativity. We demonstrated that it predicts ethnic animosity

between Blacks and Whites in Great Britain and anti-Semitism in Poland. We propose that

since the sensitivity to criticism is chronic for collective narcissists, the out-groups with

which the in-group comes into frequent contact are likely to be perceived as constantly

harming and threatening the in-group. Since collective narcissists are not willing to forgive or

forget any insults or injustice done to an in-group by out-groups (Study 1), collective

narcissism is related to prejudice against out-groups with whom the in-group shares a history

of perceived mutual grievances and wrongdoings.

We argue that the concept of collective narcissism provides one answer to some of the

long-lasting questions of the psychology of intergroup relations: how do peoples’ feelings

and thoughts about their group shape their tendency to be aggressive towards other groups?
 Collective Narcissism 44

And what kind of self-esteem leads to intergroup negativity? In this vein, results of previous

studies suggest that high (Aberson, Healy & Romero, 2000) and threatened (e.g. Fein &

Spencer, 1997) or defensive (Jordan et al., 2005) personal self-esteem predicts intergroup

bias. Other authors suggest that collective, rather than personal, self-esteem is responsible for

intergroup negativity (Crocker & Luhtanen, 1990). Within this perspective, findings reveal

that high private (Rubin & Hewstone, 1998) or low public (Hunter et al., 2005; Long &

Spears, 1998; Long, Spears & Manstead, 1994) collective self-esteem predicts intergroup

hostility.

We suggest that the effects of private and public and high and defensive collective self

esteem should be considered at the same time as predictors of inter-group negativity, and

collective narcissism provides a framework that integrates them. Collective narcissism is

related to inter-group aggressiveness because it increases sensitivity to signs of criticism or

unfair treatment in an intergroup context. The results reveal that collective narcissism is a

form of high but unstable collective self-esteem that needs constant, external validation, but

accepts no validation as sufficient. We found that collective narcissism is highest among

people who hold their in-group in high regard but believe that others do not recognize its

value properly.

Moreover, our findings suggest that collective narcissism may be seen as an explicit,

positive regard of the in-group that is accompanied by unacknowledged doubts about the in-

group’s positive evaluation. These results provide intriguing, additional cues for

understanding of the nature of the relationship between collective narcissism and intergroup

aggressiveness. The present account emphasizes that collective, rather than personal,

threatened self-esteem is the best predictor of intergroup aggressiveness. We propose that the

perceived threat to the assumed greatness of the in-group may be chronic because, at least

partially, it may come from within, rather than outside. The unacknowledged doubts about
 Collective Narcissism 45

the in-group’s greatness may motivate collective narcissists constantly to seek signs of

criticism or disrespect of the in-group. The habitual emotional reaction to such signs is anger

related to the tendency to punish those who undermine the greatness of the in-group. Thus,

intergroup aggression may be seen as a means of controlling external validation of the

positive image of the in-group. The interpretation of collective narcissism as discrepancy

between explicit and implicit collective self esteem has to be confirmed by future studies that

use different methods of assessing implicit attitude towards the in-group.

Importantly, collective narcissism predicts intergroup prejudice and aggressiveness

over and above other robust and powerful individual difference variables associated with

intergroup negativity such as social dominance orientation (Pratto et al., 1994; Sidanius &

Pratto, 1999), right wing authoritarianism (Altemeyer, 1998) and blind patriotism (Schatz et

al., 1999) in a national context. In addition, present results indicate that the pattern of

relationships between collective narcissism, social dominance orientation, authoritarianism

and intergroup aggressiveness is dependent on the situational context and suggest that reasons

for aggressive responses associated with each variable are different. In the context of the war

on terror in Study 1, all three variables independently predict support for military aggression.

However, only the relationship between collective narcissism and the support for military

aggression is partially mediated by perceived threat to the in-group. In an ambiguous

intergroup situation (construction of the wall along the American-Mexican border by the U.S.

in Study 5), the three variables predict different perception of the situation and different

responses. Only collective narcissism predicts support for destructive actions towards the

U.S. and this relationship is mediated by the perception of the construction of the wall

alongside the Mexican-American border as threatening the image of the in-group.

Future Directions
 Collective Narcissism 46

We derived the concept of collective narcissism from the theory of individual

narcissism following the assumption that people can be narcissistic not only about their

personal but also their collective identities. The present results confirm that although

individual and collective narcissism are positively associated, they are separate variables that

make predictions relevant to different levels of individual functioning. Most importantly,

collective narcissism explains a great deal of variance in intergroup antagonism that

individual narcissism does not account for. Investigation of whether and how the relationship

between individual and collective narcissism is shaped by cultural and situational contexts is

an important direction for further research.

We assume that cultural and socialization contexts that allow for the development of a

strong ego may enhance the positive relationship between individual and collective

narcissism. Specifically, a stronger relationship may be expected in highly individualistic

cultures, where the projection of perceived individual greatness onto social in-groups is more

likely (e.g. Lasch, 1979; see also Gramzow & Gaertner, 2005). In collectivistic cultures,

however, collective narcissism may be related to putting the in-group prior to the individual

self. Commitment to the in-group may be associated with the submission of individual needs

or goals. In such a context the relationship between collective and individual narcissism

should be weaker.

In addition, in social situations that increase collective, but not individual narcissism,

the link between both forms of narcissism should be, at least temporarily, weakened. For

example, narcissistic identification with an in-group is likely to be stronger in an intergroup

conflict, especially when a tendency to attribute prevalent importance to the in-group, its

survival, value and honor intensifies as the conflict escalates (e.g. Bar-Tal, 2006). A situation

of acknowledged fraternal deprivation is also likely to increase collective narcissism with

reference to the deprived in-group (Runciman, 1966). Studies indicate that in-group threat
 Collective Narcissism 47

from unfavorable intergroup comparison and high in-group identification result in increased

affirmation of collective self (e.g. Branscombe, Schmitt & Harvey, 1999). The recognition of

the relative deprivation on the collective level is likely to result in a shared belief that the

esteemed in-group does not receive the treatment, respect or recognition it deserves. These

propositions require further empirical examination.

Other important questions that need to be answered by future studies are: To what

extend collective narcissism is a general tendency to form narcissistic attachment to social

groups people belong to? And whether narcissistic attachment can be evoked only by some

groups or experienced only in particular situations?

