Introduction:

I think they should be ‘slashed’?!

In one of my tutorials, the group was discussing Peter Jackson’s film adaptation of

The Lord of the Rings1, and an interesting topic was brought up: the fan fiction

genre of ‘Slash’. Slash is a form of fan fiction in which the two main characters

(traditionally male) are involved in an explicitly sexual relationship. 2 I had never

heard of Slash until that moment, but since it has entrenched itself in

conversations with friends who are also interested in the genre; some of whom

have even written the occasional fan fiction piece. What was said in the tutorial

was that the scene in which Boromir dies and farewell’s his King, Aragorn, was

full of sexual tension. Clearly we could all see that they ‘wanted each other’?

This of course led to debate, as some members of the tutorial group agreed while

others thought the scene could in no way be read with a subtext of homoerotic

desire.

I pointed out that it was possible to read Aragorn and Boromir’s final

interaction as ‘sexual’ but that in no way should one restrict their view so that the

scene could only be read that way. If that occurred, a reading of ‘brotherly love’

and comradeship between men would be denied. This dissertation aims to explore

the relationship between Slash fan fiction and the masculinities present in both

J.R.R. Tolkien’s and Jackson’s Lord of the Rings.3 My central aim is to identify
1
Peter Jackson, The Lord of the Rings: The Fellowship of the Ring (Special Extended DVD, New Line,
2001-2002); Peter Jackson, The Lord of the Rings: The Two Towers (Special Extended DVD, New
Line, 2002-2003); Peter Jackson, The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King (Special Extended
DVD, New Line, 2003-2004).
2
C Penley, 'Feminism, Psychoanalysis and the Study of Popular Culture', in L Grossberg, C Nelson
and P Treichler (eds.), Cultural Studies (New York: Routledge, 1992) p. 480.
3
J.R.R Tolkien, The Lord of the Rings, Single Volume Edition (London: HarperCollins Publishers,
1995; 1968); Jackson, The Lord of the Rings: The Fellowship of the Ring; Jackson, The Lord of the
Rings: The Two Towers; Jackson, The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King .

1
 the masculinities present within The Lord of the Rings, and understand how Slash

may offer both a positive and negative re-interpretation of them.

The first chapter explores and analyses the presence of masculinities within

the text, using R.W. Connell, David Buchbinder and Carol Patemen’s theories. I

attempt to draw a comparison between the historical timeline of masculinity

present in our own society and the period of transition taking place in Tolkien’s

Middle-Earth. This transition traces the shift from a traditional patriarchy to a

new fratriarchal form of patriarchy; embodied and installed by Aragorn. I

consider how this change impacts on the existing masculinities present within

Middle-Earth, and the relationships between central characters; most notably

Aragorn, Boromir and Faramir.

The second chapter engages specifically with the genre of Slash fan fiction. I

analyse examples of The Lord of the Rings Slash fan fiction from the online

archive “The Library of Moria”4 in relation to the considerations of masculinity

outlined in my first chapter. My Slash examples use two specific pairings:

Frodo/Sam and Boromir/Aragorn. These pairings were chosen either because

their relationship in The Lord of the Rings was often considered to cross the line

between homosocial and homoerotic, or because their characters were specifically

relevant to my exploration of masculinity. The chapter explains that the reading

offered by Slash may provide both a positive reinterpretation of relationships

between men, but also damage and deny an exploration of more complex male

relations and understandings of masculinity.

4
'The Library of Moria: Lord of the Rings Slash and RPS FanFiction Archive'1 June 2002
<http://www.libraryofmoria.com/> accessed 6 June 2006

2
 My final chapter works to bring together the themes and conclusions explored

in prior chapters, and to evaluate the contribution and work of Slash fan fiction, in

understanding masculinity. I explicitly connect academic work on masculinity

within our own culture, with those present in Middle-Earth, and highlight the

historical nature of masculinity and its process of transition. Finally, I consider

the changes and challenges to masculinity in our own culture and contextualise the

birth of Slash. I mention academic opinion and writing in relation to its function

and role, and offer my own opinions and argument for its restrictive portrayal of

masculinity and male relations in comparison to the more liberated reading

offered by the original The Lord of the Rings texts.

I situate this dissertation within the discipline of English and Communication

Studies. It engages a disciplinary reading of film and text, but also a reading of

the fan and (now predominantly online), related phenomenon of Slash fiction. It

attempts to draw attention to the dialogue between original works and their fan

interaction, and the affects this may have on our understanding of a text. In this

dissertation, I seek to critique the Slash phenomenon,, rather than simply

embracing it as a ‘utopian space’ in which issues of gender and sexuality are

liberated, such has been the majority response on the subject.5

5
Penley, 'Feminism, Psychoanalysis and the Study of Popular Culture'

3
Chapter One

What happened to Masculinity?

Masculinities in The Lord of the Rings

At the basis of my examination into Slash and The Lord of the Rings is an exploration

of masculinity, not only as it is constructed and often deconstructed in our own

6
Jackson, The Lord of the Rings: The Two Towers

4
society but also as it is represented in Tolkien’s imagined world of ‘Middle- Earth’.

There are obvious parallels between the construction of masculinity that Tolkien

presents and work such as R.W. Connell’s on the historical development of

masculinity. Such work will assist in generating an understanding of the formation of

masculinities in The Lord of the Rings, and how these masculinities affect readings of

the central characters and their interactions with each other throughout the text. I

argue that Middle-Earth is undergoing an historical transition of masculinity that

incorporates a move from traditional patriarchy to a ‘fratriarchy’ and that the

character of Aragorn is essential to this transition.

Along with Connell’s historical time scale, the masculinities operating within

Middle-Earth are adapted by Peter Jackson in his modern interpretation of The Lord

of the Rings. Consequently masculinity is constructed not only through historical

transformation but by a process of adaptation of the original text and characters. This

is a factor which must also be taken into consideration when analysing and identifying

the masculinities The Lord of the Rings provides. In considering how these

masculinities have been further adapted and transformed by fans’ Slash fiction, an

extrapolation of underlying themes in the text related to the masculinities can be

identified.

Masculinity and femininity in The Lord of the Rings

5
 To begin with, masculinity must be recognised as a relational concept.

Connell notes that for masculinity to exist it not only requires the contrasting concept

of femininity, but also the knowledge that it is a culturally specific term.

‘Masculinity’ does not exist except in contrast with ‘femininity’. A culture

which does not treat women and men as bearers of polarized character types,
at least in principle, does not have a concept of masculinity in the sense of
modern European/American culture.7

Obviously, in Connell’s view the presence of femininity acts as a binary ‘other’ for

the contrasts of feminine and masculine characteristics. Yet, it has been noted by

many of Tolkien’s critics that there is a distinct scarcity of female characters

throughout the text. This scarcity operates as a focus on, and critique of, the

‘relational’ model of constructing masculinity and femininity. John Miller highlights

this when he states:

The Lord of the Rings includes a number of female characters, all of whom,
however, tend to play conventional roles in the plot: Galadriel commands the
mystery, fascination, and generative power of a Goddess figure; Eowyn,
betrayed by desire and resentment of her station, rebels against her own
gender until domesticated by a male of appropriate status; Shelob, redolent of
disgust with the female body, attempts to prey upon virginal male characters;
Arwen descends as if from heaven (she is known as Evenstar) to sacrifice
herself for love of the hero whose errantry is accomplished in her name…8

These characters limit the use of a male/ female methodology of comparison through

which to understand Middle-Earth, and our attention must clearly be drawn to the

overwhelming presence of men and masculinity. Connell’s relational formation of

masculinity is restricted and prompts us to consider other methods through which

masculinities can be constructed and identified.

7
R.W. Connell, Masculinities (St. Leonards, N.S.W: Allen & Unwin, 1995) p. 68 .
8
John Miller, 'Alternative Masculinities and the "Dominion of Men" in The Lord of the Rings', in
Susanne Fendler and Ulrike Horstmann (eds.), Images of Masculinity in Fantasy Fiction (Lewiston,
New York: E. Mellen Press, 2003) p.185 .

6
 One such method of understanding masculinity is through a ‘constructionist’

approach. Tolkien’s world is not, as Connell states, ‘a modern European/American’

cultural notion of masculinity, but instead a slow transformation recorded in the

events of The Lord of the Rings, in which masculinities and a new hegemonic

masculinity is formed. The phrase ‘hegemonic masculinity’ requires definition, it is

simply a ‘culturally exalted form of masculinity’ 9 as it relies on social stability to

affirm its position, but even this is ultimately unstable in response to a cultures’

historical change.10 This historical transformation is, in essence, a constructionist

theory of masculinity as proposed by Connell and Buchinder.11

What is witnessed in The Lord of the Rings is a transformation that ties in with

the larger theme of transition and loss, in which an old age, more notably marked by

productive feminine cultures and dysfunctional masculine cultures, is either ending or

transforming to produce a new hegemonic masculinity: an age of ‘Men’. As Miller

writes, ‘Thus “Men” can be read both as a race and as a particular version of

masculinity…. The “Dominion of Men,” then, refers not just to the hegemony of a

particular race but of a particular form of masculinity.’ 12 What is witnessed is the

removal of an outdated hegemonic masculinity and the installation of another. 13 In

focusing primarily on the male characters in Tolkien’s Middle-Earth, we are

9
R.W. Connell, Tim Carrigan and John Lee, 'Toward a New Sociology of Masculinity', in Rachel
Adams and David Savran (eds.), The Masculinities Studies Reader (Blackwell Publishing, 2002) p. 112
10
Ibid. .
11
R.W. Connell, 'The History of Masculinity', in Rachel Adams and David Savran (eds.), The
Masculinities Studies Reader (Blackwell Publishing, 2002) and David Buchbinder, Masculinities and
Identities (Carlton, Victoria: Melbourne University Press, 1994) .
12
Miller, 'Alternative Masculinities and the "Dominion of Men" in The Lord of the Rings' p. 187.
13
I shall be referring to two masculinities as ‘hegemonic’ in this chapter; firstly, the hegemonic
masculinity that existed with the old, dysfunctional patriarchy and secondly, the hegemonic
masculinity which exists in the new, fraternal patriarchy. These are two distinct social conditions in
which a hegemonic masculinity is installed. Hegemonic indicates that these masculinities are the
dominant form present at each specific historical moment.

7
understanding masculinity via a method of historical change and transformation,

rather than through comparison with ‘the feminine’.

Ruddick offers a further reason why the lack of females in Tolkien’s work

draws our attention more appropriately to the operation of masculinity in Middle-

Earth. As I have suggested, the transition occurring is one that focuses on the

removal of dysfunctional masculine cultures, as well as the formation of a single

hegemonic masculinity. Ruddick states:

Certain works of fantastic literature by men have (for much longer than is
supposed) been warning of the unequivocal and real dangers posed when
men’s actions are driven by fantasies derived from a certain negative ideal of
masculinity – one which often shades into what we would recognize today as
fundamentalist masculinity – in life and literature. These works have often
used a strategy that may be termed the fantastic constraint of the feminine
other, which may involve an “unrealistic” diminution, even to the vanishing
point, of the roles of female characters, in order better to stage a critique of
supposedly self-sufficient masculinity.14

The ‘negative’ or ‘fundamentalist’ masculinity Ruddick is referring to here is what he

defines earlier as a self-sufficient, self-contained and impenetrable ideal masculine

self.15 The dysfunctional masculinities of Tolkien’s Middle-Earth, I propose, are akin

to this model. From the presence of lesser male characters such as the Ents to the

more central character of Boromir, masculinity is often presented as defective. In the

case of the Ents, this dysfunctionality is represented through the absence of their

female Entwives and the consequent diminishing of their race. In the race of Men, the

fundamentalist masculinity of Ruddick is clearly evident in the character of Boromir,

a flawed figure who I will examine later.

14
Nicholas Ruddick, 'Preface: Another Key to Bluebeard's Chamber', in Susanne Fendler and Ulrike
Horstmann (eds.), Images of Masculinity in Fantasy Fiction (Lewiston, New York: E. Mellen Press,
2003) p. 4.
15
Ibid. p. 2.

8
Masculinity as a Hierarchy: Aragorn, Boromir and Faramir

9
 I argue that the three male characters of Aragorn, Faramir and Boromir each

embody a different ‘type’ of masculinity. Each character is surprisingly different,

despite all of them sharing the common bond of ‘Gondor’. In a sense, these three

males share an undeniable fraternal link: Boromir and Faramir share kinship, and

Aragorn and Boromir are ‘brothers in arms’ of Gondor. Masculinity is always

constructed through a social hierarchy, controlled and sustained by the ‘hegemonic

masculinity’ of that moment. Connell elucidates an understanding of hegemonic

masculinity in relation to those it subordinates, by noting it should be viewed,

[n]ot as “the male role,” but as a particular variety of masculinity to which

others – among them young and effeminate as well as homosexual men – are
subordinated. It is particular groups of men, not men in general, who are
oppressed within patriarchal sexual relations, and whose situations are related
in different ways to the overall logic of the subordination of women to men.17

With the absence of women as a subordinate group in The Lord of the Rings our

attention must be drawn to the male characters and the structure of a power hierarchy

16
Jackson, The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King
17
Connell, Carrigan and Lee, 'Toward a New Sociology of Masculinity' p. 110.

10
of masculinities. This hierarchy is evident in the three male characters of Faramir,

Boromir and Aragorn, but it is in a state of flux.

