American Geographical Society

Availability of Cattle Fodder in India

Author(s): A. K. Chakravarti
Source: Geographical Review, Vol. 77, No. 2 (Apr., 1987), pp. 209-217
Published by: American Geographical Society
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/214981
Accessed: 14/12/2009 08:21

Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of JSTOR's Terms and Conditions of Use, available at
http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp. JSTOR's Terms and Conditions of Use provides, in part, that unless
you have obtained prior permission, you may not download an entire issue of a journal or multiple copies of articles, and you
may use content in the JSTOR archive only for your personal, non-commercial use.

Please contact the publisher regarding any further use of this work. Publisher contact information may be obtained at
http://www.jstor.org/action/showPublisher?publisherCode=ags.

Each copy of any part of a JSTOR transmission must contain the same copyright notice that appears on the screen or printed
page of such transmission.

JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of
content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms
of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact support@jstor.org.

American Geographical Society is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to
Geographical Review.

http://www.jstor.org
 AVAILABILITY OF CATTLE FODDER IN INDIA*
A. K. CHAKRAVARTI

ABSTRACT. Efforts to improve the quality of cattle and buffalo in India depend on an
adequate supply of feed. Foodgrain production has official priority, but scarcity of animal
feed is a serious concern. This study examines availability of feed and fodder by district.
Areas of surplus and deficit are identified, and the patterns are analyzed.

INDIA contains approximately one-fifth of the cattle and one-half of the

buffalo in the world. The country also sponsors the largest, most com-
prehensive programs for cattle improvement.' The primary objective of
the programs is to improve the bovine population by an area-development
approach and diffusion of superior cattle breeds throughout the country.
Increased milk production and draft power are primary goals in these pro-
grams, which are similar to ones that achieved high yields in foodgrain
production.2 Success for the cattle programs is directly related to an adequate
supply of feed and fodder.
Demands for additional milk production and draft power have been met
by increasing the number of animals rather than the efficiency of existent
stock. However, the key to successful animal-development programs lies in
reducing the huge number of inferior animals and simultaneously improving
breeds and availability of feed and fodder.3 Quantities of feed and fodder
are insufficient for the existent bovine population even at current low levels
of consumption.4 The problem is crucial, because increased production of
foodgrains depends on animal-draft power. Countrywide data mask the
regional anomalies of deficits and surpluses. Regional self-sufficiency must
be an essential characteristic of Indian agriculture.5
A multiple-regression analysis indicated a high degree of correlation
among density of cattle, density of cultivators, density of net-sown area,

* I acknowledge support from the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada for
data processing and mapping in this study. Keith Bigelow drafted the maps. Devi Dutt Tiwari, Bruce
Sanderson, Sue Ann Hipkins, and Dorothy Young provided other assistance.
1 Directorate of Economics and Statistics, Indian Agriculture in Brief (New Delhi: Ministry of Ag-
riculture, 19th ed., 1982), 144-145; C. B. Mamoria, Agricultural Problems of India (Allahabad: Kitab
Mahal, 9th ed., 1979), 318; B. S. Kaushal, Scheme for Intensive Cattle Development, report prepared
for the Ministry of Agriculture, New Delhi, 1963.
2 A. K. Chakravarti, Cattle
Development Problems and Programs in India: A Regional Analysis,
Geojournal 10 (1985): 21-45; A. K. Chakravarti, Green Revolution in India, Annals of the Association
of American Geographers63 (1973): 319-330.
3
Report of the National Commission on Agriculture, Part VII Animal Husbandry (New Delhi:
Ministry of Agriculture and Irrigation, 1976), 3-4, 382-383; R. P. Sekra, Impact of Operation Flood
I and II on Rural Development, Kurukshetra32, no. 6 (1984): 17-20.
4Report, footnote 3 above.
5 P. Sen
Gupta and A. Mitra, Census of India 1961, Census Atlas (New Delhi: Manager of Publications,
1970), Vol. 1, map 79, 171; A. K. Chakravarti, Foodgrain Sufficiency Patterns in India, Geographical
Review 60 (1970): 208-228.

