CONTEMPORARY INDIA AND

EDUCATION
B.ED FIRST YEAR
(PONDICHERRY UNIVERSITY)

M.CHINNADURAI, M.Sc.,M.Ed.,M.Phil.,SET.,(Ph.D).,
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR
SENTHIL COLLEGE OF EDUCATION
PUDUCHERRY – 605110

M.CHINNADURAI, M.Sc., M.Ed., M.Phil., SET., Page 1

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR OF PHYSICAL SCIENCE,
SENTHIL COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, PUDUCHERRY – 605 110.
 CONTENT OUTLINE
Unit 1: Concept and aims of education
Meaning of Education – Formal, non-formal and informal education – Various Agencies of
Education – Aims of Education in Contemporary Indian society – Determinants of Aims of
Education
Unit 2: Education and Philosophy
Relationship between Education and Philosophy - Educational Thinkers and their Contributions:
Tagore, Gandhi, Swami Vivekananda, Aurobindo, J. Krishnamoorthi, Pndit Madan Mohan
Malaviya, John Dewey, Rousseau, Montessori and Froebel – New vision of education - Emerging
India for a new renaissance.
Unit 3: Education and Sociology
Meaning and Scope of educational sociology – Social Realities of Indian Society and their
educational implications: Diversity in Indian Society; Inequality and Marginalization –Schisms in
terms of Caste, Religion, Language, Region and their demands on Education.
Unit 4: Education, Social Change, Social Stratification and Social Transformation
The concepts of social change – Factors of social change – Role of education in the process of social
change – Limitations of Education in the process of Social Change – Socialization process –
agencies – role of school and family; school as a miniature society;– Social Stratification –
Conceptualizing Social Stratification – Forms and Bases of Social Stratification – Impact of social
stratification on education and vice versa
Unit 5: Education and Indian constitution
Fundamental rights and duties of citizens and the directive principles of state policies – critical
understating of constitutional values related to aims of education – Indian constitution and education
– freedom, justice, equality and fraternity– democracy – secularism– socialism.
Unit 6: Education for Marginalised
Marginalized population (economically, socially, culturally) – reservation policies – education and
social equalisation – social process, social interactions and social movements – education for
diversities – schools under different management – public school a broad perspective – education as
public property – education for global equality.
Unit 7: Language policies in education.
Language policies – during post-independence period – three language formula – mother tongue as
medium of instruction – English versus regional language as medium of instruction.

M.CHINNADURAI, M.Sc., M.Ed., M.Phil., SET., Page 2

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR OF PHYSICAL SCIENCE,
SENTHIL COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, PUDUCHERRY – 605 110.
Unit 8: Issues in education
Equalization of Educational Opportunities – SC/ ST, OBC, Women, Handicapped and religious
minorities – Universalization of education with respect to access, enrollment, retention and
achievement – Ensuring right to education – under employment, unemployment and non-
employability – digital divide – Privatization in Education – commersialization – Child labor and
ensuring child rights – Malnutrition – Value Education – Environmental education.
Unit 9: Programmes and policies
Centrally sponsored Schemes and Programme: Operation Black board scheme – Mid day meals –
DPEP – SSA – RMSA – Mahila Samakya; Significant recommendations of commission and
committees – National policy on education 1986, 1992. RTE Act 2009.
Unit 10: Initiatives for educational development in India
Publication of dispatches– implementation of policies – education in five year plans– role of
education in community mobilisation– integration of school and community work– role and
responsibilities of teacher – Education policy under debates over time – problems in implementation,
financial allocation, field condition and pressure groups – comparison of issues between pre and
post-independence period.

M.CHINNADURAI, M.Sc., M.Ed., M.Phil., SET., Page 3

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR OF PHYSICAL SCIENCE,
SENTHIL COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, PUDUCHERRY – 605 110.
 UNIT 1: CONCEPT AND AIMS OF EDUCATION
1.1. INTRODUCTION
Education is an essential process in human development. It is different from schooling.
Schooling is just one of the ways in which education is provided, whereas education deals with
the total process of human learning by which knowledge is imparted, faculties are trained and
different skills are developed. Education is also defined as the act or process of educating or
applying discipline on the mind or a process of character training. It is a dynamic instrument of
change. Education is expected to affect or condition the social behaviour of the person being
educated.
Education is a life-long process which is always used to imply a positive state of mind.
According to Bamisaiye (1989), Education is “a cumulative process of development of intellectual
abilities, Skills and attitudes, all of which form our various outlooks and dispositions to action in life
generally”
Education is the pristine essence of learning which makes us permanently able and disposed
to benefit ourselves and other members of the society in the use we make of such learning.
By educating an individual we attempt to give him some desirable knowledge, understanding, skills,
interests, attitudes and critical 'thinking. That is acquires knowledge of history, geography,
arithmetic, languages and sciences.

1.2. MEANING OF EDUCATION - Etymological Derivations

Let us understand the term Education.
Etymologically, the term “Education” is believed to have been derived from the Latin words
Educare: The term education means “to nourish”, “to bring up”, “to raise”. So the meaning of the
word “education” is to bring up children physically and mentally.
Educere: The word educere implies “to draw out”, to lead out”, “to bring forth”. Hence, ‘Education’
means bringing forth or leading out the inner power of the child, that is, drawing out what is inside
the child.
Educatum: This word denotes “to train”, “to teach”, which implies the act of training or teaching the
child.
Educo: Educo is considered to be the combination of ‘E’ and ‘duco’. Duco means “ I lead” and E
stands for “out of. Therefore, education means to draw out or lead out the internal power of man.

M.CHINNADURAI, M.Sc., M.Ed., M.Phil., SET., Page 4

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR OF PHYSICAL SCIENCE,
SENTHIL COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, PUDUCHERRY – 605 110.
1.3. DEFINITIONS OF EDUCATION
The Concepts of Education as given by prominent Indian educationists are as follows. Principles of
Education and School Organization;

"Education is something which makes man self-reliant and selfless" – Rigved

"Education is for liberation" - Upanishad

"Nothing is more purifying on earth than wisdom” - Bhagavad Gita

“Education is the manifestation of the divine perfection, already existing in man” - Vivekananda

"By education, I mean an all-round drawing out of the best in the Child and man body, mind and
spirit” - Gandhiji

"The widest road leading to the solution of all our problems is education." - Tagore

"Education which will offer the tools whereby one can live for the divine, for the country, for oneself
and for others and this must be the ideal of every school which calls itself national" - Sri Aurobindo

"Education is unfoldment of what is already enfolded in the germ. It is the process through which the
child makes internal external” - Friedrich William Froebel

"Education is the capacity to feel pleasure and pain at the right moment. It develops in the body and
in the soul of the pupil all the beauty and all the perfection which he is capable of" - Plato

"Education of man commences at his birth; before he can speak, before he can understand he is
already instructed. Experience is the forerunner of the perfect" - Rousseau

"Education is the creation of a sound mind in a sound body. It develops man's faculty, especially his
mind so that he may be able to enjoy the contemplation of supreme truth, goodness and beauty of
which perfect happiness essentially consists” - Aristotle

The above remarks of different educators highlight the following special features of
education:

Education is both unilateral as well as bi-polar in nature.

 It is a continuous process
 It is knowledge or experience.

M.CHINNADURAI, M.Sc., M.Ed., M.Phil., SET., Page 5

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR OF PHYSICAL SCIENCE,
SENTHIL COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, PUDUCHERRY – 605 110.
  It is development of particular aspects of human personality or a harmonious integrated
growth.
 It is conducive for the good of the individual or the welfare of the society
 It is a liberal discipline or a vocational course.
 It is stabilizer of social order, conservator of culture, an instrument of change and social
reconstruction.

1.4. NATURE OF EDUCATION

 Education is a life-long process: Education is a continuous and lifelong process. It starts
from the womb of the mother and continues till death. It is the process of development from
infancy to maturity. It includes the effect of everything, which influences human personality.
 Education is a systematic process: It refers to transact its activities through a systematic
institution and regulation.
 Education is development of individual and the society: It is called a force for social
development, which brings improvement in every aspect in the society.
 Education is modification of behavior: Human behavior is modified and improved through
educational process.
 Education is purposive: Every individual has some goal in his/her life. Education
contributes in attainment of that goal. There is a definite purpose underlined all educational
activities.5
 Education is training: Human senses, mind, behavior, activities; skills are trained in a
constructive and socially desirable way.
 Education is instruction and direction: It directs and instructs an individual to fulfill
his/her desires and needs for exaltation of his/her whole personality.
 Education is life: Life without education is meaningless and like the life of a beast. Every
aspect and incident needs education for its sound development.
 Education is continuous reconstruction of the experiences: As per the definition of John
Dewey education reconstructs and remodels the experiences towards socially desirable way.
 Education helps in individual adjustment: A man is a social being. If he is not able to
adjust himself in different aspects of life his personality cannot remain balanced. Through the
medium of education he learns to adjust himself with the friends, class fellows, parents,
relations, neighbors, teachers, etc.

M.CHINNADURAI, M.Sc., M.Ed., M.Phil., SET., Page 6

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR OF PHYSICAL SCIENCE,
SENTHIL COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, PUDUCHERRY – 605 110.
  Education is balanced development: Education is concerned with the development of all
faculties of the child. It performs the functions of the physical, mental, aesthetic, moral,
economic, spiritual development of the individual so that the individual may get rid of his
animal instincts by sublimating the same so that he becomes a civilized person.
 Education is a dynamic process: Education is not a static, but a dynamic process, which
develops the child according to changing situations and times. It always induces the
individual towards progress. It reconstructs the society according to the changing needs of the
time and place of the society.
 Education is a bipolar process: According to Adams, education is a bipolar process in
which one personality acts on another to modify the development of other person. The
process is not only conscious but deliberate.
 Education is a three dimensional process: John Dewey has rightly remarked, ‘All
educations proceeds by participation of the individual in the social consciousness of the race.’
Thus it is the society, which will determine the aims, contents and methods of teachings. In
this way the process of education consists of three poles—the teacher, the child and the
society.
 Education as growth: The end of growth is more growth and the end of education is more
education. According to John Dewey, ‘an individual is a changing and growing personality.’
The purpose of education is to facilitate the process of his/her growth. Therefore, the role of
education is countless for a perfect society and man. It is necessary for every society and
nation to bring holistic happiness and prosperity to its individuals.

1.5. CHIEF CHARACTERISTICS OF EDUCATION

 Education is a bipolar as well as  Education is more than instruction and
tripolar process. teaching.
 Education is a child-centered process.  Education is more than giving
 Education is a deliberate as well as information.
internal process.  Education is developing knowledge,
 Education is a psychological process. skills and attitudes.
 Education is not literacy.
 Education is a sociological process.
 Education is a lifelong process.

M.CHINNADURAI, M.Sc., M.Ed., M.Phil., SET., Page 7

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR OF PHYSICAL SCIENCE,
SENTHIL COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, PUDUCHERRY – 605 110.
1.6. SCOPE OF EDUCATION
Scope means range of view outlook field or opportunity of activity operation and application.
Education has a wider meaning and application.
Educational philosophy: Philosophy of education covers aims of education, nature of
education, importance of education, and function of education its very old and essential part
of education.
Educational psychology: Main aim of education is the development of child. Psychology
helps to understand the child better and development of child with respect of physical,
mental, emotional, social adjustment, individual difference, personality, thinking, reasoning,
problem solving.
Educational sociology: A child lives in the society so its important for him to know about
the society the nature of society, type of society, interdependence between culture and
society.
History of education: It is also important to know background, origin, development, growth
and aspect of the subjects. And also education system method of teaching during ancient
period, medieval period, British period and modern period.
Economics of education: For the growth of business and market the world class economical
education is important for each and important.
Method of teaching: In ancient ti me the pupil were passive listeners but now they actively
participate with the teacher in the process of education. So the skill and proficiency of
difference teaching methods needs to be developed.
Educational administration and supervision: The educational institution and the system
has to be supervised and administrated smoothly so that the process of education goes well.
Regulation of fund, democratic administration, autonomy, personnel management etc.
Problems of education: This scope includes problems of teaching management of education
and also suggestion and remedies for it.
Population education: Viewing at the undesirable growth of population, an awareness is
created through population education.
Environmental education: Ecological in balances have drown the attentions of intelligence
today. So looking at the environmental problems study of environment education has great
importance.

M.CHINNADURAI, M.Sc., M.Ed., M.Phil., SET., Page 8

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR OF PHYSICAL SCIENCE,
SENTHIL COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, PUDUCHERRY – 605 110.
1.7. AIMS OF EDUCATION
1.7.1 The Vocational Aim
The vocational aim is also known as “the utilitarian aim or the bread and butter aim.” The
above stated ideals of education are useless unless these aims enable us to procure the primary needs
of our life- food, shelter and clothing. Education must help the child to earn his livelihood.
Education, therefore, must prepare the child for some future profession or vacation or trade. The
vocational aim is a narrow aim of education. Therefore, the vocational aim is not a complete aim by
itself.

1.7.2 The Knowledge or Information Aim

Educationists who hold the knowledge or information aim of education justify their stand
with powerful arguments. They argue that knowledge is indispensable for all right action and it is the
source of all power. “It is knowledge which makes a realist a visionary successful in any profession.

1.7.3 The Culture Aim

The cultural aim of education has been suggested to supplement the narrow view of knowledge aim.
The cultural aim of education is no doubt a nice aim as it produces men of culture. But it is
ambiguous and has too many meanings. It cannot serve as the major aim of education.

1.7.4 The Character Formation Aim or the Moral Aim

Character is the cream of life and, as such, it should be the aim of education. Vivekananda
and Gandhi both emphasized character building in education. Character formation or moral
education is concerned with the whole conduct of man.

1.7.5 The Spiritual Aim

The idealist thinkers have opined that the spiritual development of an individual should be the
supreme aim of education. Mahatma Gandhi has attached great importance to spiritual vales in
education.

1.7.6 The Adjustment Aim

Adjustment is the primary rule of human life. Without adjustment to environment none can
survive. Life is a struggle for adjustment. In the words of Horney: “Education should be man’s
adjustment to his nature, to his fellows and to the ultimate nature of the cosmos.

M.CHINNADURAI, M.Sc., M.Ed., M.Phil., SET., Page 9

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR OF PHYSICAL SCIENCE,
SENTHIL COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, PUDUCHERRY – 605 110.
1.7.7 The Leisure Aim
“Free and unoccupied time” of an individual is generally known as leisure. It is a time when
we can use it in a creative way. During leisure we can pursue an activity for own sake and not for
earning a living, which is dull and monotonous. During leisure we can also regain our lost energy
and enthusiasm. Leisure can make our life dynamic and charming.

1.7.8 The Citizenship Training Aim

A citizen has to perform multifarious civic duties and responsibilities. Children should be so
trained by education that they can successfully discharge their various civic duties and
responsibilities. The Secondary Education Commission in India (1951-1952) has greatly emphasized
citizenship training in schools. Such training includes the development of certain qualities to
character such as clear thinking, clearness in speech and writing, art of community living, co-
operation, toleration, and sense of patriotism and sense of world citizenship.

1.7.9 The Complete Living Aim

Some educationists have insisted upon the need of an all-comprehensive aim of education.
This viewpoint has led to the development of two aims- “the complete living aim” and the
“harmonious development aim.” According to Horney “there is no one final aim, subordinating all
lesser aims to itself… There is something in all these aims but not everything in any one of them.”

1.7.10 The Harmonious Development Aim

Educationists are of the opinion that all the powers and capacities inherited by a child should
be developed harmoniously and simultaneously. Gandhiji is a strong advocate of the harmonious
development

1.7.11 The Social Aim

From the above discussion it is clearly evident that no individual can live and grow without
social context. Individual life became unbearable to man and that is why he formed society.
Individual security and welfare depend on the society. Individual improvement is conditioned by
social progress. Education should make each individual socially efficient. A socially efficient
individual is able to earn his livelihood.

M.CHINNADURAI, M.Sc., M.Ed., M.Phil., SET., Page 10

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR OF PHYSICAL SCIENCE,
SENTHIL COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, PUDUCHERRY – 605 110.
1.8. DIFFERENT AIMS OF EDUCATION IN INDIA
Educational aims in India should be judged in relation to the lives of the Indian people.
Indian civilization is one of the ancient civilizations of the world.

1.8.1 Aims of Education in Ancient India

The aim of education in ancient India was the ultimate outcome of the Indian theory of
knowledge and the corresponding scheme of life and values. People in ancient India were greatly
impressed and affected by the fact of death as the central fact of life. Their one aim of life was to
solve the problem of death by achieving knowledge of the whole truth of which life and death are
arts and phases. The aim was not simply abstract and theoretical. There were practical and concrete
aims too. The first was the acquisition of knowledge. This was evident in the Vedic period.
Inculcation of social and civic duties in the minds of the students was also regarded as an important
aim of education in those days. Education for occupation was another important aim. Character
training and moral education was regarded as very important aim of ancient Indian education.

1.8.2 Aims of Education in Medieval India

During medieval age, religion was the main guiding force in life and society. Medieval
civilization centered round religion. The Muslim rulers of India generally took a keen interest in
education and many of them founded schools, colleges and libraries in various places in their
kingdoms. The mosque was a center of instruction and of literary activity. Muslim education
included those eternal teachings and values of the Quran and Haditha, which would promote moral
and spiritual knowledge. Islamic education aimed at both physical and mental development of the
students. Thus, it aimed at total development of personality of individual.

1.8.3 Aims of Education in British India

The British uprooted the indigenous system of education in India with definite intentions. The
educational system established by the British was colonial in character. It was designed to prepare
Indians only for taking certain subordinate positions in Government offices. It was not intended to
develop among the people capacities to take leadership and initiative in different walks of life. The
main educational objective can better be understood from the following declaration in the
educational policy or Lord Bentinck (1835): “We want a class of persons Indian in blood and colour
but English in tastes in opinion, in morals and intellect.” The Wood‟s Despatch declared almost the
same policy. The aim of British education was to inculcate European knowledge in the minds of the
Indians.

M.CHINNADURAI, M.Sc., M.Ed., M.Phil., SET., Page 11

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR OF PHYSICAL SCIENCE,
SENTHIL COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, PUDUCHERRY – 605 110.
1.8.4 Aims of Education in Independent India
After independence the Indian leaders realized the inherent defects in the system of education
introduced by the British. Universalisation of education was the need of the hour. Education must be
linked with national development in all directions. With these national goals in view the Government
of independent India set up different committees and commissions for educational reforms in the
desired lines. These committees and commissions have formulated educational aims and objectives.

1.8.4.1 Indian University Commission

Just after independence an education commission was set up to enquire into the various
problems of education, particularly higher education, and to recommend proposals for its
improvements. It is commonly known as Radhakrishnan Commission as Dr. Commission, 1948-49.
This Commission has given many important recommendations regarding higher education. It has
also formulated the aims of education of India.

1.8.4.2 Secondary Education Commission

For reconstruction of Secondary Education, Secondary Education Commission was set up
(1952-53) under the chairmanship of Dr. Lakshmanswami Mudaliar, a noted educationist and ex-
Vice Chancellor of the Madras University. The Commission has made important recommendations
for the reconstruction and development of secondary education in the country. The Commission
formulated the following aims of Secondary Education after considering the dominant needs of
India. These are, mainly, four:

1.8.4.2 1. Developing Democratic Citizenship

The adoption of the goals of democracy and socialism necessitate the development of habits,
attitude and qualities of character, which will enable its citizens to bear worthily the responsibilities
of democratic citizenship. Among theses qualities, which are to be fostered through curricular and co
curricular activities in secondary schools, are:
 The capacity for clear thinking  The ability to live harmoniously with
(clearness in speech and writing); one another
 The scientific attitude of mind;  A sense of true patriotism; and
 Receptivity to new ideas;  A sense of world citizenship.
 Respect for the dignity and worth of
every individual;

M.CHINNADURAI, M.Sc., M.Ed., M.Phil., SET., Page 12

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR OF PHYSICAL SCIENCE,
SENTHIL COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, PUDUCHERRY – 605 110.
1.8.4.2.2. Vocational Efficiency
One of the urgent problems of the country was to improve productive efficiency and to
increase the national wealth and thereby to raise the standard of living. In this respect the
commission recommended fostering dignity of manual labour and promotion of work and technical
skill for the advancement of industry and technology.

1.8.4.2.3. Development Personality or Character

An important aim of democratic education is the all-round development of every individual’s
personality. This requires that education should take into account all his needs- psychological, social,
emotional, and practical and cater to all of them. It should provide in him the sources of creative
energy so that he may be able to appreciate his cultural heritage, to cultivate rich interests, which he
can pursue in his leisure, and contribute in later life to the development of this heritage. Hence,
education should be so organized that subjects like life, art, craft, music, dancing and the
development of creative hobbies should find place of honour in the curriculum.

1.8.4.2.4. Education for leadership

Since the youth of today assume leadership in different walks of life tomorrow, special
function of the secondary education is to train persons who will be able to assume the responsibility
of leadership in social, political, industrial and cultural fields. To achieve success in this work, the
qualities of justice, courage, discipline, tolerance, wisdom, sacrifice, initiative, understanding of
social issues, civic as well as vocational efficiency should be developed in the young men and
women of our country.

1.8.4.3 The Indian Education Commission on Educational Aims (1964-66)

In July 1964 the Government of India set up an Education Commission to overhaul and
reconstruct the entire field of Indian education under the chairmanship of Dr. D. S. Kothari. The
Commission submitted its comprehensive report in July 1966. According to it education should aim
at:
 Increasing national productivity;  Cultivating social, moral and spiritual
 Achieving social and national values.
integration;
 Accelerating the process of
modernization;

M.CHINNADURAI, M.Sc., M.Ed., M.Phil., SET., Page 13

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR OF PHYSICAL SCIENCE,
SENTHIL COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, PUDUCHERRY – 605 110.
1.8.4.4 National Policy of Education 1968
The Government of India after considering the Report of the Education Commission tried to
formulate a national policy of education. With this report Parliamentary Committee on education was
set up in 1967. This Committee approved the recommendations of the Education Commission and
formulated a national policy of education in 1968.

1.8.4.5 National Education Policy –1968- Challenge of Education Policy Perspective

After seventeen years of experiment an attempt was made to evaluate the national education
policy, 1968. In 1985 the Government of India published and circulated a White Paper entitled
“Challenge of Education: Policy Perspective.” On the basis of these opinions and the evaluation of
different Government agencies, The Government of India declared its new education policy under
the title “National Policy on Education, 1986.”

1.9. FUNCTIONS OF EDUCATION TOWARDS INDIVIDUAL

Development of inborn potentialities: Education helps the child to develop the inborn
potentialities of child providing scope to develop.
 Modifying behavior: Education helps to modify the past behavior through learning and
through different agencies of education.
 All-round development: Education aims at the all round development of child—physical,
mental, social, emotional and spiritual.
 Preparing for the future: After completion of education the child can earn its livelihood
getting proper education, which has productivity. The education should be imparted
according to the own interest of the child.

1.10. FUNCTIONS OF EDUCATION TOWARDS SOCIETY

 Social change and control: The society is never station. It is progressive and dynamic. The
child lives in society. It is the social environment where the personality of the child can be
developed. The old traditions, customs are preserved and transmitted with the situations,
which are ever changing. We should not think or believe in the blind beliefs, which are
hindrances towards the development. Education helps to walk with the development of
science and technology.
 Education is lifelong process. Life is education and education is life. Life is full of
experiences. One cannot live with his/her past experiences, which are

M.CHINNADURAI, M.Sc., M.Ed., M.Phil., SET., Page 14

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR OF PHYSICAL SCIENCE,
SENTHIL COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, PUDUCHERRY – 605 110.
1.11. FUNCTIONS OF EDUCATION TOWARDS NATION
 Inculcation of civic and social responsibility: Education helps to make rising generation to
understand its rights and duties as citizens of a democratic country.
 Training for leadership: The leadership quality of the individual is developed when he/she
participates in all spheres of social, political, religious and educational activities.
 National integration: We are living in one country having diversities in respect of color,
caste, language, diet, dress, habits and physical environment. Educational integration leads to
emotional integration. Education trains people for unity, not for locality, for democracy and
not for dictatorship.
 Developing personality: The whole personality of the child is developed physically,
intellectually, morally, socially, aesthetically and spiritually. He/She is recognized in the
society.
 Helping for adjustability: Man differs from beast. Man has reasoning and thinking power.
Man tries his best to adjust with his own environment through education.
 Social aim: Education is for the society and of the society. The function of education is for
the welfare of the state. The state will make the individual as it desires. It prepares the
individual to play different roles in society. Individuality has no value and personality is
meaningless apart from society. If society will develop individual will develop automatically.
Here society plays an important role.unable to adjust in the society. So education helps the
individual to reconstruct the experience and adjust with the environment.
 Development of social and moral value: Society is always in tension with narrowism. There
is no social or moral value. Now the man is behaving similar to an animal. Animality can be
changed with moral education. Education teaches the moral value and social value such as
cooperation, tolerance, sympathy, fellow feelings, love affection, respect towards elder,
helping the poor and needy persons.
 Providing opportunity or equality: Indian Constitution has introduced the term ‘equality’
because we are not getting equal opportunities in all aspects. Education teaches us to give
equal opportunities in all aspects irrespective of caste, creed, color, sex and religion.
Education serves the most important end of educating the man.
 Total national development: Education helps for bringing about total national development
by developing its all aspects, i.e. social, economic, cultural, spiritual, moral, educational, etc.

M.CHINNADURAI, M.Sc., M.Ed., M.Phil., SET., Page 15

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR OF PHYSICAL SCIENCE,
SENTHIL COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, PUDUCHERRY – 605 110.
1.12. TYPES OF EDUCATION
Education is an essential component of any society. It helps people develop the skills and mindset to
navigate a rapidly changing world.
Education is an investment in our future. It makes us better prepared to learn new skills and do things
we have never done before, whether that's advancing in our careers or pursuing a new hobby or
interest.
Education is the process of acquiring knowledge by developing the capacity to act, solve problems,
think, and transform society for the better.
There are three main types of education – formal, informal, and non-formal.
 Formal education is the term used to describe any school-based classroom learning.
 Informal education happens in our day-to-day lives. These are life experiences that decide our
attitudes, values, etc.
 Non-formal education refers to learning that does not occur in a classroom or when formal
education happens outside a school environment.

1.12.1. Formal Education

Formal education refers to the systematic and sequential acquiring of knowledge and skills –
usually at a school, university, or college.
Formal education is an organized and regulated system of education, which follows a
curriculum and awards recognized academic certificates or degrees. This type of education is given
in schools, colleges, official institutions and universities, either in person or through e-learning
platforms.
Generally, formal education is governed by educational norms and standards and is delivered
through formal academic programs. Students advance from one educational level to another by
completing courses and/or earning academic credit. Primary education, a university degree or a
business leadership program are examples of formal education.

1.12.2. Characteristics of Formal Education:

It follows a particular structure of There is a regular fee that is required to
delivery be paid
It is highly planned and deliberate Its demand is highly qualified experts
It is chronological and systematic It is subject-oriented and time-bound

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1.12.3. Importance of formal education in academic and professional development
 Formal education is an attempt at the all-around development of a person that can help them
become responsible, passionate and productive citizens contributing to the advancement of
our society.
 Early introduction to formal education has the ability to enhance the behavioural traits of a
child in a way that is desirable in our society. This implies the indispensable impact of formal
schooling on a child’s upbringing. This is perhaps the reason why we see visible differences
in the behavioural and knowledge-aspects of two children brought up under two different
circumstances – one with formal schooling, and one without.
 Formal education has the ability to change the course of a person from alienation, poverty
and destitution, and bring them on a path to security, social belongingness and prosperity. It
moulds the physical, intellectual, emotional and social characteristics of a person in a
balanced manner.
 Furthermore, formal education trains children to develop critical thinking and reasoning
power, shaping them into good citizens, and improving their social standing and
independence.
 Every child is born different. They have curiosity, urges and impulses of several kinds which
constantly seek outlets. Formal education provides a sense of direction for them through
carefully established channels, enabling them to reach their desired goals. It is the primary
task of educational institutions to tap into the latent abilities, potentials, interests, behaviour
and needs of the children and bring them forward in the best possible platform.
 It is important to mention that educational institutions play a critical role in defining the
career paths of the future working force of a nation. Teachers have the ability to guide
students towards specialised fields after understanding the abilities and interests of individual
students. The premise of formal education offers an excellent platform to foster such
personalised guidance for students.

1.12.4.Advantages of Formal education:

 An organized educational model and up to date course contents.
 Students acquire knowledge from trained and professional teachers.
 Structured and systematic learning process.
 Intermediate and final assessments are ensured to advance students to the next learning phase.
 Institutions are managerially and physically organized.

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  Leads to a formally recognized certificate.
 Easy access to jobs.

1.12.5. Disadvantages of Formal education:

 Sometimes, brilliant students are bored due to the long wait for the expiry of the academic
session to promote to the next stage.
 Chance of bad habits’ adoption may be alarming due to the presence of both good and bad
students in the classroom.
 Wastage of time as some lazy students may fail to learn properly in spite of motivation by the
professional trainers.
 Some unprofessional and non-standard education system may cause the wastage of time and
money of the students which leads to the disappointment from formal education and argue
them to go for non-formal education.
 Costly and rigid education as compare to other forms of learning.

1.13. Informal Education

Informal education lacks the structure and standards of formal education. Learning happens
outside the classroom, whether in educational locations like museums and libraries or in non-
educational locations like at home or in non-educational organizations. And unlike formal education
settings, informal education is completely optional.

1.13.1 Characteristics of Informal Education:

 It is an independent form of study with no definite syllabus
 It is not preplanned and does not have a proper timetable
 It is an experience that is gained through practice. It does not require a fee payment all the
time.
 It is a lifelong process in a natural way
 There are no certificates or degrees involved

1.13.2 Advantages of Informal Education

 More naturally learning process as you can learn at anywhere and at any time from your daily
experience.
 It involves activities like individual and personal research on a topic of interest for
themselves by utilizing books, libraries, social media, internet or getting assistance from
informal trainers.

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  Utilizes a variety of techniques.
 No specific time span.
 Less costly and time-efficient learning process.
 No need to hire experts as most of the professionals may be willing to share their precious
knowledge with students/public through social media and the internet.
 Learners can be picked up the requisite information from books, TV, radio or conversations
with their friends/family members.

1.13.3 Disadvantages of Informal Education

 Information acquired from the internet, social media, TV, radio or conversations with
friends/family members may lead to the disinformation.
 Utilized techniques may not be appropriate.
 No proper schedule/time span.
 Unpredictable results which simply the wastage of time.
 Lack of confidence in the learner.
 Absence of discipline, attitude and good habits.

1.14. Non-formal Education

Non-formal learning is a mix of formal and informal. While it doesn’t have a syllabus or
curriculum and isn’t necessarily taught by people who are licensed to teach, it’s more structured than
informal learning. Examples of non-formal learning are organizations like the Boy or Girl Scouts,
non-credit adult education courses, seminars, and conferences.

1.14.1 Characteristics of Non-formal Education:

It is planned but takes place apart from It may or may not involve certificates
the academic education provided by or fees.
the school education system. It can be either part-time or full-time or
It is highly flexible and adjustable. as a profession.
There is generally no age limit to gain It includes both theoretical and
this type of education. practical education.

1.14.2 Advantages of Non-formal Education

 Practiced and vocational training.
 Naturally growing minds that do not wait for the system to amend.
 Literacy with skillfulness growth in which self-learning is appreciated.

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  Flexibility in age, curriculum and time.
 Open-ended educational system in which both the public and private sector are involved in
the process.
 No need to conduct regular exams.
 Diploma, certificates, and award are not essential to be awarded.

1.14.3 Disadvantages of Non-formal Education

 Attendance of participants is unsteady.
 Sometimes, it’s just wastage of time as there is no need to conduct the exam on regular basis
and no degree/diploma is awarded at the end of the training session.
 Basic reading and writing skills are crucial to learn.
 No professional and trained teachers.
 Students may not enjoy full confidence as the regular students enjoy.
 Some institutes provide fake certification through online courses just for the sake of earning.

1.15. Differences between formal and non-formal education

Formal and non-formal education are two opposing learning styles. One is pragmatic and
organized. The other, casual and unstructured. But those aren’t the only important differences. Let’s
look at each one in detail:
 Structure: Formal education follows a predetermined course structure, while non-formal
education is more flexible and adapted to individual and/or business needs.
 Certification: at the end of a formal education plan, the learner usually receives a certificate
or degree validating their participation, something that does not usually happen in informal
education.
 Place of learning: Formal education takes place in educational institutions, while non-formal
education can occur in a variety of places, such as face-to-face workshops, digital
environments, or as a result of social interactions.
 Objective: Formal education is intentional and focuses on the acquisition of academic
knowledge and skills. In contrast, formal education focuses on practical and specific skills
and doesn’t have to revolve around specific learning objectives.
 Methodology: Formal learning features the teaching of theoretical content; non-formal
learning uses practical methods and a learning-by-doing approach.