Faramir is a man who not only lives in his brother’s shadow but is

subordinated by dysfunctional patriarchy. Although Faramir loves his brother, he is

however, in constant competition with him. This is most evidently demonstrated in

Jackson’s film, and to a subtler extent in Tolkien’s original text. Boromir is the

greater fighter, a better leader (in the eyes of his father), the elder and consequently

entitled to the patriarchal mode of succession. Faramir on the other hand, is seen to

lack all these qualities. His near death on the battlefield is linked with the desire to

achieve greater esteem in the eyes of his father which would consequently improve

his status in the patriarchal model.

Faramir’s transformation - from the subordination he suffers in the

dysfunctional patriarchy maintained by the hegemonic masculinity embodied by his

father and brother, to the patriarchal fellowship of Aragorn - is far more subtle in

Tolkien’s text. Tolkien’s portrayal of Faramir is of a noble man, determined to save

his city and his men, but challenged by the wishes of his father. His encounter with

Frodo and Sam reveal him to be a man tempted by power, but only that which may

offer an end to the war that plagues his city. This temptation however is but a fleeting

gesture, as almost instantly he remarks, ‘Not if I found it on the highway would I take

it.’18 By contrast, Jackson presents us with a man weakened by the subordination he

suffers in a dysfunctional patriarchy. Faramir only relinquishes his own desires when

he witnesses first hand the destructive quality of the ring. Jackson portrays a

character that is more ‘forcefully’ improved by the transformation taking place in

18
Tolkien, The Lord of the Rings pp. 665-6.

11
Middle-Earth. However, Tolkien presents us with a fair and righteous man,

disempowered by dysfunctional patriarchy but successful and empowered by

Aragorn’s fraternal patriarchy. Faramir represents a transitional masculinity, caught

between two forms of patriarchy; one empowering to men, the other separating and

subordinating.

Faramir’s brother, Boromir, exemplifies the dysfunctional hegemonic

masculinity being removed, empowered yet ultimately isolated by the patriarchy he

supports. He is part of a masculinity built upon a foundation of patriarchal values, but

ones which are fundamentally in error due to illegitimacy. Boromir’s and Faramir’s

characters are brought together in Jackson’s adaptation of The Lord of the Rings.

Boromir clearly seeks the approval of his father; which he succeeds in despite his

inability to capture the Ring. The sight at Osgiliath, which Faramir witnesses in

Jackson’s The Two Towers19, is similar to that in which Boromir redeems himself

after attacking Frodo, both brothers realise their errors after they have been shown to

them. Jackson places this weakness in both brothers, so rather than by virtue of their

desire for the greater good, they pride their own desires and are consequently ‘lesser

men’ despite their eventual good deeds.

Bradley establishes the notion that Boromir and Aragorn have a relationship

similar to that of brothers, with a jealousy, especially exhibited by Boromir, over who

will succeed and meet the standards of ‘the father’. 20 Bradley identifies ‘the father’ as

Gandalf; but for the purposes of understanding their masculinity and representative

19
Jackson, The Lord of the Rings: The Two Towers .
20
Marion Zimmer Bradley, 'Men, Halflings, and Hero Worship', in Rose A Zimbardo and Neil David
Isaacs (eds.), Understanding The Lord of the Rings : The Best of Tolkien Criticism (Boston: Houghton
Mifflin, 2004) p. 78.

12
patriarchy, the real father of each needs to be considered. 21 Boromir is a character

deeply caught up in the failed hegemonic masculinity of ‘men’ established by

Aragorn’s forefathers, and further continued by the line of Stewards, ending with the

death of Denethor. Denethor establishes a ‘false patriarchy’ in Gondor; he is not a

King and does not sit on the throne. Boromir, despite his entitlement as the eldest

son, is not in the position to inherit Gondor. There is a sense that this weak link in the

legitimacy of Gondor’s rule operates as a corrupting factor, weakening the once great

city and its people. This is alluded to repeatedly in Tolkien’s original text, most

notably in Chapter 11 of The Fellowship of the Ring, “The Council of Elrond”.22

Legitimacy and success are closely bound in The Lord of the Rings as

illustrated by the actions of Aragorn. Miller writes, ‘men like Aragorn and Theoden

demonstrate their power by inspiring others in defense of the territorial and moral

integrity of their realms.’23 Aragorn and Theoden are exhibited as worthy and

legitimate leaders of their people. They succeed in battle because, more than

anything, it is their right. Boromir however, although a worthy warrior, fails due to

his lack of territorial and moral claim to the realm of Gondor. Although he loves

Gondor and shares its kinship, he is not its leader but subject to the rule of Aragorn.

Likewise, Denethor has no legitimate claim to the city upon Aragorn’s return.

Denethor’s patriarchy in Gondor lacks a legitimate blood line. The Ring may

consequently be seen as a legitimizing possession, such as the traditional ‘sword’, for

Denethor and Boromir.24

21
Ibid.
22
Tolkien, The Lord of the Rings pp. 233-264. See specifically pp. 236, 237, 238 and 246.
23
Miller, 'Alternative Masculinities and the "Dominion of Men" in The Lord of the Rings' p. 188.
24
Verlyn Flieger, 'Frodo and Aragorn: The Concept of the Hero', in Rose A Zimbardo and Neil David
Isaacs (eds.), Understanding The Lord of the Rings : The Best of Tolkien Criticism (Houston: Houghton
Mifflin, 2004) pp. 130-132.

13
 The Ring, if it was to be inherited by anyone other than Sauron, should be

Aragorn’s.25 Isildur took the Ring and bade it be an heirloom of his Kingdom under

the claim that it was a ‘weregild’ for his father’s and brother’s death. 26 However, this

claim is not justified, as a ‘weregild’ is payment to prevent the death of the slayer and

a following blood feud. Isildur’s claim, according to this definition, of the Ring, is

ungrounded as he struck his blow to Sauron in revenge for his father. The Ring then

has symbolic value, at least in terms of patriarchy. It simultaneously offers

legitimacy, as an inheritance item for the line of Gondor’s rulers, but also illegitimacy

due to it being claimed in error. The success of Aragorn and his installation of a new

patriarchal order must be symbolized by a legitimate heirloom passed from father to

son, namely the sword of Narsil.

Boromir is heavily influenced by the views of his father while there is little

mention of the father of Aragorn. Instead the focus is on his forefathers, especially

Isildur. This absence of a father figure combined with the focus on lineage, adds to

the mythic quality of Aragorn and may explain his ability to overcome the weakness

evident in Boromir. He is separated from the patriarchal bond of father and son, and

the corruption of the Ring as a symbol of this dysfunctional patriarchy. Aragorn’s

journey as a hero aims to ‘set right’ the mistakes his forefather made, and through

which Aragorn can discover that his character is not one that is moulded by the ill-

fated inheritance of the Ring. Aragorn is not instructed by his father, like Boromir

and Faramir, to claim the Ring. Instead his forefather, and not his father, breaking

him from patriarchal obligation, acts as a reminder to reject it and the deceptive power

it offers.

25
Ibid. p. 130.
26
Tolkien, The Lord of the Rings p. 237.

14
 Aragorn desires not the Ring, instead his only claim to his inheritance and the

throne is via the sword of Narsil. Unlike the Ring, Narsil is not connected with the

survival of Sauron, but with his destruction, and is untarnished by the flaws of his

forefathers, and is acceptable proof of Aragorn’s lineage. Aragorn, unlike Boromir,

is refusing the patriarchal governance of his forefathers, and instead establishing

masculinity in Gondor that is founded via ‘The Fellowship’ and their destruction of

the Ring. The weakness of character, which has plagued the race of men, such as

Isildur, Denethor and Boromir, is broken when Aragorn accepts Frodo’s role as Ring-

bearer and encourages its destruction at the Council of Elrond. This functions to

break the ill-fated ties with his forefather’s dysfunctional patriarchy which have

weakened the race of Men.

Aragorn: The Hegemonic Fraternal Masculine

15
 27

As the dysfunctional patriarchy was removed, so also was the ‘fundamentalist’

style hegemonic masculinity it empowered in figures such as Boromir’s, and those

masculinities it disempowered, in figures such as Faramir’s. However, Aragorn

embodies an entirely different, new hegemonic masculinity, and with it a new form of

patriarchy. This new patriarchy and masculinity is the foundation of the ‘Dominion

of Men’. As Connell states:

Hegemonic masculinity embodies a ‘currently accepted’ strategy. When

conditions for the defence of patriarchy change, the basis for the dominance of
a particular masculinity are eroded.28

Having already established that there is never a single masculinity, there can however,

only be one hegemonic masculinity present at any given time. As Connell recognises,

through history different ‘masculinities come into existence at particular times and

places, and are always subject to change’ 29; likewise, the masculinities in The Lord of

the Rings are subject to change. In The Lord of the Rings, with Aragorn’s success, we

27
Jackson, The Lord of the Rings: The Two Towers
28
Connell, Masculinities p. 77.
29
Ibid. p. 185.

16
witness the removal of one dominant masculinity and its patriarchy, and the

installation of a new one.

Connell also identifies that a history of masculinity does not conform to a

clear linear progression from ‘traditional’ to ‘modern’, and I would agree that neither

does the transition witnessed in The Lord of the Rings..30 Our own society, when

viewed through Connell’s historical approach to masculinity, has experienced

numerous transformations to establish the modern gender order. Recently though,

this has been challenged by queer and feminist movements, and our own hegemonic

masculinity is currently under a process of transformation. Unlike The Lord of the

Rings though, a new hegemonic masculinity such as that Aragorn represents has not

been implemented to succeed the erosion of ‘traditional patriarchy’, which has

become increasingly outdated.

Aragorn is a figure appearing in a fictional period when masculinities are

interacting with one another and are being instituted, altered or subordinated in the

process of establishing what Tolkien describes as the ‘Dominion of Men’. For Men in

Middle-Earth, the currently accepted patriarchal order established and propagated by

Gondor is changing, and the basis for its dominance is being eroded. The central

force in this change is Aragorn, and his new model of masculinity incorporates the

ideal of ‘fellowship’ rather than ‘patriarchy’. Unlike Ruddick’s fundamentalist

masculinity, embodied in such characters as Boromir, Aragorn’s character is akin to a

masculinity defined by Buchbinder as the ‘New Age Man’:

30
Ibid. p. 198.

17
 The rise of the New Age Man has also blurred the older, more traditional
distinctions between what is considered manly or masculine and what is
therefore unmanly, unmasculine. This variety of man is supposedly gentler
and less aggressive than Old Age Man, more in harmony with the earth and
with nature, less convinced of the authority and rightness of traditional male
logic, and more amenable to alternative ways of thinking. He attempts to get
in touch with his feeling, and is willing to make himself vulnerable,
emotionally, to others. Such a man is very different, obviously, from the
aggressive, self contained, independent man whom our culture tends
traditionally to associate with the idea of masculinity.31

This definition of a masculinity which Buchbinder associates with changes

occurring in our own society, clearly shares many similarities with the character of

Aragorn. Many of the attributes listed in the above passage by Buchbinder may be

found in Aragorn’s character because of the time he spent with the Elves, a race who

are in touch with the natural world.

Flieger notes that Tolkien’s history of Aragorn supplies him with half-elven

ancestory, giving him the air of an immortal, though this is hidden in the text and not

often drawn attention to.32 By sharing the qualities specifically associated with the

Race of Elves, Aragorn is provided with a means by which to overcome the weakness

that has plagued the Numenorean descendants of Gondor, via the mingling of their

blood with lesser men.33 Miller writes that the Elves ‘represent a version of

masculinity which rejects the wordly values of political power and historical progress

in favour of the aesthetic and the transcendent’. 34 It may be because of this that

Aragorn is able to resist the temptation that the Ring offers.

31
Buchbinder, Masculinities and Identities p. 2.
32
Flieger, 'Frodo and Aragorn: The Concept of the Hero' p. 127.
33
Tolkien, The Lord of the Rings p. 238.
34
Miller, 'Alternative Masculinities and the "Dominion of Men" in The Lord of the Rings' p. 191.

18
 Aragorn’s new hegemonic masculinity obviously fails to fit the dysfunctional

patriarchy of Denethor and Boromir. Therefore, what new patriarchal order is

Aragorn establishing to enable his success? Carole Pateman explores the origins of

civil society in her essay “The Fraternal Social Contract”, which, although it

discusses the contract from the perspective of its exclusion of women, has some

relevance in understanding Aragorn’s newly installed hegemonic masculinity. 35

Pateman identifies a transition in the social contract from ‘a traditional (paternal) form

of patriarchy to a new specifically modern (or fraternal) form: patriarchal civil

society.’36 This is the same transition as witnessed in Middle-Earth to successfully

inaugurate the ‘Dominion of Men’.

Pateman’s traditional patriarchy was that which focused on the paternal

relationship between father and son. This traditional version of patriarchy is most

evident in the relationship between Boromir and Denethor and the social contract

operating in Gondor prior to Aragorn’s return. The modern fratriarchal masculine

order discussed by Pateman, is one which still recognises the patriarchal rule of the

masculine husband over the wife, but negates the father/son rule into one in which all

sons are born free and equal as members of civil society, rather than subject to the

father.37 This is what defines Aragorn as different in his relationship with his father,

compared to Boromir. In the fraternal patriarchy that Aragorn installs, the

competition between brothers for the father’s inheritance is negated, and instead the

value of each brother is judged separately.

35
Carole Pateman, 'The Fraternal Social Contract', in Rachel Adams and David Savran (eds.), The
Masculinities Studies Reader (Blackwell Publishing, 2002).
36
Ibid. p. 121.
37
Ibid. pp. 122, 124-5.