Collective narcissism can be seen as an individual difference variable, a general

tendency to identify with important social groups in a narcissistic way. It can be expected that

people may narcissistically identify with all social groups with which they share common

history. It is, therefore, more likely that they form narcissistic attachment to social groups that

have psychological entitativity, that is, a real, reified existence (e.g., national group, ethnic

group, religious group or political party; see Campbell, 1958; Keller, 2005; Medin & Ortony,

1989; Yzerbyt, Judd, & Corneille, 2004; see also Reynolds et al., 2000). It is less likely that

this tendency would apply to ad hoc created groups such as in minimal group paradigm tasks.

Some time is needed to establish that the favored in-group is not sufficiently appreciated by

others. However, it can be expected that groups that work together for certain amount of time

(e.g. students of a certain university; attendants to a certain course etc) can elicit narcissistic

attachment.

The results presented in this paper provide a suggestion that people can

narcissistically identify with different realistic, social groups. In four studies participants

were asked to think about their national in-group while responding to the Collective

Narcissism Scale and in one study they were asked to think about their ethnic group. A
 Collective Narcissism 48

validation study conducted in the Polish sample provides evidence that people can reliably

apply the Collective Narcissism Scale also to religious or political group or social class.

Further studies should examine collective narcissism in contexts of different social groups

and indicate which social groups are more likely to stir narcissistic sentiments and with what

effects.

Future studies should also establish, whether in certain context narcissistic

identification can be inspired by specific groups without generalizing to others. We assume

that there are social situations that are likely to induce narcissistic identification with a

specific social group but not necessarily with others (specific collective narcissism). As

mentioned above, intergroup conflicts may increase the narcissistic attachment. In such a case

the attachment is related to the particular in-group involved in the conflict but not to other in-

groups. Similarly, specific collective narcissism is more likely with reference to groups

experiencing fraternal relative deprivation and feeling powerful enough to acknowledge it

and act against it. In addition, socialization in certain socio-cultural contexts may emphasize

narcissistic identification with some groups rather than others: e.g. the national group in

nations struggling for sovereignty, the religious group among members of prosecuted

religions, the gender group in a society emphasizing divisions and hierarchical relations

between genders or the ethnic group among members of stigmatized ethnic groups. In

addition, rise in political rhetoric emphasizing social divisions and/or idealizing certain group

is likely to increase collective narcissism with respect to this group (e.g. nationalistic rhetoric

idealizing an ethnic majority as the only true representative of a nation). We suggest that

collective narcissism is likely to develop and flourish in social contexts that emphasize the

group’s greatness and uniqueness and induce downwards social comparisons.

Further studies are needed in order to determine whether collective narcissism is a

general attitudinal tendency, whether narcissistic identification is more likely to be formed

 Collective Narcissism 49

with realistic in-groups and what social and cultural contexts encourage development of

narcissistic identification with specific social groups. Such studies will improve our

understanding of conditions increasing likelihood of intergroup aggression. Another

important extension of the present research should examine whether the habitual link between

collective narcissism and aggressiveness as a means of protecting the grandiose group image

can be broken. It is plausible that collective narcissists may resort to more constructive

strategies of protecting and improving the in-group image in threatening situations.

Limitations

The present studies provide strong support for the hypotheses derived from the

concept of collective narcissism. However, they have several shortcomings that should be

considered. Firstly, in most of the samples, except from Study 2, there is a disproportionate

number of women among the participants. In all analyses we included gender as a control

variable and found no significant effect of gender. In addition, the results obtained in the

most balanced sample corroborate the results obtained in less balanced ones (e.g. studies 2

and 3). Although we do not have any theoretical reasons to assume that men and women

differ with respect to their individual levels of collective narcissism, future research should

use more balanced samples. Secondly, the present findings are based on university student

samples, which may not be representative of the population as a whole (Sears, 1986). We

agree that future studies should extend the investigation of collective narcissism and its

effects to different populations. However, it is worth noting that we found remarkably

consistent patterns of relationships in different socio-political contexts and different

geographical locations.

Most importantly, all presented studies provide correlational data. Experimental

studies are especially needed in order to replicate the results confirming the extension of

Threatened Egotism Theory to social domains. These studies should analyze the direct
 Collective Narcissism 50

influence of the criticism of or an insult to the in-group on aggressive responses of collective

narcissists. Further experimental studies should also test the prediction that collective

narcissists feel particularly threatened by perceived criticism or improper acknowledgement

of the in-group. Such feelings are related to group-based anger and a tendency to resort to

intergroup violence when there is a threat to the honor or good name of the in-group or when

the situation can be interpreted in terms of lack of respect and appreciation for the in-group.
 Collective Narcissism 51

References

Aberson, C. L., Healy, M., & Romero, V. (2000). In-group bias and self-esteem: A

meta-analysis. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 4, 157–173.

Abrams, D., & Hogg, M. A. (1988). Comments on the motivational status of self-

esteem in social identity and intergroup discrimination. European Journal of

Social Psychology, 18, 317-334.

Adorno, T. (1998). Critical models: Interventions and catchwords. New York:

Columbia University Press.

Aiken, L. S., & West, S. G. (1991). Multiple regression: Testing and interpreting

interactions. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.

Altemeyer, B. (1988). Enemies of freedom: Understanding right wing

authoritarianism. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass Inc.

Altemeyer, B. (1996). The authoritarian specter. Cambridge: Harvard University

Press.

Altemeyer, B. (1998). The other "authoritarian personality." Advances in

Experimental Social Psychology, 30, 47-92.

Ang, R. P., & Yusof, N. (2006). Development and initial validation of the Narcissistic

Personality Questionnaire for Children: A preliminary investigation using

school-based Asian samples. Educational Psychology, 26.

Arendt, H. (1971). The life of the mind: Vol. 1: Thinking. San Diego, CA: Harcourt

Brace Jovanovich.

Baccus, J., Baldwin, M., & Packer, D. (2004). Increasing implicit self-esteem through

classical conditioning. Psychological Science, 15, 498-502.

Bar-Tal, D. (1996). Development of social categories and stereotypes in early

childhood: The case of 'the Arab' concept formation, stereotype and attitudes
 Collective Narcissism 52

by Jewish children in Israel. International Journal of Intercultural Relations,

20(3-4), 341-370.

Bar-Tal, D. (2006). Bridging between micro and macro perspectives in social

psychology. Van Lange, Paul A. M. (Ed). Bridging social psychology:

Benefits of transdisciplinary approaches, pp. 341-346. Mahwah: Lawrence

Erlbaum Associates Publishers.

Baron, R. M., & Kenny, D.A. (1986). The moderator-mediator variable distinction in

social psychological research: Conceptual, strategic, and statistical

considerations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51(6), 1173-

1182.