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16. DETERMINANTS OF AIMS OF EDUCATION
Aims of education cannot be just "pulled out of a hat". A large number of factors contribute
to the determining of educational aims. These factors touch every phase of human life that was, that
is, or that will be. The following factors usually determine aims of education.
1. Views about the nature of reality. 4. Socio-economic problems.
2. Views about human nature. 5. Exploration of knowledge.
3. Political ideologies and Individual-State
relationship.

16.1. Views about the Nature of Reality.

Aims of education have direct relationship with the prevailing philosophy of life. The
philosophy of life at a certain time is influenced by the views of eminent thinkers and schools of
philosophy.
According to idealistic view, the aim of education should be self-realisation or unfolding of
what is potential within the child. According to the naturalistic view-point, self- expression or self-
gratification should be the aim of education. The pragmatists think that education should aim at
enabling the individual "to control his environment and fulfill his possibilities."

16.2. Views about Human Nature

Educational aims have often been decided keeping in view one or the other element which
comprises human nature. Idealists regard 'unfolding the divine in child and man' as the aim. To
naturalists, the aim of education is 'self-expression.'

16.3. Political Ideologies and Individual-State Relationship.

Political ideologies influence aims of education. Under a totalitarian system, the aims of
education will be much different from those under a democratic political system. Under the former,
the system of education becomes stereotyped and education takes the form of indoctrination. School
and text-books must promote the ideology of the State.
Under the later (democratic), the individual enjoys freedom and free play. The goal of
education is the good man who is to be educated for a life of freedom. Education aims at developing
the full personality of each individual, irrespective of caste, creed, class or religion.

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16.4. Socio-Economic Problems.
Socio-economic problems of a country also determine the aims of education. For example,
the Indian Education Commission (1964-66) put emphasis on "increasing productivity' as one of the
national objectives of education."

16.5. Exploration of Knowledge.

Exploration of knowledge is a potent factor in determining aims of education. With the
advancement of scientific and technical knowledge, education all over the world has become
science-oriented.

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ASSISTANT PROFESSOR OF PHYSICAL SCIENCE,
SENTHIL COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, PUDUCHERRY – 605 110.
 UNIT 2: EDUCATION AND PHILOSOPHY
2.0. PHILOSOPHY
Philosophy in a general sense is conceived a person’s “sum of his fundamental beliefs and
convictions”. We have some ideas concerning physical objects, our fellow persons, the meaning of
life, death, God, right and wrong, beauty and ugliness, and the like. Of course, these ideas are
acquired in a variety of ways, and they may be vague and confused. Philosophy is a guide for living;
because the issues it addresses are basic and pervasive, determining the course we take in life. Hence
we can say that all the aspects of human life are influenced and governed by the philosophical
consideration.
The word philosophy comes from a combination of two Greek words- “philos” meaning
“love” and “Sophia” meaning “wisdom.” Etymologically, philosophy means the love of wisdom. To
love something is to desire it. So, for many Greeks, the philosopher was the one who desired
wisdom. Wisdom is not only knowledge. One may have knowledge, but he may not be wise.
Wisdom constitutes knowledge plus its implication in all circumstances. Thus philosophy gives man
that wisdom with the help of which they understand the whole universe and its implication in relation
to themselves & the people around. Philosophy is a system of beliefs about reality. It is integrated
view of the world. It includes an understanding of the nature of existence, humankind, and its role in
the world. Philosophy is the foundation of knowledge. It provides premises by which man can
discover truth, and uses his mind to support his life. In conclusion we can say that philosophy is a
critical examination of reality characterized by rational inquiry that aims at the Truth for the sake of
attaining wisdom.

2.0.1. MEANING
Oxford Collins Cobuild Dictionary (2006) –
Philosophy is the study or creation of theories about basic things such as the nature of
existence, knowledge, thought, or about how people should live.
Philosophy is a particular theory that someone has about how to live or how to deal with a
particular situation.
Babylon English Dictionary: Study the principle of existence behavior and knowledge;
study the nature of human thought & of the world.

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2.0.2. DEFINITIONS
Aristotle: “Philosophy is the science which investigates the nature of being, as it is in itself”.
Dr. Radhakrishnan (1888-1975): Philosophy is a logical inquiry into the nature of reality.
John Dewey: Critical reviewing of the familiar things.
Russel, Bertrand (1872-1970): States, “Philosophy is to be studied not for the sake of any definite
answers to its questions…. But rather for the sake of the questions themselves, because these
questions enlarge our conception of what is possible… but above all because the mind also is
rendered great and becomes capable of that union with the universe which constitutes its heist goal.”

2.1. EDUCATION
2.1.1. MEANING
Entomologically, the term “Education” has been derived from Latin words– “Educare”,
“Educere” and “Educatum”. “Educare” means “to rise up or bring up or nourish”. It indicates that the
child is to be brought up or nourished keeping certain aims and ideals. The term “Educere” denotes
“to lead out or to draw out”. In this regard, education through its process draws out of the best what
is inside the child.” “Educatum” indicate the act of teaching or training. It throws light on the
principles and practice of teaching. It means educating the child or provides training facilities to the
child for his/her all round development. The term Educare or Educere mainly indicates development
of the latent faculties of the child. But child does not know these possibilities. It is the educator or the
teacher who can know these and take appropriate methods to develop those powers.

2.1.2. DEFINITIONS
Education is helping the growing soul to draw out that is in itself. Aurobindo
Education is enfoldment of what is already enfolded in the germ. It is the process through which the
child makes the internal-external. Froebel
Education is not a preparation for life, rather it is the living. Education is the process of living
through a continuous reconstruction of experiences. It is the development of all those capacities in
the individual which will enable him to control his environment and fulfill his possibilities. John
Dewey
By education I mean an all-round drawing out of the best in child and man’s body, mind and spirit.
Mahatma Gandhi
Education is one that enables the individual to be a producer as well as a good citizen. Neheru
Education is the harmonious and progressive development of all the innate powers and faculties of
man- physical, intellectual and moral. Pestalozzi

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Education develops in the body and soul of the pupil all the beauty and all the perfection he is
capable of. Plato
The highest education is that which does not merely give us information but makes our life in
harmony with all existence. Rabindranath Tagore
Education according to Indian tradition is not merely a means of earning a living; nor it is only a
nursery of thought or a school for citizenship. It is initiation into the life of spirit and training of
human souls in the pursuit of truth and the practice of virtue. Radhakrishnan
Education is something, which makes a man self-reliant and self-less. Rigveda
Education is the child’s development from within. Rousseau

2.3. RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN EDUCATION AND PHILOSOPHY

Philosophy is a way of life. In a wider sense philosophy is a way of looking at life, nature and
truth. It sets up the ideas for an individual to achieve them in his / her lifetime. Education on the
other hand, is the dynamic side of philosophy. It is the active aspects and the practical means of
realising the ideal of life. Education renews and rebuilds the social structures in the pattern of
philosophical ideals. Human being, who borns and grows up with inherited propensities, determines
the basic traits of man, but education have a long way for his/her success in life. In order to behave
intelligently in the educational process education needs direction and guidance which philosophy can
provide. Hence, philosophy is not only a professional tool for the educator but also a way of
improving the quality of life because it helps us to gain a wider and deeper perspective of human
existence and the world around us. Philosophy and education are integrally and interdependently
related to each other. According to J.S. Ross, “Philosophy and education are like two sides of the
same coin: one is implied by the other; the former is contemplative side of life, while the later is
active side”. Thus, philosophy without education is blind, education without philosophy is crippled.
If education is the physical body, philosophy is its soul. The very existence and significance
of education is due to philosophy and in the same way the existence and importance of philosophy is
due to education. So we can understand that there is a very close relationship between philosophy
and education.
Now the basic relationship between philosophy and education can be understood in the
following manner. It is the philosophy that provides the purpose of the aim and it is education which
makes it practical. Philosophy shows the way and education moves on in that direction. When we
define education as the modification of behaviour, the direction in which modification to be carried
out is determined by philosophy, therefore philosophy is, in reality, the theory of education.

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SENTHIL COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, PUDUCHERRY – 605 110.
 The main task of philosophy is to determine what constitutes good life whereas, the chief
tasks of education is how to make life worth living. So philosophy and education are mutually
reconstructive. They give and take from each other. Philosophy determines all the broad aspects of
education and provides aims to education. Philosophy deals with the goals and essentials of good life
while education provides the means to achieve those goals of good life. Hence, we can say, that
philosophy of education is the application of philosophical ideas to educational problems. It is not
only a way of looking at ideas but also how to use them in the best way. Therefore, it can be said that
philosophy is the theory while education is the practice. Practice unguided by theory is aimless,
inconsistent and ineffective just as theory, which is not ultimately transferable into practice. Thus, as
long we need aims of education, philosophy will continue influencing and determining both the
matter and method of education.
 The Philosophy determines the direction of education: Philosophy gives direction to
education, in the light of philosophy, education moves towards its goals. Philosophy provides
suitable and effective guidance and supervision to achieve that goal.
 Education is a means for propagation of philosophy: Education is the active side of the
coin. It acts as the most powerful tool in propagating the philosophical ideology. It is
observed that education is used by the philosophers for the purpose of ideological
propagation since our ancient educational practices.
 Education is a practical side of philosophy: The function of philosophy is to organize the
aims and functions of education. Education is the dynamic side of philosophy and it is the
active aspect of philosophical belief and thought and practical means of realising the ideals of
life. Hence, philosophy equips us with thought and these thoughts are put into practice by
education.
 Great philosophers and great educationists: The great philosophers of all times, from Plato
up to the present day have also been great educators. Socrates, Plato, Locke, Rousseau,
Spencer, Frobel, Dewey, Russell Huxley etc. were the great western philosophers and
educators. In Indian context Swami Vivekananda, Dayanand, Tagore, Sri Aurobindo,
Mahatma Gandhi, Radhakrishnan and Krishnamurthy were both great philosophers and great
educationists of their time.

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2.4. INDIAN EDUCATIONAL THINKERS AND THEIR CONTRIBUTIONS
2.4.1. RABINDRANATH TAGORE (1861-1941)
Rabindranath Tagore was a worldwide known poet and educationist, versatile, synthetic and
original personality. Though he was inspired by the writers and poets like Shakespeare, Goethe,
Wordsworth, Ruskin, Shelley, Keats and Browning, but roots of his intellect, spirituality and
philosophy lie in the rhymes of Upanishads, in the poetry of Kalidas, in the lyrics of Vaisnavas, in
the mystic poems of Kabir and the religious atmosphere of the Brahmo Samaj.
He was a believer in cultural synthesis and international unity. His songs and messages were
inspirations to both social and political workers. His educational thoughts also stand as a landmark in
the Indian education system. He tried to synthesise and fulfil the spiritual and natural needs of human
being through education.
Early in the twentieth century, Tagore demonstrated through his school in Shanti Niketan, the
true value of education in the vitalization of Indian society. There was no discrimination on the basis
of caste or creed. All were welcome (including foreigners) to live and learn together as brothers and
sisters, in Shanti Niketan. To touch leather and make beautiful leather bags or sandals were not
merely the work of an untouchable cobbler, it is a work of art that all can undertake. The dignity of
Labour was demonstrated in Shanti Niketan. Education at all levels is provided at Shanti Niketan or
Visva Bharati i.e. from Kindergarten to University level.

BRIEF LIFE SKETCH AND PHILOSOPHY OF LIFE - BRIEF LIFE SKETCH

Rabindranath Tagore had little formal schooling and dropped out from the school by the age
of fourteen. He was basically a self-taught person. His childhood experiences, especially the
traditional educational methods followed in formal schools, left a profound influence on his
educational thinking. In the year 1901, He started a school of his own, namely, ‘Shanti Niketan’,
where he began his educational experiments. In 1921, the school became the world famous
‘Vishwabharathi’, an International University.

TAGORE’S PHILOSOPHY OF LIFE

His philosophy of life emphasizes on humanism, individualism, universalism and spiritual
harmony. Advocating on humanism, Tagore said, human beings are absolute entities. They are free
from caste, class, religion, gender and even nationality. On individualism, Tagore said, pure
individual ultimately unites with universal humankind and he upheld the uniqueness of the human
individual and the right and freedom of every individual to pursue a unique path for development.
His concept on universalism is not on political understanding but on spiritual understanding. On

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ASSISTANT PROFESSOR OF PHYSICAL SCIENCE,
SENTHIL COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, PUDUCHERRY – 605 110.
spiritual harmony, Tagore said, spiritualist and spirituality was one of the main tenets of his
philosophy of life. He believed in the spiritual unity of the individual.

EDUCATIONAL PHILOSOPHY AND AIMS OF EDUCATION

Rabindranath Tagore was a great educational practitioner. It was his believe that “education
is an all-round development of an individual in harmony with the Universe”. His educational
philosophy is based upon blending the idealistic principles with some naturalistic practices which is
today evident in Shanti niketan.
According to Tagore, ‘children should be brought up in an atmosphere of freedom’. Too
many restrictions should not be imposed on them. Schools become like education factories without
no life and colour. Tagore believes that education should be given in the natural surroundings.
Children should be brought into direct contact with nature as child’s mind is curious, alert, restless
and eager to receive direct experience from the nature.
Tagore was a spiritualist as well as a naturalist. He was a great champion of education for
international understanding. His patriotism and nationalism leads to internationalism in his
educational endeavour.

AIMS OF EDUCATION
Tagore viewed education as the process for evolving new patterns of life culminating in the
realisation of Universalism. Aims of education suggested by him are presented in the following
points:
Education should be real and create whole individual in terms of his/her emotion, senses and
intellect.
Education should be aimed at development of the complete life, i.e. which includes
economic, intellectual, aesthetic, social, and spiritual development.
Education is to help an individual realize the inner principle of unity of all knowledge and all
activities of our social and spiritual being.
Education should be to achieve universality through individuality.

CURRICULUM AND CONCEPT OF A SCHOOL

Tagore recommended a curriculum must aim at spiritual, creative, aesthetic and vocational
i.e. on the holistic development of an individual. He emphasized cultural subjects to include in the
construction of curriculum. He pursued culture in the widest sense through art, dance, drama, music,
crafts and practical skills of daily life. Tagore was a strong supporter of activity based curriculum.

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For harmonious development of the individual, he had given emphasis on spiritual side along with
the intellectual and physical sides of the individual in the curriculum.

IDEAS OF A SCHOOL
The school, which may be termed as an ideal, according to Tagore, must be located away
from the turmoil of human habitation under an open sky and surrounded by natural environment viz.
vistas of fields, trees, and plants. The vast background of nature helps in the development of grand
and divine vision within the children. He used the word ‘forest’ not in terms of dense jungle, but as
‘Tapovana’ in ancient Indian tradition.

PEDAGOGY
The medium of education is also an important point pertaining to Tagore’s idea. The use of
English in education as a medium made education confined only to urban areas and the upper classes
rather than rural areas. Therefore, if the vast rural masses were to be benefited, it was absolutely
essential to the use of mother tongue.
Tagore wanted science to be taught along with philosophical and spiritual knowledge at
Indian universities. He suggested use of activity-based, play activities, teaching while walking,
learning with joy, self-learning, heuristic, narration-cum discussion, field-trips, and experience-based
learning methods of teaching. He advocated fullness of experience – physical, mental, aesthetic and
emotional. All these truly accords with the modern pedagogy.

TEACHER AND STUDENTS

According to Tagore, more important thing is that the educators must believe in themselves
as well as in universal-self, underlying his individual soul. An educator should follow the principles
of freedom, perfection and universality in his/her teaching. Tagore’s scheme of education keeps the
child in the centre and the role of the teacher is to facilitate the child to learn his/her own. He
emphasized that the teachers should be a good learner first, unless she/he learns, it is simply
impossible to teach the students.

2.4.2. MAHATMAGANDHI (1869-1948)

Mahatma Gandhi’s philosophy of life and his concept on education is equally popular in the
present time. Gandhi’s thought on education is being reflected in various policy documents of
education in India. In this section, we will discuss the details on Gandhi’s philosophy of life, his
concept on education, teaching-learning process and its implications in education.

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BRIEF LIFE SKETCH AND PHILOSOPHY OF LIFE - LIFE SKETCH
Mahatma Gandhi, as we all are familiar, is the father of the nation, was born at Porbandar in
Kathiawar of Gujarat State on October 2, 1869. His father was the prime minister of the State’s
Porbandar and Rajkot. He went to England for further education in Law. When we talk about
Gandhiji, certain ideals come to our mind as truth, nonviolence (ahimsa), simplicity, love for all,
leadership, dignity of labour and implementation of ideas in real life rather than just propagating
them. These ideals also reflected in his educational philosophy.

PHILOSOPHY OF LIFE
Gandhi’s philosophical ideas are based upon concept of man, freedom of individual and the
concept of God and truth. According to him, man is not a physico-chemical aggregation, but a socio-
cultural and political-economic being. Over and above, he is a spiritual entity. For him, individual is
the supreme consideration. Therefore, man and his moral regeneration occupy the central position in
the Gandhian thoughts. On freedom of individual, Gandhi says, ‘individual is spiritual in origin,
social in nature and rational in selection’.
Freedom is inherent trait of an individual. It is within the individual and it does not come
from outside. His concept of individual freedom is in relation to sociopolitical context, associated
with democracy, self-rule and self-sufficiency. Gandhi’s concept on God and Truth is the ultimate
reality of life. He expressed ultimate reality is the truth, truth is God and God is truth. To him,
realisation of self is the realisation of truth and God. God is the goal of all values and aspirations of
man.

EDUCATIONAL PHILOSOPHY AND AIMS OF EDUCATION

Gandhi’s educational vision took shape through his educational experiments and experiences
at the Tolstoy Farm in South Africa. He continued his educational experiments for a short period at
Shanti Niketan also and then at Sabarmati and Sewagram ashram, and he established Sewagram
ashram, located at Wardha and from there he not only conceived the idea of his new education
system but also fought his battle for freedom.
By education, Gandhi means ‘an all-round drawing out of the best in the child and man –
body, mind and spirit’. As per his views, education is not the same as literacy and vice versa. Nor
does literary training in a school constitutes education because generally literary training in a school
lays more emphasis on the tools or skill development and subject master rather than on the complete
development of personality of individual. According to Gandhi, the concern of education is for all

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round development of individual personality. Education which draws out the best or truth
corresponds to the development of the mind and body with an awakening of the soul.

AIMS OF EDUCATION
Gandhi’s aim of education can be clearly understood by his statement appeared in the
Harriman of 11th September, 1937. He remarked: ‘education ought to be for them(the people) a kind
of insurance against unemployment. The child at the end of 14 years, after he had finished his 7 years
of schooling – is to be discharged as an earning unit, but it may be remembered that he never wanted
the child to be mere bread earner. He wanted him to learn while he earns and to earn while he learns
and it is the only immediate aim of education. According to him, cultural aim of education lays
emphasis on obtaining knowledge, apart from any material use. The knowledge is to be the
knowledge of Indian culture. Culture according to him is the quality of the soul that deals with all
aspects of human behaviour. The complete development of the child is another aim that Gandhiji
advocated.
According to this view, our innate and acquired powers should be developed as to bring about
a harmonious development of all those powers. The moral aim also emphasised by him in the sense
of character building or character development. According to him, ‘character development implies
the cultivation of such moral virtues as courage, strength of conviction, purity of personal life,
righteousness, and self-restrained service of mankind’. This character is to be build up in terms of
non-violence and universal life. The ultimate aim of education reflects Gandhi’s concept of the
ultimate goal in human life – the realization of the ultimate reality, knowledge of God and Truth.
There are three major aspects of education which Gandhiji conceptualised as aims of education.
They are:
Self-sufficiency aim– The aim of education should be to make the individual economically
independent and self-sufficient.
Cultural aim – He advocated the preservation and transmission of Indian culture.
Character building aim – All education must aim at character building, education is the
means and character building is the aim.

CURRICULUM, PEDAGOGY, TEACHER AND STUDENTS

Gandhiji educational philosophy and his ideas on education have been reflected in
curriculum, methods of teaching and role of teacher and students. He has given top priority on basic
education which is based upon craft-centred curriculum. In this section you will study the nature and
processes of craft-centred curriculum of education.

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CRAFT-CENTRED CURRICULUM
According to Gandhiji, in order to train the whole man, education needs to be craft centred,
because it develops skills among the students and further it leads them to be self-sufficient. Craft
centred education lays emphasis on experiences and activities as well as correlation of subjects with
varieties of crafts. It helps to develop an all-round personality, in which knowledge, action and
feelings are evenly balanced. The children after completing their course of education should be able
to earn their livelihood. He also suggested integration of craft in curriculum not only to use craft as
an isolated practice but as a means of livelihood. The curriculum aims at the all-round development
of the learner should have the following:
 A basic craft in accordance with the hygiene, chemistry and physical
local needs and conditions. culture.
 Mother tongue be the medium of  Art work
instruction.  Music
 Arithmetic  Domestic science for girls.
 Social studies
 General Science including nature
study, botany, zoology, physiology,
Gandhi’s craft–centred education encourages collaborative and co-operative activities and out
of these two, emerges a sort of social control or social discipline. The concept of social discipline
also is evident from his emphasis on the ideals of citizenship through education. Craft-centred
education is also known as basic education. In the next section, the basic education systemhas been
explained and also the pedagogy to be used in order to provide this education.

BASIC EDUCATION SYSTEM AND PEDAGOGY

In the basic education scheme, Gandhiji has given equal importance to community life.
Education through community develops the qualities like team spirit, cooperation and a sense of
mutual help. A child acquires competence of social adjustment through community life. In basic
education system, development of children is imparted through co-curricular activities like
community life, mass prayer, common dinner, physical exercise, team works, games and sports,
assignment (homework), cultural programmes, celebration of special days, and creative programmes.
During residential education, children take up various activities in various teams/groups or
collectively. These include cleaning of room and ground, dining, toilet and urinal and also fetching
water, cooking, watering plants, washing clothes, taking bath, etc.

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 In short, training is related to life was imparted in the basic education system. By this, values
like cleanliness, self-reliance, labour, team spirit, co-operation, endurance power, loyalty, good
conduct, honestly, discipline, obedience, punctuality, exercises, games and sports related to physical
education are also organized with a view to developing health related values in children. In this
education, celebrations such as national festivals, birth anniversary, death anniversary, parents
(guardians) day, self-education day, environment day, world population day and such other days are
celebrated. Cultural programmes are organized on such occasions. Moreover, community service
programmes given by Gandhiji such as cleaning of village roads and other areas, prevention of
untouchability, communal harmony, prohibition of alcoholic drinks, Khadi activities, adult
education, women upliftment, health education, nursing of lepers, addiction relief, etc. are celebrated
in the basic schools as well as in the community and hostels. All these help for developing moral and
other values among the children. He suggested that basic education should be given in the mother
tongue.

TEACHER AND STUDENTS

Gandhiji thinks that only the best and appropriate teachers can help in achieving the aforesaid
aims of education. These teachers should possess knowledge, skill, enthusiasm, patriotism and
special training. They should be inspired by social attitudes and imbibed with ideals of non-violence
or Ahimsa. In the Gandhian scheme, teacher-taught relationship is not established through syllabus
or curriculum, but for acquiring the life skills education which helps to lead one’s life meaningfully.
Emphasizing the role of teacher, he believed, ‘one who cannot take the place of mother cannot be a
teacher’. The prime role of the teacher is to prepare non-violent child through deeds of non-violence
rather than words of non-violence.

2.4.3. SWAMI VIVEKANANDA(1863-1902)

Among the Indian philosophers, Swami Vivekananda is quite popular and inspirational for
all. His philosophy is based upon idealistic thought and spiritualism. Let us discuss in details
Vivekananda’s philosophy of life, his concept on education, educational process and implications in
education.

BRIEF LIFE SKETCH AND PHILOSOPHY OF LIFE - BRIEF LIFE SKETCH

Naren, popularly known as Swami Vivekananda, was born on 12 January 1863 in Calcutta
presently known as Kolkata. During the childhood time he excelled in music, gymnastics and
studies. He was graduated from Calcutta University. He had acquired a vast knowledge of different

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subjects especially in philosophy and history. He used to practise yoga and meditation even from his
childhood and was associated with Brahmo Movement for some time. He will be always
remembered for awakening young India in spiritual realisation and devotion. In the year 1893, he
gave his historic speech at theWorld Parliament of Religions in Chicago, USA, which is ever
remembered by every Indians. Vivekananda has been hailed as an intensely spiritualistic philosopher
and scientific saint (IGNOU, MES-051, 2014).

PHILOSOPHY OF LIFE
Vivekananda’s philosophy of life is based upon Vedantic philosophy and he looked at
Vedantic views from the stand point of spiritualism, modernity, science, rationalism, and equality.
His philosophy of life can be best interpreted in terms of metaphysical, epistemological and
axiological point of views. In Metaphysical view, he explained Karma doctrine in terms of social
significance.
His views on God are for service to the poor. In a radically changed social context, by
emphasizing the potential equality of all souls at the spiritual level, he intended to make Vedantic
prescriptions as the very basis for the regeneration of Indian society. Vivekananda’s philosophy has
been characterized as ‘Vedantic Socialism’. The Epistemological views of his philosophy of life
focused on scientific methods in interpreting reality from the Vedantic perspective. He accepts
empirical knowledge, rational knowledge, intuitive knowledge, and also revealed knowledge.
Another important aspect of Vivekananda’s epistemology was his insistence that the explanation of
all phenomena must be from ‘within’ the individual.
He was against resorting to extra-cosmic and supernatural explanation even with regard to
religious phenomena. The Axiological interpretation of Vivekananda’s philosophy emphasises
traditional Indian value structure which comprises dharma, artha, kama and moksa. However, with
the intention to rejuvenate the Vedantic tradition, he reinterpreted purushartha without deviating
from the basics with his appeal to the youth to find moksa in social service. (IGNOU, MES-051,
2014)

EDUCATIONAL PHILOSOPHY AND AIMS OF EDUCATION

Swami Vivekananda viewed education in comprehensive and practical sense with a special
emphasis on behavioural aspect of education. This could be well reflected by Swamiji’s statement,
“Education is not the amount of information that is put into your brain and runs riot there undigested
all your life. We must have life-building, man-making, character making and assimilation of ideas. If
you have assimilated five ideas and made them your life and character, you have more education

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than any man who has got by heart a whole library. If education were identical with information, the
libraries would be the greatest sages in the world and encyclopaedias the rishis.”
According to Swamiji, through education an individual gets help for own physical, mental
and spiritual development. He used to say that, “Education is the manifestation of the divine
perfection already present in man.” He strongly criticised bookish knowledge and used to say that for
my young students, ‘I would prefer them playing football rather reading Gita without having
capacity to understand its essence. Education is helpful in understanding and realizing Reality (Sat),
Consciousness (Chit), Bliss (Anand) in true sense’.
He has also expressed his ideas on mass-education, women-education, religious education,
national-education and vocational-education. According to him, education must emphasize on
creativity, originality and excellence of an individual. As per his thoughts, a good education is one
that unfolds the hidden potential in human beings. True education needs cultivation of a sense of
humanity. This sense of humanity is a foundation of man’s character, the true and essential
prerequisite of a balanced personality. Basing upon the above concept of education of Swami
Vivekananda, the important features of education are as follows:
 God resides in every human heart.
 The best worship of God is service to mankind.
 Spirituality, ethics and morality should be the real basis of life as well as for education.
 Love and renunciation should permeate the universe.
 Religion means self-realisation through self-control, yoga and meditation.

AIMS OF EDUCATION
Vedanta and its teaching were the main reference point for Swami Vivekananda.
The main aims of education are as follows:
 Expressing ‘internal completeness’ into external world so that one can realize holistic
development of oneself or Man Making Education.
 Development of Humanity.
 Serving Society and Humanity.
 Development of Physical Strength.
 Development of International Brotherhood and World-consciousness.

CURRICULUM
To achieve the aforesaid aims of education, Swamiji suggested curriculum to be divided into
two parts -materialistic (worldly) and spiritualistic (abstract) curriculum. Development of soul and

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self-realization to be included in the spiritualistic curriculum while teaching of Languages, Sciences,
Psychology, Arts, Agriculture, etc. have been kept in the worldly curriculum. According to him
modern education is more career-oriented and do not give emphasis on the cultivation of values and
virtues, disciplining the mind, strengthening morality and formation of strong character. He
suggested that education must not be for stuffing few facts or overloading information into the brain,
but it should aim at transforming the mind of human beings. True education should not be only
carrier oriented, but also for the national development. Pedagogy To him, ideology education must
provide life-building, man-making, character building, assimilation of ideas, etc. The purpose of
such education would be to produce an integrated personality. Swamiji says that it is wrong to think
that we promote the development of a child, in fact, the child furthers his development himself.
Swamiji says, “Everyone develops according to his own nature.
When the time comes everyone will come to know this truth. Do you think you can educate a
child? The child will educate himself, your job is to provide the necessary opportunity to him and
remove the obstacles in his path. He will educate himself on his own. A plant grows itself, does the
gardener grow it? He just provides the necessary environment to it; it is the plant itself that does its
own growing.”
The specific methods that he suggested to be used in the teaching-learning process are
concentration, yoga and meditation, intuition, lecture and discussion, self exercise, creative activities,
etc. He believed that the child has enough power which is divine in nature and the methods of
teaching are the means to exhibit that power.

TEACHER AND STUDENTS

Swami Vivekananda advocates the principle of self– education. It is therefore the role of
teacher is to facilitate students and to create an environment to develop a sense of self-learning. In
order to make education useful, it must be according to the nature and needs of the learner and not
determined by the teacher. The teacher is supposed to see God in the soul of the child. Child should
be considered as manifestation of God. For the acquisition of knowledge, concentration is very
important. Thus to get success in life, this power is also very helpful. With the help of
communication power one is able to select and acquire the relevant information and arrange it in
his/her mind for use whenever and wherever necessary.
According to him, to vitalize the Indian society, practical wisdom and justice is needed and it
is only possible through education. He advocated spirituality as social service and true religion.

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2.4.4. SRI AUROBINDO GHOSH (1872 – 1950)
Aurobindo Ghosh is one of the popular educational thinkers of idealism philosophy in the
field of education. The concept of integral education and practice of integral school by Sri Aurobindo
is very popular among the masses. This section will make you understand about the educational
philosophy and other pedagogic aspects of education as suggested by Sri Aurobindo.

BRIEF LIFE SKETCH AND PHILOSOPHY OF LIFE - LIFE SKETCH

Sri Aurobindo Ghosh was born in Calcutta on 15th August 1872. In 1893, he joined as
professor of English at Baroda College in Gujarat. His ideas and theories of education were as per
the needs of the Indians. He initiated an International Ashram and International Centre of Education
and Social Activities. Auroville, ‘as a city of human unity’, was his experiment in Pondichery in
India.

PHILOSOPHY OF LIFE
Integral is the concept that forms the basis of Aurobindo’s philosophical and educational
ideas. His educational philosophy is based upon the ideas of idealism school of philosophy. He
believed that reality is the truth and an integral whole of the individual and its action. Aurobindo’s
educational theory centres on his concept of mind. He considers the true sense of education is the
study of human mind. Aurobindo’s theory of mind culminates in his belief in the existence of super
mind. According to him, super mind represents a higher place of consciousness.
Aurobindo’s philosophy is an affirmation of Indian belief which is spiritual in nature and rational.
His philosophy aims to attain knowledge of the ultimate reality.

EDUCATIONAL PHILOSOPHY AND AIMS OF EDUCATION

AUROBINDO’S IDEA ON EDUCATION
According to Sri Aurobindo, true education is not only spiritual but also rational, vital and
physical. In other words, it is the Integral Education in which education should have five major
aspects relating to the principal activities of a human being: the physical, the vital, the mental, the
psychic and the spiritual. This type education is complete and complimentary to each other and
continues lifelong. Aurobindo’s scheme of education is integral in two senses:

and humanity.

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The ultimate goal of education is the evolution of total humanity. In this evolution, the principle of
development is ‘unity in diversity’. This unity subsequently, maintains and helps the evolution of
diversity. The ultimate aim of education is man-making.

AIMS OF EDUCATION
According to Sri Aurobindo, the main aim of education is to help the growing soul to draw
out that the best and make it perfect for a noble cause. Education should enable him/her to realize
his/her inner self which is a part of the universal consciousness. According to him, senses can be
trained fully when man as, chitta and nerve are pure. Another important aim of education is to
develop consciousness. According to him, the aims of education have the following four levels.
(i) Chitta (ii) Manas (iii) Intelligence (iv) Knowledge
A teacher should develop all these four levels harmoniously. This will promote the development of
conscience. According to him, ‘the utilisation of the Super mind for the development of an integrated
human personality should be the true aim of education’.