19
 To understand the difference in this new fraternal patriarchy we can examine

the relationship between Aragorn and ‘the fellowship’. By the end of Jackson’s film

adaptation, we see Aragorn as King, but a King who does not make his ‘brothers’ bow

to him. He accepts the advice of others as his equals, and is a hero who has earned his

right to the throne, rather than simply accepted it by inheritance. Moreover his

success is achieved through others’ contribution to the ‘Fellowship of the Ring’, and

he acknowledges this. No one task is of central importance and it is only by each

member’s success that the Ring can be destroyed; and this is highlighted in the

structure of Tolkien’s text, which documents the separate deeds of those in ‘the

fellowship’. Tolkien’s Faramir, a ‘brother’ disempowered and subordinated under the

traditional dysfunctional patriarchy, is now empowered with acceptable status.

Faramir is no longer a man judged by his father or his brother, but instead, by his own

worth and moral deeds.

Masculinities that are Ending

20
 38

Finally, I wish to consider what is lost with Aragorn’s heralding of ‘The

Dominion of Men’. I mentioned earlier that there is an overall theme of transition and

loss in Tolkien’s text, in which the masculinities I have so far discussed have been

operating. I also mentioned that the old age, whose removal we are witnessing, is

marked by productive female cultures, and dysfunctional male ones. While I have

looked at the culture or race of Men, there is also that of Hobbits to consider,

especially since the other hero of the text, is Frodo the Hobbit. But before I do this,

particular attention should be drawn to the removal of the Elvish race, specifically that

of which Galadriel is Queen.

The Elves have a social system with matriarchal elements; Galadriel wears

one of the three Elven rings of power, and supplies the Fellowship with much of the

wisdom and assistance necessary for its success. Tolkien has constructed Middle-

Earth so that if Frodo and Aragorn succeed in the destruction of the Ring, and the

creation of a ‘new age’, then the Elves and their way of life will diminish. Galadriel

38
Jackson, The Lord of the Rings: The Two Towers

21
notes this herself, not only in her resistance to the temptation of the Ring when Frodo

offers it to her in the film, but also in Tolkien’s original text she makes it clear the

power of the Elves is linked with the one Ring.39

This period for Middle-Earth is a time when there is no single masculinity, but

instead many, none of which have a strong foundation to raise them above the others.

Galadriel and the Elves however are a race superior to any other, and indeed, in an

analysis of the style and genre of The Lord of the Rings, their character is defined as

‘romance’, superior in degree to other men and their environment. 40 Therefore, not

only does Aragorn and the success of the ‘Dominion of Men’ depend on the help of

the Elves (Galadriel’s gifts, Elrond’s Council and Arwen), but also in the

relinquishing of their dominion of Middle-Earth. Furthermore, in order for Aragorn

to establish a hegemonic masculinity of men, the challenge posed by the successful

matriarchy of Galadriel must be annulled. As Miller states then, the ‘Dominion of

Men’ refers not simply to the hegemony of a particular masculinity, but also of a

particular race.41

It is necessary to take into account that this is not simply a clear removal of the

Elves’ influence in Middle-Earth. Although there is a distinct loss and transition

which must occur, the influence of the Elves in Aragorn’s heredity is a factor which

may account for his success where other men have failed. Other than simply genetics,

Aragorn has a more external link to the Elvish race in his partnership and marriage to

Arwen. Aragorn and Arwen therefore maintain a link (and continue this link via any

children they may have) between Elves and Men, offering a possible method of once
39
Tolkien, The Lord of the Rings p. 356.
40
T.A Shippey, J.R.R. Tolkien : Author of the Century (London: HarperCollins, 2001) p. 221.
41
Miller, 'Alternative Masculinities and the "Dominion of Men" in The Lord of the Rings' p. 187.

22
more returning the inhabitants of Gondor to their noble origins. But, Arwen and any

Elvish presence left, is clearly dominated by Aragorn and the hegemonic masculinity

he embodies. Arwen sacrifices her entitlements to immortality, and resigns herself to

a mortal ‘life’ for Aragorn and his Kingdom. This may be seen as a direct

comparison to the position of Galadriel in Lothlorien, which is maintained by virtue

of her guardianship of the Ring of Adamant, where it is Celeborn who is subject to

her.

Finally, I wish to consider Frodo and the hobbits. The race of Hobbits is also

destined to diminish in some way at the cost of the ‘Dominion of Men’. Flieger

examines Frodo and Aragorn as two specific concepts of hero; Aragorn the

extraordinary hero who ‘combines Northrop Frye’s romance and high mimetic

modes’, and Frodo the anti-hero, a common man who makes mistakes and is destined

to lose all.42 Frodo, and the masculinity he represents, is, like the Elves destined to

diminish under the ‘Dominion of Men’ and yet vital to its success. The masculinity of

the Hobbits is akin to a childlike innocence, or adolescent boyhood, and this is in a

sense represented by their physical stature. Frodo and the other Hobbits become

feminised and thus subordinated due to their size, their childish nature, and their lack

of what can be considered masculine traits. None of the Hobbits have any skill with

weapons, and it appears that their main abilities and interests lie in cooking, singing

and dancing. The race of Hobbits embody a masculinity still in its youth, able to

focus on pursuits that revolve around their own direct surroundings and lifestyle and

live with ease in the protective geographical ‘womb’ of the Shire. In some sense, the

journey of ‘the fellowship’ represents a geographical ‘coming of age’ for the Hobbits.

If Aragorn is the hero who gains everything he desires, then Frodo is the hero who
42
Flieger, 'Frodo and Aragorn: The Concept of the Hero' p. 124.

23
must lose everything he desires. Frodo must not only sacrifice the Ring but also his

relationship with the Shire.

The Shire and the Hobbits represent a masculinity which must either be

removed or adjusted to fit into the new hegemonic masculinity under the ‘Dominion

of Men’. Frodo is unable to adjust and any change that takes place in him bares little

relevance to the overall masculinity his character represents. For him, having

participated in the transition, and in effect, been actively involved in the destruction of

everything he holds dear, there is no subsequent return to ‘his’ Shire. 43 To clarify this

point Frodo can be compared to the two other Hobbits, Merry and Pippin. Unlike

Frodo, Merry and Pippin actually undergo a ‘transition’ during their time in the

Fellowship. This occurs when they drink the waters of Fangorn and actually

physically grow in size.44 Both Merry and Pippin, following this incident, swear

themselves to the service of Denethor and Theoden, both donning the trappings of

their respected houses. They take on the look of Men in outer appearance, and as

Miller notes, in their final years find greater pleasure in the company of men than in

the Shire.45 Unlike Frodo, Merry and Pippin share in the transition of masculinity

narrated by Tolkien, aligning their gendered identities with those of Men and

alienating themselves from their own kind.

Final Considerations

43
Furthermore, despite the subsequent ability of the other Hobbits to live successfully and re-adjust to
the Shire, the masculinity which it represents is eventually removed and can no longer exist for any of
them, as Miller notes; it is destined to decline under the ‘Dominion of Men’. Miller, 'Alternative
Masculinities and the "Dominion of Men" in The Lord of the Rings'.
44
Ibid. p. 196.
45
Ibid. p. 197.

24
 The alternative masculinities present in Middle-Earth are thus not entirely

removed with the success of Aragorn’s hegemonic masculinity, but are either

transformed and assimilated, or subordinated until their eventual demise. This

process is part of the power of the ‘fratriarchal’ model of masculinity, as opposed to

the traditional ‘patriarchal’ model. Aragorn’s fraternal patriarchy both assimilates

and empowers (at least to a point) subordinate masculinities which not only ensures

his success but, furthermore, their cooperation in the maintenance of the status-quo.

25
Chapter Two

And then they got slashed…

Slash Fan Fiction and The Lord of the Rings

46

In the previous chapter I discussed masculinity as it is represented in Tolkien’s The

Lord of the Rings, and in Peter Jackson’s recent film adaptation. Now I wish to
46
Jackson, The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King

26
consider a further representation of masculinity arising from this central text, and that

is in the fan writing surrounding it, specifically the sub genre of Slash. 47 Slash fiction

is a specific genre of fan writing produced and read predominantly by heterosexual

females, and traditionally incorporates two ‘lovers’ of the same gender who are

normally associates in a popular media text.48 It originated in the early 1970s in

response to the popular science fiction television series Star Trek, and focused mainly

on the central characters of Captain Kirk and Spock. 49 Slash is identified as a form of

romance fiction and can vary in its depiction of sexual acts, from the mundane to the

explicit.

Jenkins has stated of this genre, ‘Slash is not so much a genre about sex as it is

a genre about the limitations of traditional masculinity and about reconfiguring male

identity.’50 For this reason, I propose that Slash is influential to our understanding of

masculinity, especially when read in relation to the original text. I wish to argue that

Slash refocuses our understanding of the male relations in The Lord of the Rings to a

patriarchal model, as opposed to fraternal. In this chapter I will focus on two specific

pairings: Frodo/Sam, and Boromir/Aragorn. I will look at these pairings because

Frodo/Sam is the couple most often cited as crossing the homosocial/homosexual

divide, while Boromir/Aragorn are characters to whom I paid specific attention in

Chapter One.

47
In this dissertation I wish to qualify ‘Slash’ with a capital ‘S’ as it represents not only a genre of
writing but also a specific version of masculinity.
48
For various definitions of slash please: C Penley, NASA/Trek: Popular Science and Sex in America
(New York: Verso, 1997), Henry Jenkins, Textual Poachers (New York: Routledge, 1992), Matt Hills,
Fan Cultures (New York: Routledge, 2002), Catherine Salmon and Don Symons, Warrior Lovers :
Erotic Fiction, Evolution and Female Sexuality (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 2003). I
would like to note that Slash is not produced exclusively by heterosexual female writers, it is also
produced by men of either sexual orientation and lesbian women. However, it is not the focus of this
dissertation to explore the producers of this genre, or assert comments on the demographics, I simply
cite the observed producers of this genre as noted in other academics work.
49
Jenkins, Textual Poachers p. 187.
50
Ibid. p. 191

27
 I have chosen Slash examples from a website entitled “The Library of Moria”,

which was established in 2002.51 The Lord of the Rings Slash has notably become

prominent since Jackson’s film adaptation, which offered a visually appealing product

via which fans’ interests were sparked, as Smol states:

The questioning of sexuality in Tolkien’s story has intensified now that

reception of the text has become complicated by the intertexts of the Peter
Jackson films, the extended DVD versions of the films along with their
commentaries, and the enormous outpouring of fan fiction and fan art that has
been posted on the internet.52

However, as Smol implies in her observation, the development of Slash fan writing in

response to Jackson’s film follows a previously long held discourse on the depicted

sexuality within Tolkien’s original text.

Frodo/Sam Slash

51
'The Library of Moria: Lord of the Rings Slash and RPS FanFiction Archive'. My reasons for
choosing this site rely simply on Google’s search engine configuration. A query on ‘LOTR Slash fan
fiction’ gave the ‘Library of Moria’ as its first preference indicating it is a notable site.
52
Anna Smol, '"Oh...Oh...Frodo!": Readings of Male Intimacy in The Lord of the Rings', Modern
Fiction Studies, 50/4 (Winter 2004), 949-979 p. 949 .

28
 53

Sex has never dominated the science fiction and fantasy genres 54. Anna Smol

attributes Tolkien’s lack of represented sexuality in The Lord of the Rings to its

medieval idiom.55 However, Slash fan fiction has picked up the ever present notion of

a relationship between Frodo and Sam. The two hobbits are the male pairing most

often posited within the text when critics state that the ‘fine line’ between homosocial

bonds and homosexual bonds between men are crossed.56 As Rohy states, ‘the

novel’s central male couple makes short work of the homosocial’. 57 Frodo and Sam

appear in Tolkien’s original text, Jackson’s film and subsequent Slash fan fiction to

challenge ‘catergories of gender, sexuality, and male friendship’ 58. The absence of a

clear heterosexual sexuality within the text, both screen and print, offers the perfect

starting point for Slash.

53
Jackson, The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King
54
Camille Bacon-Smith, Science Fiction Culture (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press,
2000) p. 176.
55
Smol, '"Oh...Oh...Frodo!": Readings of Male Intimacy in The Lord of the Rings' p. 950.
56
Valerie Rohy, 'On Fairy Stories', Modern Fiction Studies, 50/4 (Winter 2004), 927-948 p. 929 .
57
Ibid..
58
Smol, '"Oh...Oh...Frodo!": Readings of Male Intimacy in The Lord of the Rings' p. 950.

29
 An essential theme of masculinity which I identified in the previous chapter is

related to the notion of equality and fraternity among men. Tolkien’s text is clearly

focused on a notion of ‘fellowship’ between men, and this homosociality is converted

to homosexual desire in Slash. According to Penley, a main function of Slash is the

removal of the female body, which is culturally subordinated via patriarchy, and

instead the creation of a male egalitarian sexual couple. 59 Penley’s notion of the

function of Slash and the theme of ‘fellowship’ and fraternal bonds, offers a decisive

link to our understanding of masculinity being represented in The Lord of the Rings,

where ‘fellowship’ and fraternity are present.