* DR. CHAKRAVARTI is a professor of geography at the University of Saskatchewan, Sas-

katoon, Saskatchewan, Canada S7N OWO.
210 THE GEOGRAPHICAL REVIEW

density of foodgrain area,and intensity of cropping, all statistically significant

at 99 percent level.6 This interdependence of foodgrain production and cattle
means that sufficiency of feed and fodder for the latter at the district level
is essential to overall improvement of Indian agriculture. The purpose of
this study is to assess availability of animal feed and fodder in approximately
400 districts as well as to map and analyze the patterns for concentrates, dry
fodder, and green fodder.
The limited amount of agricultural land in India is mostly devoted to
production of foodgrains to sustain the huge, rapidly increasing human
population. Only 4 percent of the cultivated land is in pasture, while 2 percent
is under fodder crops.7 The density of the cattle population is extremely
high, ranging from 1,000to more than 7,000 cattle and buffalo per 100 hectares
(ha) of pasture and land under fodder crops in areas like the Ganges plains
and other fertile valleys.8 The most important method of supporting the
livestock population is recycling the nutritiously poor crop residues, left after
harvest, that are unfit for human consumption. These residues include husks,
bran, extractedcakes from oilseeds, and leaves and stalks;they can be grouped
as concentrates, dry fodder, and green fodder, the last from sown areas and
pasturage.
Despite the importance of cattle in Indian agriculture, the data on pro-
duction or availability of feed and fodder are not collected by governmental
or private agencies. Estimates are often incompatible and inaccurate. A prin-
cipal cause of poor-quality data is the origin of much feed and fodder as
waste by-products from crops on several million small subsistent farms that
are scattered throughout the country. The agricultural census reports only
the area of land under fodder crops and pasturage. Therefore information
about production of the three categories of residues must be estimated and
derived indirectly from crop data. Previous efforts to make these estimates
neither explained the methods of computation nor provided regional figures
on availability and requirements of feed and fodder.9District-level data con-
tinue to be unavailable. This study corrects that important omission. Esti-
mates for district availability and requirements were computed from basic,
most reliable countrywide data. In view of these sources, these estimates are
the best possible for the district level.

6 A. K. Chakravarti, Some Characteristics of Spatial Distribution of Cattle Population in India, Rural

Systems 2 (1984): 67-76.
7
Directorate, footnote 1 above, 8-9.
8 Chakravarti, footnote 6 above.
9 R. O.
Whyte, The Grassland and the Fodder Resource of India (New Delhi: Indian Council of
Agricultural Research, 1957); K. P. S. Nirman, S. D. Bokil, and J. P. Jain, A Comparative Study of
Returns from Food and Forage Crops, Agricultural Situation in India (May 1979): 81-84; S. Singh,
Operation Flood II: Some Constraints and Implications, Economicand Political Weekly 14 (1979): 1765-
1774; Report of Committee on Livestock Feed and Fodder (New Delhi: Ministry of Agriculture and
Irrigation, 1974).
 CATTLE FODDER IN INDIA 211

METHOD OF ESTIMATING

To ascertain availability and requirements at the district level, country-

wide estimates of the concentrates, dry fodder, and green fodder were com-
puted for 1971-72, a year for which detailed bovine and agricultural census
data were available by district.10The total amounts of feed available from
each crop, cultivated fodder, and pasturage were estimated for the country
by a committee of experts.1"The per ha available average yield of each of
these feeds was determined by dividing the total amount by the number of
hectares under crop (Table I). Because green fodder came from sown areas

TABLE I-AVAILABILITY, REQUIREMENTS, AND YIELDS OF FEEDS IN INDIA 1971-72

AVERAGE ANNUAL
TOTAL TOTAL REQUIREMENTS
AVAILABILITY REQUIRE- PER
TYPE OF FEED OF FEEDa YIELDS PER HAb MENTSa CATTLE UNITa

Concentrates 11.053 19.565 0.0998351

Coarse grains 0.490 0.01037235
Rice & wheat brans 4.678 0.08614149
Pulse by-products 1.331 0.06043682
Edible oil cakes 2.769 0.18695564
Cotton seed 1.785 0.23088630
Dry fodder: Cereal & pulses 309.000 3.0429590 347.410 1.7727442
Green fodder 246.582 343.570 1.7531496
Sown area 233.590 35.00
Pasture 12.992 1.00
Sources:Report of Committee on Livestock Feed and Fodder, text footnote 9; Report of National
Commission on Agriculture, text footnote 3; Indian Livestock Census 1972, text footnote 10; Indian
Agricultural Statistics, text footnote 10; Chakravarti, text footnote 17.
aIn million tonnes.
b In tonnes.

and pastures, the yield for each was calculated: for example, 35 tonnes per
ha from cultivated green fodder and 1 tonne per ha from pasture land.12
The average available yield was then multiplied by the number of ha under
each type of feed in a district to compute the total amounts. Finally the total
amounts of different available feeds were weighted according to a composite
district index of productivity (soil fertility, rainfall, and irrigation) to estimate
the actual sums of concentrates, dry fodder, and green fodder that were
available in each district.'3