CURRICULUM, PEDAGOGY, TEACHER AND STUDENTS

According to Sri Aurobindo, colleges and universities should educate through their academic
as well as social activities. The schools are a unique part of a society. Education cannot give in
isolation. The school has to develop different types of activities such as collaboration, consultation
and lectures in an integral manner. The school needs to provide opportunities for integral
development of learners. Therefore, aims, curriculum and methods of teaching to be the light of the
concepts of integral education.

IDEA ON CURRICULUM
According to him, curriculum should be confined to a limited syllabus and a few text books. It must
include all those subjects which promote mental and spiritual development of the learners. Education
is a means towards an end, not an end in itself. There must be due flexibility to meet individual
needs. Subjects of curriculum should be able to motivate the learners. Curriculum should involve
creativity of life and constructive activities and be interesting. He has prescribed the following
subjects in the curriculum.
 Primary stage: Mother Tongue, English, National History, Art, Painting, General Science,
Social Studies, and Arithmetic.
 Secondary stage: Mother tongue, English, French, Arithmetic, Art, Chemistry, Physics,
Botany, Social Studies, Physiology, and Health Education.
 University Stage: Indian and Western philosophies, History of Civilization,

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2.4.5. PHILOSOPHICAL VIEWS OF JIDDU KRISHNAMURTHY
In fact Krishnamurty was a free thinker. He did not believe in any authority or religions. He
did not create any new faith or doctrine and launched no social reform. He stressed for total
transformation of individual. To make the mind of individuals free from any fear, he advised to think
for them to feel passionately to shed the burdens of the past or future. His message to mankind was
—First understand the purpose of our existence, the purpose of our life, and understand what we
were thriving for. Then utilize everything, to strengthen us.
The essence of Krishnamurty’s philosophy lies in his path breaking observation made during
the dissolution of the ‘Order of the Star’ in 1929. Krishnamurty dissolved the Order of the Star on
3rd August 1929 with a historic and powerful speech - “I maintain that truth is a pathless land, and
you cannot approach it by any path whatsoever, by any religion, by any sect. That is my point of
view, and I adhere to that absolutely and unconditionally. Truth, being limitless, unconditioned,
unapproachable by any path whatsoever, cannot be organized; nor should any organization be
formed to lead or to coerce people along with any particular path. If you first understand that, then
you will see how impossible it is to organize a belief. A belief is purely an individual matter, and you
cannot and must not organize it. If you do, it becomes dead, crystallized; it becomes a creed, a sect, a
religion, to be imposed on others”
Krishnamurty never claimed to be a teacher of truth whose teachings had to be followed to
attain ‘Nirvan’a or Self-understanding. According to him, the ‘journey of understanding’, therefore,
has to be made by oneself, which means that one has to discard every kind of authority. Moreover,
‘to be a light to ourselves we must be free of all tradition, all authority, including that of the speaker,
so that our own minds can look and observe and learn’. His views’ regarding the discovery of reality
is that, “there is no path to reality. Reality is a pathless land and you must venture out and discover it
for yourself. It is because you are frightened inwardly that you depend on something or on a belief
.and so you get caught in the net of an organized religion.”

EDUCATIONAL IDEAS OF JIDDU KRISHNAMURTHY

Jiddu Krishnamurthy was a great educationist and as well as a renowned philosopher. He
noticed some shortcoming in present education system. Independent thinking is very much difficult
in this conventional education system. As long as we worship success, it is not easy and even risky to
be different from the group or to resist environment. Krishnamurthy was strongly against the
excessive and exclusive emphasis on technique of present education system and neglect of the
human aspects.

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 He felt that over-emphasizing techniques destroy the quality of man. According to him the
life of human will be increasingly ruthless if you want to cultivate capacity and efficiency without
understanding life, without having a total perception of the ways of thought and desire. He believed
that though the excessive cultivation of technique can produce scientists, mathematicians, engineers
or space conquerors, but they do not understand the total process of life.

CONCEPT OF EDUCATION
Krishnamurthy thought that education system should take care of the source which is the
individual, since it is ‘human beings who create society, not some gods in heaven’. But to understand
the complexity of life, he advised the students to appreciate their role in the creation of a ‘new’ world
without fear, conflict or contradiction. And this could be done if there was ‘right education’ in an
atmosphere of freedom, without fear or authority, where intelligence and goodness could be
nurtured. Krishnamurty believed that the education should not simply reproduce a programmed
machine or trained monkey, rather it should awaken intelligence in human being. He thought that
after education, the students should be able to meet the challenges of living in a complex social
world.

AIMS OF EDUCATION
Education is necessary for the survival of society. Aim enables us to act with meaning. It
gives direction to the activity. Absence of an aim in education makes it a blind alley. According to
Krishnamurty the aim of education is: (i) Educating the whole person, (ii) Educating the person as a
whole (not as an assemblage of parts), (iii) Educating the person within a whole. (As part of society,
humanity, nature, etc.). For him, education is about preparation for the whole life and not preparation
for part of life (like work).
In the true sense, Education helps the individual to be mature and free, to flower greatly in
love and goodness. The main aim of education, to this great educator, was that the mental
development of a child should be in such a way that he should know himself. Education should help
one to feel freedom of mind and fearlessness. He considered that the individual is made up of
different entities and education should bring about the integration of those separate entities -without
integration, life becomes a series of conflicts and sorrows. As per Krishnamurty, Cultivation of right
kind of relationship, not only between individuals, but also between the individual and society was
another aim of education. Right kind of relationship means individual should have a feeling or
consideration for others without any fear and awkward situation.

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METHODS OF EDUCATION
Method of education depends on two factors, such as, concept of knowledge and the nature of
knowledge one wants to acquire. Since self knowledge is the true knowledge, methodology that leads
to the discovery of the self is the right methodology. He felt that individual should live with the
‘Present’ forgetting about ‘Past’ or ‘Future’. It is said that according to Krishnamurthy the methods
of education are —
1. We should not teach the student ‘what to think’ and ‘how to think’. Allow him freedom to think
for himself/herself.
2. Study the child thoroughly and employ such methods that suit him best.
3. The student should be treated as an equal partner.
4. Problem solving and explorative methods should be encouraged.
5. Repetition encourages the mind of the child to be sluggish.

DISCIPLINE
Undesirable split between discipline and freedom is often noticed in general educational
parlance. Krishnamurthy opposed this dualistic treatment and said, ‘most of our live are outwardly
disciplined by the demands of the society and that form of discipline is the most deadening think.
Discipline must be without control, without suppression, without any form of fear.’

ROLE OF THE TEACHER

The right kind of education is that one should understand a child as he is without imposing
upon him any burden or expectation. Expectation plays the role of an actual hindrance to our
understandings and the child’s own understandings. Understanding a child does not depend on a
particular or fixed method. The teacher should study each pupil closely. He should keep in his mind
that pupils are living beings who are impressionable, volatile, sensitive, affectionate and often tumid.
He should have a lot of love and patience to deal with them. The absence of these qualities makes a
teacher totally unfit for this profession. Observing the student at play, work and at different moods
are the best ways to understand a student. The ideal teacher will desist from molding him to fit his
idiosyncrasies, prejudices and ideas which gratifies himself. If a teacher is not an integrated
personality, then he cannot help a student to become integrated personalities. Six point of conduct of
a good teacher are given by the Master are––
1) Self control of mind, 2) Self control in action, 3) Tolerance, 4) Cheerfulness,
5) One - Pointedness and 6) Confidence.

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2.4.6. EDUCATIONAL PHILOSOPHY OF PANDITH MADAN MOHAN MALAVIYA
Madan Mohan Malaviya was a prominent Indian educationist and social reformer who lived
from 1861 to 1946. He believed that education was the key to social and economic progress, and that
it should be accessible to all, regardless of caste, gender or socio-economic background.Malaviya
had established himself as a national movement leader, a great patriot who was also dedicated to the
cause of Sanatanism and Hindu harmony (Jha, 2022). Malaviya was a strong advocate of the
traditional Indian education system, which he believed had great value in promoting moral values
and spiritual development. The purpose of the underlying philosophy of religion is to create peace,
harmony, and happiness in the country, as well as to think about otherworldly human subjects
(Chandra, 2000). He also believed that education should be grounded in a sense of national identity
and pride, and that it should be directed towards the development of a strong and self-reliant India.
Malaviya was instrumental in the establishment of the Banaras Hindu University (BHU),
which he founded in 1916 with the aim of promoting the revival of traditional Indian knowledge
systems while also embracing modern education. BHU was designed to be a place where students
from all backgrounds could come together to learn, exchange ideas and develop a strong sense of
national identity.
Malaviya was also a strong advocate of women's education, and he believed that education
was the key to women's empowerment and emancipation. He believed that women should have
access to the same educational opportunities as men, and that education was essential to breaking
down the barriers of caste and gender that had held Indian society back for centuries.

EDUCATIONAL PHILOSOPHY OF MADAN MOHAN MALAVIYA

Malaviya saw education as a means of enabling individuals to fulfill their potential and to
contribute to society. He believed that education should be accessible to all, regardless of their social
or economic background.
In his view, education should be based on moral and ethical principles, and should instill in
individuals a sense of responsibility towards their fellow beings and the environment. He believed
that education should help individuals develop a sense of social justice and equality, and prepare
them to work for the betterment of society.
He believed that education should ignite the curiosity and passion for learning in a student
and empower them to become lifelong learners. He stressed that education should be accessible to
all, regardless of their socioeconomic background or gender.
Malaviya's definition of education emphasizes the importance of education as a means of

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SENTHIL COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, PUDUCHERRY – 605 110.
personal and social transformation, and as a tool for building a just and equitable society.

AIMS OF EDUCATION
Madan Mohan Malaviya was an Indian educationist and political leader who believed that
education was the key to the development and progress of society. He viewed education as a means
of shaping the character and personality of individuals, as well as creating responsible citizens who
could contribute to the betterment of society. Malaviya's educational philosophy was deeply rooted
in traditional Indian values and emphasized the holistic development of students. Some of the main
aims of education according to Malaviya's philosophy are:
 Character building: Malaviya believed that the ultimate aim of education was to build
strong character and moral values in students. He believed that education should not only
impart knowledge but also teach students the importance of integrity, honesty, and social
responsibility.
 Holistic development: Malaviya believed in the holistic development of students, including
physical, mental, and spiritual growth. He believed that education should aim to develop the
intellectual, emotional, and social aspects of a student's personality.
 Practical knowledge: Malaviya believed that education should not only focus on theoretical
knowledge but also provide practical training and skills development. He believed that
students should be taught skills that would enable them to become self-reliant and contribute
to the economy.
 Nationalism: Malaviya was a staunch nationalist and believed that education should promote
patriotism and national consciousness. He believed that education should instill a sense of
pride and love for the country in students.
 Social reform: Malaviya believed that education should be a tool for social reform and that it
should be used to eradicate social evils like casteism, communalism, and discrimination.

CURRICULUM
According to Malaviya, education should be accessible to everyone, regardless of their social
status or economic background. He believed that education should help individuals develop a sense
of responsibility towards society, and foster a spirit of service to the community. In line with these
beliefs,
Malaviya advocated for the following elements to be incorporated in the curriculum:

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  Moral and ethical education: Malaviya believed that education should instill moral and
ethical values in students. The curriculum should include teachings on honesty, integrity,
respect for others, and social responsibility.
 Practical education: Malaviya emphasized the need for practical education that would equip
students with skills to succeed in the real world. This included vocational training,
apprenticeships, and internships.
 Spiritual development: Malaviya believed that education should nurture the spiritual
development of students. He believed that this could be achieved through the study of
religious texts, meditation, and service to others.
 Physical education: Malaviya stressed the importance of physical education and sports in the
curriculum. He believed that physical fitness was essential for overall well-being and could
help develop discipline and team spirit.
 Cultural education: Malaviya believed in the importance of cultural education to promote a
sense of national identity and pride. This included the study of history, literature, and art.

METHODS OF TEACHING
Emphasized the following methods of teaching:
 Activity-Based Learning: Malaviya believed that learning should be practical and not just
theoretical. Therefore, he stressed the importance of activity-based learning, which involves
hands-on activities that allow students to actively participate in the learning process.
 Co-operative Learning: Malaviya believed that students should work in groups to learn
from one another. He believed that co-operative learning helps students develop important
social and communication skills, and it encourages them to work collaboratively.
 Self-Learning: Malaviya believed that students should be encouraged to learn on their own,
rather than just relying on the teacher. He felt that this would help students develop self-
confidence and take responsibility for their own learning.
 Personalization: Malaviya believed that teaching should be tailored to the individual needs
of each student. He felt that teachers should identify the strengths and weaknesses of each
student and develop teaching strategies that best suit their learning style.
 Experiential Learning: Malaviya believed that learning should be based on experiences,
rather than just theoretical knowledge. He emphasized the importance of students engaging in
practical activities, such as experiments and field trips, to gain a deeper understanding of the
subject matter.

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ROLE OF TEACHER
According to Malaviya, the role of a teacher was multifaceted and included the following:
Imparting knowledge: The primary role of a teacher is to impart knowledge and skills to
their students. This includes not just academic knowledge, but also practical skills and life
lessons that can help students succeed in the real world.
Encouraging curiosity: A good teacher should encourage their students to be curious and
ask questions. This can help students develop a love of learning and a desire to explore new
ideas.
Instilling values: Teachers have an important role to play in instilling values such as
honesty, integrity, respect, and empathy in their students. These values are essential for
building a just and equitable society.
Providing guidance and support: Teachers should provide guidance and support to their
students, helping them overcome challenges and achieve their goals. This includes providing
emotional support and encouragement when students face difficult times.
Serving as role models: Teachers are often seen as role models by their students. Therefore,
it is important for teachers to set a good example and embody the values they seek to instill in
their students.

RELEVANCE TO CONTEMPORARY SYSTEM OF EDUCATION

Madan Mohan Malaviya was an Indian educationist and a great proponent of education
reform in India.
He strongly believed in the power of education to bring about social, economic, and cultural
transformation in society. His educational philosophy emphasized the need for a comprehensive
education system that would cater to the diverse needs of learners and prepare them to become
responsible and enlightened citizens.
The relevance of Malaviya's educational philosophy on the contemporary system of
education can be seen in the following ways:
 Inclusive Education: Malaviya believed in providing education to all, regardless of their
caste, creed, or gender. This philosophy of inclusive education is still relevant today, as we
strive to ensure that every child has access to quality education.
 Emphasis on Moral and Ethical Values: Malaviya believed that education should instill
moral and ethical values in learners. This is especially relevant today, as we see an increasing
need for values based education to address the challenges facing society.

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SENTHIL COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, PUDUCHERRY – 605 110.
  Focus on Holistic Development: Malaviya's philosophy emphasized the need for a holistic
education system that would cater to the physical, intellectual, emotional, and spiritual needs
of learners. This approach is still relevant today, as we recognize the importance of
developing the whole person in education.
 Importance of Teacher Training: Malaviya emphasized the need for well-trained teachers
who could inspire and guide learners. This philosophy is still relevant today, as we recognize
the critical role that teachers play in shaping the future of our society.
 Use of Technology: While Malaviya lived in a different era, he recognized the importance
technology in education. Today, as we see rapid advancements in technology, his philosophy
remains relevant in the need to incorporate technology in education to enhance the learning
experience.

2.5. WESTERN THINKERS

2.5.1. JEAN JACQUES ROUSSEAU (1712-1778)
”Everything is good as it comes from the hands of the Author of Nature but everything
degenerates in the hands of man.” Rousseau Jean Jacques Rousseau was born in Italy on 28 th June
1712 and one of the famous philosophers of Naturalism school of thought. His ideas on education
have been clearly understood through his books. He has written six great books and they are:
 The progress of Art and Science
 The Origin of Inequality among Men
 Discourse on Inequality
 The New Heloise
 Social Contract
Emile enhances of his school life as teachers used to give corporal punishment to children and he
was afraid of teachers. As the school environment was not amicable to the growth of children, he
considered school education is of no use.
According to him, nature is the only pure, clean and ennobling influence on children. Human
society is thoroughly corrupt. Therefore, man should be freed from the bondage of society and
should live in the nature. Human nature is basically good and it must be given ample opportunities
for the free development in an open atmosphere (IGNOU, 2000).
His famous book, ‘Emile’, is in the field of child education. Here he described the process of
education through education of an imaginary child ‘Emile’ who was given education in a natural
environment away fromthe society and school. In this book, psychological principles of education

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ASSISTANT PROFESSOR OF PHYSICAL SCIENCE,
SENTHIL COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, PUDUCHERRY – 605 110.
were given more importance as the child was left free to explore nature so that she could develop
physically as well as mentally in the lap of nature.
Concept and Aims of Education: Concept of Education
Rousseau suggested the given practices in education:
Complete freedom to the child/learner.
No imposed physical punishment, only the child can experience natural punishment, that can
subsequently help/teach the child to do the right and good things.
Follow the natural law(s), because neglect or violation invariably leads to pain and suffering.
Naturally possessed fine character.

AIMS OF EDUCATION
The following aims of education were suggested by Rousseau:
 Emphasis on natural activities of the child: According to Rousseau, “Goodness is an innate
quality of the children. All that is good which we get from nature.”
 Child as the centre of education: Nature and abilities of children should be kept in mind while
planning for their education. Child is not a young adult.
 Emphasis on Nature: According to Rousseau, Nature, Human and Physical environment are
the sources of education. Learning by doing and getting experience is the best learning.
Education is gardening of children. As plants develop through care and nutrients and human
develop through education. Children must realize their weaknesses, inabilities and
dependence so that they can overcome these with hard work and efforts. Rousseau wants life
of hard work and not comfort, luxury and weakness. According to him the child should be
provided education according to child’s nature and love towards nature should be developed
in the child. Love of nature will develop all other faculties in the child. He considered natural
education as the real education and criticized regular and artificial education imparted in the
schools.
CURRICULUM AND METHODS OF TEACHING
S.No Stages Curriculum Methods of Teaching
1 Infancy (0-5  Development of body and senses  Training of sense
Years)  Moral conversation through organs
mother tongue  Counselling method
 Debar from developing any bad
habit

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ASSISTANT PROFESSOR OF PHYSICAL SCIENCE,
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2 Childhood (5-12  Learn everything through direct  Play way method
Years) experience and observation.  Practical work
 No prescribed text book.  Self-learning method
 Negative education  Learning through
 Free play, movement and action self-experience
 No rigid curriculum suggested at
this stage
3 Adolescence (12-  Suggest formal curriculum  Learning by doing
15 Years including Natural Science,  Observation, enquiry
Language, Mathematics, and experimental
Woodwork, Music, Paining, etc. method.
 Active work based curriculum;
not on books
4 Youth (15-20  Moral and religious education  Heuristic method
Years) through actual experience not  Demonstration of
through formal lectures. real objects in
 Education for bodily health, teaching
music and hands on activities

To analyse the curriculum and methods of teaching suggested by Rousseau, it can be said that
he was against book reading and rigid curriculum, especially at the early stage of life. He suggested
formal curriculum only at the stage of adolescence.
The methods which engage the child in hands-on activities and learning by doing something
had given importance by him.

ROLE OF THE TEACHER

According to him, a teacher is not the source of information but must act as a motivator for
learning. Children should not be directed but guided. Teacher must understand the nature of children.
So, he/she should be tolerant and able to check his/her emotions. He/she must not think of keeping
the child under his/her control as the child needs to be provided with full freedom for exploring and
learning. Proper guidance should be provided by the teacher to the child.

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SENTHIL COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, PUDUCHERRY – 605 110.
ROUSSEAU’S CONTRIBUTION TO EDUCATION
He discovered and recognized the childhood traits. He advocated basis of child psychology as
the founding step for education of children. This lead to child centered education in the modern
period. He was the forerunner of modern educational psychology. He said that children should be
treated as children and not as young adults, so methods of providing them education should be
different. He said that the children should be given problems to solve without any help and
instructions. Therefore, let them find out the truths themselves by exploring the environment. He laid
the foundation of free and positive discipline. He said, “Let the child move freely in nature and learn
from his/her own personal experience and through actual participation in day to day life activities.”
He condemned the punishment which destroys original and natural curiosity and intellect of the child
due to fear of punishment. He was against strict discipline enforcement on children. He was in favour
of providing full freedom to children to do their work in their own creative ways and not interfering
in what they are doing.

NEGATIVE EDUCATION
He emphasized on negative education as compared to positive education as formal and rigid
education tries to prepare the child for adult roles before time by providing lot of information and
instructions in an artificial environment. Negative education is without any ties and control
mechanism. In this the child learns according to his/her nature and at his/her own pace. In this type
his/her all faculties develop naturally. Advocating negative education, Rousseau emphasized on the
following :
 No learning through books rather learning through direct experiences from the nature
 No time saving (provide enough time to the child to live in nature)
 No habit formation
 No social education for the children (as the upper class society was corrupt at that time)
 No direct moral education
 No strict and formal discipline
 No traditional education method

WOMAN EDUCATION
Rousseau was not in favor of same education for men and women as he believed that their
nature of responsibilities is totally different. He said that women are born to serve and men are born
to enjoy. The role of women is to bring up children, help them to grow up as adults, to provide them
with advice to make their life comfortable and acceptable. So instead of providing women with

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ASSISTANT PROFESSOR OF PHYSICAL SCIENCE,
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higher education, they should be taught household, stitching, embroidery and education of religion.
He advocated moral and religious education for women. This may be a part of debate. Rousseau said,
“A woman of literary education is the plague of her family, her servants and everybody.” It needs
critical reflection in the context of present day society with technical and enlightened society.

2.5.2. JOHN DEWEY (1859-1952)

John Dewey is considered as a great philosopher, thinker and educationist of the modern era.
He is one of the best known philosophers in the United States. After graduating from the University,
he started his career as a school teacher. Later on obtained his Doctorate Degree in Philosophy from
John Hopkins University. In 1884, he began his teaching career at the University of Michigan in
1894 and later joined University of Chicago as head of its newly created department of Philosophy,
Psychology and Pedagogy.
His philosophy has been mainly referred to as ‘Pragmatism’. He has been one of the most influential
thinkers ofmodern times whose educational ideas have left a long lasting impact on contemporary
educational thinking and practice. Some of his famous educational works include the following:
 The School and the Society (1899)
 The Child and the Curriculum (1902)
 How we Think (1910)
 Interest and effort in Education (1913)
 Democracy and Education (1916)
 Experience and Education, The Quest for Certainty: A Study of the Relations of Knowledge
and Action (1929)

CONCEPT AND AIMS OF EDUCATION: CONCEPT OF EDUCATION

“Education is the development of all those capacities in the individual which will enable
him/her to control his environment and fulfill his/her possibilities.” Education is a social need. It is
progressive in nature both for the individual and the society. It is a bipolar process having two
aspects; psychological and social. Both are equally important. Psychological aspect takes care of the
child’s interests, capabilities, talents and aptitude and the social aspect takes care of the social
environment of the child in which he/she takes birth and is brought up.
According to John Dewey, ‘education is life itself and not a preparation for life’(Quoted
fromIGNOU, 2011). Education is for the child and not the vice versa, i.e. child is not for education.
Child is not a Tabula Rasa (clean slate) on which anything can be written. Child is born with certain
innate powers and capabilities which can be developed in the right direction. Education develops the

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child in such a way that he/she is able to find values and truth in every activity and experiment done
at all levels and is able to face the future challenges with confidence.

AIMS OF EDUCATION
According to Dewey, idea develops after an experience or an action. That knowledge is true
which is gained by direct experience. When an individual performs any action and face challenges
and difficulties in performing it, he/she thinks how to overcome these. Thus thoughts and ideas are
produced and actions are performed further. Dewey calls these thoughts as education. He has given
the following as aims of education:
 Philosophy as a product of education: Dewey does not consider education as the dynamic
aspect of philosophy rather he considers philosophy as the byproduct of education. He says,
“Philosophy is the theory of education in its most general phases”.
 Education means life: According to Dewey “education is life itself and not a preparation for
life” (Quoted from IGNOU, 2011). Education is a process of living and not a preparation for
future living. Only theoretical knowledge is not useful, knowledge which can be used in life
should be given more
 importance. So behavioural and vocational skills are more important. Learning by doing is
important so that children get direct experiences. There should not be a distance gap between
future and school life. The real life experiences should be provided in the school.
 Education is a miniature society: Development of an individual takes place in the society.
He/she gets many experiences while living in the society. So the education of the child must
takes place through society. According to John Dewey, “Education is the social continuity of
life”. He considers schooling as an instrument of destroying social evils. He considers it as a
small form of society where the best practices of civilization are available. According to
Dewey, “An individual is the soul of the body which is society”. Individual and society are
dependent on each other, so development of both is necessary.
 Education is the process of reconstruction of experiences: In a democratic world,
education is the right of every individual. So the state must take up total responsibility of
children. By democratic society, Dewey meant not only political democracy but democracy
as a way of life. He is of the opinion that individuals have different experiences so they have
differences of actions. So individuals are complimentary to each other and opponents in a
democracy. In such an environment, only social and individual development takes place.
Child gets true knowledge by experience. Slowly as his/her experiences increase, his/her

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 knowledge also increases. On the basis of experiences there is change in the behavior of the
child and on the basis of that he/she gains more experiences. In this way there is
reconstruction of experiences are taking place continuously.

PROCESS OF EDUCATION
Dewey emphasized to provide education through activities and not through theoretical
subjects. The experiences one gets in life are not subject specific. So knowledge should be associated
with actions and experiences. It should be in accordance with direct experiences and fulfillment of
social needs.

CURRICULUM, TEACHING METHODS, ROLE OF TEACHER AND DISCIPLINE

CURRICULUM
Curriculum should be prepared according to children’s needs, interests, aptitude and nature of social
needs. It should be flexible, dynamic and change as per the need of time and situation.
Education at different stages: Dewey has divided his plan of education into three different stages,
they are:
- Play period (4-8 years);
- Period of spontaneous attention (8-12 years); and
- Period of reflective action (12-18 years).
Play period was especially dedicated for teaching in activity based method, spontaneous attention
period was dedicated for independently solving problems of life and reflective action period was
referred for come out as responsible citizen of the society.

TEACHING METHODS
For strengthening experiences of the child and involving them with varieties of learning
activities, Dewey suggested problem solving method, learning by doing, project method, and field-
based activity method for study.

ROLE OF TEACHER
According to Dewey, teacher is a friend, philosopher and guide. S/he is the major agent for
the socialization of the child. S/he is the representative of the society. S/he has right to motivate and
inspire the child but not to burden the child with his/her own thoughts. A teacher’s role is to prepare
students for living in the society effectively. A teacher must have knowledge about the interests of
child, changing social environment and to guide children.

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SENTHIL COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, PUDUCHERRY – 605 110.
DISCIPLINE
Pragmatists unlike idealists for strict discipline and naturalists for unlimited freedom for child
have devised middle path between these two extremes. Dewey gave importance to social discipline
which is based on child’s nature, actions and social answer ability. According to him discipline is a
mental state to develop social activities which are necessary. He is not in the favour of artificial or
unnatural enforcement of discipline by creating fear in the children. He considers self-discipline is
more important than externally forced discipline.

2.5.3. MARIA MONTESSORI (1870 -1952)

LIFE SKETCH:
Born August 31, 1870 Chiaravalle, Marche, Italy Died May 6, 1952 (aged 81) Noordwijk,
South Holland, Netherlands Resting place Noordwijk, Netherlands Nationality – Italian Education
University of Rome La Sapienza Medical School Maria Montessori’s name is famous all over the
world as an originator of a new system of pre-primary education for young children.(Montessori
method) Known for Founder of the Montessori method of education She believed that children
should be free to find out things for themselves and to develop through individual activity.
Occupation Physician and educator Religion -Catholic

HISTORY OF THE MONTESSORI EDUCATION APPROACH

Montessori founded the first Casa dei Bambini, or ‘Children’s House’ on January 6, 1907 for
normal children. Dr. Maria Montessori's first class consisted of 50-60 children, ages 3-6, and most of
them suffered from malnutrition and were shy and fearful since they lived in the slums of Florence,
Italy.
Montessori found that the children needed very little persuading to do everyday tasks, puzzles or
other interesting activities which allowed them to not direct their energy toward destructive
behaviours.
She described the ages from three to six as a particularly sensitive time during which young children
are especially attuned to acquiring knowledge from and about their environment. To enrich their
experience, Dr. Maria Montessori developed a "prepared environment", of child sized furniture and
material, to adapt to the surroundings to the child's natural size and behavior. This helped the
children to feel relaxed and comfortable which created a will to learn. Through this interaction and
experience, the children developed an extraordinary high level of intellectual and social ability at
young ages.

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MONTESSORI METHOD
It is a child cantered alternative educational system developed by Maria Montessori.
 The Montessori Method is based on the fact that children learn directly from their
environment & relatively little from listening to a teacher talking to a class.
 The Montessori Method provides a stimulating child oriented environment in which children
can explore, touch and learn without fear.

Characteristics of Montessori Method

 It is based on profound respect for the child’s personality as an individual.
 It is based on the child imperious need to learn by doing.
 The learning environment is positive, non threatening and noncompetitive
 Children learn through activities that involve exploration, manipulation, order, repetition,
abstraction and communication

Educational Principles of Montessori

The philosophy of Montessori method emphasizes the individual child’s initiative & independence
allowing him or her to progress through an orderly series of structured learning activities at his own
pace. It is based on the following principles;
 Principle of instinctive learning
 Principle of development from within
 Principle of independence & freedom
 Principle of intrinsic rewarding & non punishing.
 Principle of individual development
 Principle of auto education
 Principle of sense training
 Principle of motor training
• It helps to unfold his individuality &personality Development of individuality
• To develop individuality in natural &spontaneous manner Freedom
• No interference with teacher Self education
• Proper physical training to become self dependent Muscular training
• Sensory organs are ‘gateway of knowledge’ Sensory training

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The children’s houses
Montessori designed a structural environment in which children could choose freely from a number
of developmentally appropriate activities. This structured environment designed for children is called
children’s house.

Educational Contributions
Scientific Concept of Education
She gave us observation, experimentation and other scientific methods in education.
She never insisted on material and method as the last words in the field of child education.
She rather gave a scientific approach to education by breaking away from old traditions.
She developed a unique system of early childhood education named
Montessori system which has been used effectively with mentally retarded, physically handicapped,
normal and gifted children. children’s house that initiates & facilitates auto education.
Montessori developed a series of standardized sensorial materials called didactic apparatus.
She discovered that children have basic needs and natural tendencies & when these are met the
children progress rapidly.
She observed that young children learn best through the use of their senses .They need to touch, feel,
move, see, hear, smell & taste. This discovery opened the new era of sensory learning in the field of
pre primary school education.
She replaced the word ‘teacher’ as the word ‘directress’ as she thinks that the function of the teacher
is to direct & not to teach.

Emphasis on Individual Teaching

As against collective and class reading, Montessori stresses individual treatment of each child.
Because of individual differences in physical and mental make-up, each pupil should be observed,
studied and handed in a different manner.
Thus, like the modern educators, she made child as the “unit of teaching” in place of class.

Psychological Approach to Education

Like Froebel, she has also given emphasis on sense training, which is based on psychological
principles.
She has advocated auto-education in an atmosphere of freedom and in the spirit of play.
She has also emphasized child’s development from within through his own efforts. All these
principles have made learning more important than teaching, which is universally accepted today.

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Love and Respect for Small Children
In her own words, “The child’s soul which is pure and very sensitive requires our most delicate
care”. For her “child was God, her school was the temple and deity of the temple was the essence of
childhood.”
The profound love for children that she had compelled her to travel from one corner of the world to
another to start institutions for them.
She also stayed in India from 1939 to 1951 and conducted a number of training courses for teachers
in her system of child education.

AIMS OF EDUCATION
 Development of Physical(body) & Intellectual(knowledge)
 Development of individuality(Inner personality)
 Motor Education Sensory Education Language Education
 Discipline
 Complete Freedom
 Discipline can’t be stop from outside.

THE ROLE OF TEACHER

A guide, observer, coach, facilitator & overall manager
Montessori system teaches of individuals instead of groups.
It utilize autodidactic (self correcting) equipment for introduction and learning of various concepts
 No Interference in children activities
 Teacher should provide the opportunity for development of Children’s personality.
 School
 Montessori developed a school named ‘Children’s house’. In this school, several rooms and
garden were there. Students had to take care of garden , play, study and rest there. It designed
such that children can develop their personality .It was set as like residential /family home
(furniture, domestic materials etc ) to develop domestic duties. Many things were there like
‘Didactic apparatus’, Gym, common room, lunch room, laboratories, room for manual work

MERITS
 This system is very useful for children between 3-6 yrs age.
 This system appears to be very psychological, as the interest & abilities of children are duly
taken care of in organizing play activities for them.
 Through this system opportunity for development of personality in an unrestricted manner

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  Through this system children pick up practical knowledge useful in one’s personal & social
life

DEMERITS
 This system was initially developed for dull & handicapped children, ie, it is not very useful
for normal & brilliant children.
 The didactic materials are quite costly. It is difficult to provide the same in a school situated
in localities of poor parents.
 This system takes too much time in imparting some knowledge to children.
 It is not easy to procure suitable teachers for this system
 Friedrich Wilhelm August Fröbel (or Froebel) was a German pedagogue. He was a student of
Pestalozzi. Frobel developed the concept of the "kindergarten". He also coined the word
which is now used in German and English language.