Baumeister, R. F., Bushman, B. J., & Campbell, W. K. (2000). Self esteem,

narcissism, and aggression: Does violence result from low self-esteem or from

threatened egotism? Current Directions in Psychological Science, 9, 26-29.

Baumeister, R. F., Smart, L., & Boden, J.M. (1996). Relation of threatened egotism to

violence and aggression: The dark side of high self-esteem. Psychological

Review, 103(1), 5-33.

Baumeister, R. F. , & Vohs, K. D. (2001). Narcissism as addiction to esteem.

Psychological Inquiry, 12, 206-209.

Bazińska, R., & Drat-Ruszczak, K. (2000). Struktur narcyzmu w polskiej adaptacji

kwestionariusza NPI Raskina i Halla. [Structure of narcissism in Polish

adaptation of Raskin’s and Hall’s NPI]. Czasopismo Psychologiczne, 6( 3-4),

171-188.

Bizman, A., & Yinon, Y. (2004). Social self-discrepancies from own and other

standpoints and collective self-esteem. Journal of Social Psychology, 144(2),

101-113.
 Collective Narcissism 53

Bizman, A., Yinon, Y., & Krotman, S. (2001). Group-based emotional distress: An

extension of self-discrepancy theory. Personality and Social Psychology

Bulletin, 27(10), 1291-1300.

Bizumic, B., & Duckitt, J. (2008). “My group is not worthy of me”: Narcissism and

ethnocentrism. Political Psychology, 29, 437-453.

Bosson, J. K., Brown, R. P., Zeigler-Hill, V., & Swann, W. B., Jr. (2003). Self-

enhancement tendencies among people with high explicit self-esteem: The

moderating role of implicit self-esteem. Self and Identity, 2, 169-187.

Bosson, J. K., Lakey, C. E., Campbell, W. K., Zeigler-Hill, V., Jordan, C. H., &

Kernis, M. H. (2008). Untangling the links between narcissism and self-

esteem: A theoretical and empirical review. Social and Personality

Psychology Compass 2/3, 1415–1439.

Bosson, J. K., Swann, W. B., & Pennebaker, J. W. (2000). Stalking the perfect

measure of implicit self-esteem: The blind men and elephant revisited?

Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 79, 631-643.

Branscombe, N. R., Schmitt, M. T., & Harvey, R. D. (1999). Perceiving pervasive

discrimination among African-Americans: Implications for group

identification and well-being. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,

77, 135-149.

Brown, R. (2000). Social identity theory: past achievements, current problems and

future challenges. European Journal of Social Psychology, 30,745-778.

Brown, R. (2004). Vengeance is mine: Narcissism, vengeance, and the tendency to

forgive. Journal of Research in Personality, 38, 576-584.

 Collective Narcissism 54

Brown, R., Condor, S., Mathews, A., Wade, G., & Williams, J. (1986). Explaining

intergroup differentiation in an industrial organization. Journal of

Occupational Psychology, 59, 273-286.

Bryant, F. B., & Smith, B.D. (2001). Refining the architecture of aggression: A

measurement model for the Buss-Perry Aggression Questionnaire. Journal of

Research in Personality, 35(2), 138-167.

Bushman, B. J., & Baumeister, R. (1998). Threatened egotism, narcissism, self-

esteem, and direct and displaced aggression: Does self-love or self-hate lead to

violence? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 75, 219-229.

Buss, A.H., & Perry, M.P. (1992). The aggression questionnaire. Journal of

Personality and Social Psychology, 63, 452-459.

Campbell, D. T. (1958). Common fate, similarity, and other indices of the status of

aggregates of persons as social entities. Behavioral Science, 3, 14–25.

Campbell, W. K., Bonacci, A. M., Shelton, J., Exline, J. J., & Bushman, B. J. (2004)

Psychological entitlement: Interpersonal consequences and validation of a

self-report measure. Journal of Personality Assessment, 83, 29-45.

Cohen, J., Cohen, P., West, S. G., & Aiken, L. S. (2003). Applied multiple

regression/correlation analysis for the behavioral sciences (3rd ed.). London:

Erlbaum.

Cohrs, J. C., Moschner, B., Maes, J., & Kielmann, S. (2005). Personal values and

attitudes toward war. Peace and Conflict: Journal of Peace Psychology, 11,

293-312.

Crocker, J., & Luhtanen, R. (1990). Collective self-esteem and in-group bias. Journal

of Personality and Social Psychology, 58, 60-67.

 Collective Narcissism 55

Crocker, J., & Park, L. E. (2004). The costly pursuit of self-esteem. Psychological

Bulletin, 130 (3), 392–414.

Cunningham, W. A., Johnson, M. K., Raye, C. L., Gatenby, J. C., Gore, J. C., &

Banaji, M. R. (2003). Dissociated conscious and unconscious evaluations of

social groups: An fMRI Investigation. Unpublished manuscript, Yale

University.

Cunningham, W. A., Preacher, K., & Banaji, M. R. (2001). Implicit attitude measures:

Consistency, stability and construct validity. Psychological Science, 121, 163-

170.,

Dambrun, M., Duarte, S., & Guimond, S. (2004). Why are men more likely to support

group-based dominance than women ? The mediating role of gender

identification. British Journal of Social Psychology, 43, 287-297.

De Cremer, D., & Sedikides, C. (2005). Self-uncertainty and responsiveness to

procedural information. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 41, 157 –

173.

de Figueiredo, R. J. P., & Elkins, Z. (2003). Are patriots bigots? An inquiry into the

vices of ingroup pride. American Journal of Political Science, 47, 171-188.

Dovidio, J. F., Kawakami, K., & Gaertner, S. L. (2002). Implicit and explicit

prejudice and interracial interaction. Journal of Personality and Social

Psychology, 82, 62-68.

Duckitt, J. (2006). Differential effects of right wing authoritarianism and social

dominance orientation on out-group attitudes and their mediation by threat

from competitiveness to out-groups. Personality and Social Psychology

Bulletin, 32, 684-696.

 Collective Narcissism 56

Duckitt, J., & Fisher, K. (2003). Social threat, worldview, and ideological attitudes.

Political Psychology, 24, 199-222.

Duckitt, J., & Sibley, C. (2006). Right wing authoritarianism, social dominance

orientation, and the dimensions of generalized prejudice. European Journal of

Personality, 20, 1-18.

Eidelson, R. J., & Eidelson, J. I. (2003). Dangerous ideas: Five beliefs that propel

groups toward conflict. American Psychologist, 58, 182-192.

