MEM18001C

Use Hand Tools

Learning Edition

LEARNING GUIDE

MEM05005B
 LEARNING & ASSESSMENT
RESOURCES

Fastening Tools and Wrenches

Spanners

Spanners are used to apply a twisting force (torque) to tighten or release a nut, bolt or threaded
fasteners.

Spanners are made with jaws or openings that fit square or hexagonal nuts and bolts. They are made of
high tensile or alloy steel and are drop-forged and heat treated for strength. They are given a smooth
surface finish to make them easier to grip. The length of a spanner is made to suit the strength of its
jaws.

The following spanners are typical of those used in an engineering workshop.

 Open end spanner
 Socket spanner
 Ring spanner
 Adjustable spanners
 Torque wrench
 Ratchet spanners

Open End Spanner

These spanners are open at both ends so they can be placed around nuts or bolts. They are very useful
where you are unable to place the spanner over the bolt head or nut because something is in the way.

Open end Spanner

Doc Ref: Page 2 of 80

Issue Date: MEM18001C Use hand tools
Validated By: Learners Guide Version 1.1
 LEARNING & ASSESSMENT
RESOURCES

British spanners are complicated in their markings. Early Whitworth nuts and bolts were larger than
British Standard nuts [ BSF-BSCY] for example, a 5/16 Whitworth nut was the same size as a 3/8 British
Standard nut. This meant that early spanners were marked one size too big for modern nuts, later they
were marked in both Whitworth and British Standard i.e. 5/16
Whitworth 3/8 British Standard.
Later on, Whitworth was changed to B.S.W. [British Standard Whitworth] and the nut size was the same
as BSF for the same diameter bolt. and the spanner carried one marking either BSW or BS. Make sure
you are buying the right size spanner for the head size.

American spanners are much simpler, early spanners were marked with diameter, followed by SAE i.e.
3/8 SAE. Later spanners are simply marked AF, which means across flats. A 7/16 AF spanner fits a nut
which is 7/16 across the flats of the hex head. A 7/16 AF fits a 1/4" inch bolt, 1/2"AF fits a 5/16 bolt and
so on.

Socket Spanner
A socket is a cylindrical shaped tool made from chrome plated alloy steel. One of its ends has a square
recess with an internal groove to take a drive. Its other end is recessed to suit a particular nut or bolt
head.
The dimension of the socket is measured across the flats of the square recess.
The nut or bolt head recess may have:
 Six (6) points and be a normal hexagonal shape. This is known as a “single hex” socket.
 Twelve (12) points and be a double hexagonal shape. This is known as a “double hex” socket.

Doc Ref: Page 3 of 80

Issue Date: MEM18001C Use hand tools
Validated By: Learners Guide Version 1.1
 LEARNING & ASSESSMENT
RESOURCES

Double Hex Socket Spanner

Ring Spanner

Ring spanners are usually available with offset or angled shanks. Because it is in the form of a ring,
spreading of the spanner cannot occur and greater force may be applied, making these spanners better
for removing difficult or “frozen” nuts. The offset shank provides clearance for knuckles while the
angled shank is to provide clearances above obstructions alongside the nuts or bolts being tightened or
loosened.

Ring Spanner

Combination Ring and Open End Spanner

When the combination ring and open end spanner is used the ring spanner loosens the nut and the
open end is then used to quickly undo the nut. This spanner has open jaws at one end and a 12 point
(double hexagon) ring at the other end.

Doc Ref: Page 4 of 80

Issue Date: MEM18001C Use hand tools
Validated By: Learners Guide Version 1.1
 LEARNING & ASSESSMENT
RESOURCES

Combination Ring and Open End Spanner

Adjustable Spanners

Sometimes called adjustable wrenches. Most common types of adjustable spanners are similar to open
end spanners, but they have one moveable jaw. Adjustable spanners are only used when a full kit of
spanners is not available.

Adjustable spanners may range in length from 100mm to 760mm. The type illustrated has its jaws set
at an angle of 22¾° to the handle.