2.5.4. LIFE SKETCH OF FROBEL

Frobel was born in 1782.He was a german. As Frobel lost his mother as a infant of nine
months his father remarried when he was four. The early childhood of Frobel was quite unhappy
because of the indifferent attitude of his father and the step motherly affection.
He became an apprentice to forester at the age of 14.It gave Frobel an opportunity to have direct
contact with Nature. He joined the University of Jena at the age of seventeen. His relationship with
Dr Gruner, who influenced him very much and persuaded him to become a teacher in his school run
on Pestalozzian lines.
He studied closely the system and found some defects in it. He worked in military and as a
curator in Berlin Museum for some time. He established a school at Griesheim in 1816. It was later
transferred to Keithaw. There he developed his method of education. Frobel founded his first
kindergarten at Blacken burg in 1857. His method of education was prohibited by the German
government. Frobel was so much pained at this that he breathed his last in 1853.

WORKS OF FROBEL
Froebel is author of many books. The following works are mentioned because they are
mainly devoted to education.
1) Autobiography 2) Education of Development 3) The Education of Man 4) Mother play
5) Pedagogies of Kindergarten

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PHILOSOPHICAL VIEWS OF FROBEL
Froebel was a spiritual idealist. For him all things of the world have originated from God.
Hence, all the objects though appear different, are essentially the same. This law of Unity is
operating in the whole Universe.
The second characteristic of his philosophy is the Law of Development.
According to him this Law of Development is applicable of both, the spiritual as well as the
physical world in the same way.

PRINCIPLES OF FROEBEL EDUCATION

1. Unity and connectedness -Everything in the universe is connected. The more one is aware
of this unity, the deeper the understanding of oneself, others, nature and the wider world.
Children are whole beings whose thoughts, feelings and actions are interrelated
2. Autonomous learners - Each child is unique and what children can do rather than what they
cannot, is the starting point for a child 's learning. Children learn best by doing things for
themselves and from becoming more aware of their own learning. Froebelian educators
respect the children for who they are and value them for their efforts. Helping children to
reflect is a key feature of a Froebelian education
3. The value of childhood in its own right - Childhood is not merely a preparation for the next
stage in learning. Learning begins at birth and continues throughout life.
4. Relationships matter - The relationships of every child with themselves, their parents,
careers, family and wider community are valued.
5. Creativity and the power of symbols - Creativity is about children representing their own
ideas in their own way, supported by nurturing environment and people. As children begin to
Use and make symbols they express their inner thoughts and ideas and make meaning.
6. The central importance of play - play is a part of being human and help children to relate
their inner words of feelings, ideas and lived experiences taking them to new levels of
thinking, feeling, imagining and creating and is a resource for the future. Froebelian
education values the contribution of adults offering 'freedom with guidance 'to enrich play as
a learning context.
7. Engaging with nature - experience and understanding of nature and our place in it,is an
essential aspect of Froebelian practice
8. Knowledgeable, nurturing educators - earlier childhood educators who engage in their own
learning and believe in principled and reflective practice are a key aspect of a Froebelian

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 approach. Froebelian educators facilitate and guide rather than instruct. They provide rich
real life experiences and observe children carefully, supporting and extending their interests
through freedom with guidance.

CURRICULUM ACCORDING TO FROEBEL

Should give importance to
 Religious instruction,
 Nature study,
 Arithmetic,
 Language,
 Arts,
 Handicrafts

METHODS OF TEACHING
 Play Way Method - Froebel is the inventor of this method in the field of education .It
develop qualities like adjustment, leadership, tolerance and love
 Self Activity Method - child should carry out activities according to his own decisions. It
helps child in self realisation
 Learning Through Songs - song enables child to use his sense and make fluent in speaking
languages

DISCIPLINE
He condemned the expressionistic concept of discipline held the views that by his own free
and natural activities the child learns self- discipline.

ROLE OF TEACHERS
 Teachers demonstrate certain activities to students
 Creating joyful learning environment for the learners
 Froebel describe teachers as a gardeners
 Try to understand individual differences of the learners
 Arrange learning activities from simple to complex
 Teacher act as a guide mediator, manager and planner

PLACE OF CHILD
Froebel made education a child centric process he give importance to child's own tendencies
and interests and request people not to understand children as a small adult

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FROEBEL'S KINDERGARTEN SYSTEM
Froebel's first kindergarten was started in 1837 in blakenburg, Germany. The fundamental
principle of the kindergarten is to help children express themselves for development. Froebel's
kindergarten is a small state for children, a school without books and tedious tasks It is permeated
with play freedom and joy .self activity, creativeness and social Corporation find complete
application and concrete expression in Kindergarten The training consists of songs, movements and
construction along with usage of language. It exercises the head, heart and hand, educates the entire
personality and makes education practical, desirable and enjoyable.

PRINCIPLES OF KINDERGARTEN
• Law of unity
• Principle of Development
• Principle of Self-Activity
• Development of Individuality

MERITS OF KINDERGARTEN
Spontaneous self activity is the method
 It gave freedom to self-expression
 There is sufficient scope of activity
 The natural of creativity of child is exploited
 The gifts and occupations of the kindergarten gave new materials and methods of teaching
 It broadened the concept and scope of the school as an essential social institution

DEMERITS OF KINDERGARTEN
 The over emphasis on play is likely to distract the child from serious learning
 There is only limited scope for correlation in the teaching of various subjects in kindergarten
system
 This system does not provide for the study of the individual child
 The gift developed by Froebel do not serve much purpose of sense training
 The kindergarten system overlooked the importance of environment in the development of
the child

FROEBEL'S GIFTS
Froebel drew his mathematical and scientific knowledge to develop a set of 6 gifts, wooden
blocks of different shapes, for children to explore. These were introduced to children in a structured

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way despite being open-ended resources .Block play popular in many nurseries today has been
heavily influenced by Froebel's gifts The gifts are helpful in making children active.

FROEBEL'S OCCUPATIONS
Froebel also used occupations with children to support their play including sand, stone,
sticks, shells, clay and paper folding .These materials were designed to allow children uninterrupted
periods of play where they can explore concept, express creativity and learn about how things work
Giving children a range of materials to choose activities which where appropriate for their own stage
of learning.

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 UNIT 3: EDUCATION AND SOCIOLOGY
3.0. NATURE OF SOCIOLOGY
What is real nature of sociology about this controversy is likely to continue. According to
Robert Stead, Sociology is a social science and not a natural science, because it deals with human
beings and social phenomena. It is positive and not normative science because it studies social
phenomena as it is and not as it ought to be. It is pure and not applied science because it studies
underlying factors of a social phenomenon. Sociology is an abstract and not a concrete science
because it studies society in general. It deals with society, which in itself is abstract and as such the
subject cannot be concrete. It is a science of generalisation and not that of particularisation because it
studies a social problem in general, and not in particular way. It does not study a social phenomenon
from a particular angle. It is an empirical or rational science because it tries to follow logical method
of data collection.

3.1. IMPORTANCE OF SOCIOLOGY

Sociology is becoming quite popular subject of study because it has some obvious advantages. These
may briefly be discussed as under:
 Sociology attempts to study how and why people are organised as a society. It allows for a
scientific study of society as an organisation, which is of help in the formulation and
implementation of policies that benefit society.
 It analyses the structure of society and studies the factors that contribute to the creation of
social groups.
 Sociology includes the study of behavioural patterns, interactions, and relationships among
the individuals of society, as well as their ethical and moral values.
 It tries to examine the organisational structure of society and the influence it has on the
social, political, and religious ideas of its members.
 It attempts to analyse the creation and management of social groups as well as the factors
which lead to their breakdown.
 It is a subject which helps us in assessing available human resources and extent of human
resources needed for solving our social problems. In this way sociology helps in human
planning process which contributes significantly in economic problem.
 It provides us basic and fundamental knowledge about human society, which includes strong
and weak points of society, including human relationships. In this way it saves us from

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 duping in the dark Each society is faced with social problems, which in turn create economic
and political problems. Some of the social evils are deep rooted and it is essential that these
should be rooted out. Sociology helps us both in identifying those problems and finding out
their solution. Without proper understanding magnitude of the problems, these cannot be
appropriately tackled.
 It is sociology which helps us in conciliation and adjustment. Each society has diverse
elements. These, if not properly reconciled, can result in disorganisation and de-stabilisation
of the society. It is sociology which helps us in understanding the extent of diversity and the
way in which this diversity can be converted into homogeneity.
 Sociology helps us in social reconstruction.
 Each society has its cultural heritage and wants to preserve that. It is sociology which high-
lights and researches past culture heritages, and also helps in the development and growth of
cosmopolitan culture, so that there are no cultural clashes.
 It helps in bringing family stability. It is sociology which helps us in identifying the causes of
family instability and family disorganisation. It is again sociology which tells us how
emerging de-stabilising trends in the family should be checked, so that strong family system
continues.
 It is sociology which helps us in understanding social problems. Many social problems
remain unidentified and many with the passage of time become maladies. It is essential that
these should be timely checked before their tackling becomes difficult. It is sociology which
helps us in timely identifying social problems.
 It helps us in properly understanding the needs of social relationship and the way in which
this relationship should be maintained.
 It is sociology which makes us tolerant by telling us good points and healthy customs,
traditions, norms and value of other societies. It enables us to appreciate what is the best in
them which needs to be adjusted in our life style. Thus, sociology helps us in tolerating others
and appreciating their view point.
 Sociology studies the role that social institutions play in the development of an individual.
These institutions are those through which the society functions. Examples include family,
school, church, and the government.

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  Sociology helps us understand how people influence the government and law, and how the
legal system and political structure influence society and social norms. It gives us an
understanding of our rights and duties as parts of society and thus makes us better citizens.

3.2. MEANING OF EDUCATIONAL SOCIOLOGY

Educational Sociology can be described as that discipline which applies the general principles
and findings of sociology to the process of education. It is an applied branch of sociology which
provides bases for organising education in a manner that social problems are removed and social
progress attained. It is the application of sociological principles and sociological findings to solve the
problems of education. It is the study of social interaction, e.g. classroom interaction which involves
(a) Teacher- teacher relationship
(b) Student- student relationship
(c) Student- student relationship
(d) Student- teacher relationship and
(e) Teacher- administrator relationship

3.3. DEFINITION OF EDUCATIONAL SOCIOLOGY

Following definitions of some well-known scholars make the meaning of educational sociology
clear:-
 Ottaway:-“Educational Sociology starts with the assumption that education is an activity
which goes on in society and the society in turn determines the nature of education”.
 Good:- “Educational Sociology is the scientific study of how people live in social groups,
especially including the study of education that is obtained by the living in the social groups,
and education that is needed by the members to live efficiently in social groups.”
 George Payne:-Educational Sociology is the scientific study of the relation between
education and society.

3.4. AIMS OF EDUCATIONAL SOCIOLOGY

According to Harington, following are the aims of educational sociology:
1. To acquire knowledge about school work and the work of teachers in relation to society and
social progress.
2. To study the effects of social elements on the school.
3. To acquire the knowledge about the effects of social elements on individual.
4. To construct a curriculum of education with full understanding of the economic and cultural
tendencies of society.

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 5. To gain knowledge about the democratic ideologies.
6. To employ research techniques for achieving the aims of educational sociology.

3.5. NATURE OF EDUCATIONAL SOCIOLOGY

Educational sociology is an important division of sociology which has the following characteristics:
 Educational sociology is a theoretical study of the interaction between the individual and the
society.
 Educational sociology is also a practical study of the forces of interaction between the
individual and the society.
 Educational sociology regulates and controls the interacting forces of individuals and society.
.
 It is an educational method to develop one's personality.⚫
 It establishes the relationship between society and education.

3.6. NEED FOR EDUCATIONAL SOCIOLOGY

The combined approach of education and sociology is necessary in order to foster social
feelings among the people to achieve better human relationship.
Educational sociology is considered necessary for the following reasons:
The larger aims of sociology cannot be achieved without integrating the process of education
into it.
Without making a micro study of social problems through education, we cannot think of a
macro solution.
Educational sociology studies social processes and interactions very objectively. It is
essential to find solutions for educational problems.
It is needed to foster social attitudes among the people through education and to improve
human relationship.
Educational sociology studies social activities and social institutions in the context of future
social needs also. It is, therefore, very helpful for the progress of education.
Educational sociology gives equal weightage to the development of the individual as well as
the society.
Education and sociology are interrelated and interdependent. Sociology without education is
like a body without a soul and education without sociology is like a vehicle without wheels.
Hence, the combination of education and sociology, that is, educational sociology is
necessary for cultural and social development.

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3.7. IMPORTANCE OF EDUCATIONAL SOCIOLOGY
 Man should be socialised to lead a group life. So, he should learn and understand the
significance of social adjustment at school. For this purpose educational sociology recognises
the social nature of man and plans accordingly.
 It emphasises the belief that all men are equal. In fact, the influence of educational sociology
guarantees every man the right to have education according to one's needs, aptitude, interests
and ability. There is no bar such as race, caste, creed, colour and sex for any individual to
develop more and more to the utmost extent.
 It protects and promotes the progress of culture. It fosters those cultural qualities which
promote international understanding and welfare.
 It formulates rules and procedures which establish and develop social growth among
individuals and make them active participants in social activities.
 It secures for an individual self-reliance and self-development
 It tries to secure and promote happy life for all individuals. It makes people to understand
their welfare and strive to achieve social good for all.
 School is an integral part of the society. It is the reflection of society. Hence, any change we
want to bring about in the society requires its foundation to be laid in the school. It is because
small and immatured representatives of the society will lead the society in future when they
are matured.
 Educational sociology helps the educationists in constructing the curriculum keeping in view
the socio-economic tendencies and demands of society.
 It helps us to provide sound social bases for educational researches. In fact, sociological
researches in education have special significance.
 It analyses the causes of social and group conflicts and helps to remove them by imparting
suitable education.
 It prepares and develops the child for living independently in the society.
 It studies the social elements which affect the individual objectively, and apply them in the
educational environment of the school.

3.8. SCOPE OF EDUCATIONAL SOCIOLOGY

The scope of educational sociology is a wide and comprehensive subject. This is because it deals
with the influences of educational process on sociology and the effects of sociological process on
education. It deals with the impact of the total cultural milieu in which and through which experience

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is required and organized In fact, anything under the sun which concerns society is the theme of
sociology. Hence, the scope of educational sociology includes the following factors:
1. Mutual relationship among students and their impact on education.
2. Mutual relationship between teachers and students and their impact on teaching-learning
process transmitted
3. It includes how culture is handed over to coming generations through agencies like the
school, the home, the religious organisation and the play and peer groups.
4. It includes how socialisation takes place in the child as a result of social interaction.
5. It includes the role of the school the press, the radio, the television and the cinema in the
educational process.
6. It includes how education serves as a means of social change and social.control.
7. The impact of sociological thinking on the meaning, aims, and functions of education, the
curriculum including co-curricular activities, social organization and the methodology of
teaching
8. The place of the teacher in the society.
9. Social aspirations, needs and problems and their impact on education and life.
10. Interrelationship of education and sociology.
11. Social organisation and their role on education and school adminis- tration.
12. The place of school in the society and its relationship with society and other small
organizations. 13. Effects of social patterns and culture on education.
13. Progress of democratic values in educational institutions.
14. Role of education in socialisation and social change.
15. Social life in the school.
16. Promotion of social feeling in the students.
17. Curriculum and the needs of the society
18. Equalisation of educational opportunities.
19. National integration.
20. New world order and its impact on education in future.
21. School and community.
22. Role of the mass media in education and social progress.
23. Use of group and cooperative methods of teaching.
24. Terrorism and fundamentalism in relation to social change.

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3.9. OBJECTIVES OF EDUCATIONAL SOCIOLOGY
Prof. Harington has suggested a few objectives of educational sociology. They are:
1. To acquire knowledge about the school work in relation to society and social progress.
2. To gain knowledge about the role of the teacher in relation to the society and social progress.
3. To acquire knowledge about the effects of social elements on the individual.
4. To construct a curriculum fully understanding the economic and cultural tendencies of the
society.
5. To gain knowledge about the democratic values or ideologies. 6. To study the effects of the
individual on social elements.
6. To employ research techniques for achieving the aims of educational sociology.

3.10. CONCEPTS OF DIVERSITY

India is a large country with different geo-political conditions in different parts of the
country. This has brought differences in social evolution of the groups living in different parts of the
country. Apart from the geo-political diversity, interactions with foreigners due to invasions, trade
and missionary activities have also led to foreign influences and social groups coming to India. All
these have impacted the Indian society in one way or the other. The social diversity is one among
them.
India is a country of social diversity. To maintain harmony among all sections of the society,
the Constitution of India has adopted federal political structure. The democracy of the country also
helps in maintaining social unity. Three kinds of social differences need special attention namely:
Gender, Religion and Castes. Some of the Fundamental Rights are enshrined in the Constitution with
this purpose only. The Directive Principles of State Policies also help in maintaining the social fabric
of India. Sometimes the political manifestations of these identities do create problems, but the
constitution meets these challenges successfully.

Diversity: Meaning
Social diversity is the diverse factors surrounding our society such as race, culture, religion, age and
disabilities. Diversity is differences in racial and ethnic, socio-economic, geographic, and
academic/professional backgrounds. These can be along the dimensions of race, ethnicity, gender,
sexual orientation, socioeconomic status, age, physical abilities, religious beliefs, political beliefs, or
other ideologies. Social diversity centers on three universal human realities. Firstly, that each
individual is unique. Secondly, that individuals and their societies are inter-related and inter-

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dependent. Thirdly, that societies and cultures are dynamic and that change may be rapid or gradual.
But, it will always affect different members of society in ways that reflect differences in power and
status.

Diversity: Definition
Diversification is a principle that maintains how individual develop into quite different people so that
they can peacefully occupy different positions within the environment. A broad definition of
diversity ranges from personality and work style to all of the visible dimensions of diversity such as
race, age, ethnicity or gender, to secondary influences such as religion, socio economics and
education, to work diversities such as management and union, functional level and classification or
proximity/distance to headquarters.

3.11. TYPES OF DIVERSITY

We understood the concept and the definition of Diversity. India is maintaining the Unity in
Diversity. In this Unit, we will learn about various types of Diversity
After completion of this Unit, you will be able to
 List out the types of diversity
 Describe the individual, regional, linguistic and religious diversities
The Types of diversity are:
1. Individual diversity, 2. Regional diversity, 3. Linguistic diversity
4. Religious diversity and, 5. Caste and tribes’ diversity.

3.11.1. INDIVIDUAL DIVERSITY

Becoming culturally competent, diverse and inclusive involves knowledge, attitudes and
skills that may seem overwhelming for any individual to achieve. It is important to remain aware that
cultural groups are not homogeneous in beliefs and practices.

3.11.2. REGIONAL DIVERSITY

The word „regional‟ means any element belongs to a particular region, and the feeling related to the
people belonging to the particular region is known as „Regionalism‟. The term regionalism has two
connotations. In the positive sense, it is a political attribute associated with peoples love for their
region, culture, language, etc. with a view to maintain their independent identity. In the negative
sense, it implies excessive attachment to ones region in preference to the country, or the state. While
positive regionalism is a welcome thing in maintaining as it encourages the people to develop a sense
of brotherhood and commonness on the basis of common language, religion or historical

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background. The negative sense of regionalism is a great threat to the unity and integrity of the
country.

Causes of Regional Diversity

 Geographical Causes: There is a vast difference between food habits, language, culture,
customs, dress, life style of people belonging to different states. This diversity is reflected in
the state-wise division and within the states.
 Historical Causes: The well-feeling was shattered due to some historical causes. Many states
in India had serious conflicts in the past with each other. These conflicts had created
bitterness among them, therefore they cannot meet with each other with open heart and open
mind.
 Political Causes: In different regions some people have demanded for the formation of
regional government and this trend of thinking has been inspired by regional interest and the
aim of gaining power.
 Psychological Causes: It is wish of the most of the people that the progress and the
achievement of their region should be the maximum. The idea in itself is neither bad nor
deniable, but when they disregard the nation‟s interest and those of the region for the
attainment of this objective then these feelings can be classified under regionalism.
 Social Causes: In a country like India, marriages are preferred with the person of the same
regional background. Due to this, people belonging to one region avoid marriages with other
regions.
 Economic Causes: Due to economic problems such as lack of resources, unemployment etc.
of a particular region people from those regions often migrates to comparatively stable
economic region.

Role of Education in Eliminating Regionalism

The following educational programmes may be of useful to reduce the feeling of regionalism among
people.
1. Encouragement of travel and communication
2. Propagating National History
3. Prevention of influence of regional political parties in education
4. Purposive teaching of History of Literature, not only English, Hindi and the regional
language must be included but other languages must also be made familiar.

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3.11.3. LINGUISTIC DIVERSITY
Linguism is a division among members of a society on the basis of when India got the
independence, it was decided that English should continue as official language along with Hindi for a
period of 15 years. But, English has continued to remain till today an associated official language
mainly because of the revolt by the South Indian states against the compulsory learning of Hindi as
official and national language.

Causes of Linguism
There are many causes at the root of linguism in our country. The major causes are the
following.
 Psychological Causes: People of a particular region are attached to the regional language
which is their mother tongue. Hence they are not coming forward to learn another Indian
language
 Historical Causes: India had been invaded by numerous foreign countries. For example,
French people invaded our country and established their supremacy in Pondicherry,
simultaneously the
 Portuguese in Goa. Mughals brought Persian language to India. British spread English
language all over India. As a result, Indian languages became subordinated to these
languages. This gave birth to linguism as people from different regions promoted their own
regional language in their states.
 Geographical Causes: Every language has its own literature. This literature is influenced
everywhere by local geographical conditions such as plains, mountains, local vegetation and
local culture. It reflects the life of the people who speak the language. Hence an individual
does not willingly accept it if the language of another region is forced on her him. Economic
Causes: There are some economic causes that also inspire linguism. Some languages are
financially assisted by the government for their progress but people speaking other languages
are deprived of this benefit.
 Political Causes: Linguism is also inspired by the political interest and aspiration of different
politicians and political groups. During elections in order to win votes many communal
political parties raise the language issue to instigate their people and win their votes.
 Social Causes: Linguism is encouraged by some social factors. The language that is adopted
by the society is respected. On the contrary, the languages that caters to contradictory
presumptions are objected, this leads to linguism.

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ASSISTANT PROFESSOR OF PHYSICAL SCIENCE,
SENTHIL COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, PUDUCHERRY – 605 110.
Role of Education
Education plays an important role in the elimination of linguism.
1. Education for national integration
2. Inculcation of democratic principle for language options in education
3. Creating interest for language study
4. Co-curricular activities: (a) Competitions, games, dramas promoting respect for Indian
Languages (b) Appreciation of contributions of great poets and authors to the development of
Indian languages.
5. The three language formula is given by Kothari Commission which is modified and revised
form of earlier policy, equalizes the language burden and also develops the Indian identity in
every in every citizens through the learning of a common language and it has been adopted
by all the states
a. Mother tongue/ Regional language
b. Official Indian language or associate official Indian languages
c. Modern Indian language or western language not included in (a) or (b)

3.11.4. RELIGIOUS DIVERSITY

India has no state religion, it is a secular state. India is the land where almost all the major
religions of the world are practiced. Nevertheless the religious diversity has been a major source of
disunity and disharmony in the country. This is because, in India religious affiliation appears to be
overemphasized and many a time people seem to forget the national unity and express their loyalty
more towards their own religion.
The glaring example of such feeling is the partition of our country due to the development of the two
nation theory. But the matter has not ended there. The communal feeling among different religious
groups still persists in our country. Among the major religions in India are: Hinduism, Islam,
Christianity, Sikhism, Buddhism and Jainism.

Role of Education
1. The government should not yield to communal pressures and their negative influence on
educational aims and policies. A Secular policy must pervade nationwide in all educational
institutions.
2. Educational system must be reconstructed to emphasize nature of our culture and inculcate
secularism and scientific temper among young students
3. Curriculum and textbooks should be free from religious bias.

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ASSISTANT PROFESSOR OF PHYSICAL SCIENCE,
SENTHIL COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, PUDUCHERRY – 605 110.
 4. Co-curricular Activities should promote Secularism
(i ) General Assembly: Secular Atmosphere where prayers of all religious should be
administered.
(ii) Celebration of Festivals of all religions with equal fervour.
(iii) Emphasis on Essential contribution of different Religions.
(iv) Tribute to various Religious headers on important days.
(v) Emphasis on the importance of Democracy/Equality and Brotherhood

3.11.5. CASTE DIVERSITY

India is a country of castes. Caste refers to a hereditary, endogamous status group practicing a
specific traditional occupation. It is surprising to know that there are more than 3,000 castes in India.
These are hierarchically graded in different ways in different regions. It may also be noted
that the practice of caste system is not confined to Hindus alone. It is also found among the Muslims,
Christians, Sikhs as well as other communities. We have heard of the hierarchy of Shaikh, Saiyed,
Mughal, Pathan among the Muslims, Furthermore, there are castes like Teli (oil pressure), Dhobi
(washerman), Darjee (tailor), etc among the Muslims. Similarly, caste consciousness among the
Christians in India is not unknown. Since a vast majority of Christians in India were
converted from Hindu fold, the converts have carried the caste system into Christianity. Among the
Sikhs there are many castes including Jat Sikh and Majahabi Sikh (lower castes). In view of this we
can well imagine the extent of caste diversity in India. In addition to the above described major
forms of diversity, we have diversity in India, there are many other based on settlement pattern like
tribal, rural, urban and marriage pattern along religious and regional lines and so on.

3.11.6. TRIBAL DIVERSITY

Indian tribal culture speaks volumes about the diversity of the country. 'Unity in diversity' is
one of the most spectacular features amongst the population of India. Among the diversified
population, a significant portion comprises the tribal people, the aboriginal inhabitants of the
primeval land. Tribal culture of India, their traditions and practices interpenetrate almost all the
aspects of Indian culture and civilization.
The different tribes in India, if ever counted can move up to a mind boggling number, with all
their ethnicities and impressions. In India, almost a new dialect can be witnessed each new day.
Culture and diversification amongst the tribal s can also be admired from any land direction. The
tribal population is also pretty much varied and diversified. Each of the tribes are distinctive
community, either migrated from a different place or the original inhabitants of the land. These

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ASSISTANT PROFESSOR OF PHYSICAL SCIENCE,
SENTHIL COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, PUDUCHERRY – 605 110.
various tribes still inhabit the different parts, especially the seven states of the North- eastern region
and almost each and every nook and corner of the country.

Need and Importance Equality and Equity in Education:

The following points highlight the need of equality and equity in education:
 Human right: Education has been considered as a Universal Human Right. The idea of
equality and adequate opportunity to all was highlighted in the Universal Declaration of
Human Rights, adopted by the General Assembly of the United Nations on December 10,
1948. As a sequel to this, the principles of "nondiscrimination" and "right to education" were
strongly advocated. These two principles inherited the concept of "equality of opportunity in
education." Therefore, depriving any person of education on the bases of religion, race or
class will be deprivation of Human Right.
 Essential for democracy: India is a democratic country. Democracy is based on the principle
of equal freedom and equal rights for all its members, regardless of race, religion, sex,
occupation or economic status. Democracy can be achieved through liberty, equality,
fraternity and justice. In a democratic society equal rights and equality of opportunities are
provided. Hence equality and equity in education are needed, because it is through the
education to all the people in a democracy that the success of democratic institutions is
assured.
 Egalitarian society: Equality and equity in education are needed for the establishment of an
egalitarian society which is a society in which equality and social justice should be the norms.
 Economic development: Equality and equity in education are needed for the economic
development of the nation. The desired success in economic development cannot be achieved
without providing equality and equity in education.
 Nations Advancement: Equality and equity in education will ensure a rapid advancement of
a nation. Education is now an investment. If the people have equal opportunities to get
education, they will have a chance to develop their natural talent and thus enrich the society.
 Search of Talent: Equality and equity in education will extend the search of talent among all
the people of the nation. There will thus be available people with specialized talents for
specialized jobs in a large number and the society will be benefitted.
 Closer Link: Equality and equity in education will develop a closer link between the
moreover needs of a society and the availability of the skilled personnel.

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ASSISTANT PROFESSOR OF PHYSICAL SCIENCE,
SENTHIL COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, PUDUCHERRY – 605 110.
  Socializing Pattern of Society: Equality and equity in education can help in bringing about
silent revolution in the process of establishment of the socializing pattern of society.
 Modernization: Equality and equity in education are needed for accelerating the process of
modernization in social, economic, political and education field. Achieving equality and
equity in education: The following are the ways and means for achieving equality and equity
in education
 To stop wastage and stagnation: There is huge wastage and stagnation at the primary stage.
The constitutional directive of compulsory and universal education cannot be realized till the
problem of wastage and stagnation is effectively solved. The causes of wastage and
stagnation have to be found and removed. The following suggestions are given for reducing
wastage and stagnation:
 Financial assistance has to be given.
 Parents will have to be educated.
 Part-time education will have to be provided.
 Social orthodoxies like indifference towards girls' education and narrow outlook towards
co-education have to be removed.
 The school distance should be reduced.
 Maximum number of schools will have to be opened.
 School environment should be improved
 Curriculum should be improved. It should be child-cantered, activity-cantered,
experience-cantered, life-cantered and community-cantered.
 Play-way techniques of teaching should be introduced.
 Facilities for educating the children of underprivileged and backward sections of the
society have to be increased.
 Entry will have to be regularized. Multiple entries should be allowed.

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ASSISTANT PROFESSOR OF PHYSICAL SCIENCE,
SENTHIL COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, PUDUCHERRY – 605 110.
 UNIT 4: EDUCATION, SOCIAL CHANGE, SOCIAL
STRATIFICATION AND SOCIAL
TRANSFORMATION
4.0. MEANING OF SOCIAL CHANGE
Social change refers to any significant alteration over time in behavior patterns and cultural
values and norms. By “significant” alteration, sociologists mean changes yielding profound social
consequences. Examples of significant social changes having long-term effects include the industrial
revolution, the abolition of slavery, and the feminist movement.

4.1. DEFINITION OF SOCIAL CHANGE

Sir Jones:- “Social change is a term used to describe variation in or modification of any
aspect of social processes, social interactions or social organisation.”
Gillin and Gillin:- “Social changes are variations from accepted modes of life whether due
to alteration in geographic conditions, in cultural equipment, composition of the population or
ideologies and whether brought about by diffusion or invention within the group”.
MacIver and Page:- “Social change refers to a process responsive to many types of changes;
to changes in the manmade conditions of life; to changes in the attitudes and beliefs of men,
and to the changes that go beyond the human control to the biological and the physical nature
of things”.
Kingsley Davis:- “By social change is meant only such alterations as occur in social
organisation, that is, the structure and functions of society”.
Merril and Eldredge:- “Social change means that large number of persons are engaged in
activities that differ from those in which they or their immediate fore-fathers were engaged in
some time before. Society is composed of a vast and complex network of patterned human
relationships in which all men participate. When human behaviour is in the process of
modification, this is only another way of indicating that social change is occurring”.

4.2. FACTORS OF SOCIAL CHANGE (ECONOMIC, SOCIAL AND POLITICAL)

1. Economic Factor: Economic factor is very important factor of social change. Society
changed when primitive society changed from agricultural to feudal system and then to capitalist
system. It is because of economic factors that the society is divided into classes and class has its own
social values. Social system changed when industrial revolutions came in the past. Karl Marx has
gone to the extent of saying that every social system revolves round economic system. Social

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ASSISTANT PROFESSOR OF PHYSICAL SCIENCE,
SENTHIL COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, PUDUCHERRY – 605 110.
relationships, social institutions and organizations change where there is change in the economic
conditions of both the individuals as well as the society as a whole.
2. Social Factors: Social factors play a very important role in bringing about social change in
the society. Health, education, housing, social services, food, nutrition and employment are the social
factors related to standard of living in a society. Thus, social factors are the important factors which
condition the social change.
3. Political factors: Political factors are those factors which affect the political aspects of
social life. Independence of India from foreign rule and partition of India may be described as
political factors. Lowering of voting age i.e. 18 years may change the political situation in the
country.