However, Slash’s representation of this ‘sexualised’ fraternal bond is fraught

with danger. Slash, according to Penley, is a heterosexual romance enacted between

two men to enable equality and mutual respect. 60 Penley argues that this happens

because the writers cannot write an egalitarian couple with a female, due to the

ingrained notions of dominance and submission, aggression and passivity which is

marked on notions of masculinity and femininity.61 The homosocial political

environment that is implied in The Lord of the Rings is one transforming from

traditional patriarchy to fraternal fellowship. Slash connects with this theme by

attempting to subvert patriarchy through envisioning male ‘heterosexual’

relationships, in a style of relations similar to those encountered in fraternal

fellowship. But the relationship between the characters when sexual intent is

emphasized becomes problematic, as gender is not enough to safeguard characters’

equality when a sexual interaction is introduced in their friendships. Sam/Frodo and

59
N. Muller, 'Intergalactic Sex - Interview with Constance Penley', Fringecore 3, Feb/March 1998
[Online Magazine], 1998 <http://www.fringecore.com/magazine/m3-4.html> accessed 6 June 2006.
60
Ibid.. There is also present in the Slash scene female pairings.
61
Ibid..

30
Aragorn/Boromir are not equal even in the original text, as I will explain later. In

Tolkien’s Middle-Earth the focus is transferred from a patriarchal hierarchy between

male and female, to a fraternal hierarchy of multiple masculinities and Slash, in effect,

highlights this.

Kustritz discusses the process of applying Slash to male characters within an

original media text in the following terms:

These characters [heroes in the original media text] reproduce numerous

patriarchal norms, including an understanding of masculinity as unfeeling,
unmoving, masterful, and impenetrable. This can leave the characters
emotionless and inexpressive.
…
Fan writers “repair the damage” done to these characters at the hand of
the writers and producers of the source product by making them into real
people with personalities, faults, needs, illogical desires, and weaknesses.62

However, Frodo, the hero, does not embody any of these negative traits of masculinity

which Slash is meant to be ‘repairing’. Frodo is overrun by illogical desires caused

by the Ring and, as I indicated earlier, is a hero that Flieger describes as ‘low

mimetic’ who ‘doubts, feels fear, falters, makes mistakes; he experiences, in short, the

same emotions we experience’.63 It is these very emotions that Slash wishes to create,

that draw fans to Frodo and Sam as a couple to be ‘slashed’, since they are already

present within Tolkien and Jackson’s work. Tolkien creates a homosocial friendship

of intimacy between the pair that is reminiscent of accounts of male comradeship in

the First World War.64 Jackson apparently acknowledged Frodo and Sam’s

relationship as just that65 and actually reduces the portrayal of physical intimacy

62
A Kustritz, 'Slashing the Romance Narrative', The Journal of American Culture, 26/3 (September
2003), 371-384 pp. 374-375.
63
Flieger, 'Frodo and Aragorn: The Concept of the Hero' p. 124.
64
Smol, '"Oh...Oh...Frodo!": Readings of Male Intimacy in The Lord of the Rings' pp. 956-7.
65
Ibid. p. 968.

31
between them, due to awareness of modern interpretations of male intimacy as

specifically homosexual.66

If these important elements of intimacy and friendship are already evident in

the text, then how is Slash adapting the text? Essentially, Slash introduces the

element of the sexual or erotic to the homosocial, blurring the continuum between

social bonds and individual sexuality. This can have a damaging impact on the

masculinity which Tolkien represents. Smol, whose central argument is to identify

Frodo and Sam’s relationship as similar to that of male friendship in the First World

War, also acknowledges that audience/reader reception over time has continually

struggled to view their relationship as simply a close bond between friends. 67 Indeed,

this is understandable, as Connell has traced the development and adjustment of

masculinity/s over a similar historical period 68, so likewise, we must also

acknowledge the historical developments that have occurred between Tolkien’s

original writing of the text and Jackson’s recent film adaptation. These developments

include the emergence of feminism and gay liberation. Homosexuality and gay

identity has been brought into public awareness more than ever before. Smol

cautiously asserts that ‘Lord of the Rings slash is fairly unusual in that writers may

base aspects of their stories on written texts rather than just on the films, even though

no Lord of the Rings slash sites predate the Peter Jackson films, as far as I know.’ 69 It

can therefore be extrapolated that it is Jackson’s adaptation of the text, and society’s

66
Ibid. Smol notes that in the DVD commentary of the film, actor Ian McKellen remarks, “I thought
anyone who knew the book would care about the deep friendship, often of an innocently physical
nature, and that that might be missed by two resolutely heterosexual actors who mightn’t appreciate
that gay people like myself saw in a touch something perhaps more meaningful than others.”
McKellen raises some issues about the difficulty in interpreting actors’ representation of ‘friendship’ in
contemporary society.
67
Ibid. pp. 949-978.
68
Connell, 'The History of Masculinity'.
69
Smol, '"Oh...Oh...Frodo!": Readings of Male Intimacy in The Lord of the Rings' p. 971.

32
changing views on masculinity, that have explicitly led to not simply an uneasy stance

on the friendship/intimate bond between males in the text, but an outright

interpretation of Frodo and Sam’s relationship as definitively sexual. This is far from

Tolkien’s conservative Christian views, which were unlikely to incorporate sexual

desire between men.70

What becomes clear in many analyses of Slash is its ability to blur the

boundary between masculinity and femininity, allowing characters to have fluid

identities not defined by either.71 This allows, supposedly, liberation from the gender

hierarchy that underpins patriarchal society, creating a utopian space in which to

experience love/sex without the limitations imposed by gender. But if we consider

Slash not as a separate utopian space, but rather as a further adaptation connected to

Tolkien’s original text, such blurring of sexual identity may be compromised. Our

focus in the text is continually fixed on the ‘society’ of men and masculinity. The

hierarchy Tolkien presents us with is one chiefly concerned with males and

masculinities. The removal of ‘sex’ which focuses on the power politics of gender

difference positions men as equal by virtue of their gender. The patriarchal structure

which is being removed by the installation of a fraternal bond is centred on relations

between men (and their representative masculinities). The process of ‘slashing’ Sam

and Frodo, incorporating feminine traits, and sliding each character between genders,

or positioning them as ‘queer’ fractures Tolkien’s male sphere into a gender hierarchy

that is no longer identified through the materiality of the body, but via performative

‘sex’ and sexual act alone.

70
Ibid. p. 967.
71
Jenkins, Textual Poachers p. 219. Jenkins cites Penley (1991) and Lamb and Veith (1986).

33
 As Smol observes, Tolkien remarks in his letters that, ‘[t]rue friendship is only

possible between men, since sex almost inevitably gets in the way if men and women

think that they can be friends; men have their careers and friendships, which

distinguish their lives from women’s.’72 This quote highlights an important element

about the function of sex and, more specifically, the function of sex in Tolkien’s text.

The notion of friendship is, for Tolkien, linked specifically with the male gender.

This idea fits in with the perceived focus of Tolkien on male fellowship and his

reason for sublimating the male/female sexual relationships in the text. Tolkien has

constructed, between the central male characters of the text, a fraternal political bond,

negating sex and highlighting the interaction between men and various masculinities.

Sex and gender issues, however, draw attention to the ever-present patriarchal mode

of power relations that embody the domination of the feminine by the masculine. If

slash encourages a sexual reading between the male friendships, then it would follow

that our reading of Tolkien’s original version of masculinity and the role of male

fellowship in the text will be affected.

Although Sam and Frodo’s relationship is linked to that of master/servant, it is

the friendship between the two men which can be seen, at least through Tolkien’s

aforementioned view, to enable equality between them. Their friendship at many

points throughout the text surpasses the dynamics of master/servant; Sam carries the

ring for Frodo, leads him at the later stages of the quest, returns to save Frodo from

Gollum and finally, inherits Bag End. Furthermore, their involvement in the

‘Fellowship’ situates their relationship within a community of men, and thus part of a

‘public sphere’ of equals by virtue of their gender, with equal contribution to the goal
72
Smol, '"Oh...Oh...Frodo!": Readings of Male Intimacy in The Lord of the Rings' p. 966. Smol’s
interpretation of Tolkien’s (Letters 48-50) The Letters of J.R.R. Tolkien. Ed. Humphrey Carpenter.
Boston: Houghton, 1981..

34
of the Ring’s destruction. By introducing a sexual relation though, traditional gender

politics are refocused and shifted more explicitly onto the realm of the masculine.

There may not be a clear sexual difference but, as Butler has argued, sexual difference

is only linked to gender via regulated practices. 73 Sam, as Frodo’s servant, more

easily transfers across to the ‘feminine’, as inferior and less able to participate in the

‘fraternal’ social male sphere.

Looking closely at an example of Slash Frodo/Sam (F/S) fiction, it is possible

to find evidence of the effect that the introduction of sex has on the relationship

between men. In the fan-fictional piece, “Don’t Try To Understand”, the author

explains Sam’s thoughts:

Sam didn’t look completely satisfied with his master’s answer but did not feel
it his place to pry into Mister Frodo’s business. It was like his Gaffer had
always said; “Don’t go prying into your superiors’ business, Samwise
Gamgee. They will not thank you for it and chances are you won’t understand
it anyway.”74

In this excerpt there is a noticeable emphasis on Sam’s inferior position in regards to

Frodo. Sam is here clearly removed from the political sphere of men, unable to

understand his ‘superiors’ business’, clearly outside the responsibility and

understanding shared by the rest of the Fellowship in the destruction of the Ring.

Sam, as a sexual partner of Frodo, and his servant, is positioned in the fellowship not

as an equal member, or individual, but due to his relationship with Frodo. Sam’s

subordinate female or child-like relation to Frodo is also emphasized in another Slash

work entitled “Comfort in the Arms of a Friend” which features a number of

73
Judith Butler, Bodies that Matter: On the Discursive Limits of 'Sex' (New York: Routledge, 1993) p.
1.
74
Voicelessscreaming, 'Don't Try to Understand', The Library of Moria [Online Text], 1 June
<http://www.libraryofmoria.com/frodosam/donttrytounderstandpt1.txt> accessed 6 June 2006.

35
characters from the text involved in sex and lovemaking. Frodo and Sam are

initiating their lovemaking when Frodo pauses and Sam remarks:

‘I’ve waited a good while for this, you wouldn’t leave me hanging now would
you Mr. Frodo?’ Sam’s plea was almost child-like were it not for the overlying
rasp of desire.75

And later Frodo speaks to Sam during the event:

He wasn’t even aware he was making any noise until Frodo chided him softly.
‘Sam love you’re going to have to try to keep quiet’…
‘Yes Mr. Frodo I understand. I will keep quiet even if I have to stuff some of
these leaves into my mouth to do so.’76

In these two excerpts Frodo is clearly the dominant figure, with Sam not only being

positioned as feminine but also childlike, with his constant use of ‘Mr. Frodo’.

The effects of Slash refocusing male relations back to the patriarchal mode, as

opposed to fraternal, can be elucidated through an analysis of Sam learning to read.

The author of “Don’t Try to Understand” emphasises that it is Frodo who taught Sam

to read:

Or feelings like Frodo used to get when he sat in the old rocking chair of
Bilbo’s with Sam at his feet as the two poured over old books and Elvish
scriptures, little Samwise watching his master and friend and listening as he
was read to. A feeling of nostalgia always overwhelmed Frodo when he
remembered that he was the one who taught Sam to read.77

Frodo becomes again and again the only means by which Sam has access to anything

exterior to their own personal relationship. Sam, his gender no longer confirming his

position in the social sphere of the male, is at risk of becoming disempowered and

associated with the feminine. This fluidity of gender established via Slash places

Sam’s relationship to Frodo in the realm of Pateman’s patriarchal mode in both the

75
Avalonelenya, 'Comfort in the Arms of a Friend', The Library of Moria [Online Text], 1 June
<http://www.libraryofmoria.com/legolasaragorn/comfortinthearmsofafriend.txt> accessed 6 June 2006.
76
Ibid..
77
Voicelessscreaming, 'Don't Try to Understand'.

36
relation of male to male and between male and female. In this quote, Sam is clearly

positioned as a ‘son’ to Frodo, learning from him, with Frodo in a father role and even

positioned in the rocking chair of a father, Bilbo. This father-child relationship is also

hinted at in the previous quotes of Sam sounding ‘child-like’ and Frodo chiding him.

Sam as female, subordinate to Frodo as his lover and servant gains access to writing

and reading via Frodo who teaches him skills essential to an individual’s ability to

operate in society.

Slash also has a habit of exaggerating the child-like nature of Hobbits and

confirming their adolescent status with regard to their sexuality and masculinity.

Frodo and Sam’s experimentation of their feelings towards each other in “The Giggle

Fits of Moria”, are reminiscent of adolescent experimentation with one’s body. Their

intimate touches are played off as ‘jokes between friends’ for entertainment. Frodo

and Sam are characterized as giggling schoolboys whose elders know about their

activities and scorn them simply for their inappropriate moments of experimentation.

Gandalf remarks:

Gandalf, holding the lighted staff, sighed upon seeing them.

“Really, my boys, we all do it, but there might be orcs here, don’t you see.”
“Yes, Gandalf,” Frodo said contritely.
“Sorry, Mr. Gandalf,” Sam added.78

Despite an emphasis on their sexuality being adolescent, the Hobbits - even when

simply being mentioned in Slash fiction - often display childlike traits. Merry and

Pippin, notable for their childlike folly in the book and film, are similarly portrayed in

Slash:

78
Fennelseed, 'The Giggle Fits of Moria', The Library of Moria [Online Text], 1 June
<http://www.libraryofmoria.com/frodosam/thegigglefitsofmoria.txt> accessed 6 June 2006.