They are not meant to replace fixed spanners which are more suitable for heavy service. In general,
adjustable spanners are not recommended in the metal industry.

It is important to keep adjustable spanners clean and to oil the moving parts regularly.
Note: Use an adjustable spanner only when the correct sized spanner is not available.

Adjustable Spanner

Doc Ref: Page 5 of 80

Issue Date: MEM18001C Use hand tools
Validated By: Learners Guide Version 1.1
 LEARNING & ASSESSMENT
RESOURCES

Tension Wrench
The tension wrench is used where a prescribed amount of torque is specified for the final tightening. It
is used with sockets and can be pre set to a predetermined force (Nm) to tension nuts on wheels, motor
car heads and machinery.

Tension Wrench

Reversible Ratchet Spanner

The ratchet spanner is used in conjunction with sockets and a wide range of socket accessories. It helps
to speed up the turning motion when doing up and undoing nuts. It is also used in tight spots where
the range of arc is small.

Ratchet Spanner

It is important for spanner jaws to fit fully on the nut or bolt head; the jaws should also fit centrally on
the hexagon flats as shown in the diagram below, which also shows how a spanner will be damaged as a
result of failure to fit it properly onto a nut.

Damage to both the spanner and nut can be

Doc Ref: Page 6 of 80
Issue Date: MEM18001C Use hand tools
Validated By: Learners Guide Version 1.1
 LEARNING & ASSESSMENT
RESOURCES

avoided by correctly placing the spanner on the nut before applying any force.

Effect of using a spanner incorrectly

The handle length of an open ended spanner has been designed to enable a nut or bolt to be
adequately tightened without spreading the jaws of the spanner. A pipe or another wrench should not
be used to increase leverage.

Miscellaneous Spanners
Many other spanners are available for use where and when the need arises. The names of these
spanners are listed below:
 Flare nut spanner
 Half moon spanners
 Crowfoot spanners
 Hook and pin spanners
 C Spanner
 Adjustable hook wrench
 End spanner
 Stillson pipe wrench
 Footprint pipe wrench
 Hexagon socket wrench as shown below (also known as Allen Keys)
 Impact wrenches or drivers
 Socket spanner accessories:
 Speed brace
 Extension bar
 Universal joint
 Handles
 Adjustable offset handle
 “L” bar handle
 Sliding tee handle

Doc Ref: Page 7 of 80

Issue Date: MEM18001C Use hand tools
Validated By: Learners Guide Version 1.1
 LEARNING & ASSESSMENT
RESOURCES

Review Questions
Spanners may be known by various names in many countries. In Australia, the term ‘spanner’ is used for
tools for turning threaded fasteners such as bolts and nuts. The term ‘wrench’ is generally used for tools
for turning non fastening devices, eg, a tap wrench and a pipe wrench. The American practice is to call
all spanners ‘wrenches’.
Identify the following spanners and give an application for each.

1 (a) Use

(b) Use

(c) Use

(d) Use

Doc Ref: Page 8 of 80

Issue Date: MEM18001C Use hand tools
Validated By: Learners Guide Version 1.1
 LEARNING & ASSESSMENT
RESOURCES

(e) Use

(f) Use

2. (a) Use

(b) Use

Doc Ref: Page 9 of 80

Issue Date: MEM18001C Use hand tools
Validated By: Learners Guide Version 1.1
 LEARNING & ASSESSMENT
RESOURCES

(c) Use

(d) Use

2. What do the letters A.F. indicate when marked on a spanner?

3. What does the number ½“ followed by A.F. mean when marked on a spanner?

Another method of determining spanner selection for UNIFIED BOLTS is by a number based on the
decimal equivalent of the nominal fraction size across the flats of the hexagon following the sign
A.F. eg, 50 A.F.

Metric Standard System (I.S.O.)

1. How are metric spanners

marked to fit the following?