4.3. EDUCATION AND SOCIAL CHANGE

Education plays a vital role in the process of social change. It is through education that
society can bring desirable changes and modernize itself. Education fulfills the needs of society and
propagates such ideas which promote social change in all fields of life. Education analyses the social
change. It helps the individual to distinguish between right and wrong. The relationship between
education and social change are outlined as under:
1. Education as an Instrument of Social Change: Education is regarded as an instrument of social
change. Education can initiate social change by bringing about a change in the outlook and attitudes
of man. Education is considered as a powerful instrument of social change, because it deals mainly
with the thought patterns and behavior patterns of younger generations. The axe of education can cut
down the thick roots of traditional superstitions, ignorance and the backwardness. Education prepares
the people for social change. Francis J. Brown remarks that education is a process which brings
about changes in the behavior of society. It is a process which enables every individual to effectively
participate in the activities of society and make positive contribution to the progress of society.
2. Education as an agent of social change: Education works as a runway in the process of social
change. It is the function of education to assist in adopting good changes. Education promotes
capacity to welcome and accept social change; people welcome and adopt any social change only
when they become convinced of its utility and desirability. It is education which creates a wholesome
and conducive environment of those social changes to become acceptable to all. Education helps in
overcoming resistance. Education helps people in removing blind faith and prejudices and accepting
something new. In the words of Dr. Radhakrishnan ,"Education is an agent of social change. What in

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ASSISTANT PROFESSOR OF PHYSICAL SCIENCE,
SENTHIL COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, PUDUCHERRY – 605 110.
simpler societies was done by the family, religious, social and political institutions, has to be done by
the educational institutions today".
3. Education as an effect of social change: Education is considered as an effect of social change. It
may cause numerous adjustments and adaptations within a single educational system as a whole e.g.
after independence we have major changes in policy, economy and religious and technological
fields. We have adopted new values and goals such as democracy, equality, social justice and so on.
In short, education works in such a way that it brings phenomenal change in every aspect of human
activity.

4.3.1. THE FUNCTIONS OF EDUCATION IN THE SPHERE OF SOCIAL CHANGE ARE AS FOLLOWS:
1. Perpetualizing eternal values:- A society has some eternal values which stabilize and consolidate
it. Ralph Litton, while discussing this principle, has stated that whenever these eternal values lose
their hold due to social changes the society begins to decay and degenerate. In such times of crises,
education protects these eternal values, saves them from pernicious effects of social changes and
promotes their knowledge and acceptance in such a manner that inspite of social changes, people in
general keep faith in these values. In our society, such eternal values are of moral and spiritual
nature. Education should protect, preserve and promote these values.
2. Promoting capacity to welcome and accept social change:- Education propagates in the society
both the materialistic and non-materialistic techniques. It prepares the mentality of people to
welcome and adopt desirable social changes easily and gladly. People welcome and adapt any
technique or pattern only when they become convinced of its utility and desirability. Education, thus
structures a wholesome and conducive environment for these social changes to become acceptable to
all.
3. Evaluation of social changes: A society is constantly under a process of transformation of
various forms and nature in all fields of human activity. Teachers, by critical evaluation, determine
the desirability or otherwise of this social changes. In other words, education lays down the required
standards and criteria of values with reference to which this process of evaluation takes place
effectively, and only after that, desirable social changes are propagated whereas the undesirable ones
discarded and decried.
4. Aids the coming of new social changes:- Education strives to banish social evils, blind customs
and traditions through various social reformation projects, political movements, social service
schemes and also tries to bring in needed social changes and reforms. For example, in India , Public

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ASSISTANT PROFESSOR OF PHYSICAL SCIENCE,
SENTHIL COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, PUDUCHERRY – 605 110.
movements, agitations against child marriage, forced widowhood, caste insultation, untouchability
and social injustice resulted in desirable social changes

4.4. EDUCATION AS AN INSTRUMENT OF SOCIAL CHANGE

Education plays a very important role in moulding the character of an individual. It is one of the
concrete sources from which one get information and knowledge. It affects the society. We can make
sense of its effective role from the following points.
1] Preservation and transmission of our social, moral and cultural values.
In Education, through curriculum, students will be acquainted with social, moral and cultural values
and teachers make them familiar with values and ideal through different activities, games, story-
telling etc. Education makes them familiar with constitution, rules and regulations of citizens and so
on. As we find in NPE 1986 major objectives to produce a productive citizen has been fulfilled by
education so education preserves our value and it make others to imbibe those values.
2] Awakening of Social feelings
Through education individuals become aware about the importance of unity, love, fraternity and
other values. Education makes all people get awakened of being a part of society and how they can
contribute the world as society. People know different values and life skills and thus they develop
concern for society including social mindedness, values life skills, learning to be, learning to do,
learning to know, learning to live together via different activities story telling dramatization.
3] Political development of society
Education makes all aware about rights and duties of all, which are their responsibilities and duties
so that they can develop their civic sense. Through different lesson of political leaders and stories
education develop ideal leadership quality so that in future citizens can lead t e state as a society.
4] Economic development of society
Education develops skills in individual and makes him a productive citizen. Through education
everyone learns how to earn money and as per their qualification he gets job or labour and on the
whole with the help of education more or less everyone get work and earn money so due to
increasing literacy per capitaincome will increase As we find govt take help in the form of tax and
thus our economy develops. Because of education people migrate in other country and their earning
helps to develop society, country. Thus education affects the economic development of society.
5] Social control
Education makes all aware about customs and duties the same as it makes aware about the rules and
regulations as we find the rules in Indian constitution. People know how to preserve their lives via

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ASSISTANT PROFESSOR OF PHYSICAL SCIENCE,
SENTHIL COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, PUDUCHERRY – 605 110.
education. They make also familiar with crimes. Thus education provides a guideline and it controls
all society.
6] Social changes and reforms
Education makes individuals perfects and aware about the rights. So can claim against dwelled
superstitions, beliefs which are harmful for them. Through education everyone learn grow to live and
how to save from difficulty and how to inculcate values and ideals in their lives and ideals in their
lives so they can appeal in court having of felling injustice. Education makes all aware about how to
live peacefully and how to face difficulties in their lives .They become aware about the proverbs like
„nothing ventured, nothing gained‟ so they develop their risk taking attitudes via education.
7] Socialization of a child
Education trains the mind of a child and it teaches him how to inculcate values in his life. It makes
the child understand what is society, how he is a part of society, what are his roles in society, how he
should behave, how he should interact with others etc. Education helps him to understand who is he?
And it develops a sense if a social being in him. In short education socializes a child.

4.5. SOCIALIZATION
CONCEPT AND MEANING OF SOCIALIZATION
 Socialization involves the lifelong process of learning and instilling the values and socially
approved ways of behaviour. It can be called a process of growing up in a society which a
child acquires through its growth in age.
 It is also influenced by cultural norms, traditions, values and different cultural patterns of the
group to which the individual belongs.
 Herein, the child imbibes the cultural patterns, learns to perform its roles and thereby makes
efforts to adjust himself to the social order.

4.5.1. AGENTS OF SOCIALISATION

What we are today is the outcome of our socialization. Our habits and attitudes\ are the
reflection of the socialization process. The personality is the byproduct of socialization of an
individual.
Although socialization can be learned fiom anybody with whom the individual comes into direct
contact, the agents of socialization are Family, Peers, School and Mass Media. Socialization has two
stages:
 Early Socialization
 Adult Socialization

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ASSISTANT PROFESSOR OF PHYSICAL SCIENCE,
SENTHIL COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, PUDUCHERRY – 605 110.
 The early phase of socialization is usually the responsibility of parents, peers and school. As the
name suggests it is the early phase of human life.
Adult socialization is the later phase or the adult phase which begins after marriage, parenthood
and old age. Let us study them briefly and understand how they contribute to learning of desirable
values.

1. Early Socialization
Family: Through family, the child acquires knowledge, behaviour, manners and internalizes
all these patterns and learns to adjust or conform to the norms of the family
Peer Group: Peer group interaction shapes the self and identity formation. Acceptance and
rejection by peer group is very important for socialization. They learn dominance, leadership,
negotiation, cooperation
Religion and the Legal Authority: Religion binds people into a set of belief and practices. It
shapes the collective identity of people by determining customs, rituals, language, dress,
beliefs. It Also teaches differences, similarities, feeling of us and them
Media: Mass media is a vehicle for spreading information on a massive scale and reaching to
a vast audience. It Shapes likes, dislikes, interests and contacts.
School: From school, individual learns disciplines, constructs, develops behavioural and
cognitive skills. Educational institutions teach punctuality, timetable, exams, sharing same
space, modeling ideal behaviour, punishment and reinforcement.

2. Adult Socialization
As we know that socialization is a life long process, throughout our adult life we keep learning or
mastering new or unfamiliar roles and norms. Many old values change and new values are adapted.
The values and norms of the society is also not stable, it also keeps changing. Thus by marrying and
starting new families, doing jobs etc. ad111ts are engaged in a process of socialization. Adult
socialization is best explained on three parameters:
i) Marriage ii) Parenthood iii) Old Age
This is also called as Anticipatory Socialization. Let us study them briefly and try to understand the
values learned.
A) Marriage
Marriage is a union between a male and a female so that children born out of the wedlock is
legitimate offspring of both the parents. Marriage is a means of social mobility and people of
different socioeconomic backgrounds often do meet, fall in love and many. Religion, educational

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ASSISTANT PROFESSOR OF PHYSICAL SCIENCE,
SENTHIL COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, PUDUCHERRY – 605 110.
background and parents' choice, influence a person's marriage. With marriage begins a new status
which in turn, means new roles. In today's context, wives na longer want to do their traditional roles
of home- making alone, rather many couples want to have double-income. The marital relationship is
slowly moving towards equal relationship. Sex-stereotype roles are losing their importance. Happy
marriage is thus the outcome of good socialization.
B) Parenthood
The honeymoon period of marriage ends, when the wives become mothers. Thus the socialization for
parenthood is a complete 'U' turn in life. It is a radical change and needs lot of pressure on the
parents. From parenting there is no escape unlike divorce or change of jobs. How the adults learn to
be parents? Much of the socialization is internalized while they are children. They repeat what their
parents did and some of their learning is from other sources or advice from other parents.
C) Old Age
Old Age is a time of role loss and devaluation. Aging becomes an increasingly lonely experience for
many people. In India, the anticipatory socialization prepares us for the adjustments we need to make
with the aging parents.

4.5.2. FORMS OF SOCIALIZATION

On the basis of the traits that are reflected through our behavior we can san sa that socialization has
many forms such as given below.
Value - loaded socialization - Socialization with values.
Value less socialization - Socialization without values.
Conscious Socialization - Unconscious Socialization.
Value plus Socialization - Value minus Socialization.
Positive Socialization - Negative Socialization.
Good Socialization - Bad Socialization.

4.6. SOCIAL STRATIFICATION

In all societies people differ from each other on the basis of their age, sex and personal
characteristics. Human society is not homogeneous but heterogeneous. Apart from the natural
differences, human beings are also differentiated according to socially approved criteria. Society is
divided based on economic, social, religious and other aspects. Heterogeneity in society is called
social stratification.

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ASSISTANT PROFESSOR OF PHYSICAL SCIENCE,
SENTHIL COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, PUDUCHERRY – 605 110.
Definitions:
 Ogburn and Nimkoff: ‘The process by which individuals and groups are ranked in more or
less enduring hierarchy of status is known as stratification”
 Lundberg: “A stratified society is one marked by inequality, by differences among people
that are evaluated by them as being “lower” and “higher”.
 Gisbert: “Social stratification is the division of society into permanent groups of categories
linked with each other by the relationship of superiority and subordinations”.
 Williams: Social Stratification refers to “The ranking of individuals on a scale of superiority-
inferiority-equality, according to some commonly accepted basis of valuation.
 Raymond W. Murray: Social stratification is horizontal division of society into “higher” and
“lower” social units.”

Origin of Stratification:
Regarding the origin of stratification many views have been given.
 According to Davis, social stratification has come into being due to the functional necessity
of the social system.
 Professor Sorokin attributed social stratification mainly to inherited difference in
environmental conditions.
 According to Karl Mrax, social factors are responsible for the emergence of different social
strata, i.e. social stratification.
 Gumplowioz and other contended that the origin of social stratification is to be found in the
conquest of one group by another.
 According to Spengler, social stratification is founded upon scarcity which is created
whenever society differentiates positive in terms of functions and powers.
 Racial differences accompanied by dissimilarity also leads to stratification.

Characteristics of Social Stratification:

On the basis of the analysis of the different definitions given by eminent scholars, social stratification
may have the following characteristics.
 Social stratification is universal: There is no society on this world which is free from
stratification. Modern stratification differs from stratification of primitive societies. It is a
worldwide phenomenon. According to Sorokin “all permanently organized groups are
stratified.”

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ASSISTANT PROFESSOR OF PHYSICAL SCIENCE,
SENTHIL COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, PUDUCHERRY – 605 110.
  Stratification is social: It is true that biological qualities do not determine one’s superiority
and inferiority. Factors like age, sex, intelligence as well as strength often contribute as the
basis on which statues are distinguished. But one’s education, property, power, experience,
character, personality etc. are found to be more important than biological qualities. Hence,
stratification is social by nature.
 It is ancient: Stratification system is very old. It was present even in the small wondering
bonds. In almost all the ancient civilizations, the differences between the rich and poor,
humble and powerful existed. During the period of Plato and Kautilya even emphasis was
given to political, social and economic inequalities.
 It is in diverse forms: The forms of stratification is not uniform in all the societies. In the
modern world class, caste and estate are the general forms of stratification. In India a special
type of stratification in the form of caste is found. The ancient Aryas were divided into four
varnas: the Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and Sudras. The ancient Greeks were divided
into freemen and slaves and the ancient Romans were divided into the particians and the
plebians. So every society, past or present, big or small is characterized by diverse forms of
social stratification.
 Social stratification is Consequential: Social stratification has two important consequences
one is “life chances” and the other one is “life style”. A class system not only affects the
“life- chances” of the individuals but also their “life style”. The members of a class have
similar social chances but the social chances vary in every society. It includes chances of
survival and of good physical and mental health, opportunities for education, chances of
obtaining justice, marital conflict, separation and divorce etc.

THE CAUSES OF SOCIAL STRATIFICATION:

There are five basic points which gives clear idea about the causes of social stratification;
 Inequality – Inequality exists because of natural differences in people’s abilities.
 Conflict – Stratification occurs due to conflict between different classes, with the upper
classes using superior power to take a larger share of the social resources.
 Power – Power influences one’s definition of self and the importance of ideas in defining
social situations.
 Wealth – Difference in the wealth is also one of the causes of social stratification.
 Instability – Instability in the society being the cause of social stratification enhances
stability and induces members of the society to work hard.

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ASSISTANT PROFESSOR OF PHYSICAL SCIENCE,
SENTHIL COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, PUDUCHERRY – 605 110.
SOCIAL STRATIFICATION AND SOCIAL MOBILITY
Social mobility refers to the movement within the social structure, from one social position to
another. It means a change in social status. All societies provide some opportunity for social
mobility. But the societies differ from each other to extent in which individuals can move from one
class or status level to another. Thus, people in society continue to move up down the status scale.
This movement is called ‘social mobility’. For example, the poor people may become rich, the bank
peon may become bank officers, farmers may become ministers, a petty businessman may become a
big industrialist and so on. At the same time a big businessman may become a bankrupt and ruling
class may be turned out of office and so on.

KINDS OF SOCIAL MOBILITY

Vertical Mobility refers to the movement of people of groups from one status to another. It
involves change in class, occupation or power. For example, the movement of people from
the poor class to the middle class.
Horizontal Mobility is a change in position without the change in status. It indicates a
change in position, within the rage of the status. For example, an engineer working in a
factory may resign from his job and join another factory.

FUNCTIONS OF SOCIAL STRATIFICATION

Encourage hard work: it induces people to work hard to live up to values. Those who best
fulfill the values of a particular society are normally rewarded with greater prestige and social
acceptance by others.
Ensures circulation of elites: when a high degree of prestige comforts and other rewards are
offered for certain positions, there will be some competition for them. This process of
competition helps to ensure that the more efficient people are able to rise to top, where their
ability can best be used.
Serves an economic function.
Prevents waste of resources
Stabilize ad reinforces the attitudes and skills.

THE BASE OR FORMS OR CATEGORIES OF SOCIAL STRATIFICATION:

The categories of social stratification are; social class, gender, race and ethnicity and age and
disability.
Some indicative features of these categories are as follows:

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a) Social Class
• Distinction between wealth and income and their distribution in society.
• Social mobility and the link between class and life chances.
• Changing nature of class and its relationship to the economy and occupational structure.
b) Gender
• Difference between biological notion of sex and the socially constructed notion of gender.
• Nature and consequences of gender-role socialisation.
• Gender inequalities in terms of occupation, family and social roles and expectations.
c) Race and Ethnicity
• Nature, size and distribution of different racial and ethnic groups in modern society.
• Inequality relating to race and ethnicity; in particular, discrimination in education, employment and
on life chances.
• Role of the mass media in the formation of stereotypes and the consequences for ethnic groups.
d) Age
• Social construction of the concept of age, including awareness of different notions of childhood,
adolescence and old age in different societies.
• Inequalities as a result of age, such as employment, unemployment, low pay, access to benefits and
restrictions on social behaviour.
• Implications of changes in the age structure of modern society.
e) Disability
• Social construction of disability.
• Inequality relating to disability; in particular, discrimination in education, employment and on life
chances.
• Role of the mass media in the formation of negative stereotypes and the consequences for disabled
individuals and groups.

THE EFFECTS OF STRATIFICATION ON THE LIVES OF INDIVIDUALS GROUPS:

The above aspects of social stratification should be studies in order to explore the nature of social
relationships, processes, structures and issues. Sub-cultural, cross-cultural, historical, contemporary
or anthropological examples should be used wherever possible and candidates should be encouraged
to apply insights to current social issues or their own life experiences. Cross-cultural and/or
anthropological examples may be drawn from the Socialization.

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ASSISTANT PROFESSOR OF PHYSICAL SCIENCE,
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TYPES OF SOCIAL STRATIFICATION :
1. Cast: Caste can be defined as a hereditary intermarrying groupwhich determines the
individual’s status in the social stratification byhis occupation, etc. e.g. Brahmin has the
highest place in the socialstratification of castes in India.
2. Class: Social stratification is also based on Class. Class is a statusgroup and in only society
the social status of one group alwaysdiffers from that of another. Class is also a person’s
economic position in a society. However, as per Weber, Class is not a supremefactor in
stratification. He noted that how Managers of corporationsor industries control firms they do
not own.
3. Status: Status is a person’s prestige, social honour, or popularity ina society. Social
stratification is also based on status of a person.Weber noted that political power was not
rooted in capital valuesociety, but also in one’s individual status. Poets or saints can possess
immense influence on society with often little economicgrowth.
4. Power: A person’s ability to get their way despite the resistance ofothers. For example,
individuals in state jobs may hold little propertyor status but they still hold immense power.

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ASSISTANT PROFESSOR OF PHYSICAL SCIENCE,
SENTHIL COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, PUDUCHERRY – 605 110.
UNIT 5: EDUCATION AND INDIAN CONSTITUTION
5.0. INTRODUCTION
The constitution of India is a very important document in the independent India.
The framers of our constitution have taken sufficient care to ensure that different aspects of life like
Fundamental Rights, The Directive Principles of State Policy etc., are duly enshrined in its pages.
New constitution was implemented in India on Jan 26th1950. This was based on the principles of
justice, liberty, equality and fraternity. It included social, political and administrative principles,
provisions and articles. In the same way it included several aspects related to education also.
In this Unit you will study the Meaning and types of constitution, Features of constitution of India,
directive principles, fundamental rights and duties and constitutional provisions on education.

5.1. CONSTITUTION – MEANING AND TYPES

Meaning:
A Constitution means a document having a special legal sanctity, which sets out the
framework and the principal functions of the organs of the government of a state and declares the
principles governing the operation of those organs.
Types of constitutions:
According to the traditional classification, constitutions are either unitary or federal. In
unitary constitution the powers of the government are centralized in one government. viz; the central
government. The provinces are subordinate to the center. In federal constitution, there is a division of
powers between the federal and the state governments and both are independent in their own spheres.
The Constitution of India is neither purely federal nor purely unitary but it is a combination
of both. It is a union of composite state of a novel type. It enshrines the principle that in spite of
federalism the national interest ought to be paramount.

Constitutions can be classified into:

1. Cumulative (or evolved) and Conventional (or enacted)
2. Written and Unwritten, and
3. Rigid and Flexible.
Cumulative: A Constitution, which is the product of slow and evolutionary changes in the course of
a long time, is called cumulative or evolved. Conventional - A conventional or enacted Constitution
is deliberately made by a constituent assembly or is the product of the law made by parliament or
king.

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Written and Unwritten: A written Constitution is a single document in which all the basic
principles of Government, the rights of the governed are written down. There may be cases with
more than one document with different dates. Written constitution has to grow by usage,
interpretation and amendment. An unwritten Constitution is one in which principles of Government
are not found in a single document; on the other hand they can be discovered in the customs,
conventions and usages and in the numerous Acts passed by the legislature. Unwritten Constitution
grows on the basis of custom rather than on the written law. e.g. England’s Constitution.
Rigid and Flexible: A rigid constitution is one, which requires a special method for its amendment.
Two thirds majority in the legislature may be prescribed as one of the essential conditions of
amendment. E.g. USA, Switzerland, and Australia. A flexible constitution is one, which can be
amended without making use of any special procedure. e.g. Britain. Indian constitution is a mixture
of rigidity and flexibility.

5.2. FEATURES OF CONSTITUTION OF INDIA

The salient features of the Indian Constitution are as follows:
1. The lengthiest constitution in the world -The Indian constitution originally consisted of 395
articles divided into 22 parts and 9 Schedules. As of now, 444 articles, 26 parts & 12 Schedules are
there. It is a Sovereign, Socialistic, Secular and Democratic republic.
2. Parliamentary form of Government - both at the Center and the States. It gave responsibility to the
legislature. The President is the Constitutional head of the state. The real executive power is vested
in the council of Ministers whose head is Prime Minister.
3. Unique blend of rigidity and flexibility - A written constitution is generally said to be rigid. The
Indian Constitution, though written, is sufficiently flexible.
4. Fundamental Rights - These are deemed to be distinguishing feature of a democratic state.
Fundamental Rights are not absolute rights. They are subjected to certain restrictions.
5. Directive Principles of State Policy - These set out the aims and objectives to be taken up by the
states in the governance of the country. These rights cannot be questioned in the court of law.
6. A Federation with strong centralizing tendency - Being a federal Constitution, it acquires a unitary
character during the time of emergency. All powers are centralized in the Union Government and
constitution acquires a unitary character.
7. Adult Suffrage - Under the Indian Constitution every man and woman above 18 years of age has
been given the right to elect representatives for the legislature.

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8. An Independent Judiciary -The constitution will safeguard the fundamental rights through
independent and impartial judiciary. Supreme Court is the custodian of the rights of citizens.
9. A Secular State - India is a secular state, which has no religion of its own as recognized religion of
the State. It treats all religions equally. Single citizenship - Constitution provides for a single
citizenship for the whole India. There is only one, citizenship in India. i.e. the citizenship of India.
10. Fundamental Duties -The constitution (42nd Amendment) Act, 1976 has introduced a code of ten
‘Fundamental Duties’ for citizens.

5.3. FUNDAMENTAL RIGHTS OF INDIA

Fundamental Rights Articles
(a) Article 14 - Equal protection of laws and Equality before law.
(b) Article 15 - Prohibition of discrimination on grounds of religion,
caste, sex, place of birth or race.
1. Right to equality (c) Article 16 - Equality of opportunity in terms of public employment.
(d) Article 17 - Abolition of untouchability and prohibition of its
practice.
(e) Article 18 - Abolition of titles except military and academic.
(a) Article 19 - Protection of six rights regarding freedom of:
(i) speech and expression, (ii) assembly, (iii) association,
(iv) movement, (v) residence, and (vi) profession
2. Right to freedom (b) Article 20 - Protection in a conviction for offences.
(c) Article 21 - Protection of life and personal liberty.
(d)Article 21A - Right to elementary education.
(e) Article 22 - Protection against arrest and detention in certain cases.
(a) Article 23 - Prohibition of traffic in forced labour and human
3. Right against beings.
exploitation (b) Article 24 - Prohibition of employment of children in Companies
and factories, etc.
(a) Article 25 - Freedom of conscience and free profession, practice and
propagation of religion.
4. Right to freedom of
(b) Article 26 - Freedom to manage religious affairs.
religion
(c) Article 27 - Freedom from payment of taxes for promotion of any
religion or religious affairs.

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SENTHIL COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, PUDUCHERRY – 605 110.
 (d) Article 28 - Freedom from attending religious instruction or worship
in certain educational institutions
(a) Article 29 - Protection of language, script and culture of minorities.
5. Cultural and
(b) Article 30 - Rights of minorities to establish and administer
educational rights
educational institutions.
(a) Article 32 - Right to move the Supreme Court for the enforcement
of fundamental rights including the writs of

1.Habeas corpus, 2.Mandamus, 3.Prohibition,

4.Certiorari, 5.Quo Warranto

(b) Article 33 - Provides the Parliament with the authority to limit or
6. Right to constitutional
abolish the fundamental rights of “Members of the Armed Forces,
remedies
paramilitary forces, police forces, intelligence agencies, and analogous
forces”.
(c) Article 34 - Provides for the restrictions on fundamental rights while
martial law(military rule) is in force.
(d) Article 35 - Empowers the Parliament to make laws on Fundamental
Rights.

5.4. FUNDAMENTAL DUTIES:

Part IV-A consists of Article-51 A was added to the constitution by the 42nd Amendment,
1976. This article for the first time specifies a code of fundamental duties for citizens. Article 51-A
says that it shall be the duty of every citizen of India.
 to abide by constitution and respect its ideal and institution, the National Flag and National
Anthem,
 to cherish and follow the noble ideals which inspired our national struggle for freedom,
 to uphold and protect the sovereignty, unity and integrity of India,
 to defend the country and render national service when called upon to do so,
 to promote harmony and the spirit of common brotherhood amongst all the people of India
transcending religious, linguistic and regional or sectional diversities; to renounce practices
derogatory to the dignity of women,
 to value and preserve the right heritage of our composite culture,

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  to protect and impose the natural environment including forests, lakes, rivers and wild life,
and to have compassion for living creature,
 to develop the scientific temper, humanism and the spirit of inquiry and reform,
 to safeguard public property and to abjure violence,
 To strive towards excellence in all spheres of individual and collective activity so that the
nation constantly rises to higher levels of endeavour and achievements.

5.5. DIRECTIVE PRINCIPLES

Directive principles: The Directive Principles of State Policy contained in Part IV of the
constitution set out the aims and objectives to be taken up by the States in the governance of the
country. These are the ideals which the Union and State Governments must keep in mind while they
formulate policy or pass a law. They lay down certain social, economic and political principles,
suitable to peculiar conditions prevailing in India.
Article 41: Right to work, to education and to public assistance in certain cases – It directs the State
to ensure the people within the limit of its economic capacity and development: a) employment, b)
education, and c) public assistance in cases of unemployment, old age, sickness and disablement and
in other cases of unaddressed want.
Article 45: Free and compulsory education for children - It requires the State to make provision for
free and compulsory education for all children within 10 years until they complete the age of 14
years. The object is to eradicate illiteracy from the country. Supreme Court has given status of
fundamental right to this directive principle.
Article 46: Promotion of educational and economic interest of weaker sections – The state shall
promote with special care the education and economic interest of weaker sections of people, and in
particular of the Scheduled Castes and Schedule Tribes, and to protect them from injustice and of all
forms of exploitation.

5.6. DIRECTIVE PRINCIPLES OF STATE POLICY AND EDUCATION

The Constitution has outlined certain directive principles of state policy, which, though not
justifiable, encapsulate the philosophy of overall social development. These principles assert that the
state shall strive to promote the welfare of the people by securing and protecting it effectively. Thus,
it has to establish a social order in which justice of social, economic, and political shall permeate.
Therefore directive principles of state policy should establish social and economic democracy
through the welfare state. Therefore, it becomes the duty of the state to apply these principles in
making laws, as per Article 37.

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Directive principles consistently ensure the welfare of the people by securing a just social order,
including proper working conditions for workers and the full enjoyment of leisure, social, and
cultural activities. Therefore there is no need for any constitutional amendment; simple legislation by
the Parliament is adequate to implement the directive principles as applicable laws, according to
Article 245, as they are already enshrined in the constitution. Articles 36-51 under Part IV of the
Indian Constitution; deal with the directive principles of state policy, which are divided into three
categories.
Socialistic Principles: It has aim at providing social and economic justice under various articles,
Article 38, 39, 39A, 41, 42, 43, 43A, and 47.
Gandhian Principles: It is based on Gandhian ideology used to represent under various articles, 40,
43, 43B, 46, 47, and 48.
Liberal-Intellectual Principles: It has reflected the ideology of liberalism under various articles, 44,
45, 48, 49, 50, and 51.

Characteristics of the Directive Principles

The novel feature of the Indian constitution is the directive principle of state policies, which imposes
social and economic obligations on the Government (Union and State) to establish a welfare society.
Therefore, no government can afford to ignore them, as the Directive Principles of State Policy are
an integral part of the Constitution of India. They provide guidelines for the government to follow in
framing laws and policies. Hence, Directive Principles are a crucial aspect that must be considered
when interpreting the Constitution. However, Directive Principles are not absolute, and Parliament
has the authority to amend them as deemed necessary for new laws and policies. There are several
characteristics that define Directive principles. These include:
 It is not enforceable by any legal process;
 It has conflict with Fundamental Rights;
 It is not justifiable in a court of law;
 It is based on the philosophy of socialism;
 It’s meant for the guidance of future generations;
 It cannot be enforced by any legal process;
 It has subject to change from time to time;
 It can be amended or repealed by the Parliament;
 It does promote social, economic and political justice;

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  It is aim at promoting the common good of the people;
 It is directed towards the establishment of a welfare state;
 It is not static and can be changed according to the needs of the people;
 It’s meant for the long term welfare of the people and not for immediate gains;
 It is not permanent and can be changed according to the changing needs of society; and
 It’s lay down the principles which should guide the government in framing laws and policies.

State policy on education

Since the country gained independence in 1947, the Indian government has sponsored a variety of
educational programs to address the issue of illiteracy. Based on the report and recommendations of
the Kothari Commission, the National Policy on Education has been restructured many education
policies to achieve national integration and foster greater cultural and economic development.
Therefore, the state’s education policies also ensure educational development because every child
has a constitutional right to education. In 2019, the Ministry of Education released a draft of the new
education policy, which underwent several public consultations. The state shall endeavor, within ten
years from the commencement of this constitution, to provide free and compulsory education for all
children until they reach the age of fourteen. Provisions of State Policy and Education in India
include:
 Free and compulsory education;  Education for weaker sections;
 Place of mother tongue;  Language safeguards;
 Women’s education;  Equality in educational institutions;
 Official language of the union; and
 Education of minorities;  Higher education and research.
The task of education is to take the lead in organizing a society according to the envisioned pattern.
The constitution has made vital provisions for education. When the new Constitution of India
became effective on 26th January 1950, education was placed in the Concurrent list, granting the
Centre the authority to directly implement any policy decision in the States. However, it has divided
powers between the Centre and States, designating some powers as concurrent. Therefore, both the
Centre and the States can legislate on any aspect of education, from the primary to the university
level.

Constitutional provisions for education

The Indian Constitution serves as the fundamental law of the country and holds the highest legal
authority. As it discussed earlier, it is evident how this laws are establishes and notably, there have

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SENTHIL COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, PUDUCHERRY – 605 110.
been changes introduced by the 42nd Amendment, specifically with various educational
responsibilities. The right to education has been reaffirmed, because the Government is required to
make adequate provisions for the implementation of the Right to Education Act, as it related to
education. These acts serve as guidelines for every educational development law enforced in India,
encompassing the basic structure of governance in the country. They are:
 Article 15(1), (3): Education for women;
 Article 15, 17: Safeguard the educational interests of the weaker sections of citizens;
 Article 21A: Right to education;
 Article 24: Prohibits employment of children below 14 years of age in factories and
hazardous employment.
 Article 25, 28(1),(2),(3): Religious education;
 Article 29: Education of minorities, protection of interests of minorities;
 Article 29(1): Safeguard for admission into any educational institution;
 Article 30: Right of minorities to establish and administer educational institutions;
 Article 45: Right of free and compulsory education;
 Article 46: Promotion of education and economic interests of weaker sections;
 Article 51(A): Fundamental duty to provide the opportunity for education;
 Article 239: Education in union territories;
 Article 350-A: Instruction in mother-tongue at the primary stage;
 Article 351: Promotion of Hindi;
These are some of the educational provisions that constitute a constitutional act to protect
individual rights, establish a framework for governance, uphold the rule of law, provide stability,
promote participation, and safeguard against tyranny. It also guarantees people fundamental
freedoms, outlines the structure of the government, and ensures social accountability. Therefore, the
constitution provides the foundational framework for a nation’s governance, defining the structure of
power, fundamental rights, and guiding principles. It ensures accountability, prevents abuses of
power, and upholds the rule of law. A constitution safeguards citizens’ liberties, maintains order, and
serves as a cohesive national identity, fostering stability and democracy.