37
 There was a river running through the land where everyone had stopped and
Pippin and Merry wasted no time in jumping in and splashing about. The tall
folk watched in amusement…
Aragorn nodded and stood. Boromir also rose and made his way over
to the river where Merry and Pippin were busy splashing and dunking each
other under the clear water. He stepped into the water where the two hobbits
were wading and grabbed both of them by the arm…Boromir merely lifted
them both into the air with ease and carried the squirming, soggy hobbits.79

Slash, even when not directly interacting with the represented masculinity in the

original texts, maintains certain portrayals of characters’ perceived masculinity,

perhaps emphasizing them.

79
Voicelessscreaming, 'Don't Try to Understand'.

38
Boromir/Aragorn Slash

80

While Frodo and Sam’s relationship has always been recognised as occupying

a space on the continuum between the homosocial and homosexual, the Slash fan

fiction surrounding The Lord of the Rings is in no way restricted to this alone. One of

the most relevant pairings in considering masculinity within Tolkien’s original text is

also the most unlikely, but evidently popular, male pairing in Slash, namely Boromir

and Aragorn. Unlike Frodo and Sam, these two characters share little time together,

since Boromir dies early in Tolkien’s second book and at the end of Jackson’s first

film. However, for the Slash fans the scene of Boromir’s death in Jackson’s film is a

powerful moment in which the homosocial bonds of the fellowship may be considered

to pass into the homoerotica of Slash. This pairing offers some powerful

reinterpretations of, and interaction with, the original portrayal of masculinity by

these characters, which I discussed in Chapter One.

80
Jackson, The Lord of the Rings: The Fellowship of the Ring

39
 In an interview with Penley, Muller proposed the following:

The argument has been made that the side-kick can never achieve the status of
the American Adam, because he is always presented somehow as socially or
racially inferior.81

Penley, of course, insists that Slash solves this inequality. 82 However, as I mentioned

in relation to Frodo and Sam, Slash presents further complications in the search for

equality between the characters. This same problem, as well as being witnessed in

many other Slash pairings,83 is especially present in the context of Boromir and

Aragorn. Aragorn, the returning King of Gondor, is racially superior to Boromir.

While they are both ‘brothers in arms’ of Gondor, a bond which unites them even

while enabling Boromir’s resentment of Aragorn, their ancestry is different. Aragorn,

through his ancestors, the descendents of the Numenorean 84, also shares a connection

with the Elves. His lineage is superior to Boromir’s, by virtue of his Elvish blood and

a more refined connection to the Numenor than ‘lesser men’ 85. Boromir, by

comparison, is a descendent of the Stewards of Gondor, not of royal blood, and mixed

with that of lesser men. Boromir’s very position as the son of a Steward directly

creates a subordinate bond between him and Aragorn. Rather than simply being one

of Aragorn’s subjects should he regain the throne, his political social standing is

81
Muller, 'Intergalactic Sex - Interview with Constance Penley'.
82
Ibid..
83
Kustritz, 'Slashing the Romance Narrative' p. 372.. Kustritz lists a number of common Slash pairings
that can be found, which follow a distinct pattern of combining strong/weak characters or good/evil
characters. Slash clearly relies on an underlying emphasis of inequality which may possibly add to the
erotic pleasure of pairing the characters. Despite male/male romance being idealized as removing the
patriarchal power hierarchy between the genders, there seems to be a form of substitution in the male
counterparts that similarly creates inequality.
84
Tolkien, The Lord of the Rings pp. 1009-1013. Descendents of the Ancient Eldar and the Edain
(three peoples of Men). A mixture of ancient Elven and Mortal blood, which meant they lived longer
than normal mortals but still suffered mortality. The Valar, or Guardians of the World, rewarded the
Edain with the land where Numenor was founded.
85
Flieger, 'Frodo and Aragorn: The Concept of the Hero' p. 127 and Tolkien, Fellowship, p. 238.

40
merely temporary at all times; a constant deferral of power that can never truly be

claimed by him.

This inequality is emphasized in Slash pairing. In ‘Brothers in Arms’, the

scene in which Boromir regards the Narsil at Rivendell is re-enacted and elaborated

upon. The following comment from Boromir occurs when he and Aragorn discuss

Elves:

“Yes,” Boromir broke in softly, “that’s how elves see things, when they are in
the world, everyone else is on the bottom.”86

In this Slash story, Boromir is characterized as having a great mistrust of and hatred

for the Elves. In both Tolkien’s original text and Jackson’s film adaptation, Boromir

is not racist towards them. The racial difference between them is emphasized, though

Aragorn is referred to more as a fellow man of Gondor, rather than acknowledging his

Elven ancestry. Aragorn however, in true Slash standard, manages to dissuade

Boromir’s mistrust of Elves through his love and intimacy with him. However,

despite playing down the racial difference between the men, while at the same time

emphasizing it as the chief antagonism between them, Boromir is nevertheless not

Aragorn’s equal. The Slash fiction repeatedly focuses the reader’s attention to

Boromir and Aragorn’s bond through Gondor. Boromir is referred to both by

Aragorn and in the narrative as ‘Warrior’, ‘Gondor’s Warrior’ and ‘Son of Gondor’.

Conversely, Aragorn is referred to as ‘Gondor’s reluctant King’. Their description

during lovemaking is perhaps the clearest indication of their relation to each other:

‘Gondor’s warrior arched against his king’.87 Once again, like Frodo and Sam,
86
Thefairone, 'Brothers in Arms', The Library of Moria [Online Text], 1 June
<http://www.libraryofmoria.com/aragornboromir/brothersinarms.txt> accessed 6 June 2006.
87
Ibid.

41
Boromir is identified as crossing the boundary between genders and slipping into the

disempowered feminine. This is explicitly linked to his subordinate and subservient

position to Aragorn:

“my king” [Boromir] gasped “you have my allegiance” and with that he let the
wave crash over him again, the world exploded and carried him away into a
blissful darkness. Seeing Boromir pass out beneath him, feeling his seed upon
him and the hot flesh in which he was embedded contract about him was too
much. Aragorn came, filling the powerful body beneath him. He paused long
enough to place a final kiss upon the man’s soft lips.88

Boromir, in this context, is clearly identified as female by the act of being penetrated,

and thus subordinated. Furthermore his claim of allegiance to Aragorn during

intercourse explicitly connects his sexual penetration with servitude.

Boromir and Aragorn’s relationship, especially when represented in Jackson’s

film and Slash, is closely reminiscent of the friendship between men during the First

World War that Tolkien may have wished to represent, notably in the relationship

between Frodo and Sam.89 The scene in which Boromir dies is the central aspect of

Slash between Aragorn and Boromir; with writing often ending in reference to

Boromir’s death or actually dealing with the scene itself. Yet there is a vast

difference between Tolkien’s original text and Jackson’s adaptation. In Tolkien’s

original version, Boromir dies saying nothing more than, ‘Farewell, Aragorn! Go to

Minas Tirith and save my people! I have failed.’ 90 However, Jackson’s film

88
Ibid..
89
Smol discusses Santanu Das’ claims, “In analyzing examples of same-sex gestures of physical
tenderness, particularly the dying kiss- a male-to-male kiss exchanged in moments of extreme danger
or near death- Das reveals the difficulties of conceptualizing sexuality and gender in this situation:
homoeroticism is not necessarily opposed to heterosexuality; the tender physical gesture is an
affirmation of life and a triumpth over death that is not necessarily to be equated with eroticism or
repressed sexual drives. p. 955.
90
Tolkien, The Lord of the Rings p. 404.

42
adaptation changes this substantially and adds to the relationship between Aragorn

and Boromir.

In the scene of Boromir’s death, Aragorn and Boromir exchange many

caresses and Aragorn promises that he will not let their people fail, to which Boromir

responds, ‘Our people. I would have followed you my brother, my captain, my king’,

before dying, with Aragorn placing a kiss on his forehead. 91 With the addition of

these words, Jackson emphasizes Tolkien’s version of male comradeship, since the

dying kiss, ‘a male-to-male kiss exchanged in moments of extreme danger or near

death’ is something which Santanu Das argues was symbolic of male friendship

during the First World War.92 The intimacy related to here is explicitly linked to the

battlefield and the ‘brotherly love’ of warriors fighting for their country by Boromir’s

words and the location in which he dies (the battlefield with slain orcs around him).

Furthermore the exchange between Aragorn and Boromir is also similar to that of

officer and batman,93 with Boromir acknowledging Aragorn as his captain and king,

who he would followed into battle. Aragorn and Boromir however still emphasize an

overall equality in their relationship, with the use of ‘brother’ and ‘our people’,

strengthening the ideal of a fraternal bond between men in Tolkien’s work.

It is interesting that Jackson was willing to have a scene that most clearly

involved physical intimacy between men, through a kiss, and yet was hesitant in his

portrayal of handholding and physical affection between Frodo and Sam. However I

think this indicates that he was careful to ensure that Tolkien’s portrayal of male

91
Jackson, The Lord of the Rings: The Fellowship of the Ring .
92
Smol, '"Oh...Oh...Frodo!": Readings of Male Intimacy in The Lord of the Rings' p. 955.
93
A British Military officer’s orderly. 'Batman', Dictionary.com [Online Dictionary],
<http://dictionary.reference.com/search?q=batman> accessed 6 June 2006.

43
intimacy was read as homosocial rather than homoerotic. The kiss between Aragorn

and Boromir is clearly situated as Das’s ‘dying kiss’, especially as the relationship

between Aragorn and Boromir up to this point was strained and hostile 94. There is not

much evidence in the film to support the notion that this dying sign of affection

should be read as anything other than ‘brotherly love’ between men at the battlefront.

However, the relationship between Frodo and Sam has a close bond of friendship and

they journey alone, with only each other for company for the majority of the text,

allowing more open interpretations of their relationship.

As mentioned, Aragorn and Boromir represent two distinct forms of

masculinity present within Tolkien’s Middle-Earth. Boromir represents an outdated

patriarchal masculinity, while Aragorn represents a new, more fraternal masculinity.

By uniting these two men in a Slash context, these masculinities are altered and

affected. According to Kustritz, Slash works to break down the ideal of ‘‘Real Men’

as self-sufficient, emotionless and independent’ because it recognises that the central

masculine figure always has a ‘sidekick’ who provides emotional support. 95 However

in the context of Tolkien’s work, this theory does not apply to either the coupling of

Frodo and Sam or Aragorn and Boromir. This is perhaps because Tolkien already

acknowledges the importance of male friendship and fraternity but, unlike Slash, does

not introduce a homoerotic relationship into that which is purely homosocial.

However, as Boromir represents this self-sufficient and independent masculinity, as

argued in Chapter One, he is akin to Ruddick’s, fundamentalist style masculinity 96 and

thus fits with Kustritz’s view.97 Slash manages to partly transform Boromir,

94
Santanu, Das. “‘Kiss me, Hardy’: Intimacy, Gender and Gesture in World War I Trench Literature.”
Modernism/Modernity 9 (2002): 51-74.
95
Kustritz, 'Slashing the Romance Narrative' p. 276.
96
Ruddick, 'Preface: Another Key to Bluebeard's Chamber' pp. 2, 4.
97
Kustritz, 'Slashing the Romance Narrative' p. 276.

44
introducing the reader to a more emotional side of him that is hidden in the original

text. However, his characterization in Slash is always tainted with anger and

aggression, which is only transformed once a love relationship is established, or in

Boromir’s dying moments. As Kustritz suggests:

Fan writing preys upon characters who reproduce traditional masculinity,

traditional class and race hierarchies, and traditional relational scripts and
reconfigures them into tales of communal societies, racial equality, and sexual
transgression.98

And Boromir is a classic example of this reconfiguring of masculinity. Nevertheless

this transformation will always remain incomplete, as the only moment in which he

and Aragorn gain an intimacy which may cross over to the homoerotic, is at the

moment of his death. Furthermore, involving Boromir in a relationship with Aragorn

only serves to highlight the inevitable removal of the masculinity, which he

represents. Aragorn undergoes no such transformation of masculinity; his character

already encompasses elements of Buchbinder’s ‘New Age Man’, which is closely

connected with the re-envisioning of masculinity which Slash attempts.

Remaining focused on Boromir and Aragorn’s representation of masculinities,

Slash potentially draws attention to patriarchal bonds once more rather than fraternal.

In the three random examples of strictly Boromir/Aragorn Slash, the focus was more

inclined to the perspective of Boromir and his feelings rather than those of Aragorn.

As mentioned before, this is probably because Boromir is a far more attractive choice

as he represents a version of masculinity that denies the open acknowledgement of

such emotions. By focusing on Boromir and an intimate sexual relationship between

him and Aragorn which transgresses the homosocial, their relationship links back to

98
Ibid. p. 376.

45
the patriarchy which he represents. Aragorn and Boromir as simply ‘brothers’ on the

battlefield, emphasize the equality which Aragorn represents, his fraternal masculinity

and willingness as a King to share responsibility with his society of ‘men’. Yet, the

Slash examples I have mentioned invite a reading where Boromir, by inviting an

intimate relationship, reinforces patriarchy as female and subject. In ‘Kiss of Death’

Nadja Lee imagines the thoughts going through Boromir’s mind moments before his

death in the film. She writes:

Gondor I have realized on the way doesn’t belong to me and was never mine
in the first place. Not mine to rule and not mine to worry about…
The man’s [Aragorn] everything I want to be and everything I want in a leader
and King.99

The emphasis here is on ‘ownership’ and this ownership is being recognised by

Boromir to be the right of Aragorn. Boromir is affirming the patriarchal power values

of Aragorn, due to the intimacy of their relationship, rather than situating himself as a

member of the ‘fellowship’.