2. Why should spanners from one thread system never be used on nuts/bolts of another system?

Doc Ref: Page 10 of 80

Issue Date: MEM18001C Use hand tools
Validated By: Learners Guide Version 1.1
 LEARNING & ASSESSMENT
RESOURCES

3. Tick the appropriate sketch to show correct and safe use of the spanner shown below.

Spanner Safety

1. When tightening fasteners using open end and ring spanners it is recommend to PULL the
spanner not push. Why is this so?

Doc Ref: Page 11 of 80

Issue Date: MEM18001C Use hand tools
Validated By: Learners Guide Version 1.1
 LEARNING & ASSESSMENT
RESOURCES

Wrenches
1. What type of wrench should be used for the following tasks?

a. Tensioning bolts to correct manufacturer’s recommendations?

b Loosening 150 mm water pipes that are fitted close to a wall. Access is
. restricted.

c. Loosening pipe fittings

2. Why should a pipe wrench NEVER be used on hard or polished surfaces”

3 Which illustration shows the correct use of a Stillson pipe wrench, A or B?

Answer:

Doc Ref: Page 12 of 80

Issue Date: MEM18001C Use hand tools
Validated By: Learners Guide Version 1.1
 LEARNING & ASSESSMENT
RESOURCES

Pliers and Clamps

Pliers are gripping tools mostly used to hold small components that would otherwise be difficult to
grasp and control. Pliers are also used for shaping and bending light sheet metal as well as bending,
twisting and cutting small diameter wires.

Types of Pliers

COMBINATION PLIERS

Standard engineers’ pliers are also called combination

pliers because of their versatility.

The flat jaws and pipe grip are serrated for general
gripping and holding. Cylindrical objects are held in
the pipe gripping section of the jaws.

Use the side cutting jaws only for soft wires such as
copper wire.

To cut harder steel wires, use only the joint cutters.

These have strong 90 shearing edges and are placed
to have greater mechanical advantage than the side
cutting jaws. To cut, open the pliers wide until the
cutter grooves in adjacent jaws line up. Insert the wire
with the short end facing away. Squeeze to cut.

WARNING:

Never cut wires in tension until you have made sure

the ends cannot fly dangerously. Always wear safety
glasses.

Grip small round objects at right angles to the flat jaws

for greatest control.

Doc Ref: Page 13 of 80

Issue Date: MEM18001C Use hand tools
Validated By: Learners Guide Version 1.1
 LEARNING & ASSESSMENT
RESOURCES

SLIP JOINT PLIERS

The most common of these are multi grip pliers.

When they are used as light pipe wrenches, they
are known as ‘gas fitters pliers’. Slip joint, multi
grip pliers have a shaped pivot pin which can fit
into two or more openings in the legs. This gives
a range of jaw openings which allows parallel
gripping by the jaws in a number of positions.

Multi grips are useful for holding and controlling

small components and bending light gauge sheet
metal parts.

DIAGONAL CUTTING PLIERS

Another name for diagonal cutting pliers is ‘side

cutters’. These pliers are made with the jaws
cranked, or offset, that is, they are set at an angle
which allows wire to be cut close to a surface or in
confined spaces. They are also available with
insulated handles for electrical work.

NOTE: Never cut electrical wires unless you are

sure the power has been disconnected first.

Doc Ref: Page 14 of 80

Issue Date: MEM18001C Use hand tools
Validated By: Learners Guide Version 1.1
 LEARNING & ASSESSMENT
RESOURCES

WARNING:

Short ends of wire, particularly steel wire, are

liable to fly when cut. Guard against this. Cut
with the free end of the wire pointing away
from you. Always wear goggles or safety
glasses.

Side cutters are also useful for pulling, cutting to

length and spreading cotter pins.

CIRCLIP PLIERS

Circlip, or snap ring pliers are designed for use on

external or internal circlips.

The type of end on a circlip will determine the

type of jaws on the pliers. Those circlips with a
small hole at each end require round jaws and
those with a slight bevel at each end require flat
jaws.

Where there is limited space in front of the

circlip, pliers with angled jaws have to be used.