Cultural and Educational rights:

Article - 29(2) No citizen shall be denied admission into any educational institution maintained by
the State or receiving aid out of State funds on grounds of only religion, caste, language or any of
them.

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Article—30 Guarantees a right of minorities to establish and manage any educational institution of
their choice. The state can’t deny grant in aid to such educational institutions whether they are under
the management of minority, based on any religion or language.
Article - 32(l) says whenever there is a violation of a fundamental right any person can move the
court for an appropriate remedy.
Article - 45 The Constitution demands the State “to provide within a period of 10 years from the
commencement of the constitution, for free and compulsory education for all children until they
complete the age of 14 years”.

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ASSISTANT PROFESSOR OF PHYSICAL SCIENCE,
SENTHIL COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, PUDUCHERRY – 605 110.
 UNIT 6: EDUCATION FOR MARGINALISED
6.0. MARGINALIZED POPULATIONS
Marginalized populations refer to groups within society who experience systematic
disadvantages and are excluded from full participation in various aspects of social, economic,
political, and cultural life. These groups often face discrimination, stigma, and limited access to
resources and opportunities, leading to their marginalization on the fringes of society.
Marginalization can occur along various dimensions, including:
Socio-economic Status: People living in poverty or facing economic hardship may be marginalized
due to limited access to education, healthcare, housing, and employment opportunities.
Race and Ethnicity: Minority racial and ethnic groups may experience marginalization due to
systemic racism, discrimination, and prejudice, which limit their access to resources, opportunities,
and equal treatment under the law.
Gender: Women and gender minorities often face marginalization due to gender-based
discrimination, unequal access to education and employment, limited reproductive rights, and
gender-based violence.
Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity: LGBTQ+ individuals may experience marginalization
due to discrimination, stigma, and lack of legal protections, leading to limited access to healthcare,
employment, housing, and other services.
Disability: People with disabilities may be marginalized due to physical, sensory, cognitive, or
mental impairments, which can lead to barriers in accessing education, employment, transportation,
and social participation.
Age: Children, youth, and elderly populations may face marginalization due to age-based
discrimination, limited access to education, healthcare, and employment opportunities, and lack of
social support networks.
Migration Status: Migrants, refugees, and asylum seekers may experience marginalization due to
legal restrictions, xenophobia, and discrimination, which can limit their access to rights, services, and
opportunities in their host countries.
Religion and Belief: Religious and cultural minorities may face marginalization due to
discrimination, persecution, and restrictions on religious freedom, which can impact their access to
education, employment, and social participation.

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ASSISTANT PROFESSOR OF PHYSICAL SCIENCE,
SENTHIL COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, PUDUCHERRY – 605 110.
6.1. MARGINALIZED POPULATIONS (ECONOMIC, SOCIAL, AND CULTURAL)
Marginalized populations can experience economic, social, and cultural marginalization due
to various factors, including systemic inequalities, discrimination, and historical injustices. Here's a
breakdown of each aspect:
Economic Marginalization: Economically marginalized populations often face barriers to accessing
stable employment, adequate wages, and financial resources. This can result from factors such as
lack of education and skills training, discrimination in hiring and promotion practices, limited access
to capital and credit, and unequal distribution of wealth and resources. Economic marginalization can
perpetuate cycles of poverty and limit opportunities for social mobility, leading to persistent
economic disparities between marginalized groups and the broader population.
Social Marginalization: Socially marginalized populations experience exclusion, stigma, and
discrimination in social interactions, institutions, and systems. This can occur based on factors such
as race, ethnicity, gender identity, sexual orientation, religion, disability, or immigration status.
Social marginalization can manifest in various forms, including segregation, ostracism, bullying,
violence, and denial of rights and opportunities. Socially marginalized individuals and communities
may face barriers to accessing healthcare, housing, education, and other essential services, as well as
exclusion from political participation and decision-making processes.
Cultural Marginalization: Culturally marginalized populations often have their languages,
traditions, customs, and identities devalued or suppressed within dominant cultural narratives and
institutions. This can occur through practices such as cultural appropriation, erasure, assimilation,
and discrimination. Cultural marginalization can lead to the loss of cultural heritage, identity
conflicts, and feelings of alienation and invisibility within society. It can also perpetuate stereotypes,
prejudice, and misconceptions about marginalized cultures, further exacerbating social inequalities
and barriers to inclusion.

6.2. RESERVATION POLICIES

Reservation policies, also known as affirmative action or positive discrimination policies, are
governmental initiatives aimed at providing preferential treatment or opportunities to individuals or
groups who have historically faced discrimination or marginalization based on factors such as race,
ethnicity, gender, caste, religion, or disability. These policies are typically implemented in areas such
as education, employment, and political representation with the goal of promoting equality, diversity,
and social justice.

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SENTHIL COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, PUDUCHERRY – 605 110.
Education: In many countries, reservation policies are implemented in educational institutions to
ensure access to quality education for historically marginalized groups. This may involve reserved
seats or quotas in schools, colleges, and universities for students from underrepresented
communities. The aim is to increase enrollment and graduation rates among marginalized groups and
address disparities in educational attainment.
Employment: Reservation policies in employment aim to promote diversity and inclusion in the
workforce by providing preferential treatment to individuals from marginalized communities during
recruitment, hiring, and promotion processes. This may involve reserved positions, quotas, or
affirmative action programs in both the public and private sectors. The goal is to address systemic
barriers to employment and create equal opportunities for all individuals regardless of their
background.
Political Representation: Reservation policies may also be implemented in political institutions to
ensure equitable representation and participation of marginalized groups in governance and decision-
making processes. This can include reserved seats or quotas for minority communities in legislative
bodies, local councils, or other elected offices. The objective is to empower marginalized
communities, amplify their voices, and address disparities in political representation and influence.
While reservation policies have been effective in promoting social inclusion and addressing
historical injustices in many contexts, they can also be controversial and subject to debate. Critics
argue that such policies may perpetuate discrimination, undermine meritocracy, and create
resentment among non-beneficiary groups. Additionally, challenges such as implementation issues,
backlash, and the need for periodic reassessment and adjustments are common in the implementation
of reservation policies. Overall, the effectiveness and fairness of reservation policies depend on
various factors, including their design, implementation, monitoring, and evaluation.

6.3. EDUCATION AND SOCIAL EQUALISATION

Education plays a crucial role in social equalization by providing individuals with the
knowledge, skills, and opportunities necessary to overcome barriers and achieve upward mobility
regardless of their background. Here's how education contributes to social equalization:

Equal Access: Education can serve as a vehicle for equal access to opportunities by providing all
individuals, regardless of their socioeconomic status, ethnicity, gender, or other characteristics, with
access to quality schooling and learning resources. Policies and initiatives aimed at reducing barriers
to education, such as scholarships, subsidized tuition fees, and affirmative action programs, help

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ensure that marginalized groups have the same access to education as their more privileged
counterparts.

Promotion of Meritocracy: Education promotes meritocracy by rewarding individuals based on

their abilities, efforts, and achievements rather than their social background or inherited privilege. By
providing a platform for talent recognition and skill development, education enables individuals from
disadvantaged backgrounds to compete on a level playing field and realize their full potential.

Social Mobility: Education serves as a pathway to social mobility by empowering individuals to

improve their socioeconomic status and break the cycle of poverty. Through access to quality
education, individuals can acquire the knowledge, skills, and credentials needed to secure better-
paying jobs, pursue higher education, and participate more fully in economic and social life, thereby
enhancing their opportunities for upward mobility and socioeconomic advancement.

Cultural and Social Integration: Education fosters cultural and social integration by promoting
understanding, empathy, and cooperation among individuals from diverse backgrounds. Schools and
educational institutions provide opportunities for interaction and dialogue among students from
different social, cultural, and economic backgrounds, helping to break down stereotypes, bridge
divides, and build inclusive communities.

Critical Thinking and Citizenship: Education cultivates critical thinking skills and civic values
essential for active citizenship and democratic participation. By providing individuals with the tools
to analyze information critically, engage in informed debate, and make responsible decisions,
education empowers citizens to contribute positively to society, advocate for social justice, and
participate in efforts to address inequality and injustice.

6.4. SOCIAL PROCESS, SOCIAL INTERACTIONS AND SOCIAL MOVEMENTS

Social processes, interactions, and movements are fundamental aspects of how societies function,
evolve, and bring about change. Here's a breakdown of each concept:

6.4.1. Social Processes: Social processes refer to the various mechanisms, patterns, and dynamics
through which individuals, groups, and institutions interact and shape social life. These processes
include:
 Socialization: The process by which individuals learn and internalize cultural norms, values,
roles, and behaviors through interactions with others and social institutions.

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  Social Stratification: The hierarchical arrangement of individuals and groups within society
based on factors such as socioeconomic status, race, ethnicity, gender, and age.
 Social Change: The transformation of social structures, institutions, and norms over time,
often driven by factors such as technological advancements, economic developments, cultural
shifts, and collective actions.

6.4.2. Social Interactions: Social interactions are the exchanges, communications, and relationships
that occur between individuals and groups within society. These interactions can take various forms,
including:
 Face-to-Face Interactions: Direct, personal interactions between individuals in physical
proximity, such as conversations, gestures, and nonverbal communication.
 Mediated Interactions: Interactions facilitated by technology and media platforms, such as
social networking sites, online forums, and virtual communities.
 Group Dynamics: Interactions within groups and communities, including cooperation,
conflict, leadership, decision-making, and social influence processes.

6.4.3. Social Movements: Social movements are collective efforts by individuals and groups to
bring about social, political, cultural, or environmental change. These movements typically involve
coordinated actions, advocacy, and mobilization around shared grievances, values, or goals.
Examples of social movements include:
Civil Rights Movement: A movement advocating for equal rights and social justice for
racial minorities, particularly African Americans, in the United States during the mid-20th
century.
Feminist Movement: A movement advocating for gender equality, women's rights, and the
dismantling of patriarchy and gender-based discrimination.
Environmental Movement: A movement advocating for environmental conservation,
sustainability, and action to address climate change and ecological degradation.
Labor Movement: A movement advocating for the rights and interests of workers, including
fair wages, safe working conditions, and collective bargaining rights.

6.5. EDUCATION FOR DIVERSITIES

Education for diversities encompasses approaches, policies, and practices aimed at fostering
inclusivity, understanding, and respect for diversity within educational settings. Here are some key
components:

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Curriculum Inclusivity: Designing curricula that reflect the diversity of human experiences,
cultures, perspectives, and identities. This involves incorporating diverse content, authors, historical
narratives, and case studies across various subject areas to provide students with a comprehensive
understanding of the world.

Culturally Responsive Teaching: Adopting teaching strategies and pedagogies that recognize and
build upon students' cultural backgrounds, languages, and experiences. Culturally responsive
teaching emphasizes making connections between curriculum content and students' lived realities,
incorporating diverse teaching materials and resources, and creating a supportive and inclusive
classroom environment.

Multicultural Education: Promoting awareness, appreciation, and celebration of cultural diversity

through explicit instruction and activities focused on cultural competence, intercultural
communication, and global citizenship. Multicultural education aims to develop students' empathy,
respect, and understanding for people from different cultural, racial, ethnic, and religious
backgrounds.

Critical Pedagogy: Encouraging critical thinking, inquiry, and dialogue about social justice issues,
power dynamics, and inequalities within society. Critical pedagogy challenges students to question
dominant narratives, examine their own biases and privileges, and engage in discussions and actions
aimed at challenging oppression and promoting equity and social change.

Inclusive Policies and Practices: Implementing policies and practices that promote diversity,
equity, and inclusion at all levels of the education system, including recruitment and retention of
diverse students and staff, accessible learning environments, accommodations for students with
disabilities, and support services for marginalized and underrepresented groups.

Anti-bias Education: Addressing prejudice, discrimination, and stereotypes through explicit

instruction and activities focused on promoting social justice, equity, and respect for all individuals.
Anti-bias education encourages critical reflection, empathy-building, and advocacy for inclusive and
equitable practices within schools and communities.

Community Engagement and Partnerships: Collaborating with families, communities, and

external organizations to promote diversity, inclusion, and cultural responsiveness within educational
settings. Community engagement initiatives can involve parent involvement programs, cultural
celebrations, guest speakers, and partnerships with local organizations that serve diverse populations.

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6.6. SCHOOLS UNDER DIFFERENT MANAGEMENT
Schools under different management refer to educational institutions that are administered, funded,
or operated by various entities other than the government. These can include:

Public Schools: Public schools are funded and operated by government entities, typically at the local
or national level. They are open to all students and do not charge tuition fees. Public schools must
adhere to government regulations and curriculum standards but may have some degree of autonomy
in their operations.

Private Schools: Private schools are funded and operated by non-governmental entities, such as
religious organizations, corporations, foundations, or individuals. They may charge tuition fees and
have more flexibility in their curriculum, admissions policies, and educational approaches. Private
schools often cater to specific religious, cultural, or educational philosophies.

Charter Schools: Charter schools are publicly funded but independently operated schools that
operate under a charter or contract with a government authority, such as a school district or state
education agency. Charter schools have greater autonomy than traditional public schools and may
have specific missions, educational philosophies, or focus areas, such as STEM education or the arts.

Parochial Schools: Parochial schools are private schools affiliated with religious institutions, such
as churches, mosques, or temples. They often integrate religious instruction and values into their
curriculum alongside academic subjects. Parochial schools may receive funding through tuition fees,
donations, and subsidies from religious organizations.

International Schools: International schools cater to expatriate and internationally mobile families
and often follow an international curriculum, such as the International Baccalaureate (IB) or
Cambridge International Examinations (CIE). These schools may be operated by private entities,
multinational corporations, or diplomatic missions and typically offer instruction in multiple
languages.

Montessori Schools: Montessori schools follow the educational philosophy developed by Maria
Montessori, which emphasizes child-centered learning, mixed-age classrooms, and hands-on,
experiential learning. Montessori schools may be operated by private organizations or non-profit
entities and often serve preschool and elementary-aged children.

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Home Schools: Home schooling involves parents or guardians providing education to their children
at home rather than sending them to traditional schools. Home schooling may be conducted
independently or through enrollment in homeschooling cooperatives or online education programs.

6.7. PUBLIC SCHOOL A BROAD PERSPECTIVE

Taking a broad perspective, public schools play a pivotal role in the educational landscape of many
countries. Here's an overview:

Accessibility: Public schools are designed to be accessible to all students, irrespective of their
socioeconomic background, religion, ethnicity, or ability. They provide free or subsidized education,
ensuring that education is a universal right rather than a privilege.

Diversity: Public schools typically serve diverse student populations, reflecting the broader societal
demographics. This diversity fosters opportunities for students to interact with peers from various
backgrounds, promoting cross-cultural understanding and tolerance.

Government Funding: Public schools are primarily funded by government resources, including
taxes and public funds. This financial support helps ensure that schools have the necessary resources
to provide quality education, maintain facilities, and support staff.

Accountability: Public schools are accountable to government regulations, educational standards,

and curriculum requirements. They undergo regular evaluations and assessments to ensure that they
meet academic benchmarks and provide equitable opportunities for all students.

Inclusivity: Public schools are mandated to provide inclusive education, accommodating students
with diverse learning needs, disabilities, or special requirements. They offer support services,
accommodations, and resources to ensure that every student has access to a quality education.

Community Engagement: Public schools often serve as community hubs, providing not only
education but also resources, services, and programs to support families and communities. They may
offer extracurricular activities, adult education classes, health services, and community events.

Democratic Values: Public schools play a crucial role in instilling democratic values, civic
engagement, and social responsibility in students. They provide opportunities for students to learn
about democratic principles, participate in decision-making processes, and engage in community
service and activism.

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Social Mobility: Public schools serve as vehicles for social mobility, offering opportunities for
students from diverse backgrounds to pursue their academic and career aspirations. They help level
the playing field by providing access to education and resources that can empower students to break
the cycle of poverty and achieve their full potential.

6.8. EDUCATION AS PUBLIC PROPERTY

Viewing education as public property emphasizes its collective ownership and importance to society
as a whole rather than an individual commodity. Here's how education can be seen as public
property:

Universal Access: Education is often considered a fundamental human right, and as such, it should
be universally accessible to all members of society. Treating education as public property means
ensuring that everyone, regardless of their background or socio-economic status, has equal access to
quality education.

Investment in the Common Good: Education is an investment in the future of society. By treating
education as public property, governments and communities recognize that investing in education
benefits the entire society, not just individuals. A well-educated population leads to a more
prosperous, innovative, and cohesive society.

Shared Responsibility: When education is considered public property, it becomes a shared

responsibility of the government, communities, and individuals. Governments are responsible for
ensuring that education is adequately funded and accessible, while communities and individuals
contribute through taxes, volunteering, and supporting educational initiatives.

Democratic Values: Education plays a crucial role in promoting democratic values such as equality,
freedom, and social justice. By treating education as public property, societies uphold these values
by providing equal opportunities for all individuals to access education and participate fully in civic
life.

Community Engagement: Education as public property encourages community engagement and

involvement in the educational process. Communities have a stake in the quality of education
provided to their members and can contribute through partnerships with schools, advocacy for
educational policies, and support for educational initiatives.

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Accountability and Transparency: Viewing education as public property also entails
accountability and transparency in the management and delivery of education. Governments and
educational institutions are accountable to the public for the use of public funds, the quality of
education provided, and the outcomes achieved.

Promotion of Social Cohesion: Education as public property promotes social cohesion by bringing
together individuals from diverse backgrounds and fostering understanding, tolerance, and respect
for others. It helps break down barriers and create a sense of shared identity and belonging within
society.

Inclusive Education: Education should be inclusive of all learners, including those with disabilities,
special needs, or marginalized backgrounds. Inclusive education ensures that every individual,
regardless of their abilities or differences, can participate fully in the learning process and achieve
their full potential.

Global Citizenship Education: Educating students about global issues, human rights, sustainability,
and intercultural understanding is essential for fostering a sense of global citizenship and empathy
towards others. Global citizenship education encourages students to become active global citizens
who are aware of their responsibilities towards others and the planet.

Equitable Resource Allocation: Ensuring that resources for education are allocated equitably is
critical for promoting global equality. This includes adequate funding for schools in marginalized
communities, equitable distribution of qualified teachers, and access to educational materials and
technology.

Lifelong Learning Opportunities: Education is not limited to formal schooling; lifelong learning
opportunities should be available to everyone, regardless of their age or background. Providing
opportunities for continuous learning and skill development enables individuals to adapt to changing
circumstances and contribute to society throughout their lives.

6.10. EDUCATION FOR GLOBAL EQUALITY

Education plays a pivotal role in fostering global equality by providing individuals with the tools
they need to succeed regardless of their background or circumstances. Here are several key aspects
of education that contribute to global equality:

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SENTHIL COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, PUDUCHERRY – 605 110.
Access to Education: Ensuring that everyone, regardless of their socio-economic status, gender,
ethnicity, or location, has equal access to quality education is fundamental. This involves addressing
barriers such as poverty, lack of infrastructure, discrimination, and cultural norms that may prevent
certain groups from accessing education.

Quality Education: It's not just about access; the quality of education matters too. Quality education
provides individuals with the knowledge, skills, and competencies they need to thrive in the modern
world. This includes not only academic skills but also critical thinking, problem-solving, and social-
emotional skills.

Gender Equality: Promoting gender equality in education is crucial for achieving global equality.
This involves ensuring that girls have the same opportunities as boys to access and complete
education, as well as addressing issues such as gender stereotypes, early marriage, and violence
against girls in schools.

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 UNIT 7: LANGUAGE POLICIES IN EDUCATION
7.0 Language policies
Language policies are strategic frameworks and guidelines implemented by governments,
institutions, or organizations to manage and regulate the use of languages within a particular region
or context. These policies encompass a wide range of issues including language preservation,
promotion, and standardization, as well as the rights of speakers of various languages. Language
policies can impact education, government, media, and public life. They are designed to address the
linguistic needs and rights of diverse populations, often aiming to balance the promotion of a
dominant language with the protection and revitalization of minority or indigenous languages.

Official Language Designation: Deciding which languages are recognized as official for use in
government and public affairs.

Language Education Policies: Guidelines on the teaching and learning of languages in educational
systems, including mother tongue instruction and foreign language requirements.

Language Rights: Ensuring the rights of speakers of different languages, particularly minority or
indigenous groups, to use their languages in various domains.

Language Standardization: Developing standardized forms of languages for official and

educational use, including orthography, grammar, and vocabulary.

Language Preservation and Revitalization: Efforts to maintain and revive languages that are
endangered or at risk of falling out of use.

Multilingualism Promotion: Encouraging the use and proficiency of multiple languages within a
society.

7.1 LANGUAGE POLICIES DURING POST-INDEPENDENCE PERIOD

India’s independence in 1947, the country faced the significant challenge of developing language
policies that could accommodate its immense linguistic diversity. Here's an overview of the key
developments and policies related to language during the post-independence period:

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Constitutional Framework
Official Language Act, 1963: The Constitution of India, adopted in 1950, originally designated
Hindi in the Devanagari script as the official language of the Union and allowed for the continued
use of English for all official purposes for fifteen years, i.e., until 1965.
The Official Language Act, 1963, was enacted to allow the continued use of English alongside Hindi
for official purposes of the Union, indefinitely extending the use of English.
Eighth Schedule Languages: The Constitution recognized 14 languages initially in the Eighth
Schedule, which was intended to protect and promote these languages. This number has since
increased to 22 languages.

7.3 THREE-LANGUAGE FORMULA

Introduction and Objectives:
The three-language formula was introduced in the 1960s as part of the national educational policy to
promote multilingualism and foster national integration.
The formula generally required students to learn three languages: the regional language, Hindi, and
English. In non-Hindi-speaking states, the students learn their regional language, Hindi, and English,
whereas in Hindi-speaking states, the students learn Hindi, English, and another modern Indian
language.

Language Reorganization of States

 State Reorganization Act, 1956:
This act led to the reorganization of state boundaries on linguistic lines. It was influenced by
the linguistic reorganization movement, with the formation of Andhra Pradesh for Telugu
speakers being a key example.
The reorganization aimed to ensure that people who spoke the same language lived within the
same state, thereby promoting administrative convenience and cultural cohesion.
 Regional Language Policies
 State-Specific Official Languages:
States were empowered to adopt their own official languages for use in their respective
regions. This led to various states adopting regional languages as their official
language(s) while also using Hindi and English for certain administrative functions.
 Language Development and Preservation:
Several states took initiatives to promote and develop their regional languages through
educational policies, media, and cultural programs.

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SENTHIL COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, PUDUCHERRY – 605 110.
  Language and Education
 Mother Tongue Instruction:
The policy of using the mother tongue or regional language as the medium of instruction
at the primary school level was emphasized to ensure better learning outcomes and
cultural continuity.
Higher Education and Multilingualism:
Higher education institutions adopted English and regional languages for instruction and
examinations. Efforts were made to translate scientific and technical materials into
regional languages to broaden access to knowledge.
Linguistic Minorities and Rights
 Protection of Linguistic Minorities:
The Constitution provided for the protection of linguistic minorities, ensuring their right
to conserve their language and culture.
The establishment of the Commissioner for Linguistic Minorities aimed to safeguard the
rights of linguistic minorities.
Political and Social Dynamics
 Language Agitations:
Post-independence, there were several agitations and movements related to language,
such as the anti-Hindi agitations in Tamil Nadu, which opposed the imposition of Hindi
and demanded the continuation of English as an official language.
These movements highlighted the sensitivity around language issues and influenced
language policy decisions.

 Recent Developments
 New Education Policy (NEP) 2020:
The NEP 2020 reinforced the importance of mother tongue and regional languages in
early education, promoting multilingualism and proposing the use of the home language
or mother tongue as the medium of instruction until at least Grade 5, and preferably until
Grade 8.
It also emphasized the need to preserve and promote all Indian languages, including
classical languages, through education and cultural initiatives.
In conclusion, India's post-independence language policies have been shaped by the need
to manage linguistic diversity, promote national unity, and respect linguistic identities.

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 These policies continue to evolve to address the changing linguistic and educational
landscape of the country.
7.4 Mother Tongue
The term mother tongue refers to the first language a person learns from birth. It is the
language spoken by one's family and community, and it is typically the language in which a person is
most proficient and comfortable. The mother tongue is deeply tied to an individual's identity, cultural
heritage, and early cognitive development.
7.4.1. Mother Tongue as Medium of Instruction
Using the mother tongue as the medium of instruction means that the language used for
teaching and learning in schools is the students' native language. This approach emphasizes that
initial education in the mother tongue can significantly improve comprehension and cognitive
development.

7.4.2. Advantages of Using Mother Tongue as Medium of Instruction

 Enhanced Understanding: Students are more likely to understand concepts and grasp
subject matter quickly when taught in their native language.
 Cognitive Development: Learning in the mother tongue supports cognitive development and
helps in the transfer of knowledge and skills to other languages later on.
 Cultural Preservation: Using the mother tongue helps preserve and promote cultural
heritage, traditions, and values.
 Increased Participation: Children are more likely to participate actively in class and feel
confident when they understand the language of instruction.
 Foundation for Second Language Learning: A strong foundation in the mother tongue can
facilitate the learning of additional languages, as cognitive and linguistic skills transfer across
languages.
 Reduced Dropout Rates: Students are less likely to drop out of school when they are taught
in a language they understand, improving overall retention rates.

7.4.3. Disadvantages of Using Mother Tongue as Medium of Instruction

 Limited Resources: There may be a lack of educational materials, textbooks, and qualified
teachers proficient in the mother tongue, especially for minority languages.
 Transition Challenges: Transitioning from mother tongue instruction to a second language
(often the official language) at higher education levels can be challenging for students.

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SENTHIL COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, PUDUCHERRY – 605 110.
  Economic Opportunities: In a globalized world, proficiency in widely spoken languages
like English can offer better economic opportunities. Focusing solely on the mother tongue
might limit access to such opportunities.
 Administrative and Policy Hurdles: Implementing mother tongue instruction can be
complex in multilingual countries, requiring significant policy adjustments and coordination.
 Social Integration: In regions with linguistic diversity, using multiple mother tongues as
mediums of instruction could create barriers to social integration and national unity.

7.4.4. Balancing the Use of Mother Tongue and Other Languages

To address both the advantages and disadvantages, many educational systems adopt a
bilingual or multilingual approach. Early education may be conducted in the mother tongue, with
gradual introduction of second and third languages. This approach aims to provide the cognitive and
cultural benefits of mother tongue instruction while ensuring that students gain proficiency in widely
spoken languages that are important for higher education and economic opportunities.

7.5 English versus Regional Language as Medium of Instruction

The debate between using English and regional languages as the medium of instruction in education
is a significant one, especially in multilingual countries like India. Each option has its own set of
advantages and disadvantages, impacting students, society, and the education system differently.

7.5.1. Advantages of English as Medium of Instruction

 Global Competitiveness: English is a global lingua franca. Proficiency in English opens up
opportunities for higher education, international business, and global communication.
 Access to Resources: A vast majority of scientific literature, academic research, and
educational materials are available in English. Using English as the medium of instruction
provides students access to these resources.
 Career Opportunities: Many high-paying jobs, particularly in multinational companies and
sectors like IT, finance, and international trade, require proficiency in English.
 Higher Education: English is often the medium of instruction in higher education
institutions globally. Early exposure to English can ease the transition to higher education.

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7.5.2. Disadvantages of English as Medium of Instruction
 Comprehension Issues: For students whose mother tongue is not English, learning complex
subjects in English can be challenging and may hinder understanding and cognitive
development.
 Cultural Disconnection: Emphasizing English over regional languages can lead to a loss of
cultural identity and heritage.
 Inequality: Not all students have the same level of exposure to English outside of school,
leading to disparities in learning outcomes and perpetuating social inequalities.
 Teacher Proficiency: There may be a shortage of teachers who are proficient enough in
English to teach effectively, especially in rural areas.

7.5.3. Advantages of Regional Language as Medium of Instruction

Better Understanding: Students learn better and grasp concepts more easily when taught in
their mother tongue or a familiar regional language.
Cognitive Benefits: Early education in the mother tongue can strengthen cognitive skills and
facilitate later learning of other languages.
Cultural Preservation: Using regional languages helps preserve cultural heritage and
promotes linguistic diversity.
Increased Engagement: Students are likely to be more engaged and confident when taught
in a language they are comfortable with.

7.5.4. Disadvantages of Regional Language as Medium of Instruction

Limited Resources: There may be fewer educational materials, textbooks, and resources
available in regional languages.
Transition Challenges: Students might face difficulties transitioning to higher education or
careers where English is the dominant language.
Economic Opportunities: Proficiency in regional languages alone might limit access to job
opportunities in global markets and multinational companies.
Standardization Issues: Developing standardized curricula and assessment methods in
multiple regional languages can be complex and resource-intensive.

7.5.5. Balancing English and Regional Languages

A balanced approach can leverage the strengths of both English and regional languages.
Some strategies include:

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SENTHIL COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, PUDUCHERRY – 605 110.
 Bilingual Education: Implementing bilingual or multilingual education where students start
learning in their mother tongue and gradually transition to English.
Early Foundation in Mother Tongue: Providing strong foundational education in the
regional language while introducing English as a second language early in the curriculum.
Resource Development: Investing in the development of high-quality educational materials
and teacher training programs in both English and regional languages.
Policy Flexibility: Allowing flexibility in language policy to cater to regional needs and
linguistic diversity, ensuring that no group is disadvantaged.

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SENTHIL COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, PUDUCHERRY – 605 110.
 UNIT 8: ISSUES IN EDUCATION
8.0. INTRODUCTION
Equalization of educational opportunities for Scheduled Castes (SC) and Scheduled Tribes
(ST) is a critical aspect of promoting social justice and addressing historical disadvantages. SC and
ST communities in many societies have faced systemic discrimination and marginalization, leading
to significant disparities in access to education.

8.1. Equalization of Educational Opportunities – SC/ ST, OBC,

Governments and policymakers implement various measures to ensure equal educational
opportunities for SC and ST groups, including:

 Reservation Policies: Many countries have reservation policies in educational institutions,

which allocate a certain percentage of seats for SC and ST students. This ensures their
representation and access to quality education.
 Scholarships and Financial Assistance: Governments often provide scholarships and
financial assistance to SC and ST students to help them cover tuition fees, purchase books,
and meet other educational expenses. This reduces the financial burden on marginalized
communities and encourages them to pursue higher education.
 Special Education Programs: Special education programs are designed to cater to the
specific needs of SC and ST students. These programs may include remedial classes, extra
tutoring, and counseling support to help students overcome academic challenges and succeed
in their studies.
 Infrastructure Development: Governments invest in developing educational infrastructure in
SC and ST dominant areas to ensure access to schools and colleges. This includes building
schools, providing transportation facilities, and improving the overall learning environment.
 Awareness and Sensitization Programs: Awareness and sensitization programs are
conducted to challenge stereotypes and biases against SC and ST communities. These
programs aim to create an inclusive and welcoming environment in educational institutions
where all students feel valued and respected.
 Affirmative Action Policies: Affirmative action policies are implemented to promote
representation of SC and ST students in educational institutions and ensure they have equal
opportunities for admission, scholarships, and other benefits.

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  Monitoring and Evaluation: Governments and educational authorities monitor the
implementation of policies aimed at equalizing educational opportunities for SC and ST
students. Regular evaluations help identify gaps and challenges and refine strategies to
address them effectively.

8.2. EQUALIZING EDUCATIONAL OPPORTUNITIES FOR WOMEN

Equalizing educational opportunities for women is essential for promoting gender equality
and empowering communities. Here are some strategies to achieve this:
 Gender-sensitive Curriculum: Developing a curriculum that is inclusive of gender
perspectives, histories, and contributions can promote awareness and understanding of gender
issues among students.
 Safe and Accessible Infrastructure: Ensuring that schools and colleges have safe and
accessible infrastructure, including separate sanitation facilities for girls, can encourage more
girls to enroll and stay in school.
 Scholarships and Financial Support: Providing scholarships and financial aid specifically
targeted at girls and women from disadvantaged backgrounds can alleviate financial barriers
to education.
 Awareness Campaigns: Conducting awareness campaigns to challenge gender stereotypes
and promote the value of educating girls can change attitudes within communities and
encourage support for girls' education.
 Teacher Training on Gender Sensitivity: Training teachers to recognize and address
gender biases in the classroom can create a supportive learning environment where girls feel
valued and empowered to participate actively.
 Flexible Learning Options: Offering flexible learning options such as part-time classes,
distance education, or vocational training can accommodate the needs of women who may
have caregiving responsibilities or other obligations.
 Safe Transportation: Providing safe transportation options for girls, especially in rural
areas, can ensure their access to educational institutions without fear of harassment or
violence.
 Mentorship and Support Programs: Establishing mentorship and support programs for
girls and young women can provide them with guidance, encouragement, and role models to
pursue their educational and career aspirations.