Emmons, R. A. (1987). Narcissism: Theory and measurement. Journal of Personality

and Social Psychology, 52, 11–17.

Exline, J. J., Baumeister, R. F., Bushman, B. J., Campbell, W. K., & Finkel, E. J.

(2004). Too proud to let go: Narcissistic entitlement as a barrier to

forgiveness. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 87, 894-912.

Farnham, S. D., Greenwald, A. G., & Banaji, M. R. (1999). Implicit self-esteem. In

D. Abrams & M. Hogg (Eds.), Social identity and social cognition (pp. 230-

248). Oxford, UK: Blackwell

Federico C., Golec A., & Dial J. (2005). The relationship between need for closure

and attitudes toward international conflict: moderating effects of national

attachment. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 31, 621-632.

Fein, S., & Spencer, S. J. (1997). Prejudice as self-image maintenance: Affirming the

self through derogating others. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,

73, 31–44.

Feshbach, S. (1987). Individual aggression, national attachment, and the search for

peace. Aggressive Behavior, 5, 315-326.

 Collective Narcissism 57

Feshbach, S. (1994). Nationalism, patriotism, and aggression: a clarification of

functional differences. In L. Huesmann (Ed.) Aggressive Behavior: Current

Perspectives (pp. 275-291). New York: Putnam.

Fiedler, K., Messner, C., & Bluemke, M. (2006). Unresolved problems with the "I",

the "A", and the "T": A logical and psychometric critique of the Implicit

Association Test (IAT). European Review of Social Psychology, 17, 74-147.

Fromm, E. (1941). Escape from freedom. New York: Henry Holt and Company.

Garner, P. (1985). Federalism and caudillismo in the Mexican Revolution: The

genesis of the Oaxaca Sovereignty Movement (1915-20). Journal of Latin

American Studies, 17, 111-133.

Gawronski, B., & Bodenhausen, G.V. (2006). Associative and propositional processes

in evaluation: an integrative review of implicit and explicit attitude change.

Psychological Bulletin, 132 (5), 692–731.

Gramzow, R. H., & Gaertner, L. (2005). Self esteem and favoritism toward novel in-

groups: The self as an evaluative base. Journal of Personality and Social

Psychology, 88, 801-815.

Greenwald, A. G., & Banaji, M. R. (1995). Implicit social cognition: Attitudes, self-

esteem, and stereotypes. Psychological Review, 102, 4-27.

Greenwald, A. G., Banaji, M. R., Rudman, L. A., Farnham, S. D., Nosek, B. A., &

Mellott, D. S. (2002). A unified theory of implicit attitudes, stereotypes, self-

esteem, and self-concept. Psychological Review, 109, 3-25.

Greenwald, A. G., & Farnham, S. D. (2000). Using the Implicit Association Test to

measure self-esteem and self-concept. Journal of Personality and Social

Psychology, 79, 1022-1038.

 Collective Narcissism 58

Greenwald, A.G., McGhee, D., & Schwartz, J. (1998). Measuring individual

differences in implicit cognition: The Implicit Association Test. Journal of

Personality and Social Psychology, 74, 1464-1480.

Greenwald, A. G., Nosek, B. A., & Banaji, M. R. (2003). Understanding and using the

implicit association test: I. An improved scoring algorithm. Journal of

Personality and Social Psychology, 85, 197-216.

Guimond, S., Dambrun, M., Michinov, N., & Duarte, S. (2003). Does social

dominance generate prejudice? Integrating individual and contextual

determinants of intergroup cognitions. Journal of Personality and Social

Psychology, 84(4), 697-721.

Gusfield, J. R. (1963). Symbolic crusade: Status politics and the American

temperance movement. Oxford, England: U. Illinois Press.

Heaven, P.C.., Rajab, D., & Ray, J.J. (1984). Patriotism, racism and the disutility of

the ethnocentrism concept. Journal of Social Psychology, 125(2), 181-185.

Henry, P. J., & Sears, D. O. (2002). The symbolic racism 2000 scale. Political

Psychology, 23, 253-283.

Hewstone, M., Cairns, E., Voci, A., McLernon, F., Niens, U., & Noor, M. (2004).

Intergroup forgiveness and guilt in Northern Ireland: Social psychological

dimensions of ‘The Troubles’. In N.R. Branscombe & B. Doosje (Eds.),

Collective guilt: International perspectives. New York: Cambridge University

Press.

Hodson, G., Hooper, H., Dovidio, J.F., & Gaertner, S.L. (2005). Aversive racism in

Britain: Legal decisions and the use of inadmissible evidence. European

Journal of Social Psychology, 35, 437-448 .

 Collective Narcissism 59

Hofmann, W., Gawronski, H. Gschwendner, T., Le, H., & Schmitt, M. (2005). A

metaanalysis on the correlation between the implicit association test and

explicit self-report measures. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 31,

1369-1385.

Hofstadter, R. (1965). The paranoid style in American politics. New York: Alfred A.

Knopf.

Horney, K. (1937). The Neurotic Personality of Our Time. New York: W. Norton &

Co.

Hornsey, M.J. (2003). Linking Superiority Bias in the Interpersonal and Intergroup

Domains. Journal of Social Psychology, 143(4), 479-491.

Hunter, J., Cox, S., O’Brien, K., Springer, M., Boyes, M., Banks, M., Hayhurst, J. &

Crawford, M. (2005). Threats to group value, domain-specific self-esteem and

intergroup discrimination amongst minimal and national groups. British

Journal of Social Psychology, 44, 329–353

Jordan, C.H., Spencer, S. J., & Zanna, M. P. (2003). “I love me . . . I love me not”:

Implicit self-esteem, explicit self-esteem, and defensiveness. In S. J. Spencer,

S. Fein, M. P. Zanna, & J. M. Olson (Eds.), The Ontario Symposium: Vol. 9.

Motivated social perception (pp. 117- 145). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

Jordan, C.H., Spencer, S. J., & Zanna, M. P. (2005). Types of high self-esteem and

prejudice: how implicit self-esteem relates to ethnic discrimination among

high explicit self-esteem individuals. Personality and Social Psychology

Bulletin, 31(5), 693-702.

Jordan, C.H., Spencer, S. J., Zanna, M. P., Hoshino-Browne, E., & Correll, J. (2003).

Secure and defensive self-esteem. Journal of Personality and Social

Psychology, 85, 969-978.

 Collective Narcissism 60

Jöreskog, K.G., & Sörbom, D. (2006). LISREL 8.80 for Windows [Computer

Software]. Lincolnwood, IL: Scientific Software International, Inc.