10 Office of the Directorate of Economics and Statistics, Indian Livestock Census 1972 (New Delhi:
Ministry of Agriculture and Irrigation, 1980), Vol. 2; unpublished census schedules, New Delhi;
Directorate of Economics and Statistics, Indian Agricultural Statistics 1967-68 to 1969-70 (New
Delhi: Ministry of Agriculture and Irrigation, 1978), Vol. 2.
" Report, footnote 3 above, 398; Report, footnote 9 above.
12
Report, footnote 3 above, 393-394.
13 V. M.
Jakhade and H. B. Shivamaggi, Interdistrict Comparison of Agricultural Development and
Spread of Banking Facilities in the Rural Areas (Bombay: Reserve Bank of India, Division of Rural
Economics, 1969), Appendix I, i-ix.
212 THE GEOGRAPHICAL REVIEW

For feed and fodder requirements, the cattle and buffalo population in
1972 was weighted into cattle units. Although buffalo are not sacred and
have a high concentration in the northwestern parts of India, both cattle
and buffalo have similar functions in Indian farming.14The numerical ratio
between the two is 3:1. These animals were weighted into a common cattle
unit (CU) for estimating their feed and fodder requirements.15
The total requirement for each type of feed was estimated at the coun-
trywide level for 1971-72 on the basis of recommended nutrition and average
rate of feeding.'6 The per CU requirement of each type was computed by
dividing the amount of each by the number of cattle units. The difference
between the availability and requirements of each feed by cattle units per
100 ha is the surplus or deficit of feed in a district.
The following equations may be used to estimate availability, require-
ments, and surplus or deficit of feed and fodder in each district in India.17
Estimated availability:
Concentrate EAC = Ix[(Ag*Yg) + (Aw*Yw) + (Ap*Yp)
+ (Ao*Yo) + (Ac*Yc)] (1)
Dry fodder EAD = Ix[(At*Yt)] (2)
Green fodder EAG = Ix[(Ar*Yr) + (As*Ys)] (3)
where
Ix = composite productivity index of a district
Ag = coarse grain area
Aw = wheat plus rice area
Ap = pulse area
Ao = oilseed (edible) area
Ac = cotton area
At = total cereal area (Ag + Aw)
Ar = green-fodder crop area
As = pasture area
Yg = average yield of available concentrates from coarse grains
Yw = average yield of available wheat plus rice bran
Yp = average yield of available pulse by-products
Yo = average yield of edible oilseed cakes
Yc = average yield of cotton-seed cakes
Yt = average yield of available dry fodder from all cereals

14
Robert Hoffpauir, The Indian Milk Buffalo: A Paradox of High Performance and Low Reputation,
Asian Profiles 5 (1977): 111-134.
15
J. Singh, An Agricultural Atlas of India: A Geographical Analysis (Kurukshetra: Vishal Publica-
tions, 1974-75), Appendix IV, 351; Nutritive Values of Indian Feeds and the Feeding of Animals,
Bulletin 25, Indian Council of Agricultural Research, New Delhi, 1971.
Report, footnote 3 above, Table 34.6, 398; Report, footnote 9 above.
16
17
A. K. Chakravarti, The Question of Surplus Cattle in India: A Spatial View, GeografiskaAnnaler
67B (1985): 121-130.
 CATTLE FODDER IN INDIA 213

Yr = average yield of cultivated green fodder

Ys = average yield of available green fodder from pasture land.
All areas in hectares and yields in tonnes per hectare.
Estimated requirements:
Concentrates ERC = TCU*PCUR1 (4)
Dry fodder ERD = TCU*PCUR2 (5)
Green fodder ERG = TCU*PCUR3 (6)
where
TCU = total number of cattle units; PCUR1,PCUR2,and
PCUR3 = per cattle unit requirements for concentrates, dry fodder, and
green fodder.
Estimated surplus or deficit:
Concentrates Cf = EAC - ERC (7)
Dry fodder Df = EAD - ERD (8)
Green fodder Gf = EAG - ERG (9)
where derived positive values are surplus and negative ones are deficit for
each category of feed in a district.
In view of the nature, type, and availability of data, the equations are
not expected to measure the precise amount of feed supplies and require-
ments. Instead they yield general estimates based on the most reliable avail-
able data, show spatial patterns, and comparatively identify the Indian areas
where the problems are most acute.

SPATIAL PATTERNS OF FEED AND FODDER SUFFICIENCY

Equations 7, 8, and 9 were used to show sufficiency patterns of the three

categories of feed per 100 ha at the district level (Figs. 1, 2, and 3). Distribution
and intensity of feed sufficiency vary from district to district. Significantly
several districts, scattered throughout the country, have surpluses of con-
centrates, dry fodder, and green fodder. The feed-surplus districts form an
irregular belt in western India that extends through the states of Punjab,
Haryana, western Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan, Gujarat,and Maharashtra.After
cattle in this belt were fed to their normal requirements, surplus feed would
be available either to support additional livestock or to supply deficit districts.
Importantly these surplus areas have some of the lowest proportions of
useless or surplus cattle, support some of the best indigenous cattle breeds,
and are among the most agriculturally productive in India.18

18E. Dayal, Agricultural Productivity in India: A

Spatial Analysis, Annals of the Associationof American
Geographers74 (1984): 98-123; Chakravarti, footnote 2 above; Chakravarti, footnote 6 above; Cha-
kravarti, footnote 17 above.
214 THE GEOGRAPHICAL REVIEW

INDIA

100 0 100 200 300Km.

i I

A.1

c My (i
k???