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  Legal Protections and Enforcement: Enacting and enforcing laws that prohibit
discrimination against girls and women in education and provide mechanisms for addressing
grievances can safeguard their rights to education.
 Monitoring and Evaluation: Regular monitoring and evaluation of policies and programs
aimed at promoting girls' education are essential to track progress, identify gaps, and ensure
accountability.

8.3. EQUALIZATION OF EDUCATIONAL OPPORTUNITIES –HANDICAPPED

Equalizing educational opportunities for individuals with disabilities, or "differently-abled"
individuals, is crucial for fostering inclusivity and ensuring that everyone has access to quality
education. Here are some approaches to achieve this:
Accessible Infrastructure: Ensuring that educational institutions are physically accessible to
individuals with disabilities by providing ramps, elevators, wheelchair-friendly facilities, and
other assistive technologies.
Special Education Programs: Establishing specialized educational programs tailored to the
needs of students with disabilities, including individualized education plans (IEPs) and
support services such as speech therapy, occupational therapy, and special educators.
Assistive Technologies: Providing assistive technologies such as screen readers, Braille
displays, hearing aids, and adaptive software to help students with disabilities access
educational materials and participate fully in classroom activities.
Teacher Training and Awareness: Training teachers and educational staff to understand the
needs of students with disabilities, adapt teaching methods and materials accordingly, and
create an inclusive learning environment.
Curriculum Adaptation: Modifying curriculum content, teaching methods, and assessment
techniques to accommodate different learning styles and abilities, ensuring that students with
disabilities can fully engage with the material.
Reasonable Accommodations: Implementing reasonable accommodations such as extra
time during exams, alternative formats for assignments, and sign language interpreters to
ensure that students with disabilities have equal opportunities to demonstrate their knowledge
and skills.
Peer Support and Mentoring: Encouraging peer support networks and mentoring programs
where students with disabilities can connect with each other, share experiences, and provide
mutual support.

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 Transition Support Services: Offering transition support services to help students with
disabilities successfully transition from school to higher education or employment, including
career counseling, job training, and workplace accommodations.
Legal Protections and Advocacy: Enforcing laws and policies that protect the rights of
individuals with disabilities to access education and advocating for their needs at the policy
level to ensure their inclusion in educational planning and decision-making processes.
Community Engagement: Engaging families, communities, and organizations representing
individuals with disabilities in educational planning and implementation to ensure that their
voices are heard and their needs are addressed.
8.4. EQUALIZATION OF EDUCATIONAL OPPORTUNITIES –RELIGIOUS MINORITIES
Equalizing educational opportunities for religious minorities is essential for fostering
inclusivity, promoting social cohesion, and ensuring that all individuals have access to quality
education regardless of their religious background. Here are some strategies to achieve this:
 Anti-Discrimination Policies: Implementing and enforcing anti-discrimination laws and
policies that prohibit discrimination against religious minorities in educational institutions
based on their beliefs, practices, or affiliations.
 Diverse Representation: Ensuring diverse representation of religious minorities in
educational materials, curricula, and teaching staff to promote understanding, tolerance, and
respect for different faiths and cultures.
 Religious Education Options: Offering options for religious education or instruction that
respect the beliefs and traditions of religious minority communities while also providing a
secular education that meets academic standards.
 Cultural Sensitivity Training: Providing training for teachers and educational staff on
cultural sensitivity and religious diversity to create an inclusive learning environment where
students from religious minority backgrounds feel valued and respected.
 Language Support Services: Offering language support services such as translation and
interpretation for students from religious minority communities whose primary language may
not be the language of instruction.
 Scholarship and Financial Aid: Providing scholarships, grants, and financial aid
specifically targeted at students from religious minority backgrounds to alleviate economic
barriers to education and promote access to higher education.

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  Community Engagement: Engaging religious minority communities in educational planning
and decision-making processes to ensure that their needs and concerns are addressed and that
they have a voice in shaping educational policies and programs.
 Interfaith Dialogue and Collaboration: Promoting interfaith dialogue and collaboration
among educational institutions, religious leaders, and community organizations to foster
understanding, cooperation, and mutual respect across religious lines.
 Safe and Inclusive School Environment: Creating a safe and inclusive school environment
where students from religious minority backgrounds feel free to express their beliefs,
practices, and identities without fear of discrimination or harassment.
 Monitoring and Evaluation: Regular monitoring and evaluation of educational policies and
programs to assess their impact on religious minority communities and identify areas for
improvement to ensure equality of educational opportunities for all students.
8.5. UNIVERSALIZATION OF EDUCATION WITH RESPECT TO ACCESS,
ENROLLMENT, RETENTION AND ACHIEVEMENT
Universalizing education entails ensuring that every individual has access to quality
education without discrimination, and that they are able to enroll, remain in school, and achieve their
educational goals. Here's how this can be achieved across different dimensions:
 Access: Ensure that education is accessible to all, regardless of socioeconomic status, gender,
location, or any other characteristic. This involves building schools and educational facilities
in underserved areas, providing transportation infrastructure, and removing financial barriers
through scholarships and subsidies.
 Enrollment: Implement policies and programs to encourage and facilitate enrollment,
particularly for marginalized and vulnerable groups. This might involve awareness
campaigns, community outreach programs, and incentives such as free meals or uniforms to
encourage families to send their children to school.
 Retention: Address factors that contribute to dropout rates, such as poverty, child labor, early
marriage, and lack of support systems. This could include providing social protection
programs, vocational training opportunities, and support services such as counseling and
mentoring to help students stay in school.
 Achievement: Ensure that students receive a quality education that equips them with the
knowledge, skills, and competencies they need to succeed. This involves improving the
quality of teaching and learning, updating curriculum to be relevant and inclusive, providing

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 access to resources and technology, and implementing assessment systems that measure
learning outcomes fairly and accurately.

8.6. UNDEREMPLOYMENT, UNEMPLOYMENT, AND NON-EMPLOYABILITY

Addressing underemployment, unemployment, and non-employability requires a multi-
faceted approach that tackles structural issues within the economy, education system, and labor
market. Here's how each of these issues can be addressed:

Underemployment: Underemployment occurs when individuals are employed in jobs that do not
fully utilize their skills, education, or experience. To address underemployment:
 Promote economic growth and diversification to create more high-quality jobs that match
workers' skills and qualifications.
 Invest in education and training programs that equip individuals with the skills needed for
emerging industries and sectors.
 Implement policies that support job matching, such as job placement services, career
counseling, and apprenticeship programs.
 Encourage entrepreneurship and small business development to create opportunities for self-
employment and job creation.

Unemployment: Unemployment refers to the situation where individuals who are willing and able
to work are unable to find suitable employment. To tackle unemployment:
 Stimulate job creation through fiscal and monetary policies that promote investment,
innovation, and entrepreneurship.
 Provide temporary income support and social safety nets for unemployed individuals to help
them meet basic needs and transition back into the workforce.
 Invest in infrastructure projects, public works programs, and green initiatives that create
employment opportunities and contribute to long-term economic growth.
 Enhance labor market flexibility and mobility through training and re-skilling programs, job
search assistance, and geographic mobility support.

Non-employability: Non-employability refers to the lack of necessary skills, qualifications, or

attributes required by employers in the labor market. To address non-employability:
 Strengthen education and training systems to align with the needs of employers and the
demands of the labor market.

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  Enhance vocational education and skills development programs that provide practical, job-
relevant training and certifications.
 Foster partnerships between educational institutions, businesses, and industry associations to
co-design curricula, provide work-based learning opportunities, and facilitate job placements.
 Promote lifelong learning and continuous skill upgrading through adult education programs,
online courses, and professional development initiatives.

8.7. DIGITAL DIVIDE

The digital divide refers to the gap between those who have access to digital technologies and
the internet and those who do not. This gap can be influenced by factors such as socioeconomic
status, geographic location, education level, age, and disability. To address the digital divide, several
strategies can be implemented:
Infrastructure Development: Expand access to broadband internet infrastructure,
particularly in rural and underserved areas. This may involve government investment in
building physical infrastructure and incentivizing private sector involvement.
Affordable Connectivity: Reduce the cost of internet access and digital devices through
subsidies, discounts, or vouchers for low-income individuals and families. Encourage
competition among internet service providers to drive down prices and improve affordability.
Digital Literacy and Skills Training: Provide training programs and educational initiatives
to teach digital literacy skills to individuals who lack experience with technology. This
includes basic skills such as using computers and smartphones, navigating the internet, and
understanding online safety and privacy.
Access to Devices: Ensure that individuals have access to affordable digital devices such as
computers, smart phones, and tablets. This may involve government programs to provide
subsidized or free devices to disadvantaged populations, as well as initiatives to refurbish and
recycle older devices.
Community Access Points: Establish community centers, libraries, schools, and other public
spaces equipped with computers and internet access for individuals who do not have these
resources at home. These access points can serve as hubs for digital literacy training, online
job searching, and accessing government services.
Content Localization and Relevance: Develop and promote digital content that is relevant
to local communities, languages, and cultures. This can increase the appeal and accessibility

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 of digital technologies for individuals who may feel marginalized or excluded by mainstream
content.
Public-Private Partnerships: Foster collaboration between government, businesses, civil
society organizations, and community groups to address the digital divide collectively. This
may involve joint initiatives to expand infrastructure, provide training and resources, and
promote digital inclusion.
Policy and Regulation: Enact policies and regulations that promote universal access to
digital technologies and ensure that no one is left behind. This includes measures to address
barriers to access, promote competition, protect consumers, and safeguard digital rights and
privacy.

8.8. Privatization in Education

Privatization in education refers to the involvement of private entities, such as for-profit
companies or non-profit organizations, in the provision and management of educational services.
This can take various forms, including privately-owned schools, charter schools, voucher programs,
and privatization of educational support services like textbooks, testing, and teacher training. Here
are some key aspects and considerations regarding privatization in education:
Diversity of Models: Privatization in education can encompass a wide range of models, from fully
privatized schools that operate independently of government control to public-private partnerships
where private organizations collaborate with government entities to deliver education services.

Potential Benefits:
Innovation: Private schools may have more flexibility to experiment with innovative teaching
methods, curriculum designs, and educational technologies.
Choice: Privatization can expand options for parents and students by offering a variety of
educational models and approaches tailored to individual preferences and needs.
Efficiency: Some proponents argue that competition from private schools can incentivize public
schools to improve efficiency and effectiveness in order to retain students.

Challenges and Concerns:

Equity: Privatization can exacerbate educational inequities by diverting resources and attention
away from public schools, which serve a diverse student population including those with special
needs and disadvantaged backgrounds.

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Access: Privately-run schools may not be accessible to all students, particularly those from low-
income families who cannot afford tuition or transportation costs.
Accountability: Privatization can weaken accountability mechanisms and oversight, leading to
concerns about transparency, quality assurance, and adherence to educational standards.
Segregation: There is evidence to suggest that privatization can contribute to socio-economic and
racial segregation, as private schools may cater primarily to affluent or homogeneous communities.

Policy Implications:
Regulation: Governments must establish and enforce regulations to ensure that privatized education
services meet certain standards of quality, equity, and accountability.
Funding: Policy makers need to consider the allocation of public funding for education, including
issues related to vouchers, tax credits, and public subsidies for private schools.
Equity and Access: Policies should prioritize equitable access to education for all students,
regardless of their background or circumstances, and address disparities in resources and
opportunities between public and private schools.
Balancing Public and Private Roles: It is important to strike a balance between the benefits of
private sector involvement in education and the need to uphold the public interest in providing high-
quality, inclusive, and accessible education for all. This may involve establishing clear guidelines
and frameworks for public-private partnerships, fostering collaboration and knowledge-sharing
between public and private sectors, and ensuring that educational policies and practices are guided
by principles of social justice and equity.

8.9. COMMERSIALIZATION
Commercialization in education refers to the phenomenon where educational institutions,
services, or resources are influenced by market forces and profit motives. Here are some key aspects
and considerations regarding commercialization in education:
 For-Profit Schools: Commercialization often involves the operation of for-profit educational
institutions, where education is treated as a commodity and the primary goal is to generate
profit for shareholders or owners. These schools may charge tuition fees and operate based on
market principles of supply and demand.
 Corporate Influence: Commercialization can also manifest through partnerships and
collaborations between educational institutions and corporate entities. This may involve
sponsorship deals, advertising, or the provision of educational materials, technologies, or
services by corporations.

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  Marketization of Education: Commercialization contributes to the marketization of
education, where competition between schools and educational providers intensifies, and
educational choices become increasingly driven by consumer preferences, branding, and
marketing strategies.
 Costs and Fees: Commercialization can lead to the proliferation of additional costs and fees
associated with education, such as tuition fees, registration fees, exam fees, and fees for
extracurricular activities or educational materials. This can place financial burdens on
students and families, particularly those from low-income backgrounds.
 Inequality and Exclusion: Commercialization may exacerbate educational inequalities by
privileging those who can afford to pay for premium services or access to elite institutions,
while excluding marginalized and disadvantaged groups who lack the financial resources or
social capital to compete in the market-driven education system.
 Quality and Standards: There are concerns that commercialization may prioritize profit
over educational quality and standards, leading to the commodification of education and the
erosion of academic integrity, pedagogical innovation, and critical thinking skills.
 Regulation and Oversight: Governments and regulatory bodies play a crucial role in
overseeing and regulating commercialization in education to ensure that it does not
compromise educational values, ethics, or standards. This may involve establishing
guidelines, standards, and licensing requirements for educational providers, as well as
monitoring compliance and addressing violations.
 Ethical Considerations: Commercialization raises ethical considerations regarding the
commodification of knowledge, the privatization of public goods, and the role of education in
promoting social justice and equity. It is important to critically examine the implications of
commercialization on educational access, quality, and outcomes, and to advocate for policies
and practices that prioritize the public interest and the common good in education.

8.10. CHILD LABOR AND ENSURING CHILD RIGHTS

Child labor remains a significant global challenge, affecting millions of children worldwide
and violating their fundamental rights to education, health, and protection. Ensuring child rights and
combating child labor requires concerted efforts from governments, international organizations, civil
society, and communities. Here are some key strategies:
 Legal Frameworks and Enforcement: Governments should enact and enforce laws that
prohibit child labor and establish minimum age requirements for employment. Strengthening

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 legal frameworks and regulatory mechanisms helps deter employers from exploiting children
for labor and provides avenues for recourse for victims.
 Access to Education: Promoting access to quality education is crucial in preventing child
labor. Governments should invest in education infrastructure, provide free and compulsory
education up to a certain age, and implement programs to address barriers to school
enrollment, such as poverty, discrimination, and lack of resources.
 Poverty Alleviation: Child labor is often driven by poverty and economic vulnerability.
Efforts to combat child labor should be accompanied by comprehensive poverty alleviation
strategies that address the root causes of child labor, such as inequality, lack of access to
basic services, and limited economic opportunities for families.
 Social Protection: Implementing social protection programs, such as cash transfers, food
assistance, and healthcare services, can help vulnerable families meet their basic needs and
reduce their reliance on child labor as a means of survival. Social protection measures should
target households with children at risk of exploitation.
 Awareness and Advocacy: Raising awareness about the negative consequences of child
labor and advocating for children's rights are essential in mobilizing support and driving
action to eliminate child labor. Governments, civil society organizations, and the media play
crucial roles in educating the public and fostering a culture of respect for children's rights.
 Supply Chain Accountability: Businesses should uphold their responsibility to respect
human rights, including the rights of children, throughout their supply chains. Companies can
implement policies and due diligence processes to identify and address child labor risks,
promote ethical sourcing practices, and support sustainable livelihoods for communities.
 Community Empowerment: Engaging communities in efforts to combat child labor is
critical for sustainable change. Community-based interventions, such as vocational training
programs, income-generating activities, and child protection committees, empower families
to create safer and more supportive environments for children.
 Monitoring and Reporting: Establishing robust monitoring mechanisms and reporting
systems helps track progress in eliminating child labor, identify areas for intervention, and
hold governments and other stakeholders accountable for their commitments to child rights.
Independent monitoring by civil society organizations and international bodies can
complement government efforts.

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8.11. MALNUTRITION
Malnutrition refers to a condition where an individual's diet does not provide the necessary
nutrients for growth, development, and overall health. It can manifest in various forms, including
undernutrition, overnutrition, and micronutrient deficiencies. Addressing malnutrition requires a
multi-sectoral approach that encompasses healthcare, food security, education, and social protection.
Here are some key strategies:
Nutrition Education: Promoting nutrition education and awareness among communities,
families, and caregivers is essential for improving dietary practices and ensuring that
individuals have the knowledge and skills to make healthy food choices.
Promotion of Breastfeeding: Encouraging and supporting breastfeeding, particularly in the
first six months of life, provides infants with essential nutrients and antibodies for optimal
growth and development. Implementing policies and programs that promote breastfeeding-
friendly environments in healthcare facilities and workplaces can support breastfeeding
mothers.
Access to Nutritious Food: Ensuring access to a diverse and nutritious diet is critical for
preventing malnutrition. This includes promoting agricultural diversity, supporting
smallholder farmers, improving food distribution systems, and providing social safety nets
such as food assistance programs for vulnerable populations.
Micronutrient Supplementation: Addressing micronutrient deficiencies, such as vitamin A,
iron, and iodine deficiencies, through supplementation programs can help improve overall
health and prevent long-term health consequences associated with malnutrition.
Food Fortification: Implementing food fortification programs, where essential nutrients are
added to staple foods such as flour, salt, and cooking oil, can help address micronutrient
deficiencies at the population level and reach a large segment of the population.
Healthcare Services: Strengthening healthcare systems to provide preventive and curative
services for malnutrition, including screening, diagnosis, and treatment, is essential. This
includes training healthcare workers, establishing nutrition rehabilitation centers, and
integrating nutrition services into primary healthcare facilities.
Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene (WASH): Improving access to clean water, sanitation
facilities, and hygiene practices can help prevent diarrheal diseases and other infections that
contribute to malnutrition, particularly among children.

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 Early Childhood Development: Investing in early childhood development programs, such
as prenatal care, maternal nutrition, and early childhood education, can have long-term
benefits for children's growth, cognitive development, and future opportunities.
Policy and Advocacy: Enacting policies and regulations that support nutrition-sensitive
agriculture, food systems, and public health interventions is essential. Advocating for
nutrition as a priority on national and international agendas can help mobilize resources and
political commitment to address malnutrition effectively.
Monitoring and Evaluation: Establishing robust monitoring and evaluation systems to track
progress, identify gaps, and measure the impact of interventions is crucial for evidence-based
decision-making and accountability.

8.12. VALUE EDUCATION

Value education, also known as moral or character education, is the process of instilling core
values, ethics, and principles in individuals to help them develop into responsible, compassionate,
and ethical members of society. It encompasses teaching and nurturing values such as honesty,
respect, empathy, integrity, fairness, tolerance, and civic responsibility. Here are some key aspects of
value education:
 Curriculum Integration: Value education can be integrated into the formal education
curriculum at all levels, from early childhood education to higher education. It can be
incorporated into various subjects and taught through storytelling, discussions, role-playing,
and experiential learning activities.
 Role of Teachers: Teachers play a critical role in value education as role models and
facilitators of moral development. They can create a supportive and inclusive classroom
environment, model ethical behavior, and engage students in reflective discussions on moral
dilemmas and ethical issues.
 Parent and Community Involvement: Parents, families, and communities are important
partners in value education. They can reinforce the values taught in schools through positive
role modeling, open communication, and involvement in school-based activities and
initiatives that promote character development.
 Cultivation of Critical Thinking and Ethical Reasoning: Value education encourages
students to think critically about ethical issues and dilemmas, consider multiple perspectives,
and make informed and ethical decisions based on ethical principles and values.

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  Promotion of Social and Emotional Learning (SEL): Value education is closely linked to
social and emotional learning, which involves developing self-awareness, self-management,
social awareness, relationship skills, and responsible decision-making. SEL programs provide
students with the knowledge, skills, and attitudes needed to navigate social situations and
build positive relationships.
 Civic Engagement and Global Citizenship: Value education fosters a sense of civic
responsibility and global citizenship by promoting an understanding of human rights, social
justice, environmental sustainability, and cultural diversity. It encourages students to actively
participate in their communities and take action to address social issues and promote positive
change.
 Character Development and Resilience: Value education aims to cultivate positive character
traits such as resilience, perseverance, empathy, and integrity that enable individuals to face
challenges, overcome adversity, and make positive contributions to society.
 Assessment and Evaluation: Assessing the effectiveness of value education programs and
interventions requires a combination of qualitative and quantitative methods, including
observation, self-assessment, surveys, and standardized measures of moral reasoning and
ethical behavior.

8.13. Environmental education

Environmental education is a process of raising awareness and fostering understanding of
environmental issues, conservation principles, and sustainable practices. It aims to empower
individuals to make informed decisions and take responsible actions to protect the environment and
promote sustainability. Here are the key aspects of environmental education:
Objectives:
Raise awareness: Environmental education seeks to increase awareness about environmental issues,
including pollution, climate change, biodiversity loss, and resource depletion.
Foster understanding: It aims to deepen understanding of ecological principles, environmental
systems, and the interconnectedness of human activities and natural ecosystems.
Promote stewardship: Environmental education encourages individuals to take responsibility for
protecting and conserving natural resources, habitats, and biodiversity.
Encourage action: It motivates individuals to take action to address environmental challenges
through advocacy, community engagement, and sustainable lifestyle choices.

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Promote sustainability: Environmental education promotes the principles of sustainable
development, including balancing environmental, economic, and social considerations to meet the
needs of present and future generations.

Functions:
Formal education: Environmental education is integrated into formal education curricula at all
levels, from primary schools to universities, through subjects such as science, geography, and social
studies.
Non-formal education: It takes place outside the formal education system through community-
based programs, nature centers, environmental clubs, and educational campaigns.
Informal education: Environmental education occurs through informal learning experiences in
everyday life, such as outdoor activities, nature exploration, and environmental media.

Advantages:
Awareness and empowerment: Environmental education raises awareness about environmental
issues and empowers individuals to take action to protect the environment.
Conservation and sustainability: It promotes conservation practices and sustainable behaviors that
contribute to the preservation of natural resources and ecosystems.
Public engagement: Environmental education fosters public engagement and participation in
environmental decision-making processes, advocacy efforts, and community-based conservation
projects.
Health and well-being: Environmental education promotes a deeper connection to nature and
outdoor activities, which can improve physical and mental health and well-being.
Economic benefits: Sustainable practices promoted through environmental education can lead to
cost savings, resource efficiency, and the development of green industries and jobs.

Disadvantages:
Limited resources: Environmental education programs may face challenges due to limited funding,
staffing, and resources, which can impact their effectiveness and reach.
Complexity and uncertainty: Environmental issues are often complex and multifaceted, involving
scientific, social, economic, and political dimensions, which can make it challenging to address them
through education alone.

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Resistance and skepticism: Some individuals may be resistant to environmental messages or
skeptical of scientific evidence, which can hinder efforts to promote environmental awareness and
action.
Inequity and access: Environmental education initiatives may not reach all communities or address
the unique needs and perspectives of marginalized or underserved populations, leading to inequities
in access to environmental learning opportunities.
Long-term impact: Environmental education outcomes may take time to manifest, and their long-
term impact on behavior change and environmental stewardship may be difficult to measure or
evaluate.

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 UNIT 9: PROGRAMMES AND POLICIES
9.1. OPERATION BLACKBOARD SCHEME
Operation Blackboard is an educational program launched by the Government of India in
1987 with the aim of improving primary education across the country. The initiative was part of the
National Policy on Education, 1986, and was designed to enhance the quality of education in primary
schools, particularly in rural and underprivileged areas.

9.1.1 Objectives
Provision of Basic Facilities: Ensure that all primary schools have the minimum essential facilities
and infrastructure needed for effective teaching and learning.
Teacher Support: Improve the quality of teaching by providing schools with at least two teachers,
one of whom would be female, to ensure gender sensitivity.
Teaching Materials: Supply adequate teaching and learning materials to schools to make the
learning environment more engaging and effective.
Infrastructure Development: Develop school infrastructure, including classrooms, blackboards,
toilets, drinking water facilities, and playgrounds.

9.1.2. Components
Physical Infrastructure:
 Provision of at least two reasonably large classrooms and a verandah in every primary school.
 Availability of functional blackboards.
 Basic furniture for students and teachers.
 Provision of toilets and safe drinking water facilities.
Teaching and Learning Materials:
 Supply of teaching aids, such as charts, maps, and educational kits.
 Distribution of library books and learning materials suitable for young children.
 Human Resources:
 Appointment of at least two teachers per school to ensure a manageable student-teacher ratio
and effective classroom management.
 Focus on recruiting female teachers to promote gender equality and provide role models for
girl students.

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Training and Development:
 Regular training programs and professional development opportunities for teachers to
improve their teaching skills and stay updated with pedagogical advancements.

9.1.3. Advantages of Operation Blackboard

 Improved Learning Environment: Better infrastructure and teaching materials create a
conducive learning environment, enhancing student engagement and learning outcomes.
 Teacher Availability: Ensuring the presence of two teachers per school helps in better
classroom management and individualized attention to students.
 Gender Sensitivity: Recruiting female teachers encourages the enrollment and retention of
girl students, promoting gender equality in education.
 Holistic Development: Provision of playgrounds and extracurricular facilities supports the
overall development of children.

9.1.4. Challenges and Criticisms

 Implementation Gaps: In some areas, the implementation of the scheme faced challenges
due to administrative inefficiencies and lack of monitoring.
 Maintenance Issues: Ensuring the upkeep and maintenance of infrastructure and facilities
provided under the scheme was a persistent issue.
 Resource Allocation: Inadequate allocation and utilization of funds in some regions led to
disparities in the quality of facilities and resources provided.
 Teacher Training: Despite the focus on teacher recruitment, continuous professional
development and training of teachers remained insufficient in some areas.

9.2. MID-DAY MEALS

Mid-Day Meals is a government-sponsored program in India aimed at providing free,
nutritious meals to schoolchildren in government and government-aided schools. The program was
initiated to address malnutrition, increase school attendance, retention, and improve learning
outcomes among children, particularly those from disadvantaged backgrounds.
9.2.1. Features
 Nutritious Meals: The program provides hot, cooked meals to students during school hours,
typically consisting of staples like rice, lentils, vegetables, and fortified grains.

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SENTHIL COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, PUDUCHERRY – 605 110.
  Universal Coverage: Mid-Day Meals are provided to all children studying in classes I to
VIII in government and government-aided schools, irrespective of their socio-economic
background.
 Community Participation: Local communities, non-governmental organizations (NGOs),
and voluntary organizations often play a role in the preparation and distribution of meals.
 Health and Nutrition: The meals are designed to meet the nutritional requirements of
children, contributing to their overall health and well-being.
9.2.2. Challenges
Quality Control: Ensuring the quality and hygiene of the meals, including safe preparation,
storage, and distribution, remains a challenge.
Infrastructure: Inadequate kitchen facilities and infrastructure in some schools hinder the
efficient preparation and serving of meals.
Funding and Resources: Sustaining the program and securing adequate funding for the
procurement of ingredients and operational costs can be challenging.
Coordination: Coordination between various stakeholders, including government agencies,
schools, and implementing partners, is essential for effective implementation.
Social Issues: Issues like caste-based discrimination, irregular attendance, and dropout rates
still persist in some regions, impacting the effectiveness of the program.
9.2.3. Advantages
 Increased Attendance: Mid-Day Meals have been successful in increasing school
attendance and reducing dropout rates, particularly among children from marginalized
communities.
 Nutritional Support: The meals provide essential nutrients and calories, addressing
malnutrition and improving the overall health of children.
 Learning Outcomes: Proper nutrition contributes to better cognitive development,
concentration, and academic performance among students.
 Social Equity: The program promotes social inclusion by ensuring that all children,
regardless of their socio-economic status, have access to nutritious meals.
9.2.4. Disadvantages
 Dependency: Some critics argue that the provision of free meals may create a dependency
among families and discourage them from taking responsibility for their children's nutrition.

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  Logistical Challenges: Transportation and distribution logistics can be challenging,
especially in remote or rural areas with poor infrastructure.
 Quality Concerns: Instances of substandard quality, hygiene issues, and food poisoning
have been reported in some cases, raising concerns about the safety of the meals.
 Budget Constraints: Limited budget allocations and competing priorities in government
spending may affect the quality and coverage of the program.

9.3. THE DISTRICT PRIMARY EDUCATION PROGRAM - DPEP

The District Primary Education Program (DPEP) was a significant educational initiative
launched in India in 1994. It aimed to improve the quality of primary education in selected districts
across the country. DPEP was a centrally sponsored program implemented with the support of the
World Bank and other international agencies, as well as state governments and local communities.

9.3.1. Objectives of DPEP:

 Universal Access to Education: Ensuring that all children have access to primary education,
particularly those from marginalized and disadvantaged communities.
 Improvement of Quality: Enhancing the quality of teaching and learning in primary schools
through teacher training, curriculum development, and the provision of educational materials.
 Community Participation: Involving local communities, parents, and stakeholders in the
planning, implementation, and monitoring of educational initiatives.
 Equity and Social Inclusion: Addressing disparities in access to education based on gender,
socio-economic status, and geographical location.
 Innovative Approaches: Promoting innovative teaching methods, child-centered pedagogy,
and the use of technology to enhance learning outcomes.

9.3.2. Components of DPEP:

 Capacity Building: Training teachers and educational administrators to improve their skills
and competencies.
 Curriculum Development: Designing and implementing contextually relevant and child-
friendly curriculum materials.
 Infrastructure Development: Upgrading school infrastructure, including classrooms,
libraries, and sanitation facilities.
 Community Mobilization: Engaging local communities and parents in school management,
monitoring, and support.

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SENTHIL COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, PUDUCHERRY – 605 110.
  Monitoring and Evaluation: Establishing mechanisms for monitoring and evaluating the
progress and effectiveness of educational interventions.

9.3.3. Impact and Evaluation:

DPEP was evaluated through various studies and assessments to measure its impact on educational
outcomes. Some of the key findings include:
 Increased Enrollment: DPEP contributed to a significant increase in primary school
enrollment, particularly among marginalized and disadvantaged groups.
 Improved Learning Outcomes: While the impact on learning outcomes varied across
districts, there were improvements in student achievement, particularly in basic literacy and
numeracy skills.
 Enhanced Teacher Performance: Teacher training programs under DPEP led to
improvements in teacher effectiveness and classroom practices.
 Community Empowerment: The program fostered greater community participation and
empowerment in education governance and decision-making.

9.3.4. Challenges and Limitations:

Sustainability: The sustainability of DPEP initiatives beyond the project period was a
challenge, as many interventions relied heavily on external funding and support.
Equity Issues: Despite efforts to address disparities, some marginalized communities
continued to face barriers to accessing quality education.
Quality Assurance: Ensuring the quality and effectiveness of educational interventions
remained a challenge, particularly in remote and underserved areas.
Coordination: Coordination between various stakeholders and levels of government was
sometimes lacking, leading to duplication of efforts and inefficiencies.

9.4. THE SARVA SHIKSHA ABHIYAN (SSA)

The Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA) is one of India's flagship programs for universalizing
elementary education. Launched in 2001, SSA is a nationwide initiative aimed at providing quality
elementary education to all children in the age group of 6-14 years. It is implemented as a
partnership between the central government, state governments, and local communities.

9.4.1. Objectives of SSA:

 Universal Access: Ensuring that all children have access to free and compulsory education
up to the elementary level.

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SENTHIL COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, PUDUCHERRY – 605 110.
  Equity and Inclusion: Addressing disparities in access to education based on gender, socio-
economic status, caste, religion, and geographic location.
 Quality Improvement: Enhancing the quality of education through improvements in
infrastructure, teacher training, curriculum development, and pedagogical practices.
 Retention and Transition: Improving retention rates and facilitating the transition of
children from primary to upper primary levels of education.
 Community Participation: Involving local communities, parents, and stakeholders in the
planning, implementation, and monitoring of educational initiatives.

9.4.2. Components of SSA:

Infrastructure Development: Upgrading school infrastructure, including the construction of
classrooms, toilets, drinking water facilities, and boundary walls.
Teacher Recruitment and Training: Recruiting additional teachers to reduce pupil-teacher
ratios and providing in-service training to enhance teacher effectiveness.
Curriculum and Pedagogy: Developing contextually relevant and child-centered curriculum
materials and promoting innovative teaching methods.
Quality Monitoring and Assessment: Establishing mechanisms for monitoring and
assessing the quality and effectiveness of educational interventions.
Community Mobilization: Engaging local communities, parents, and School Management
Committees (SMCs) in school governance and support.

9.4.3. Achievements of SSA:

 Increased Enrollment: SSA has contributed to a significant increase in primary school
enrollment rates, particularly among marginalized and disadvantaged groups.
 Improved Infrastructure: The program has led to the construction of thousands of new
schools and the improvement of existing school infrastructure across the country.
 Teacher Development: SSA has facilitated the recruitment and training of a large number of
teachers, improving teacher quality and effectiveness.
 Focus on Girls' Education: SSA has emphasized the importance of girls' education and
implemented measures to reduce gender disparities in enrollment and retention.