Jost, J.T., Glaser, J., Kruglanski, A.W., & Sulloway, F. (2003). Political conservatism

as motivated social cognition. Psychological Bulletin, 129, 339-375.

Jost, J.T., & Thompson, E.P. (2000). Group-based dominance and opposition to

equality as independent predictors of self-esteem, ethnocentrism, and social

policy attitudes among African Americans and European Americans. Journal

of Experimental Social Psychology, 36, 209-232.

Karpinski, A., Steinman, R. B., & Hilton, J. L. (2005). Attitude importance as a

moderator of the relationship between implicit and explicit attitude measures.

Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 31, 949–962.

Keller, J. (2005). In genes we trust: The biological component of psychological

essentialism and its relationship to mechanisms of motivated social cognition.

Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 88, 686-702.

Kernberg, O. F. (1970). Factors in the psychoanalytic treatment of narcissistic

personalities. Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association, 18(1), 51-

85.

Kernis, M.H. (1993). There’s more to self-esteem than whether it is high or low: The

importance of stability of self-esteem. Journal of Personality and Social

Psychology, 65, 1190-1204.

Kernis, M. H. (2003). Toward a conceptualization of optimal self-esteem.

Psychological Inquiry, 14, 1-26.

Kernis, M. H. (2005). Measuring self-esteem in context: The importance of stability

of self-esteem in psychological functioning. Journal of Personality, 3(6),

1569-1605.
 Collective Narcissism 61

Kernis, M. H., Abend, T., Shrira, I., Goldman, B. M., Paradise, A., & Hampton, C.

(2005). Self-serving responses as a function of discrepancies between implicit

and explicit self-esteem. Self and Identity, 4, 311 – 330.

Kernis, M.H., Grannemann, B.D., & Barclay, L.C. (1989). Stability and level of self-

esteem as predictors of anger arousal and hostility. Journal of Personality and

Social Psychology, 56, 1013-1022.

Kernis, M. H., & Waschull, S. B. (1995). The interactive roles of stability and level of

selfesteem: Research and theory. In M. P. Zanna (Ed.), Advances in

experimental social psychology (Vol. 27, pp. 93 – 141). San Diego, CA:

Academic Press.

Kitayama, S., & Karasawa, M. (1997). Implicit self-esteem in Japan: Name letters and

birthday numbers. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 23, 736-742.

Kohut, H. (1966). Forms and transformations of narcissism. Journal of American

Psychoanalitical Assotiation, 14, 243-272.

Kosterman, R., & Feshbach, S. (1989). Toward a measure of patriotic and

nationalistic attitudes. Political Psychology, 10, 257-274.

Kruglanski, A. W., & Webster, D. M. (1996). Motivated Closing of Mind: Seizing

and Freezing. Psychological Review, 103(2), 263-283.

Lane, K. A., Mitchell, J. P., & Banaji, M. R. (2003). Implicit group evaluation: In-

group preference, out-group preference and the rapid creation of implicit

attitudes. Unpublished manuscript, Harvard University.

Lasch, C. (1979). The culture of narcissism. New York: Warner Books.

Lehmiller, J. J., & Schmitt, M. T. (2007). Group domination and inequality in context:

Evidence for the unstable meanings of social dominance and authoritarianism.

European Journal of Social Psychology, 37, 704-724.

 Collective Narcissism 62

Lipset, S.M., & Raab, E. (1970). The politics of unreason right wing extremism in

America, 1790-1970. New York: Harper & Row.

Long, K. M., & Spears. (1998). Opposing effects of personal and collective self-

esteem on interpersonal and intergroup comparisons. European Journal of

Social Psychology, 28, 913-930.

Long, K. M., Spears, R., & Manstead, A. S. R. (1994). The influence of personal and

collective self-esteem on strategies of social differentiation. British Journal of

Social Psychology, 33, 313-329.

Luhtanen, R., & Crocker, J. (1992). A collective self-esteem scale: Self-evaluation of

one's social identity. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 18, 302-318.

Maison, D., & Mikołajczyk, T. (2003). Implicit Association Test – teoria,

interpretacja i wątpliwości wokół metody. [Implicit Association Test- theory,

interpretation and doubts concerning the method]. Studia Psychologiczne, 41,

69-88.

McFarland, S. (2005). On the eve of war: Authoritarianism, SDO, and American

students’ attitudes towards attacking Iraq. Personality and Social Psychology

Bulletin, 31, 360–367.

Medin, D., & Ortony, A. (1989). Psychological essentialism. In S. Vosniadou & A.

Ortony (Eds.), Similarity and analogical reasoning (pp. 179–195). Cambridge,

England: Cambridge University Press.

Morf, C. C., & Rhodewalt, F. (2001). Unraveling the paradoxes of narcissism: A

dynamic self-regulatory processing model. Psychological Inquiry, 12, 177–

196.
 Collective Narcissism 63

Mummendey, A., Klink, A., & Brown, R. (2001). Nationalism and patriotism:

National identification and out-group rejection. British Journal of Social

Psychology, 40, (2), 159-172.

Neiss, M. B., Sedikides, C., & Stevenson, J. (2006). Genetic influences on level and

stability of self-esteem. Self and Identity, 5, 247-266.

Nosek, B. A., Greenwald, A. G., & Banaji, M. R. (2005). Understanding and using the

Implicit Association Test: II. Method variables and construct validity.

Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 31(2), 166–180.

Nosek, B. A., Greenwald, A. G., & Banaji, M. R. (2007). The Implicit Association

Test at age 7: A methodological and conceptual review (pp. 265–292). In J. A.

Bargh (Ed.), Automatic processes in social thinking and behavior. Psychology

Press.

Pinter, B., & Greenwald, A. G. (2005). Clarifying the role of the "other" category in

the self-esteem IAT. Experimental Psychology, 52, 74-79.

Pratto, F., Sidanius, J., Stallworth, L. M., & Malle, B. F. (1994). Social dominance

orientation: A personality variable predicting social and political attitudes.

Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 67, 741-763.

Raskin, R., Novacek, J., & Hogan, R. (1991). Narcissistic self-esteem management.

Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 60, 911–918.

Raskin, R. , & Terry, H. (1988). A principal-component analysis of the narcissistic

personality inventory and further evidence of its construct validity. Journal of

Personality and Social Psychology, 54, 5.

Reicher, S. D., & Haslam, S. A. (2006). Rethinking the psychology of tyranny: The

BBC Prison Study. British Journal of Social Psychology, 45, 1-40.