An external circlip is expanded with a pair of

external circlip pliers to remove or install it.

Doc Ref: Page 15 of 80

Issue Date: MEM18001C Use hand tools
Validated By: Learners Guide Version 1.1
 LEARNING & ASSESSMENT
RESOURCES

An internal circlip is contracted with a pair of

internal circlip pliers to remove or install it.

Doc Ref: Page 16 of 80

Issue Date: MEM18001C Use hand tools
Validated By: Learners Guide Version 1.1
 LEARNING & ASSESSMENT
RESOURCES

CLAMPS

A wide range of clamping tools are common to

the metal workshop. Each clamp has a variety
of uses in situations which require the holding
or aligning of materials in position ready for
welding, riveting or screwing.

Types of Clamps

‘G’ Clamps

The ‘G’ clamp has its main body drop forged

from high quality steel in the form of a ‘G’.

The top of the ‘G’ forms the fixed upper jaw

while the lower jaw is adjusted by turning the
threaded shaft. Depending on the way it is
turned, it will either increase or decrease the
pressure between the jaws.

‘G’ clamps are available in a variety of sizes

ranging from 50 mm to about 300 mm capacity.
They are also made in different weights and
strengths for general purpose, medium or heavy
duty.

WARNING:

Do not increase the pressure between the jaws

by applying a greater leverage than the clamp
is designed to take, as this will distort and
damage the clamp.

Doc Ref: Page 17 of 80

Issue Date: MEM18001C Use hand tools
Validated By: Learners Guide Version 1.1
 LEARNING & ASSESSMENT
RESOURCES

Other Types of Clamps

Apart from the “G” clamp, many other clamps are available, some designed for specific uses.
Below is a list of these clamps:

 Quick action bar clamps

 Sash cramps
 Spring clamps
 Vice grips
 Vice grip pliers
 Vice grip welding clamps
 Flat nose vice grips
 D clamp
 Adjustable vice grips

TIN SNIPS

Aviation snips

Tin snips are tools used to cut thin sheet metal. They use the same principles as common scissors, but
are able to handle thicker and harder material. There are three different types of tin snips; straight
cutting, left cutting, and right cutting. Straight cutting snips (usually yellow)cut in a straight line, left
cutting snips (usually red) will cut in a curve to the left, and right cutting snips (usually green) will cut in
a curve to the right.

Doc Ref: Page 18 of 80

Issue Date: MEM18001C Use hand tools
Validated By: Learners Guide Version 1.1
 LEARNING & ASSESSMENT
RESOURCES

Universal snips

Right hand Left hand

Doc Ref: Page 19 of 80

Issue Date: MEM18001C Use hand tools
Validated By: Learners Guide Version 1.1
 LEARNING & ASSESSMENT
RESOURCES

Review Questions
1. Identify the TOOLS from the selection shown below.

a. e.

b. f.

c. g.

d. h.

2. Identify the correct choice of hand tool for the following applications.

a. Removing internal circlips

b. Cutting heavy chain

c. Cutting mig wire.

d. Holding a bolt while tightening. The bolt has a damaged hexagon.

Doc Ref: Page 20 of 80

Issue Date: MEM18001C Use hand tools
Validated By: Learners Guide Version 1.1
 LEARNING & ASSESSMENT
RESOURCES

Screwdrivers
The screwdriver is a driving tool with a blade fitted to a handle. The tip of the blade is shaped to fit in
to the head of a screw and, when turned, will either tighten or loosen the screw.
The two types of screwdriver tips used are designed to fit either slotted head screws or recessed screws
(Phillips head or Pozidrive screws)
Standard screwdrivers are made with tips to turn screws with slotted heads. The size of screwdrivers is
specified by the length of the blade and the width of the tip; they vary from 45mm x 3mm to 300mm x
10mm.
Variations to standard screwdrivers include the 'Stubby’ to ‘Stumpy’ screwdriver and the light duty
screwdriver.
The stumpy screwdriver is about 40mm x 6mm and is used in confined spaces
The light duty screwdriver is made with parallel tips and may be used by electricians. The steel blade,
as well as the handle, is insulated with plastic.