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SENTHIL COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, PUDUCHERRY – 605 110.
9.4.4. Challenges and Limitations:
 Quality Concerns: Despite improvements in access, concerns remain about the quality of
education provided under SSA, including issues related to teacher absenteeism, learning
outcomes, and curriculum relevance.
 Equity Issues: Disparities in access to education persist, particularly in remote and
underserved areas, and among marginalized communities such as scheduled castes, scheduled
tribes, and children with disabilities.
 Resource Constraints: Limited funding and resources pose challenges to the effective
implementation of SSA initiatives, especially in states with high population densities and
limited fiscal capacities.
 Coordination and Governance: Coordination between various stakeholders and levels of
government, as well as governance and accountability mechanisms, need to be strengthened
to ensure the efficient and effective implementation of SSA.

9.5. The Rashtriya Madhyamik Shiksha Abhiyan (RMSA)

The Rashtriya Madhyamik Shiksha Abhiyan (RMSA) is a centrally sponsored scheme
launched by the Government of India in 2009 with the aim of enhancing access to secondary
education and improving its quality across the country. RMSA is an extension of the Sarva Shiksha
Abhiyan (SSA), which focuses on primary education. RMSA targets students in the age group of 14-
18 years, covering classes 9th to 12th.

9.5.1. Objectives of RMSA:

 Universal Access: Ensuring that all students have access to secondary education by
expanding the reach of secondary schools, especially in underserved and remote areas.
 Improvement of Quality: Enhancing the quality of secondary education through
infrastructure development, teacher training, curriculum revision, and pedagogical reforms.
 Equity and Inclusion: Addressing disparities in access to secondary education based on
gender, socio-economic status, caste, religion, and geographic location.
 Vocationalization: Promoting vocational education and skill development to prepare
students for employment and entrepreneurship.
 Innovations and Best Practices: Encouraging innovative teaching methods, ICT integration,
and the adoption of best practices in secondary education.

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SENTHIL COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, PUDUCHERRY – 605 110.
9.5.2. Components of RMSA:
 Infrastructure Development: Upgrading and strengthening infrastructure in existing
secondary schools, including the construction of additional classrooms, laboratories, libraries,
and other facilities.
 Teacher Recruitment and Training: Recruiting additional teachers and providing them
with in-service training to enhance their pedagogical skills and subject knowledge.
 Curriculum Reforms: Reviewing and revising the secondary school curriculum to make it
more relevant, learner-centered, and aligned with the needs of the 21st century.
 Vocational Education: Introducing vocational courses and skill development programs to
equip students with employable skills and entrepreneurial capabilities.
 Equity Initiatives: Implementing special initiatives to promote access to secondary
education among marginalized and disadvantaged groups, including girls, scheduled castes,
scheduled tribes, and children with disabilities.

9.5.3. Achievements of RMSA:

1. Expansion of Secondary Education: RMSA has contributed to the expansion of secondary
education infrastructure, leading to an increase in the number of secondary schools and
enrollment rates.
2. Improvement in Quality: Efforts under RMSA to enhance teacher quality, curriculum
relevance, and infrastructure have resulted in improvements in the quality of secondary
education.
3. Skill Development: The emphasis on vocational education and skill development has
equipped students with practical skills and enhanced their employability.
4. Innovations in Teaching-Learning: RMSA initiatives have encouraged the adoption of
innovative teaching methods, ICT integration, and the sharing of best practices among
secondary schools.

9.5.4. Challenges and Limitations:

1. Resource Constraints: Limited funding and resources pose challenges to the effective
implementation of RMSA initiatives, especially in states with high population densities and
limited fiscal capacities.
2. Quality Assurance: Despite improvements, concerns remain about the quality of secondary
education, including issues related to teacher absenteeism, learning outcomes, and curriculum
relevance.

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ASSISTANT PROFESSOR OF PHYSICAL SCIENCE,
SENTHIL COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, PUDUCHERRY – 605 110.
 3. Equity Issues: Disparities in access to secondary education persist, particularly in remote
and underserved areas, and among marginalized communities such as girls, scheduled castes,
scheduled tribes, and children with disabilities.
4. Skill Mismatch: There is a need to ensure that vocational education programs under RMSA
are aligned with the demands of the job market and industry requirements to avoid a
mismatch between skills acquired and employment opportunities.

9.6. MAHILA SAMAKHYA (MS)

Mahila Samakhya (MS) is a women's empowerment program launched in India in 1988. The
program aims to empower women, particularly those from marginalized and disadvantaged
communities, by enhancing their participation in education, decision-making processes, and socio-
economic activities. Mahila Samakhya operates under the Ministry of Human Resource
Development (MHRD) and is implemented in several states across the country.

9.6.1. Objectives of Mahila Samakhya:

Women's Education: Promoting women's education and literacy, with a focus on non-formal
and continuing education for women and girls.
Gender Equality: Working towards gender equality and women's empowerment by
challenging traditional gender roles and norms.
Community Mobilization: Mobilizing and organizing women's groups and collectives to
address issues related to gender discrimination, violence against women, and access to
resources.
Capacity Building: Building the capacities of women and women's organizations to
participate effectively in decision-making processes at various levels.
Livelihood Support: Providing training, skills development, and support for income-
generating activities to enhance women's economic empowerment and livelihood
opportunities.

9.6.2. Components of Mahila Samakhya:

 Women's Education Centers (WECs): Establishing Women's Education Centers at the
grassroots level to provide non-formal education, literacy classes, vocational training, and life
skills education for women and girls.

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SENTHIL COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, PUDUCHERRY – 605 110.
  Community Participation: Promoting women's participation in community-level planning,
decision-making, and development processes through self-help groups, women's collectives,
and community-based organizations.
 Awareness and Advocacy: Conducting awareness campaigns, workshops, and advocacy
activities to raise awareness about women's rights, gender issues, and legal entitlements.
 Capacity Building: Building the capacities of women leaders, trainers, and facilitators to
implement empowerment programs effectively and sustainably.
 Research and Documentation: Conducting research and documentation on issues related to
women's empowerment, gender equality, and women's participation in development
processes.

9.6.3. Achievements of Mahila Samakhya:

 Increased Women's Participation: Mahila Samakhya has contributed to increased women's
participation in education, decision-making, and community development processes.
 Improved Literacy Rates: The program has led to improvements in women's literacy rates
and educational attainment, particularly among marginalized and disadvantaged
communities.
 Empowerment of Women Leaders: Mahila Samakhya has empowered women leaders and
activists to advocate for their rights, challenge gender norms, and address issues of social
injustice and inequality.
 Livelihood Opportunities: The program has provided women with opportunities for skills
development, income generation, and economic self-sufficiency through vocational training
and livelihood support.

9.6.4. Challenges and Limitations:

1. Sustainability: Ensuring the sustainability of Mahila Samakhya initiatives beyond the project
period remains a challenge, particularly in the absence of sustained funding and institutional
support.
2. Gender Norms and Patriarchy: Challenging deeply entrenched gender norms, attitudes,
and patriarchy requires long-term and multi-faceted interventions.
3. Resource Constraints: Limited funding and resources pose challenges to the effective
implementation and scale-up of Mahila Samakhya initiatives, particularly in resource-
constrained settings.

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SENTHIL COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, PUDUCHERRY – 605 110.
 4. Intersectionality: Addressing the intersecting forms of discrimination and oppression faced
by marginalized women, including caste-based discrimination, poverty, disability, and ethnic
marginalization, requires a holistic and intersectional approach.

Mahila Samakhya, being a program focused on women's empowerment and education, has been
influenced by various commissions and committees that have made significant recommendations in
these areas. Some of the key recommendations from such commissions and committees include:

 National Policy for Empowerment of Women, 2001: This policy document outlined
various strategies and recommendations for the empowerment of women in India. It
emphasized the need for education and skill development programs targeted at women, as
well as measures to enhance their participation in decision-making processes.
 National Commission for Women (NCW): The NCW has made numerous
recommendations over the years to address issues related to women's education,
empowerment, and rights. These recommendations often focus on legislative reforms, policy
initiatives, and awareness campaigns to promote gender equality and women's empowerment.
 Kasturirangan Committee Report on National Education Policy, 2019: The
Kasturirangan Committee report proposed significant reforms in the education sector,
including recommendations to promote gender equality and women's empowerment. It
emphasized the importance of inclusive and equitable education systems that address the
specific needs of women and girls, particularly in marginalized and disadvantaged
communities.
 National Commission for Protection of Child Rights (NCPCR): The NCPCR has made
recommendations to improve access to education for girls, prevent child marriage, and
address gender-based violence in schools. These recommendations aim to create a safe and
supportive environment for girls to access quality education and pursue their aspirations.
 Sachar Committee Report, 2006: The Sachar Committee report focused on the social,
economic, and educational status of Muslims in India. It highlighted the need to address
disparities in education among different social and religious groups, including
recommendations to improve access to education for Muslim women and girls.
 National Policy on Education (NPE), 1968 and 1986: The NPE outlined various policy
measures and recommendations to promote women's education and empowerment. It
emphasized the importance of universalizing elementary education, reducing gender

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ASSISTANT PROFESSOR OF PHYSICAL SCIENCE,
SENTHIL COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, PUDUCHERRY – 605 110.
 disparities in education, and promoting women's participation in vocational and technical
education.
9.7. NATIONAL POLICY ON EDUCATION, 1986 & 1992
The National Policy on Education (NPE) in India was first formulated in 1986 and later
revised in 1992. These policies aimed at addressing the educational needs of the country and
promoting inclusivity, quality, and accessibility in education. Here’s an overview of the key features
and objectives of both the 1986 policy and the 1992 modifications:
9.7.1. National Policy on Education 1986
Universal Access and Enrollment:
 The policy emphasized universal access to education and aimed at reducing drop-out rates,
especially at the primary and secondary levels.
 It proposed the establishment of a school within a walking distance of every child.
Equity and Social Justice:
 The policy aimed to promote the education of marginalized groups, including Scheduled
Castes (SCs), Scheduled Tribes (STs), and women.
 Special focus on removing disparities and providing equal educational opportunities for all.
Quality of Education:
 Emphasis on improving the quality of education at all levels through curriculum reform,
teacher training, and infrastructural development.
 Introduction of a common curriculum for all schools, which included a core component to
promote national integration.
Vocationalization:
 Expansion of vocational education to develop skills and employment opportunities for
students not pursuing higher education.
 Integration of vocational training programs at the secondary and higher secondary levels.
Higher Education and Research:
 Strengthening higher education institutions and promoting research and innovation.
 Establishment of a network of rural universities and open universities to increase access to
higher education.
Adult Education:
 The policy proposed a national literacy mission to achieve universal adult literacy.

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ASSISTANT PROFESSOR OF PHYSICAL SCIENCE,
SENTHIL COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, PUDUCHERRY – 605 110.
  Programs for adult and continuing education, especially targeting women and disadvantaged
groups.
Teacher Education:
 Improvement in the quality of teacher education through enhanced training programs and
professional development opportunities.
 Establishment of District Institutes of Education and Training (DIETs) for providing training
and support to teachers.
Use of Technology:
 Encouragement of the use of educational technology, including radio, television, and
computers, to improve the quality and reach of education.

9.7.2. National Policy on Education 1992 (Modifications)

The 1992 modifications to the 1986 policy were made to address emerging challenges and to build
on the progress made since the original policy. The key aspects of the modifications include:
Decentralization:
 Greater emphasis on decentralizing educational administration and management to improve
efficiency and responsiveness.
 Encouragement of local participation in the management of schools.
Strengthening of the National System of Education:
 Reaffirmation of the 10+2+3 structure of education (10 years of primary and secondary
education, 2 years of higher secondary, and 3 years of higher education).
 Reinforcement of the common core curriculum with flexibility for local variations.
Operational Strategies:
 Implementation of Operation Blackboard to provide minimum essential facilities in primary
schools.
 Launch of the District Primary Education Programme (DPEP) to universalize primary
education and improve its quality.
Women’s Education:
 Enhanced focus on promoting the education of girls and women, including incentives and
support services.
 Introduction of special programs and schemes to reduce the gender gap in education.
Secondary Education:
 Efforts to improve access, equity, and quality in secondary education.

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ASSISTANT PROFESSOR OF PHYSICAL SCIENCE,
SENTHIL COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, PUDUCHERRY – 605 110.
  Introduction of measures to reduce drop-out rates and increase retention.
Higher and Technical Education:
 Measures to improve the quality and relevance of higher and technical education.
 Encouragement of private participation in higher education while ensuring quality standards.
Educational Technology:
 Increased use of information and communication technology (ICT) in education.
 Development of educational software and digital resources to enhance learning experiences.
Inclusive Education:
 Inclusion of children with special needs in mainstream education.
 Development of special programs and support services for differently-abled children.

10. THE RIGHT TO EDUCATION (RTE) ACT 2009.

The Right to Education (RTE) Act, formally known as the Right of Children to Free and
Compulsory Education Act, was enacted in India in August 2009 and came into effect on April 1,
2010. The RTE Act represents a landmark legislation in India's educational policy, aimed at ensuring
that every child has access to quality education. Here are the key features of the RTE Act:

Right to Free and Compulsory Education:

 Every child in the age group of 6 to 14 years has the right to free and compulsory education
in a neighborhood school until the completion of elementary education.
 The government is obligated to ensure this provision without charging any fee.
Responsibilities of the Government:
 The Central and State Governments are required to ensure adequate infrastructure, including
proper school buildings, qualified teachers, and sufficient learning resources.
 Schools must comply with the norms and standards laid out by the Act.
Neighborhood Schools:
 Children should have access to schools within a reasonable distance from their homes.
 The Act encourages the establishment of schools in under-served areas.
Admission and Non-Discrimination:
 Children are entitled to admission to age-appropriate classes and should not be held back or
expelled until the completion of elementary education.
 The Act prohibits discrimination on any grounds, ensuring that children from disadvantaged
and economically weaker sections are not denied access to education.

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Private Schools’ Obligations:
 Private schools are required to reserve 25% of their seats for children from economically
weaker sections and disadvantaged groups, ensuring inclusivity.
Curriculum and Evaluation:
 The curriculum must be consistent with the values enshrined in the Constitution and
emphasize child-centered and child-friendly education.
 Continuous and comprehensive evaluation is recommended instead of traditional
examinations.
Teachers' Qualifications and Working Conditions:
 The Act mandates minimum qualifications for teachers and their professional development.
 It also regulates the pupil-teacher ratio and working hours for teachers to ensure effective
teaching and learning processes.
Monitoring and Grievance Redressal:
 The National Commission for Protection of Child Rights (NCPCR) and State Commissions
for Protection of Child Rights (SCPCR) are tasked with monitoring the implementation of the
Act.
 The Act provides mechanisms for redressal of grievances related to the implementation of the
RTE.

M.CHINNADURAI, M.Sc., M.Ed., M.Phil., SET., Page 145

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR OF PHYSICAL SCIENCE,
SENTHIL COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, PUDUCHERRY – 605 110.
 UNIT 10: INITIATIVES FOR EDUCATIONAL
DEVELOPMENT IN INDIA
10.0. INTRODUCTION
The publication of dispatches and the implementation of policies are two critical elements in
the functioning of governments and organizations. Here's a detailed breakdown of each aspect and
how they relate to each other:
10.1. PUBLICATION OF DISPATCHES
Dispatches refer to official reports or messages sent by a person in authority, such as a diplomat,
military officer, or government official, to their superiors. The publication of these dispatches can
serve several purposes:
 Transparency: Publishing dispatches can promote transparency, allowing the public to
understand the actions and decisions of their government or organization. This can enhance
trust and accountability.
 Historical Record: Dispatches provide a historical record of events, decisions, and
communications. They are valuable for historians, researchers, and policy analysts.
 Policy Justification: Publishing dispatches can help justify policies by providing the context
and rationale behind decisions. This can be particularly important in democratic societies
where public support and understanding are crucial.
 Communication: Dispatches often contain critical information that needs to be
communicated to multiple stakeholders, including other government agencies, international
bodies, and the public.

10.2. IMPLEMENTATION OF POLICIES

Policy Implementation refers to the execution of a plan or decision by government or
organizational authorities. This involves several key steps:
 Planning: Detailed planning to determine the steps required to implement the policy,
including resource allocation, timelines, and responsibilities.
 Communication: Effective communication strategies to inform all stakeholders about the
policy, its goals, and its implementation process. This can include publishing dispatches,
press releases, and other forms of communication.

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ASSISTANT PROFESSOR OF PHYSICAL SCIENCE,
SENTHIL COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, PUDUCHERRY – 605 110.
  Execution: Carrying out the actions necessary to implement the policy. This might involve
legislative changes, administrative adjustments, and the coordination of various departments
and agencies.
 Monitoring and Evaluation: Regular monitoring to ensure the policy is being implemented
as planned and evaluating its effectiveness. Adjustments may be made based on feedback and
changing circumstances.
 Feedback and Adjustment: Gathering feedback from stakeholders and making necessary
adjustments to improve the policy's effectiveness and address any issues that arise during
implementation.

10.3. RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PUBLICATION OF DISPATCHES and

IMPLEMENTATION OF POLICIES
The publication of dispatches can play a crucial role in the implementation of policies in several
ways:
Informing Stakeholders: Dispatches can inform stakeholders about new policies, the
reasons behind them, and how they will be implemented. This helps ensure that everyone is
on the same page.
Documenting Progress: Regular dispatches can document the progress of policy
implementation, highlight successes, and identify challenges. This information can be used to
adjust the policy and its implementation as needed.
Ensuring Accountability: By publishing dispatches, authorities can demonstrate their
commitment to transparency and accountability, showing that they are following through on
their promises and plans.
Engaging the Public: Dispatches can be used to engage the public, gather feedback, and
build support for policies. Public engagement is often crucial for the successful
implementation of policies, especially in democratic societies.

10.4. FIVE YEAR PLAN (1951-1956)

Education has consistently been a priority in India’s Five Year Plans, evolving with the
changing needs and goals of the nation. Here is a detailed look at how education has been addressed
in each Five Year Plan:

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ASSISTANT PROFESSOR OF PHYSICAL SCIENCE,
SENTHIL COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, PUDUCHERRY – 605 110.
10.4.1. First Five Year Plan (1951-1956)
Focus: Establishing the foundations for education.
Functions:
 Emphasis on expanding primary education.
 Increase in the number of schools and teachers.
 Improvement in infrastructure and educational materials.

10.4.2. Second Five Year Plan (1956-1961)

Focus: Supporting industrialization with skilled manpower.
Functions:
 Expansion of technical and vocational education.
 Establishment of higher education institutions and polytechnics.
 Introduction of agricultural and industrial training programs.

10.4.3. Third Five Year Plan (1961-1966)

Focus: Comprehensive educational development.
Functions:
 Strengthening of higher education and research institutions.
 Expansion of secondary education.
 Increased focus on teacher training and educational quality.

10.4.4. Fourth Five Year Plan (1969-1974)

Focus: Qualitative improvement in education.
Functions:
 Introduction of non-formal education to reach out-of-school children.
 Expansion of adult education and literacy programs.
 Emphasis on science and technology education.

10.4.5. Fifth Five Year Plan (1974-1979)

Focus: Basic education and literacy.
Functions:
 Implementation of the Minimum Needs Programme (MNP) to provide basic educational
facilities.
 Expansion of elementary education.
 Introduction of adult education programs to increase literacy rates.

M.CHINNADURAI, M.Sc., M.Ed., M.Phil., SET., Page 148

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR OF PHYSICAL SCIENCE,
SENTHIL COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, PUDUCHERRY – 605 110.
10.4.6. Sixth Five Year Plan (1980-1985)
Focus: Universalization of elementary education.
Functions:
 Focus on ensuring all children have access to elementary education.
 Improvement of educational facilities for marginalized communities.
 Development of curriculum and textbooks to enhance educational quality.

10.4.7. Seventh Five Year Plan (1985-1990)

Focus: Quality and vocational education.
Functions:
 Strengthening of vocational training and technical education.
 Improvement in the quality of education at all levels.
 Expansion of higher education and research facilities.

10.4.8. Eighth Five Year Plan (1992-1997)

Focus: Human development and literacy.
Functions:
 Launch of the District Primary Education Programme (DPEP) to universalize primary
education.
 Focus on improving literacy rates.
 Enhancement of higher education quality and infrastructure.

10.4.9. Ninth Five Year Plan (1997-2002)

Focus: Social justice and equity in education.
Functions:
 Expansion of primary and secondary education.
 Strengthening of technical and vocational education.
 Special focus on education for disadvantaged groups.

10.4.10. Tenth Five Year Plan (2002-2007)

Focus: Education for all.
Functions:
 Universalization of elementary education through Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA).
 Improvement in teacher training and educational quality.
 Expansion of secondary and higher education.

M.CHINNADURAI, M.Sc., M.Ed., M.Phil., SET., Page 149

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR OF PHYSICAL SCIENCE,
SENTHIL COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, PUDUCHERRY – 605 110.
10.4.11. Eleventh Five Year Plan (2007-2012)
Focus: Inclusive growth in education.
Functions:
 Implementation of the Rashtriya Madhyamik Shiksha Abhiyan (RMSA) to enhance
secondary education.
 Focus on skill development and vocational training.
 Strengthening higher education institutions and promoting research.

10.4.12. Twelfth Five Year Plan (2012-2017)

Focus: Access, equity, and quality in education.
Functions:
 Improving access to education for all sections of society.
 Enhancing the quality of education through teacher training and curriculum development.
 Promoting higher education, research, and innovation.

10.4.13. Importance of Education in India’s Development

 Economic Growth: Education creates a skilled workforce, drives innovation, and enhances
productivity.
 Social Equity: Education promotes social mobility, reduces inequalities, and empowers
marginalized communities.
 Poverty Alleviation: Educated individuals are more likely to secure better jobs and improve
their economic status.
 Health Outcomes: Educated populations tend to have better health and make informed
health decisions.
 Demographic Benefits: Education, especially for women, leads to lower fertility rates and
improved family planning.
 Democratic Participation: Education fosters informed and active participation in
democratic processes.

10.5. ROLE OF EDUCATION IN COMMUNITY MOBILISATION

Education plays a crucial role in community mobilization by empowering individuals,
fostering social cohesion, and driving collective action towards common goals. Here's an in-depth
look at the role of education in community mobilization:

M.CHINNADURAI, M.Sc., M.Ed., M.Phil., SET., Page 150

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR OF PHYSICAL SCIENCE,
SENTHIL COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, PUDUCHERRY – 605 110.
10.5.1. Empowerment and Capacity Building
Empowerment:
 Education equips individuals with knowledge and skills, boosting their confidence to
participate in community activities.
 It helps people understand their rights and responsibilities, enabling them to advocate for
themselves and their communities.
Capacity Building:
 Educated community members are better equipped to take on leadership roles.
 Training programs and educational workshops enhance the capacity of community members
to organize and implement initiatives.

10.5.2. Raising Awareness and Changing Attitudes

Awareness:
 Education raises awareness about important issues such as health, environmental
sustainability, and social justice.
 It provides information on available resources, services, and opportunities within the
community.
Attitude Change:
 Through education, individuals can challenge and change harmful cultural norms and
stereotypes.
 It promotes critical thinking and openness to new ideas, fostering progressive attitudes.

10.5.3. Social Cohesion and Networking

Social Cohesion:
 Education fosters a sense of community by bringing people together in schools, workshops,
and community centers.
 Shared educational experiences create bonds among community members, enhancing
solidarity.
Networking:
 Educational initiatives often involve collaboration with various stakeholders, creating
networks that can be mobilized for community projects.
 Educated individuals are more likely to engage in networking, building alliances that can
support community mobilization efforts.

M.CHINNADURAI, M.Sc., M.Ed., M.Phil., SET., Page 151

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR OF PHYSICAL SCIENCE,
SENTHIL COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, PUDUCHERRY – 605 110.
10.5.4. Facilitating Communication and Information Dissemination
Effective Communication:
 Education enhances communication skills, enabling individuals to articulate their needs,
ideas, and concerns effectively.
 It promotes the use of modern communication tools and platforms, facilitating information
sharing within the community.
Information Dissemination:
 Educated individuals can help disseminate information about community issues and
mobilization efforts.
 They can create and distribute educational materials, conduct seminars, and use social media
to reach a broader audience.

10.5.5. Driving Economic and Social Development

Economic Development:
 Education improves employability, leading to higher incomes and economic stability within
the community.
 Economic empowerment through education reduces dependency and increases the
community's ability to fund and sustain mobilization efforts.
Social Development:
 Education promotes social equity by providing opportunities for all community members,
regardless of background.
 It encourages civic engagement and participation in democratic processes, strengthening
community governance.

10.5.6. Fostering Innovation and Problem-Solving

Innovation:
 Education encourages creative thinking and innovation, essential for addressing community
challenges.
 Educated individuals are more likely to develop and implement new solutions to local
problems.
Problem-Solving:
 Through education, community members acquire critical thinking and problem-solving skills.
 These skills are crucial for identifying issues, developing action plans, and executing
community projects effectively.

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ASSISTANT PROFESSOR OF PHYSICAL SCIENCE,
SENTHIL COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, PUDUCHERRY – 605 110.
10.5.7. Case Studies and Examples
 Health Education Campaigns: Community health education programs, such as those
focusing on hygiene and disease prevention, mobilize communities to improve public health
outcomes.
 Environmental Education: Environmental education initiatives raise awareness about
sustainable practices, leading to community efforts to protect and conserve local resources.
 Adult Literacy Programs: Adult literacy programs empower individuals with reading and
writing skills, enabling them to participate more fully in community activities and decision-
making.
 Youth Engagement: Educational programs targeting youth can mobilize young people to
engage in community service, leadership development, and social change projects.

10.6. INTEGRATION OF SCHOOL AND COMMUNITY WORK– ROLE AND

RESPONSIBILITIES OF TEACHER
Integrating school and community work involves creating a seamless connection between the
educational environment and the local community, enhancing learning experiences, and fostering
community development. Teachers play a pivotal role in this integration, with specific
responsibilities and roles that contribute to the success of these efforts. Here's a detailed look at the
roles and responsibilities of teachers in integrating school and community work:

10.6.1. Roles and Responsibilities of Teachers

10.6.1.1. Facilitator of Learning
Role: Teachers act as facilitators who guide students in connecting their classroom learning with
real-world community issues.
Responsibilities:
 Design and implement curriculum projects that address local community needs.
 Encourage experiential learning through community service projects and local field trips.
 Incorporate community-based problem-solving activities into lesson plans.

10.6.1.2. Community Liaison

Role: Teachers serve as a bridge between the school and the community, fostering partnerships and
collaboration.

M.CHINNADURAI, M.Sc., M.Ed., M.Phil., SET., Page 153

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR OF PHYSICAL SCIENCE,
SENTHIL COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, PUDUCHERRY – 605 110.
Responsibilities:
 Establish and maintain relationships with community organizations, local businesses, and
government agencies.
 Organize community events, workshops, and meetings to engage students, parents, and
community members.
 Collaborate with community leaders to identify opportunities for student involvement in local
projects.

10.6.1.3. Advocate for Students

Role: Teachers advocate for their students' involvement and success in community projects.
Responsibilities:
 Identify and promote opportunities for students to participate in community service and
development activities.
 Support students in developing the skills and confidence needed to engage with the
community effectively.
 Advocate for resources and support from the school administration and community partners
to facilitate student participation.

10.6.1.4. Curriculum Developer

Role: Teachers integrate community issues and resources into the curriculum to create meaningful
learning experiences.
Responsibilities:
 Develop interdisciplinary units that incorporate community-based projects and real-life
applications.
 Utilize local history, culture, and issues as a context for teaching various subjects.
 Create assessment tools that evaluate students' understanding and engagement with
community work.

10.6.1.5. Mentor and Role Model

Role: Teachers model active citizenship and community involvement for their students.
Responsibilities:
 Participate in community service and development activities, demonstrating the importance
of civic engagement.

M.CHINNADURAI, M.Sc., M.Ed., M.Phil., SET., Page 154

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR OF PHYSICAL SCIENCE,
SENTHIL COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, PUDUCHERRY – 605 110.
  Mentor students in developing their own community projects, providing guidance and
support throughout the process.
 Share personal experiences and stories related to community work to inspire students.

10.6.1.6. Coordinator of Volunteer Efforts

Role: Teachers coordinate and manage student volunteer activities and community service projects.
Responsibilities:
 Organize and supervise volunteer opportunities for students within the community.
 Ensure that volunteer activities are safe, meaningful, and aligned with educational objectives.
 Facilitate reflection sessions where students can discuss and analyze their volunteer
experiences.

10.6.1.7. Cultural Broker

Role: Teachers help students navigate and appreciate the cultural diversity within their community.
Responsibilities:
 Promote cultural awareness and sensitivity through classroom discussions and community
interactions.
 Facilitate cultural exchange programs and events that celebrate the community's diversity.
 Address cultural and social barriers that may hinder student participation in community
activities.

10.6.1.8. Evaluator and Reflective Practitioner

Role: Teachers assess the effectiveness of community integration initiatives and continuously seek
improvement.
Responsibilities:
 Evaluate the impact of community projects on student learning and development.
 Collect feedback from students, parents, and community members to inform future projects.
 Reflect on their own practices and experiences, seeking professional development
opportunities to enhance their role in community integration.

10.6.2. Benefits of Integrating School and Community Work

 Enhanced Learning: Students gain practical, hands-on experience that reinforces classroom
learning.
 Community Development: Schools contribute to local development through student-led
projects and initiatives.

M.CHINNADURAI, M.Sc., M.Ed., M.Phil., SET., Page 155

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR OF PHYSICAL SCIENCE,
SENTHIL COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, PUDUCHERRY – 605 110.
  Student Empowerment: Students develop a sense of responsibility, leadership, and civic
engagement.
 Stronger Partnerships: Collaboration between schools and communities leads to mutual
support and resource sharing.
 Cultural Understanding: Students and community members develop a deeper appreciation
for cultural diversity and social issues.

10.8. COMPARISON OF ISSUES BETWEEN PRE AND POST-INDEPENDENCE PERIOD.

Certainly, comparing the issues surrounding education policy before and after independence
in many countries can provide insights into the evolution of educational challenges and priorities.
Here's a comparison:
10.8.1. Pre-Independence Period:
Colonial Influence and Control:
 Many colonized regions experienced education systems designed and controlled by colonial
powers, often with the primary aim of serving colonial interests rather than the development
of indigenous populations.
 Education during this period was often limited to elite groups or focused on vocational
training tailored to serve colonial economies.
Limited Access and Inequality:
 Education was largely inaccessible to the majority of the population, especially in rural and
marginalized communities.
 Discriminatory policies based on race, ethnicity, or socioeconomic status perpetuated
educational inequalities, with limited opportunities for upward social mobility.
Cultural Hegemony and Language:
 Colonial education policies often imposed the language and cultural values of the colonizers,
leading to the marginalization or suppression of indigenous languages and knowledge
systems.
 Indigenous educational practices and traditions were often disregarded or undermined in
favor of Western-centric curriculum and pedagogy.
Resistance and Advocacy:
 Pre-independence education movements often focused on resistance against colonial
oppression and advocacy for indigenous self-determination in education.

M.CHINNADURAI, M.Sc., M.Ed., M.Phil., SET., Page 156

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR OF PHYSICAL SCIENCE,
SENTHIL COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, PUDUCHERRY – 605 110.
  Educational leaders and activists played key roles in mobilizing communities, preserving
cultural heritage, and laying the groundwork for post-independence educational reforms.

10.8.2. Post-Independence Period:

Nation Building and Social Cohesion:
 After independence, many newly formed nations prioritized education as a tool for nation-
building, social cohesion, and economic development.
 Efforts were made to expand access to education, particularly at the primary and secondary
levels, to address historical inequalities and promote social inclusion.
Curriculum Reform and Cultural Revitalization:
 Post-independence education policies often emphasized the development of curricula that
reflected national identity, cultural diversity, and local needs.
 Indigenous languages and knowledge systems were gradually integrated into educational
programs, alongside efforts to decolonize the curriculum and promote cultural revitalization.
Infrastructure Development and Teacher Training:
 Governments invested in expanding educational infrastructure, including the construction of
schools, provision of textbooks, and improvement of teaching facilities.
 Teacher training programs were expanded to enhance the quality of instruction and address
shortages of qualified educators, with an emphasis on local recruitment and professional
development.
Equity and Inclusion:
 Post-independence education reforms aimed to reduce disparities in access and quality,
particularly for marginalized groups such as girls, rural populations, and ethnic minorities.
 Affirmative action policies, scholarships, and targeted interventions were introduced to
promote equity and inclusion in education, although challenges persisted in implementation
and enforcement.

M.CHINNADURAI, M.Sc., M.Ed., M.Phil., SET., Page 157

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR OF PHYSICAL SCIENCE,
SENTHIL COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, PUDUCHERRY – 605 110.