 Collective Narcissism 64

Reynolds, K. J., Turner, J.C., & Haslam, S. A. (2000). When are we better than them

and they worse than us? A closer look at social discrimination in positive and

negative domains. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 78(1), 64-

80.

Rhodewalt, F., & Morf, C. C. (1995). Self and interpersonal correlates of the

Narcissistic Personality Inventory: A review and new findings. Journal of

Research in Personality, 29, 1-23.

Rhodewalt, F., & Morf, C. C. (1998). On self-aggrandizement and anger: A temporal

analysis of narcissism and affective reactions to success and failure. Journal of

Personality and Social Psychology, 74, 672-685.

Rhodewalt, F., Madrian, J. C., & Cheney, S. (1998). Narcissism, self-knowledge

organization, and emotional reactivity: The effect of daily experiences on self-

esteem and affect. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 24, 75-87.

Rhodewalt, F., & Sorrow, D. L. (2003). Interpersonal self-regulation: Lessons from

the study of narcissism. In M. R. Leary & J. P. Tangney (Eds.), Handbook of

self and identity (pp. 519–535). New York: Guilford Press.

Roberts, J. E., Kassel, J. D., & Gotlib, I. H. (1995). Level and stability of self-esteem

as predictors of depressive symptoms. Personality and Individual Differences,

19, 217 – 224.

Rocass, S., Klar, Y., & Liviatan, I. (2006). The paradox of group-based guilt: modes

of national identification, conflict vehemence, and reactions to the in-group’s

moral violations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 91, 698-711.

Rubin, M., & Hewstone, M. (1998). Social identity theory’s self-esteem hypothesis: A

review and some suggestions for clarification. Personality and Social

Psychology Review, 2, 40-62.

 Collective Narcissism 65

Ruiz, J.M., Smith, T.W., & Rhodewalt, F. (2001). Distinguishing narcissism and

hostility: Similarities and differences in interpersonal circumplex and five

factor correlates. Journal of Personality Assessment, 76, 537-555.

Runciman, W. G. (1966). Relative deprivation and social justice: A study of attitudes

to social inequality in twentieth century England. Berkeley: University of

California Press.

Schatz, R., & Staub, E. (1997). Manifestations of blind and constructive patriotism:

Personality correlates and individual-group relations. In Bar-Tal, D., Staub, E.

(Eds). Patriotism: in the lives of individuals and nations, (pp. 229-246).

Chicago: Nelson-Hall.

Schatz, R.T., Staub, E., & Lavine, H. (1999). On the varieties of national attachment:

Blind versus constructive patriotism. Political Psychology, 20, 151-174.

Schmitt, M.T., Branscombe, N.R., & Kappen, D. (2003). Attitudes toward group-

based inequality: Social dominance or social identity. British Journal of Social

Psychology, 42, 161-186.

Schopler, J., & Insko, C. A. (1992). The discontinuity effect: Generality and

mediation. In W. Stroebe & M. Hewstone (Eds.), European Review of Social

Psychology, 3 (pp. 121-151). Chichester: John Wiley & Sons.

Schroder-Abe, M., Rudolph, A., & Schutz, A. (2007) High implicit self-esteem is not

necessarily advantageous: Discrepancies between explicit and implicit self-

esteem and their relationship with anger expression and psychological health.

European Journal of Personality, 21(3), 319-340.

Sherif, M. (1958). Superordinate goals in the reduction of intergroup conflict. The

American Journal of Sociology, 63, 349- 356.

 Collective Narcissism 66

Sears, D. O. (1986). College sophomores in the laboratory: Influences of a narrow

data base on social psychology's view of human nature. Journal of Personality

and Social Psychology, 51, 515-530.

Sedikides, C., Rudich, E.A., Gregg, A. P., Kumashiro, M., & Rusbult, C. (2004). Are

normal narcissists psychologically healthy?: Self- esteem matters. Journal of

Personality and Social Psychology, 87, 400-416.

Sidanius, J., Feshbach, S., Levin, S. & Pratto, F. (1997). The interface between ethnic

and national attachment: Ethnic pluralism or ethnic dominance? Public

Opinion Quarterly, 61, 103-133.

Sidanius, J., & Pratto, F. (1999). Social dominance. New York: Cambridge

University Press.

Sidanius J., Pratto, F., van Laar, C., & Levin, S. (2004). Social Dominance Theory: Its

agenda and method. Political Psychology, 25, 845-880.

Silvan-Ferrero, M., & Bustillos, A. (2007). Adaptación de la escala de Orientación a

la Dominancia Social al castellano: validación de la Dominancia Grupal y la

Oposición a la Igualdad como factores subyacentes. [Castillan adaptation of

the Social Dominance Orientation Scale: validation of the group-based

dominance and opposition to equality as underlying factors]. Revista de

Psicología Social, 22, 3-16.

Simms, L. J., & Watson, D. (2007). The construct validation approach to personality

scale construction. In R. Robins, C. Fraley, & R. Krueger (Eds.). Handbook of

Research Methods in Personality Psychology. Guilford Press.

Staub, E. (1989). The roots of evil: The origins of genocide and other group violence.

New York: Cambridge University Press.

 Collective Narcissism 67

Struch, N., & Schwartz, S.H. (1989). Intergroup aggression: Its predictors and

distinctness from in-group bias. Journal of Personally and Social Psychology,

56(3), 364-373.

Sumner, W. G. (1906). Folkways. New York: Ginn.

Tajfel, H. & Turner, J. C. (1986). The social identity theory of intergroup behavior. In

S. Worchel & L. W. Austin (Eds.). Psychology of Intergroup Relations.

Chigago: Nelson-Hall.

Vaknin, S. (2003). Narcissistic leaders and corporate narcissism. Internet resources:

managernewz.com/managernewz-21-

0030203NarcissisticLeadersandCorporateNarcissism.html. derived

12.07.2007.

Viroli, M. (1995). For love of country: An essay on patriotism and nationalism.

Oxford: Clarendon.

Warren, M. & Capponi, A. (1996). The role of culture in the development of

narcissistic personality disorders in American, Japan and Denmark. Journal of

Applied Social Sciences, 20, 77-82.

Wilson, T.D., Lindsey, S., & Schooler, T.Y. (2000). A model of dual attitudes.

Psychological Review, 107(1), 101–126.

Yzerbyt, V. Y., Castano, E., Leyens, J.-Ph., & Paladino, P. (2000). The primacy of the

ingroup: The interplay of entitativity and identification. European Review of

Social Psychology, 11, 257-295.