Phillips Head Screwdrivers

This type of screwdriver is used on screws that

have diagonal recessed slots or heads. Four
different sizes are available to cover the full range
of Phillips head screws.

“Pozidriv” screwdrivers are similar to Phillips head

screwdrivers but they are made to fit Pozidriv
screws which have a deeper recess. It is not
recommended that Phillips head screwdrivers be
used for Pozidriv screws (nor Pozidriv screwdrivers
for Phillips head screws), since the recess is easily
damaged.

Doc Ref: Page 21 of 80

Issue Date: MEM18001C Use hand tools
Validated By: Learners Guide Version 1.1
 LEARNING & ASSESSMENT
RESOURCES

Angle Screwdrivers

An angle, or offset screwdriver has its blades set at

an angle to its shank.

The standard type may have its blades set at 0, 45,

90 or 135 degrees to a plane which is at right
angles to the shank.

An angle screwdriver is used to loosen and tighten

screws that cannot be reached with a normal
screwdriver.

Doc Ref: Page 22 of 80

Issue Date: MEM18001C Use hand tools
Validated By: Learners Guide Version 1.1
 LEARNING & ASSESSMENT
RESOURCES

Selecting the correct size tip when using standard screwdrivers

Width of Tip

It is important to always select the size of tip

carefully. The width of the tip should almost equal
the length of the bottom of the slot.

- Too wide a tip could damage the work

- Tips that are too narrow exert their turning force

too close to the screw axis. Check that the
blade axis is lined up with the screw axis. The
wrong alignment causes turning pressure to
damage the tip and the screw rather than turn
the screw.

Thickness of Tip

The thickness of the tip should almost equal the

width of the slot. When the tip is too thin, it may
twist out of shape when force is used. Trying to
force in too thick a tip will damage the slot.

Six widths of tip are commonly available. Eachwidth

is available in three of four different lengths.
Thickness of tips usually varies with the length of the
blade. Find out the range of screwdrivers that best
suits your work.

Doc Ref: Page 23 of 80

Issue Date: MEM18001C Use hand tools
Validated By: Learners Guide Version 1.1
 LEARNING & ASSESSMENT
RESOURCES

Maintenance of Screwdrivers

Screwdriver tips wear with constant use. Worn

tips tend to slip dangerously, so inspect
screwdriver tips regularly. If they are worn and
rounded, restore them to the correct shape by
dressing.

Where possible, dress the tip with a file. After

dressing, the tip must be symmetrical about the
axis of the blade. All corners must be square.
The end must be at right angles to the axis in
both planes. The tip thickness must be correct.
The faces of the tip must be parallel for a
distance equal to just over half the width of the
tip.

If it is necessary to grind the tip, take care not to

overheat it. Grind only a little and then allow the
tip to cool each time. An overheated tip will be
too soft for use and would have to be hardened
and tempered again.

Doc Ref: Page 24 of 80

Issue Date: MEM18001C Use hand tools
Validated By: Learners Guide Version 1.1
 LEARNING & ASSESSMENT
RESOURCES

Review Questions
1. Identify the following

a.

b.

c.

d.

a. c.

b. d.

2. Briefly describe the method for reconditioning a worn screwdriver tip.

3. Identify in the space provided a phillips head and a posidrive head.

a. b.

Doc Ref: Page 25 of 80

Issue Date: MEM18001C Use hand tools
Validated By: Learners Guide Version 1.1
 LEARNING & ASSESSMENT
RESOURCES

Measuring & Marking out

Rules & Tapes

Steel rules are one of the most common measuring tools that are used in workshops. They come in a wide
range of sizes and scales, metric and imperial. The most common are sizes are; 150mm, 300mm, 600mm,
1000mm, or 6’ / 12’.