CONCENTRATES
(in tonnes/100 ha)
Surplus Deficit

<1i a <
<4
4-6 mZ
>2 H >6 B

\I
FIG. 1-Sufficiency of feed concentrates per 100 hectares.

Among the three categories of feed, the concentrates that constitute an

essential but small proportion of requirements have the least amount of
surplus or deficit with a range between 1 to 6 tonnes per 100 ha. This range
increases for dry and green fodders. The dry fodder comes from crop residue
and supplies the bulk of feed requirements for livestock of small farmers.
The surplus dry fodder occurs mainly in Punjab, Haryana, and parts of
Rajasthan, Gujarat, and Maharashtra; the quantity ranges from less than 16
tonnes to more than 43 tonnes per 100 ha. The deficit dry-fodder districts,
mostly in northern, eastern, and southern parts of India, have shortages that
 CATTLE FODDER IN INDIA 215

, ..L.N

ItN****--^"TUP.
~

INDIA
100 0 100 200 300Km.

,A rffl
di

tti~

DRYFODDER
(in tonnes/100 ha)
'in "J iSurplus Deficit
< 16 [Z <28 m
16-43 i 28-53
>43 > 53

FIG.2-Sufficiency of dry fodder per 100 hectares.

range from 28 tonnes to more than 53 tonnes per 100 ha. For green fodder,
the supply depends on cultivated land and a small fraction of pasture land;
both the surplus and the deficit are much greater. The surplus ranges from
fewer than 50 to more than 150 tonnes per 100 ha, mostly in areas of superior
cattle breeds in northwestern India. Coincidently the deficit ranges from
fewer than 82 to more than 137 tonnes per 100 ha in the areas already short
of dry fodder.
The spatial pattern of great concern is the high degree of deficiency for
all three categories of feed in the densely populated plains of central and
216 THE GEOGRAPHICAL REVIEW

/I
L-

INDIA

100 0 100 200 300 Km.

GREEN FODDER
(in tonnes/100 ha)
Surplus Deficit
! <<:"::
50 :8:":: - < 82
50-150 82-137
>150
2,1;P X >137 m

FIG.3-Sufficiency of green fodder per 100 hectares.

eastern Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, and Bengal as well as in some southern coastal
districts. These areas have a very high density of agricultural population, a
high proportion of cultivated land, a large number of small farmers, and a
very high density of cattle. They also suffer serious shortages of foodgrains,
the mainstay of the Indian diet. For success and viability of any agricultural
program, these districts should receive a priority in programs to increase
feed and fodder production, the fundamental source of energy in the Indian
agricultural system.
A projection of total estimates for availability and requirements of the
three categories of feed and fodder through A.D. 2000 is fairly positive (Table
 CATTLE FODDER IN INDIA 217

TABLE II-ESTIMATED ANNUAL AVAILABILITY, REQUIREMENT, AND DEFICIT OF FEED TO A.D. 2000a

AVAILABILITY REQUIREMENT DEFICIT

TYPEOF FEED 1971-72 1984-85 2000 1971-72 1984-85 2000 1971-72 1984-85 2000
Concentrates 11.05 19.22 77.05 19.56 37.47 82.80 -8.51 -18.21 -5.75
Dry fodder 309.00 297.62 356.80 347.41 376.34 373.00 -38.41 -78.72 -16.20
Green fodder 246.58 273.68 575.00 343.57 473.46 594.80 -97.01 -199.78 -19.80
Sources:Estimates for 1971-72 computed from agricultural and cattle-population data in Table I.
Estimates for 1984-85 and 2000 projected from data in Report of National Commission on Agriculture,
text footnote 3; Report of Committee on Livestock Feed and Fodder, text footnote 9; Singh, text
footnote 9.
a In million tonnes.

II). In spite of increased requirements for each type, availability reduces the
overall deficits. Whatever the accuracy of these estimates may be, the prob-
lems of feed and fodder deficiency will continue to thwart the progress of
general agricultural development and improvement of cattle breeds. Mea-
surement and analysis of regional conditions have great importance to arrest
further deterioration of areas with acute shortages and to correct the growing
regional imbalance of availability of cattle feed and fodder in India.