Final Considerations

99
Lee Nadja, 'Kiss of Death', The Library of Moria [Online Text], 1 June 2002
<http://www.libraryofmoria.com/aragornboromir/kissofdeath.txt> accessed 6 June 2006.

46
 Essentially, what I have explored in this reading of Slash and its effect on the

representations of masculinity already identified in the text, is that it can offer re-

enforcement of underlying themes, but also upset the delicate balance set up by

Tolkien, which is reliant upon the homosocial. What Slash is attempting to do in its

subversive readings, works for those original texts which focus on a patriarchal

masculinity that denies an exploration of male relations. However, Tolkien’s text

already explores this, to a certain extent negating a focus on the feminine in order to

look explicitly at homosocial relations. His absence of sex plays a specific role in

allowing this homosocial focus, centred on fraternal relations, to exist. By

introducing sex and blurring gender boundaries, power relations and patriarchy

conversely become reintroduced. As Henry Jenkins warns:

There is a risk, however, in becoming so preoccupied with the erotic

dimensions of slash, in becoming so fascinated with its ‘scandalous’ qualities
that we ignore its larger narrative content and its complex relationship to the
primary text.100

Slash in this instance has only sex to offer to the ‘primary text’, as the primary text

already explores the other issues of intimacy, power and partnership between men. Its

risk, as explored in this chapter, is in reducing the complex interplay of male

relations, to a dimension fraught with danger and encouraging the pitfalls of gender

inequality.

Chapter Three:

What has happened to my Masculinity?

100
Jenkins, Textual Poachers p. 202.

47
Masculinity in The Lord of the Rings, Society and Slash

101

Previously I have examined masculinity in two contexts. Firstly through an

exploration of masculinity within the original text and film adaptation of The Lord of

the Rings. Secondly, by an analysis of masculinity and how it was represented in

Slash, with a consideration of the masculinities already explored in Chapter One. In

101
Jackson, The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King

48
this final chapter I wish to draw together these notions of masculinity. As a character

in The Lord of the Rings, and a representative of the ‘New Age’ masculinity in

Middle-Earth, I will use Aragorn here to explore historical changes and

transformations of masculinity. I wish to emphasize the notion of a parallel between

the changing masculinities in Middle-Earth and the real world, and how Slash

functions in the process of adaptation of the masculinities presented in The Lord of the

Rings by society,.

Some of the central themes in my considerations so far include adaptation and

historical change. My conception of masculinity then must be considered as

‘constructionist’ and evidently influenced thus far by Connell, Buchbinder and

Pateman. This chapter will follow in two parts, firstly focused on the transformation

of masculinity within The Lord of the Rings, and secondly on the transformation in

our society.

Part One: Transformation and Masculinity within The Lord of the Rings

49
 102

It is clear from my earlier exploration of masculinity in Middle-Earth that a

significant historical change occurs, namely, the transition from the Third to the

Fourth Age, the ‘Dominion of Men’. Therefore, in Tolkien’s Middle-Earth the

social/cultural order is unstable and undergoing a process of transformation.

Connell’s use of a historical approach to masculinity, tracing a timeline by which

certain masculinities become hegemonic while others subordinated also applies to

Middle-Earth. It helps to understand the relationship between masculinities within the

text and how they are transforming.

Connell mentions the importance of violence, colonization, race, sexuality and

a number of other factors in the formation of masculinity and the modern gender

order.103 In Tolkien’s Middle-Earth, these factors also play a part in understanding the

relations between the different masculinities identified in the text. As Miller says, the

different races in The Lord of the Rings represent alternative masculinities present,

which will either be subordinated or eliminated in the ‘Dominion of Men’ which I

102
Jackson, The Lord of the Rings: The Fellowship of the Ring
103
Connell, 'The History of Masculinity' pp. 244-254.

50
mentioned earlier in Chapter One.104 Violence and the emphasis on war and

masculinity identified with warriors are also emphasized throughout the text,

especially by characters such as Aragorn, Boromir, Faramir, Merry and Pippin.

Connell also mentions the impact of feminism and alternative sexual subcultures

while sexuality and women are removed from the central focus of Tolkien’s work, the

issue of sexuality has been more than adequately focused on in the reception and

adaptation of The Lord of the Rings.

Evidently Tolkien’s Middle-Earth mirrors the changing historical pressures

that have affected our own formation of masculinity/s. Connell also writes that:

The history of masculinity, it should be abundantly clear, is not linear. There

is no master line of development to which all else is subordinate, no simple
shift from “traditional” to “modern”. Rather we see, in the world created by
European empires, complex structures of gender relations in which dominant,
subordinated and marginalized masculinities are in constant interaction,
changing the conditions for each others’ existence and transforming
themselves as they do.105

While I would tend to agree that the history of masculinity is indeed not linear in

Middle-Earth either, there is however, a distinct effort to show a shift from a

‘traditional’ masculinity to a more ‘modern’ form. This is of course no clean-cut task,

as Connell recognises, and there is a constant interaction and struggle between the

subordinated and marginalized masculinities, and the central ‘modern’ hegemonic

masculinity being enforced. The central focus of Tolkien’s and Jackson’s The Lord of

the Rings is the interactions between the characters, and the masculinities they

represent, in order for the Fourth Age to be installed. These masculinities are brought

together by the ‘Fellowship’, and eventually subordinate themselves or are adjusted to

104
Miller, 'Alternative Masculinities and the "Dominion of Men" in The Lord of the Rings' pp. 183-203.
105
Connell, 'The History of Masculinity' p. 254.

51
conform to the ‘hegemonic’ model. This ‘modern’ hegemonic masculinity is

embodied by Aragorn. It is the new masculinity of the Fourth Age which shall be

associated with the Men that dominate it.

Another way to look at the changing masculinity in The Lord of the Rings is

with the incorporation of Pateman’s transition from patriarchal to fraternal. Although

Pateman’s article explores this transition in specific relation to the social contract, it

highlights an important historical change in regard to the power relations between

men.106 Pateman contends that:

More precisely, … our own momentous transition from the traditional to the
modern world – a transition which the contract stories encapsulate
theoretically – involved a change from a traditional (paternal) form of
patriarchy to a new specifically modern (or fraternal) form: patriarchal civil
society…107

If we add this consideration of Pateman’s to Connell’s historical change, we begin to

get a more appropriate understanding of the change that Aragorn is promoting in The

Lord of the Rings. Aragorn, as I mentioned in Chapter One, embodies this fraternal

form of patriarchy, unlike his fellow ‘brother’, Boromir. By implementing this

‘modern’ patriarchy Aragorn significantly changes the power relations between those

masculinities present in Middle-Earth. The ‘Fellowship’ of masculinities is both

literal and metaphorical, in that the bond between the characters also symbolises the

‘fraternal’ patriarchy of male relations organised by Aragorn’s new hegemony. Thus

by incorporating Pateman’s analysis of the social contract, we acknowledge the

historical instalment of a hegemonic masculinity which dominates, but allows the

presence of, fellow subordinated masculinities.

106
Pateman, 'The Fraternal Social Contract'.
107
Ibid. p. 121.

52
 When applied to an understanding of The Lord of the Rings, Connell’s and

Pateman’s theories highlight the historical change taking place in Middle-Earth in

regards to masculinity, but Buchbinder suggests a clear notion of what the hegemonic

masculinity Aragorn is installing might represent. As quoted in Chapter One, the

‘New Age Man’ described by Buchbinder incorporates traditionally ‘unmanly’

qualities.108 He is more in touch with emotions and nature, and less restricted by male

logic.109 We can see a clear comparison between Buchbinder’s ‘New Age Man’ and

his aggressive ‘Old Age Man’ in Tolkien’s and Jackson’s Middle-Earth, represented

by Aragorn and Boromir respectively. Aragorn has all the trademarks of the

traditional male, including strength, independence and skills as a warrior and leader.

These are accompanied by qualities that would be associated with weakness; most

evidently his emotional connections with others but which, in Tolkien’s transitional

period, enable him to triumph where ‘Old Age’ men have failed. Buchbinder’s ‘New

Age Man’, Aragorn, is empowered and consequently can successfully implement a

new dominant masculinity.

Tolkien has recorded, in Middle-Earth, a period of historical change in which

it is possible to see the process by which a new hegemonic masculinity comes into

power. There are a range of masculinities operating in the text, but eventually one

comes to dominate the others due to the social conditions of that period. Aragorn, as

a character and as a representative of a single masculinity, succeeds because he is

equipped with qualities that allow him to subordinate, relate, acknowledge, and

108
Buchbinder, Masculinities and Identities p. 2.
109
Ibid. .

53
incorporate those around him. Central to this success is Pateman’s fraternal notion of

interaction between men.

There are important ramifications for the relations between masculinities and

men in The Lord of the Rings due to the hegemonic masculinity Aragorn is

establishing. Buchbinder remarks that the ‘New Age Man’ is prepared to make

himself emotionally vulnerable.110 Aragorn can do this without weakening his

position in the power relations operating between the men in The Lord of the Rings,

according to Pateman’s fraternal social contract. In the aspect of patriarchy that

determines the relations between men, namely father and sons, there is an emphasis

on competition. Between brothers there is a constant, evident competition over who

shall succeed the father and shall dominate. Patriarchy leaves no room for equality

between men, but instead focuses on conformity through competition between them.

This is evident in the text in the relationship between Boromir, Faramir and Aragorn.

Boromir exhibits his power through his strength and leadership abilities, but fails

because he is unwilling to share his responsibility with others. Faramir is

subordinated, and his qualities, which are no lesser than his brother but are tempered

by his sharing of emotions and responsibility with other men (notably Frodo) is not

recognised by his father. However, Aragorn and his new fraternal masculinity allow a

greater freedom for men to relate to each other, and express emotions and friendship.

Aragorn’s fraternal hegemonic masculinity enables a wider variety of

interactions between men. Those emphasized in The Lord of the Rings’s are the

benefits of comradeship and fellowship amongst men, as opposed to those of

competition or aggression. However, although Aragorn’s new hegemonic masculinity

110
Ibid.

54
allows fraternity between individual men; it still subordinates and assimilates

alternative masculinities. But, in assimilating the alternative masculinities that were

present, an improved masculinity has emerged than those that existed before.

There is notably a sense of loss that is associated with change. But those

masculinities which have adapted or been assimilated, such as those represented by

the Hobbits and Dwarfs, have enabled interaction with other men/races previously

mistrusted. The Hobbits gain respect for the world of ‘men’ and likewise, the world

of ‘men’ becomes aware of the presence of Hobbits. Gimili and Legolas share an

acknowledgement of each other’s culture. Furthermore, in Tolkien’s novel there is an

emphasis on the renewing of the lost old age alliance between Rohan and Gondor, and

in Jackson’s film translation, Haldir and the Elves come to help Rohan at Helms Deep

to once again honour an alliance. 111 These interactions are made possible by the

fraternity and fellowship and, in fact, the ability of men and races to work together

when previously they had been in competition is ultimately what leads to their success

over Sauron.

So far I have considered the changing masculinity in the narrative of The Lord

of the Rings, however, another narrative which must be considered is that of the

adaptation from Tolkien’s novel to Jackson’s films. Important changes take place

here, which indicate the presence of changing receptions, and methods of defining

what is ‘masculine’. I will firstly deal with the representation of the relationship

between Frodo and Sam. This adaptation may highlight some of the issues

surrounding masculinity and its problem pertaining to male intimacy. Furthermore,

111
Claire Valente, 'Translating Tolkien's Epic: Peter Jackson's Lord of the Rings', Intercollegiate
Review, 40/1 (Fall 2004), 35-43 p. 37.

55
the central ‘men’ in The Lord of the Rings also undergo a significant change.

Aragorn, Faramir and Boromir, in terms of character representation and relationships

with each other, all undergo adjustment when transitioned to the screen.

One of the obvious changes that took place between text and film is in the

representation of Frodo and Sam’s relationship. Smol looks specifically at the history

of Frodo and Sam’s portrayal of male intimacy and tries to identify the real

relationship Tolkien was exploring.112 Smol agrees that the relationship between Sam

and Frodo is that of British soldiers in the First World War, and more specifically,

that of an officer and his batman.113 This method of viewing the intimacy and

relationship between many of the characters is relevant to how we understand the

portrayal of masculinity. Smol acknowledges the considerable problems of Tolkien’s

readers being unable to understand this unique bond between men; which is central to

understanding masculinity in the context of World War I. 114 A present day film

adaptation would face similar, if not more exaggerated, problems of interpretation.

Jackson, aware of the Tolkien’s original relationship between Frodo and Sam, adjusts

it to focus more on friendship rather than a master/servant bond. 115 Furthermore,

Jackson adapts the loving intimate gestures between the two to those more acceptable

between male friends: hearty hugs and slaps on the back.116

However, despite this adjustment for a modern audience, the affections shared

still provoke an association more inclined towards the homoerotic instead of the

homosocial. Maybe this is because the intimacy, such as it now is, has been taken out

112
Smol, '"Oh...Oh...Frodo!": Readings of Male Intimacy in The Lord of the Rings'
113
Ibid. pp. 956-957, 962-963.
114
Ibid. p. 956.
115
Ibid. p. 968.
116
Ibid..