When using graduated measuring instruments it is important to care for them correctly. Measuring tools
should never be dropped, placed in or on fillings or used incorrectly. They should also be stored in a case
or separate area away from other tools.

Tapes are another common form of measurement in any trade. They also come in different sizes and
scales. Tapes are more effective and easier to use when measuring over longer distances. The most
common sizes are; 3m, 5m, 8m and manually rewound up to 33m.

Doc Ref: Page 26 of 80

Issue Date: MEM18001C Use hand tools
Validated By: Learners Guide Version 1.1
 LEARNING & ASSESSMENT
RESOURCES

Vernier calliper

Vernier callipers are a more accurate measuring tool. They can be used to measure external, internal
and depth measurements.

Micrometer

Micrometers are another very accurate measuring tool.

The micrometers shown above are, an external, internal and depth mic.

Doc Ref: Page 27 of 80

Issue Date: MEM18001C Use hand tools
Validated By: Learners Guide Version 1.1
 LEARNING & ASSESSMENT
RESOURCES

Trammel

An engineer's trammel is a device similar in shape to a plumb bob. It is used a compass pivot when
scribing circles and ellipses. A trammel is often used by metalworkers and carpenters when marking out
radii on a work piece from a blueprint when an arc is too large to be drawn with a compass. Trammels
can be used with a stick or metal bar to produce improvised compass.

Dividers
Dividers are also used to scribe arcs. They are sometimes used to scribe lines parallel to an edge.

Sping dividers Wing dividers

Doc Ref: Page 28 of 80

Issue Date: MEM18001C Use hand tools
Validated By: Learners Guide Version 1.1
 LEARNING & ASSESSMENT
RESOURCES

Engineers square

The engineer square is used for marking out lines at 90’.

Combination set

Combination sets have two main uses when marking out. These are scribing lines at any angle as well as
finding the centre of round material.

Doc Ref: Page 29 of 80

Issue Date: MEM18001C Use hand tools
Validated By: Learners Guide Version 1.1
 LEARNING & ASSESSMENT
RESOURCES

Chisels
Chisels for cutting metal are made of 0.9% carbon tool steel or of alloy tool steel. They are forged to
the shape and size required, then hardened and tempered. They should be tough enough to withstand
the impact of a blow, yet sufficiently hard to maintain their cutting edge.

Common Types of Chisels

Chisels are usually classified by the length of the stock, the width of the cutting edge, and the type.
Examples are: -

180 x 25 mm flat chisel

150 x 6 mm cross cut chisel

COMMON TYPES OF CHISEL ARE DESCRIBED BELOW.

The flat chisel is used for chipping flat surfaces, trimming castings and forgings, cutting thin sections of
metal, and for many general purposes such as cutting off rivet heads, bolt heads or such as splitting
nuts when dismantling machinery.

The cross cut chisel is used for cutting key ways and grooves requiring a flat bottom and square walls.
To prevent it from jamming, the blade is made wider at the cutting end.

The round nose chisel is used for cutting oil grooves in bearing surfaces, and also for drainage channels.
It may also be used to chip a groove in the countersink produced by a drill in order to draw the drill over
if it is out of position.

Doc Ref: Page 30 of 80

Issue Date: MEM18001C Use hand tools
Validated By: Learners Guide Version 1.1
 LEARNING & ASSESSMENT
RESOURCES

The diamond point chisel is used for cutting V

shaped grooves and sharp corners, as well as for
preparing cracked parts for welding.

The blade is forged square in section and is tapered

to the cutting end. The diamond point is formed
by grinding the end diagonally.