Yzerbyt, V., Judd, C. M., & Corneille, O. (Eds.). (2004). The psychology of group

perception. Perceived variability, entitativity, and essentialism. London:

Psychology Press.
 Collective Narcissism 68

Zeigler-Hill, V. (2006). Discrepancies between implicit and explicit self-esteem:

Implications for narcissism and self-esteem instability. Journal of Personality,

74, 119 - 143.

Footnotes
1
Note that individual narcissism is understood here as personality characteristic, rather than

individual pathology see Kohut (1966) or Kernberg (1970).

2
Studies report that level and stability of personal self-esteem are uncorrelated (Kernis,

Grannemann & Barclay, 1989); correlated “from .15 to the high .20s” (Kernis & Waschull,

1995; p. 96); or highly correlated (Roberts, Kassel & Gotlib, 1995; see also using alternative

assessment of personal self-esteem stability: De Cremer & Sedikides, 2005; Neiss, Sedikides

& Stevenson, 2006).

3
The original Collective Narcissism Scale was translated from English to Polish by a

bilingual translator. It was then back translated by an expert in social psychology in order to

ensure the equivalence of meaning of items on both scales. The same method of translation

was used in all studies that used non-English speaking samples. In the British sample,

participants were asked to think about their national group while responding to the items. In

the Polish sample, participants were first asked to read the items of the Collective Narcissism

Scale and decide whether they could think of any group to which these items applied and then

respond to the items of the scale. Participants indicated 4 groups (Poles, Catholics, students
 Collective Narcissism 69

of private university, groups of lower social status) to which the items could be meaningfully

applied.
4
Collective self-esteem comprises four facets that we assessed in Study 4: private, public,

identity and membership. The four facets of collective self-esteem are positively correlated.

In order to exclude the possibility that the predicted interactions between private and public

collective self-esteem and private and implicit collective self-esteem are affected by these

intercorrelations, other possible interactions between the four correlated facets, or interactions

between other facets and implicit national self-esteem, we performed a second hierarchical

multiple regression analysis that included all four aspects of the collective self-esteem and

implicit national esteem in Model 1 and all possible two way interactions of the five main

predictors in Model 2. The results for Model 1 show that collective narcissism is

independently predicted by private (positively) (b = .19; SE = .04; p < .001), identity

(positively) (b = .30; SE = .03; p < .001) and public (negatively) (b = -.13; SE = .04; p < .001)

collective self-esteem. The results for Model 2 indicate that the first order effects revealed by

Model 1 are qualified by two significant interactions: Between private collective self-esteem

and implicit national esteem (b = -.10; SE = .05; p < .05) and between private and public

collective self-esteem (b = -.09; SE = .05; p < .05) (F(17,245) = 12.06; p < .001; R2 = .456).

The addition of the interaction terms leads to a significant increase in the amount of variance

explained by the model (∆R2(10, 245) = .05; p < .01). No other interaction is significant.

However, after the interactions are entered to the equation the negative relationship between

collective narcissism and implicit national esteem becomes significant (b = -.24; SE = .11; p

< .05).
 Collective Narcissism 70

Table 1

Items of the Collective Narcissism Scale with factors loading in Study 1 and British and

Polish validation samples

Factor loading

Item Study 1 British Polish

1. I wish other groups would more quickly recognize authority of my .68 .77 .68

group.*

2. My group deserves special treatment.* .68 .65 .66

3. I will never be satisfied until my group gets all it deserves.* .67 .77 .63

4. I insist upon my group getting the respect that is due to it.* .66 .72 .59

5. It really makes me angry when others criticize my group.* .63 .58 .70

6. If my group had a major say in the world, the world would be a .63 .86 .59

much better place.*

7. I do not get upset when people do not notice achievements of my .63 .73 .65

group. (reversed)*

8. Not many people seem to fully understand the importance of my .61 .66 .76

group.*

9. The true worth of my group is often misunderstood.* .58 .60 .65

10. I love my group almost as much as I love myself. .58 -- --

11. My group is extraordinary. .58 -- --

12. My group stands out positively among other groups. .52 -- --

13. I like when my group is a center of attention. .50 -- --

14. My group rarely fails. .50 -- --

15. People in my group are more attractive than others. .49 -- --

16. I want my group to amount to something in the eyes of the world. .39 -- --
 Collective Narcissism 71

Factor loading

Item Study 1 British Polish

17. My group has all predispositions to influence and direct others. .31 -- --

18. If it only wanted my group could convince other groups to do .30 -- --

almost anything.

19. My group has made significant contributions to humanity. .30 -- --

20. Other groups are envious of my group. .24 -- --

21. My group is a great influence over other groups. .21 -- --

22. My group never forgives an insult caused by other groups. .10 -- --

23. I am envious of other groups’ good fortune. .08 -- --

* items that formed the final Collective Narcissism Scale

 Collective Narcissism 72

Table 2

Fit indices for the CFA models for the Collective Narcissism Scale in Study 1 and Polish

validation sample

Model df χ2 χ2/df RMSEA GFI AGFI NNFI CFI RMR

One factor model for 23 231 780.23*** 3.38 .09 .79 .74 .61 .57 .08

items scale (Study 1, N

= 263)

One factor model for 9 27 86.09*** 3.19 .09 .93 .88 .90 .86 .04

items scale (Study 1)

Modified one factor 23 47.22** 2.05 .06 .96 .93 .94 .97 .027

model for 9 items scale

(error covariances

added) (Study 1)

Modified one factor 22 42.21** 1.92 .06 .97 .94 .91 .95 .08

model for 9 items scale

(error covariances

added) (Polish validation

sample, N = 257)

Note. The error covariances of items 5, 3, and 9; 2 and 8 were added in modified models.

** p < .01. *** p < .001.

 Collective Narcissism 73

Table 3

Correlations between collective narcissism, right wing authoritarianism, social dominance

orientation, two aspects of patriotism, national group identification, personal self-esteem and

threat, the inability to forgive and military aggression (Study 1, N = 263)

Measures 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

1. Collective --

narcissism

2.Social dominance .53*** --

orientation

3. Right -wing .38*** .33*** --

authoritarianism

4. Blind .58*** .53*** .52*** --

patriotism

5. Constructive -.18** -.27*** -.45*** -.43*** --

patriotism

6. Personal self- .002 .03 .03 .001 .09 --

esteem

7. National group .49*** .27** .33*** .45*** -.03 .08 --

identification

8. Unforgivingness .43*** .37*** .23*** .36*** -.15* -.06 .16** --

9. Threat .40*** .28*** .23*** .34*** -.04 .05 .30*** .26*** --

10. Importance of US .47*** .44*** .44*** .45*** -.33*** .10 .34*** .35*** .30*** --

military

11. Support for war .49*** .45*** .45*** .54*** -.33*** .12+ .33*** .26*** .35*** .62***

in Iraq

*p < .05. **p < .001. ***p < .000.