56
of context by the removal of a focus on the master/servant relationship. What is being

presented is a simple friendship that is not clearly linked with the bonds of war-time

experience. As Smol comments,

Tolkien, like other war writers, deals with male bonding…and the difference
between male comradeship and friendship under the pressure of battle.117

This is an interesting consideration because it has been stated elsewhere that male

intimacy and friendship in Western society can only be explored through

comradeship.118 However, Robert A. Strikwerda and Larry May acknowledge

evidence that this comradeship is often destructive and lacking in real intimacy:

Comradeship is a deontological regard for a generalized other, and in this

sense, is quite different from intimate friendships, which are based on a regard
for a particularized other and where consequences and contexts matter quite a
bit.119

In the text presented by Tolkien, there was both comradeship, allowing intimacy

between men, and most importantly an emphasis on friendship and a deeper

understanding of the individual. The way that Tolkien adds this extra dimension of

intimacy to comradeship, is by breaking off Frodo and Sam from the larger group, to

allow more time for their relationaship to develop beyond a simple master/servant

binary.

The other significant adaptation of characters is Aragorn, Boromir and

Faramir. The change of Aragorn is in his re-visioning as a hero more acceptable to a

117
Ibid. p. 956.
118
Larry May and Robert A. Strikwerda, 'Male Friendship and Intimacy', in Larry May, Robert
Strikwerda and Patrick D Hopkins (eds.), Rethinking Masculinity: Philosophical Explorations in Light
of Feminism (2nd edn., Lanham, Md: Rowman & Littlefield, 1996) p. 82, 1992.
119
Ibid. p. 83.

57
modern audience. This is simply done by adapting his heroic qualities, which in the

novel make him Frye’s romance/high mimetic model hero, to those more suitable to

low mimesis – as a somewhat reluctant hero who cannot ignore his destiny to be

‘great’.120 Tolkien’s Aragorn is clearly noble and compassionate, and throughout the

entire text displays qualities which assure his rightful position as King and leader of

men.121 Jackson however, emphasizes Aragorn’s fear of ‘weakness’, like men before

him such as Isildur.122 Jackson’s Aragorn is less articulate in his initial meeting with

the Hobbits, is denied the ability to show his skills by Arwen’s dispute over his

judgement and protection of Frodo, and furthermore, is doubtful of his relationship

with Arwen who instead is required to encourage him continually, and finally bestow

Narsil on him.123

Kelso aligns these changes in Aragorn’s character as two distinct versions of

masculinity represented by male fantasy heroes. She identifies the first as:

Male, brawny, physically victorious, sexually potent and socially just above
retard level. This figure in turn draws on what feminist critics have seen as the
hegemonic constructions of 19th and 20th Century masculinity. Joanna Russ
described this Real He-Man as “Invulnerable…super-potent…absolutely self-
sufficient…never frightened [or] indecisive” and “he always wins.”124

Aragorn has elements of this ‘Conan’ style fantasy hero, but is more intelligent,

socially apt and shows considerably more emotion in Tolkien’s text. 125 Jackson’s

120
Valente, 'Translating Tolkien's Epic: Peter Jackson's Lord of the Rings' p. 38. and for Frye’s analysis
of heroes and its application to LOTR, see Shippey, J.R.R. Tolkien : Author of the Century p. 221. and
Flieger, 'Frodo and Aragorn: The Concept of the Hero' p. 124 .
121
Valente, 'Translating Tolkien's Epic: Peter Jackson's Lord of the Rings' p. 39.
122
Ibid. p. 38.
123
Sylvia Kelso, 'A Trifle Skittish: Evolutions of the Fantasy Hero in Peter Jackson's The Lord of the
Rings and Lois McMaster Bujold's The Curse of Chalion'.
124
Ibid. .Quoting Joanna Russ “Alien Monsters.” Turning Points: Essays in the Art of Science Fiction.
Ed. Damon Knight. (New York: Harper and Row, 1977.) 132-43.
125
Ibid..

58
Aragorn appears to be much closer to this heroic ideal, with designer sweat, dirt and

grime, he speaks far less (at least in the first film) and shows less sympathy than in

Tolkien’s original text.126 There is also a heavy focus on his battle skills, at

Weathertop, Mines of Moria and Helm’s Deep.

Kelso also cites Jim Villani’s version of the ‘non-heroic male protagonist’,

constructed from women science fiction writers 127, who closely fit with the

construction of Frodo’s masculinity. She quotes,

Villani constructed this figure…as “highly intelligent” but “rendered impotent

by…nature and/or culture”, “not brave in the accepted masculine sense,”
“indecisive,” “lonely,” not a “charismatic leader”, and sexually
“emasculated”.128

This hero is entirely embodied, in my opinion, by Frodo. However, when considering

Tolkien’s Aragorn in light of this version he is highly intelligent and lonely (at first)

but is not indecisive, cowardly or emasculated. 129 Jackson’s Aragorn is shown to be

indecisive (in his relationship with Arwen), is inwardly uncertainty (regarding his

destiny), is doubted at the meeting in Rivendell and disparaged on occasion (by

Arwen in the saving of Frodo).130 Overall, in considering these two versions of heroic

masculinity, Aragorn embodies the negative traits of both in the film, but far less so in

Tolkien’s original text.

The characters of Boromir and Faramir are also adapted in Jackson’s transition

from text to film, which ultimately affects the masculinities they represent. Boromir,

126
Ibid..
127
Ibid..
128
Ibid..
129
Ibid..
130
Ibid..

59
whose masculinity essentially embodies the flawed patriarchal relations between men,

is redeemed by Jackson. Just as Aragorn is made more human and flawed, Boromir’s

flaws are made into errors of judgement which are finally recognised. This however

does not occur in Tolkien’s novel, and even while dying, Boromir still remarks ‘my

people’, not ‘our people’. Even at the last, Boromir remains ‘self sufficient’ and true

to a fundamentalist masculinity noted by Ruddick. 131 Tolkien’s Faramir was the

complete opposite of his brother, recognising the failings of flawed patriarchy, and

denying the wishes of his father’s approval due to his better judgement. In the film,

Jackson reverses this, making Faramir prone to his brother’s weakness in taking the

Ring as a tool for his own self glory and for violent means. Unlike his brother,

Faramir still manages to let go of the Ring, but only when he witnesses the damage it

can cause. Once again, Jackson takes a man who was, perhaps, close to the level of

Tolkien’s Aragorn, and instead reduces him to the standards of an ‘ordinary man.’132

Part Two: Masculinity in Society – Transformations and Slash

131
Ruddick, 'Preface: Another Key to Bluebeard's Chamber' p. 4.
132
Valente, 'Translating Tolkien's Epic: Peter Jackson's Lord of the Rings' p. 40.

60
 133

This history of change and transformation of masculinity is of course, evident

in our society. Masculinity is currently suffering a state of crisis. 134 Connell has

outlined the historical changes that have led to the formation of the current gender

order, but I will focus on the current state of masculinity in our society and its relation

to that found in The Lord of the Rings.

An understanding of masculinity must be defined not through means of

essentialism, but instead through a constructionist approach. This approach focuses

attention on three main areas; the division of labour, the structure of power and more

recently a focus on cathexis.135 These three key elements, according to Carrigan,

Connell and Lee, are at the basis of any understanding of masculinity, and of

patriarchy.136 Recent historical changes have damaged what were previously stable

perceptions of how these elements constructed masculinity.

133
Jackson, The Lord of the Rings: The Two Towers
134
Academics who perceive masculinity to be in a state of crises are those such as Buchbinder and
Connell.
135
Connell, Carrigan and Lee, 'Toward a New Sociology of Masculinity' p. 111.
136
Ibid..

61
 Prior to 1939, men were secure in their position as the ‘breadwinner’ of the

household. They had position and power in the public sphere, while the women held

power in the home and private affairs. However, as Buchbinder notes, two world

wars have had a startling effect on the ‘traditional, dominant model of masculinity.’ 137

During this time changes have occurred in the traditional gender roles, whereby more

women moved into the workforce and proved to be just as capable as their husbands

in providing for the family.138 Buchbinder also notes the aftermath of the Great War,

the Great Depression of 1929 when unemployment threatened the normative view of

‘self-sufficient’ and ‘independent’ men who could support their family 139. Tolkien

echoes these dilemmas in The Lord of the Rings with Eowyn’s capable victory in the

male dominated sphere of the battlefield while Jackson also illustrates this with the

addition of Arwen’s horse-riding skills saving Frodo from the Nazgul.

In terms of psychological effects of the Great War, men also started to

recognise that they were not invincible, suffering from shell shock and an inability to

re-adjust to civilian life.140 Men suffered a range of emotional disorders, which, to

some degree, weakened the ‘hardened’ ideal of masculinity. Jackson’s specifically

introduces and reflects this mental stress and momentary loss of emotional control on

numerous occasions during his films. After Gandalf’s death the Hobbits, Boromir and

the others grieve. Boromir’s temporary insanity and scuffle with Frodo for the Ring

reflects, not only the power of the ring, but also the stress of battle. Finally, and most

importantly, moments before the battle at Helm’s Deep, Aragorn announces their

plight is hopeless showing that even the story’s greatest warrior is prone to despair.

137
Buchbinder, Masculinities and Identities p. 8.
138
Ibid. pp. 8-9.
139
Ibid. p. 11.
140
Ibid. pp. 8-9.

62
 Another important factor Buchbinder attributes to the destabilisation of

masculinity in current society is the sexual revolution. 141 This reinforced the

exclusively male notion of sexual potency and conquest.142 From the 1960-70s

onwards, women have increasingly asserted their own sexual liberty, reminding the

social order that they have lusts/desires and physical needs like men. This is most

visibly seen in the media productions of shows such as Sex and the City. Tolkien and

Jackson, conversely, offer us a version of masculinity that is decidedly unconcerned

with sexual conquest. Aragorn is a far cry from the epic heroes of old, such as

Odysseus, as despite his temptation with Eowyn, he remains decidedly abstinent,

emphasizing his commitment to Arwen. Likewise, Sam’s commitment to Rosie,

although not a focus of the text, reinforces the ideal heterosexual prosperity in a

committed relationship.

Finally, and in my view, most central to the current dilemma of masculinity

and the re-visioning of the male in such social texts as Slash is the rise of second

wave feminism and gay liberation in the 1960 and 1970s. Buchbinder explains that

feminism has challenged men’s positions and assumptions, as well as the roles

traditionally assigned to gender, but has also made them consistently guilty and

positioned them as the antagonists of women rather than their protectors 143. This

dilemma of masculinity is also touched upon by both Tolkien and Jackson with

Eowyn. Aragorn acknowledges her skill with a sword, but maintains her place is with

the women and children, most explicitly at the battle of Helm’s Deep. However,

Tolkien and Jackson manage to both acknowledge the ability of women outside of
141
Ibid. pp. 11-12.
142
Ibid. p. 12.
143
Ibid. p. 16.

63
their traditional gender roles, most notably with Eowyn’s defeat of the Nazgul Lord,

and also reassert their traditional place. Masculinity, both traditional and modern,

does not suffer from this and is perhaps reaffirmed by the end of the text, when

Eowyn happily marries Faramir, both of whom see battle as a necessity rather than a

pleasure.144.

The effects of gay liberation and its associated social and political writing also

disrupt some of the fundamental masculine ideals. As Buchbinder asserts,

The gay movement raises questions about the binary system instituted through
dominant notions of masculinity and femininity, whereby individuals must fit
into either/or categories of male/female, heterosexual/homosexual,
active/passive, and so on. It challenges the right of men to assume superiority
over women and of heterosexual men to assume superiority over
homosexuals145.

Gay liberation and the writing prompted by it, has questioned the position of

patriarchy, and the hegemonic masculinity that maintains it. The presence of

homosexuality, not as a disease, psychological disorder or isolated act, but as an

opposing form of sexuality embodied by gay men, disrupts one of the essential

assumptions of patriarchy. Although still marginalized, gay men have becoming

increasingly evident in society, and are a constant reminder that there is no ‘single’

masculinity.

144
Valente, 'Translating Tolkien's Epic: Peter Jackson's Lord of the Rings' p. 43. As Faramir remarks,
“War must be, while we defend our lives against a destroyer who would devour all; but I do not love
the bright sword for its sharpness, nor the arrow for its swiftness, nor the warrior for his glory.” – p 656
LOTR Here Faramir seems to be allowing a more open interpretation of masculinity and its connection
with the ideal of the ‘warrior’. Men are men when they fight when the need arises, but they should not
value war for war alone. Eowyn likewise appears to value her position in battle because she wishes to
be with those she loves, namely Aragorn and Theoden, but once the War is over, she is content to
return to her traditional position. Perhaps here, in Tolkien’s case particularly as a reflection of WWI,
we are witnessing the necessity of women to take up other roles when men are away at War, but upon
their return they should be content in their traditional occupations according to patriarchal convention.
145
Buchbinder, Masculinities and Identities p. 21.

64
 In recognising gay liberation’s serious threat to the fundamental notions of

sexuality and gender which help to enforce patriarchy, it is useful to consider the role

of Slash. It is interesting to note the correlation in Slash’s development as a fan genre

with that of gay and female liberation. Slash began to appear at a time when

hegemonic masculinity and patriarchy were being exposed and rejected by those it

subordinated. For women, though, gay men may have offered a view of an alternative

masculinity, one which did not subordinate them, but related to their own injustice in

the current gender order.146 Slash can be read as a response to the restrictions placed

on society by patriarchy, which:

Consistently constructs the boundaries between acceptable and unacceptable

forms of male friendship… [and] enforces compulsory heterosexuality as well
as restricts the range of behaviours open to men and women.147

Women and gay men are united in their plight to remove the traditional patriarchy

which oppresses them, and this is connected with our construction of hegemonic

masculinity. As Strikwerda and May note, it is patriarchal convention which acts as a

barrier to a more accessible version of male friendship and intimacy. 148 The Lord of

the Rings, as previously mentioned, provides us with a version of patriarchy - a

fraternal model - which at the very least enables a new hegemonic masculinity and

more acceptable forms of male friendship.

Slash has a diverse and renowned theoretical base , especially when

approached from a feminist perspective as it offers a ‘utopian space’ which offers

liberation for both men and women in the current gender order. However, Slash
146
Ibid. p. 20.
147
Jenkins, Textual Poachers p. 203.
148
May and Strikwerda, 'Male Friendship and Intimacy' .

65
complicates masculinity, and as an adaptation of Tolkien and Jackson’s work is

detrimental in reading the presented masculinity. It has caused a great deal of debate,

not only among academics, but also the readers/viewers of The Lord of the Rings, who

may not share such an avid interest in the alternative representations Slash offers.

Nevertheless, such representations are persistently being imagined, written and read.

Constance Penley and others have repeatedly asked why Although this is a relevant

point, and related to changes in masculinity as a construction further analysis must be

made. What is Slash altering or not altering in its adaptation of the male friendships

in LOTR? Is Slash enabling, or restricting, masculinities? Of course, it is important

to remember Slash does not exist only in relation to LOTR, and its function in

response to other media portrayals of masculinity may be more progressive.

Penley and Jenkins have formed some interesting theories in regards to the

ideologies of Slash which I would like to consider. Jenkins and Penley both share an

interest in this form of fandom, having read and participated in its production and

circulation, therefore having access to the view of writers and readers of Slash. They

see Slash as a utopian space through which women are allowed to break free from

their subordinated position, and instead experience sex and desire as equal partners.

Therefore, we can assume Slash offers a space which supposedly subverts patriarchal

convention. Jenkins writes:

Both fan and academic writers characterize slash as a projection of female

sexual fantasies, desires, and experiences onto the male bodies of a series of
characters.149

Its position as a text which is predominantly concerned with male/male sexual

relationships combined with its production and reception by females undoubtedly

149
Jenkins, Textual Poachers p. 191.

66
results in a complex balance of gender relations. As I have already mentioned in

Chapter Two, it occupies a space in which romance and sex is supposedly liberated

from inequality, and as Jenkins notes allows ‘transcendence of rigidly defined

categories of gender and sexual identity.’ 150 In Slash the traditional traits of

masculinity and femininity become morphed, the characters are undoubtedly male –

but the question is, do they remain masculine?

Although both Jenkins and Penley focus predominantly on the role of women

and the ideologies produced by their production of Slash, Jenkins acknowledges that

Slash may offer a critique of masculinity. 151 Slash breaks through that distinction

between homosocial and homosexual, opening up male/male desire. But, the men in

Slash are repeatedly denied a homosexual or gay identity. In a sense, Slash is

homophobic, yet this homophobia is linked, at least in Penley’s opinion, to the female

producers and consumers knowledge that the men are still available to ‘have’ by

them.152 Slash sex cannot be homosexually coded because it prevents females from

having access to the men they desire, and if it was, their male idols would be subject

to the same subordination as the women themselves. The relations between men in

Slash then must always be qualified by the dominance of heterosexuality.

Slash presents a problem; it offers a space in which men can be intimate, and

yet, through the introduction of sex between men proposes homosexual relations as

the ‘ideal’ between men, while consistently denying them. Obviously the focus of

Slash is on sexual relations between men, or at least love/lust/desire, all of which

150
Ibid. p. 219.
151
Ibid. .
152
Penley, 'Feminism, Psychoanalysis and the Study of Popular Culture' pp. 487-488 .

67
culminate in sex whether or not the Slash fiction explicitly explores it. 153 It is this

‘sex’ that poses a danger to masculinity and the possibilities of male/male relations. It

is sex that reinforces patriarchal relations between men, denies fraternal brotherhood

and freedom of emotional expression which accompanies it. The homosocial ideal

becomes forever collapsed into the homoerotic.

The sex in Slash, whether identifying the men as ‘homosexual’ or otherwise, is

nevertheless ‘patriarchal’. Robert Jensen offers this critical definition of ‘sex’:

Sex is fucking. Fucking is penetration. The things you do before you

penetrate are just warm-up exercises. If you don’t penetrate, you haven’t
fucked, and if you haven’t fucked, you haven’t had sex. Frye defines this kind
of heterosexual- and heterosexist- intercourse as “male-dominat-female-
subordinate-copulation-whose-completion-and-purpose-is-the-male’s-
ejaculation.” That is sex in patriarchy.154

And this is the ‘sex’ present in Slash as well. Frodo penetrating Sam, Aragorn

penetrating Boromir. The emphasis is repeatedly on male ejaculation and orgasm as

evident in my analysis in Chapter Two. Futhermore, as I have already stated, Slash

repeatedly presents one male character as dominant, and the other as subordinate.

This relation between the two men is, one expects, influenced by their relationship in

the original text. Jensen also acknowledges that this sex can be ‘egalitarian’ or

‘sadomasochistic’, and that patriarchal sex is just as applicable to gay men. 155 Slash is

positioning men, quite firmly, in a patriarchal structure of relations, and via their

153
Some of the material found on the internet today is of a less explicit nature, mostly due to the
number of young, teenage girls who take an interest in producing and consuming Slash fiction. Penley
however, notes that in the original zines that were circulated containing Slash fiction, the work was
often so explicit proof of age was required in accompaniment of your payment for the product. Ibid. p.
480
154
Robert Jensen, 'Patriarchal Sex', in Steven P. Schacht and Doris W. Ewing (eds.), Feminism and
Men : Reconstructing Gender Relations (New York: New York University Press, 1998) p. 102 .
155
Ibid. pp. 103, 111.

68
denial of homosexuality, is reinforcing the heterosexual norm necessary for its

dominance.

What is apparent in Slash and in the male characters used is a more expressive

and emotional connection between men. However this emotional care is not unique

and only present by virtue of a sexual relationship such as that proposed by Slash. In

both Tolkien and Jackson’s portrayal of Aragorn, Frodo and Sam; emotional

attachments between fellow men were evident. Aragorn, whose sexuality has never

been subject to scrutiny like the Hobbits, shares tender moments with his male

companions and is never afraid to shed a tear. What Slash is doing to men is

introducing this emotional aspect in a specific context. That context is ‘female

homoerotic romance pornography’ or Slash. In reading Penley’s analysis of Slash,

she repeatedly refers to it as ‘pornography for women.’ 156 Slash offers a different

interpretation of male characters in popular media series, who may often adhere to the

hegemonic norm of self-sufficiency and emotional restraint, and offers little to texts

which already explore alternative versions of the masculine norm. Slash poses a

danger of reducing all male emotion that is shown to the homoerotic, allowing no

room for homosociality.

Tolkien’s The Lord of the Rings presents a new masculinity, one which

embodies fraternity, and attempts to break down the patriarchal restrictions between

men which enforce a rigid representation of what it is to be male. Aragorn represents

this ideal of a new masculinity which removes the restrictions patriarchy applies to

156
Penley, 'Feminism, Psychoanalysis and the Study of Popular Culture' pp. 480, 483, 491. Also, other
academics who have discussed Slash have also viewed it as female pornography, Penley cites Joanna
Russ whose 1985 essay was titled ‘Pornography by Women, for Women, with Love’, p. 486.

69
male intimacy and friendship as explored by Strikwerda and May 157. Slash also

explores new notions of what it is to be male, but does this through a homoerotic

context; more importantly, a homoerotic patriarchal context. Patriarchal sex between

men and the constant denial of homosexuality only serves to reinforce the traditional

associations between male intimacy and questions of sexuality.

The crux of my argument is this: that Slash, through the introduction of sex,

reduces all male intimacy and friendship to the homoerotic. In Slash, men show

emotion, care and compassion, but this is accompanied by their desire and love for

another man. The sex that occurs in undeniably patriarchal yet related to ‘homosexual

sex’, which is repeatedly denied leading to a level of homophobia in the text.

Heterosexuality, and therefore traditional patriarchy are consistently maintained,

restricting friendship. What is witnessed in The Lord of the Rings however is

homosocial and progressive relations between men, ones which make intimacy

possible by envisioning a new hegemonic masculinity and a new ideal male, Aragorn.

Slash cannot improve the character of Aragorn nor the masculinity he offers.

Final Considerations

157
May and Strikwerda, 'Male Friendship and Intimacy'.

70
 158

By now it should be apparent that both our own society and that of Middle-Earth have

undergone an historical transition in our conceptions of masculinity and patriarchy.

While masculinity is still in a state of crises in our own society however, Middle-

Earth has transformed its traditional patriarchy to a new fraternal model, which has

facilitated a wider complexity of relations between men and enabled a new version of

hegemonic masculinity. In parallel, our own society has attempted to reconfigure

concepts of masculinity through a process of adaptation. Jackson has adapted, to a

slight extent, characters present in The Lord of the Rings in response to the current

perceptions of masculinity. More importantly, women have adapted The Lord of the

Rings in the specific genre of Slash. Unfortunately, a genre which has been recorded

as progressive and liberating to both females and masculinity in many respects has

proven the opposite in its translation of masculinity from The Lord of the Rings.

Conclusion:

A Different Perspective
158
Jackson, The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King

71
This dissertation exists between two discourses; Slash fan fiction as a cultural

production, and The Lord of the Rings academic literature. Previously, these two

areas have overlapped, at least in part, as academics and fans have attempted to

understand the long running ambiguity in the sexuality of Tolkien’s male characters.

Situated separately, as their own discourse, academics and fans have investigated the

‘utopian’ opportunities of Slash in redefining identity and sexuality or the myriad of

analysis of Tolkien’s work through language, history, narrative, characterization,

sexuality, colonialism/postcolonialism. However, Slash has all too often been simply

considered as ‘utopian’ without a careful analysis of its exploration of masculinity and

sexuality both before and after its adaptation. Furthermore, the focus has been

predominantly on the producers of Slash, namely the women who are ‘disempowered’

by the traditional patriarchal conventions of society and its cultural productions. Here

I have attempted to rectify the gaps in existing literature and draw some conclusions

in specific relation to Slash adaptations of The Lord of the Rings.

I approached masculinity from a constructionist perspective, both in our own

society and in its representation in Tolkien’s Middle-Earth. The central aspect of my

analysis of masculinity in Middle-Earth, is in its transition from a traditional paternal

patriarchal society, to a modern fraternal patriarchal society: fratriarchy. This

transformation removed the traditional emphasis on competition and aggression

between men, and instead focused on mutual respect, emotional comradeship and

equality. Aragorn is the character who epitomises this new masculinity enabled by

fratriarchy, embodying both traditional notions of masculinity, but also a wider range

of previously non-masculine characteristics. This new masculinity displaces the

72
previous dysfunctional hegemonic masculinity, embodied by such characters as

Denethor and Boromir, and creates a firm foundation for the ‘Dominion of Men’.

Slash’s traditional adaptive ‘utopian’ qualities proved instead restrictive and

damaging to our understanding of masculinity in The Lord of the Rings. Slash

attempts to subvert traditional patriarchal texts by presenting both a fluid notion of

gender identity, and restricting sexual and romantic relations to the same gender,

predominantly men. One of its dominant characteristics is ‘sex’, specifically, upon

closer analysis, ‘patriarchal sex’. The inclusion of sex into a sphere in which

masculinity is explored explicitly in its absence, turning the readers attention to the

homosocial bonds that may exist between men, is a ‘dangerous’ task. Our

understanding of the complex relations between masculinities and characters in

Tolkien’s text is influenced by a continued focus on the homoerotic with the

introduction of Slash adaptation. This consequently proves restrictive to our reception

of the text, and contrary to Slash’s intentions, reintroduces patriarchal convention to

the fratriarchal paradigm of masculinities.

Let me conclude by saying that my dissertation in no way seeks to discredit

the liberating potential of Slash in some adaptations of popular media texts. My

critical analysis of Slash has focused on highlighting the dangers implicit in labelling

and viewing Slash as ‘utopian’ in terms of gender and sexuality. The focus in

academia, to the extent that Slash has been received, is geared towards its positive and

liberating function for both women (and to a degree men and masculinity) in

subverting the dominant patriarchal convention that underlies our cultural texts.

However, I have urged here, that Slash should always be critically evaluated in

73
comparison with the original text it is adapting. The conventions of Slash can re-

invest patriarchy and its restrictive influence on male sexuality and interaction, just as

easily as it can be perceived as liberating them.

The The Lord of the Rings is a text that offers a space in which masculinity

and male relations can be conceived outside of traditional patriarchy. It does this

through an understanding of masculinity as a relational concept, and more

importantly, a historical concept. When conditions in society change, the basis

through which our perception of masculinity is formed also undergoes transition,

allowing opportunity for new and possibly liberating structures in male relations and

definitions of masculinity. Our own society, its patriarchal structure and hegemonic

masculinity, is also in a ‘current state of crises’ leading to the ever increasing

presence of such cultural products as Slash. Masculinity is consistently adapted,

challenged and redefined; though at times what appears to be a challenge to

traditional conceptions, such as in the case of Slash, may prove to be simply a re-

enforcement.

74