 Collective Narcissism 74

Table 4

Fit indices for models of relationships between collective narcissism, social dominance

orientation, authoritarianism, blind patriotism and threat, the inability to forgive and military

aggression (Study 1, N = 263)

Model df χ2 χ2/df RMSEA GFI AGFI NNFI CFI RMR

With collective 6 6.14 1.02 .005 .99 .97 .99 1.00 .01

narcissism

Without collective 9 24.19 2.68 .08 .97 .93 .94 .98 .07

narcissism
 Collective Narcissism 75

Table 5

Correlations of collective and individual narcissism, interpersonal aggressiveness and Pro-

Black antagonism (Study 2, N = 92)

Measures 1 2 3

1. Collective narcissism --

2. Individual narcissism .27** --

3. Interpersonal aggressiveness .10 .44*** --

4. Pro-Black antagonism .27** -.10 -.13

**p < .001. ***p < .000.

 Collective Narcissism 76

Table 6

Correlations of collective narcissism, aspects of collective self-esteem and implicit national

esteem (Study 4, N = 262)

Measures 1 2 3 4 5

1.Collective narcissism --

2.Membership .25*** --

2. Private .44*** .59*** --

3. Public .07 .39*** .45*** --

4. Identity .54*** .30*** .45*** .26*** --

5. Implicit national esteem -.05 -.09 .06 .04 .05

+p < .10. *p < .05. **p < .001. ***p < .000.
 Collective Narcissism 77

Table 7

Multiple regression analysis of effects of private and public collective self-esteem and

implicit national esteem) on collective narcissism (Study 4, N = 262; controlled for age and

gender)

Variable B SE B β

Step1

Public collective self esteem -.11** .05 -.14

Private collective self esteem .38*** .05 .51

Implicit national esteem -.04 .04 -.06

Step 2

Public collective self esteem -.11** .05 -.15

Private collective self esteem .36*** .05 .47

Implicit national esteem -.07+ .04 -.09

Public X Private -.09* .04 -.14

Implicit X Private -.08* .04 -.12

Note. R2 = .272 for Step 1; ∆R2 = .04 for Step 2 (ps < .05)

+p < .10. *p < .05. **p < .001. ***p < .000.
 Collective Narcissism 78

Table 8

Correlations of the collective narcissism, social dominance orientation and right wing

authoritarianism intergroup attitudes and perceptions (Study 5, N = 200)

Measures 1 2 3 4 5

1. Collective Narcissism --

2. Social dominance orientation .08 --

3. Right wing authoritarianism .02 .34*** --

4. Wall as insult .18** -.22** -.14* --

5. USA helps Mexico grow -.10+ .16* .14+ -.09 --

6. Boycott .20** -.14* -.16* .43*** -.17*

+p < .10. *p < .05. **p < .001. ***p < .000.
 Collective Narcissism 79

Figure Captions

Figure 1. Structural equation modeling of the relationships between collective narcissism,

social dominance orientation, right wing authoritarianism, blind patriotism and threat, the

inability to forgive and military aggression. (Study 1, N = 263).

Figure 2. Relationship between collective narcissism (CN) and pro-Black antagonism among

Black and White participants (Study 2). *p < .05. ***p < .001.

Figure 3. Interaction effect of two aspects of collective self-esteem (CSE) on collective

narcissism (Study 4). ***p < .001.

Figure 4. Interaction effect of private collective self-esteem (CSE) and implicit national

esteem (INE) on collective narcissism (Study 4). *p < .05.

Figure 5. Indirect effect of collective narcissism via perceived disrespect on preference for

boycotting American companies (Study 5, N = 202): ** p < .01 *** p < .001.

Note. The entries are unstandardized regression coefficients with standard errors in

parentheses. The dotted line indicates path for simple regression (not controlling for

mediator).

Figure 6. Indirect effect of right wing authoritarianism via perceived disrespect on preference

for boycotting American companies (Study 5, N = 202). * p < .05. ** p < .01. *** p < .001.

Note. The entries are unstandardized regression coefficients with standard errors in

parentheses. The dotted line indicates path for simple regression (not controlling for

mediator).

Figure 7. Indirect effect of social dominance orientation via perception of the US as help to

Mexican advancement on disagreement with boycotting American companies. (Study 5, N =

202). * p < .05.

Note. The entries are unstandardized regression coefficients with standard errors in

parentheses. The dotted line indicates path for simple regression (not controlling for
 Collective Narcissism 80

mediator).
 Collective Narcissism 81

Right Wing
Authoritarianism

.52 .25
Blind Patriotism .17
.38

.16
Threat from
.18** .15 Support for Military
Out-groups Aggression
.58
.33

.19
.53

Collective .18 .18

Narcissism
.33 Inability to Forgive
.53

.19
Social Dominance
Orientation

Figure 1
 Collective Narcissism 82

Pro-Blacks
Black deprivation and preference of
6
5 b = .33***; SE = .08

Blacks over Whites:

4
3 Blacks
Whites
2
Pro-Whites

1 b = -.18*; SE = .10
0
Low CN High CN

Figure 2
 Collective Narcissism 83

Collective Narcissism 5

4 b = -.08***; SE = .02
Low Private CSE
3
High Private CSE
2
b = -.04; SE = .03
1

0
Low Public CSE High Public CSE

Figure 3
 Collective Narcissism 84

Collective Narcissism 6 b = -.07*; SE = .03

5
4 Low Private CSE
3 High Private CSE
2
b = -.001; SE = .03
1
0
Low INE High INE

Figure 4
 Collective Narcissism 85

Wall as Insult
.62***(.09)
.39**(.15)

.57**(.21)
Collective Boycott
Narcissism American
Companies

.31(.19)

Figure 5
 Collective Narcissism 86

Wall as Insult
-.25*(.12) .62***(.09)

-.37**(.17)
Right Wing Boycott
Authoritarianism American
Companies

-.24(.16)

Figure 6
 Collective Narcissism 87

USA Helps
-.19*(.08)
.33*(.14) Mexico Grow

-.31*(.17)
Social Boycott
Dominance American
Orientation Companies

-.26 (.18)

Figure 7

View publication stats