DIAMOND POINT CHISEL

The side cutting chisel is in some ways similar to

the flat chisel, but has only one bevel at the cutting
end. It is used for chipping places unsuitable for a
flat chisel

SIDE CUTTING CHISEL

Application of a Side Cutting Chisel

Doc Ref: Page 31 of 80

Issue Date: MEM18001C Use hand tools
Validated By: Learners Guide Version 1.1
 LEARNING & ASSESSMENT
RESOURCES

Cutting Angles on Chisels

The cutting angle, or the angle of the cutting
edge, is usually formed by two bevels or facets
equal in angle and width
The average cutting angle is 65, but may be
varied from 55 to 85 to suit the metal to be cut.
The harder the metal to be cut, the stronger, and
therefore the larger the cutting angle. Commonly
used cutting angles are: -
Terms used in reference to chisels
Brass Mild Steel Cast Iron
50 - 60 60 - 70 70 - 80

Sharpening a Chisel

A chisel made of carbon tool steel should be

sharpened on a grinding wheel. Care should be
taken not to apply too much pressure, nor to keep
it against the wheel for too long before cooling it in
water.

If the chisel is overheated the temper of the steel

will be drawn, and the chisel will be too soft to use.
Chisels should be ground on the face of the wheel.
The grinding wheel should be fitted with a spark
guard, and safety glasses should be worn.

Alloy steel chisels are affected by temperatures CORRECT POSITION WHEN GRINDING
generated by grinding and should be sharpened
with a file. Although they appear to be fairly soft
they work harden as they are used, and maintain
their cutting edge very well.

The head of the chisel is softer than the cutting

edge, this means that over time the head may
mushroom. Mushrooming is when burrs are
formed around the outside edge of the head.
When the head is struck by a hammer sections of
the burrs brake off and can cause serious eye
injury.
To prevent injury, the head of the chisel must be
ground back to remove any burrs or mushrooming.

Doc Ref: Page 32 of 80

Issue Date: MEM18001C Use hand tools
Validated By: Learners Guide Version 1.1
 LEARNING & ASSESSMENT
RESOURCES

Review Questions

1. State below the recommended carbon content of chisels used for general purpose metal
chipping.

2. The head of the chisel can cause eye injuries if the chisel is not maintained correctly, explain
why.

3. Label the diagram below.

Notes

Doc Ref: Page 33 of 80

Issue Date: MEM18001C Use hand tools
Validated By: Learners Guide Version 1.1
 LEARNING & ASSESSMENT
RESOURCES

Hammers
Impact tools are widely used by metal
tradespeople. Tools such as hammers impart a
force, either directly through impact or indirectly
through punches or chisels, to change the shape
or position of materials.

A variety of punches, hammers and mallets will be

described in this section.

Hammers

A hard hammer is made of a steel head fastened

to a handle which can be made of timber,
fibreglass or steel. The head is held onto the
handle by a wedge driven into the end of the
handle after the head has been fitted.

The head of the hammer has its face and peer end
hardened and tempered. Because a moving
hammer can concentrate a large amount of
energy into a small area, it can splinter material
on impact and cause chips to fly off dangerously
at great velocity.

SAFETY: Always wear goggles when hammering

if there is a possibility of chips flying.

Doc Ref: Page 34 of 80

Issue Date: MEM18001C Use hand tools
Validated By: Learners Guide Version 1.1
 LEARNING & ASSESSMENT
RESOURCES

Selecting the Correct Hammer

Hammering varies from light tapping to hard

striking. The heads of hammers can be swung
with a lot of force. As they strike an object, they
change the position or the shape of that object.

When a hammer is being selected the weight of its

head is as much a factor as the work piece. Light
hammers are easy to control but are not suitable
for applying heavy blows. Likewise, heavy
hammers are tiring to use and it is difficult to
strike light, accurate blows with them.

Three important features of a hammer are: -

 The length and shape of the handle

- A material of good elasticity is required

- The centre line of the handle should be at
right angles to the head
- The shape is important because it depends
upon the feeling of flexibility and power
which should go with each hammer blow.

 The method of wedging

- Most new hammers have a wooden wedge

inserted lengthwise and a steel wedge
inserted crosswise. This is to make sure that
the handle end completely fills the head.

 The shape and contour of the face

- Marking off hammers usually have a flat face

with slightly rounded edges
- Hard hammers and sledge hammers usually
have a convex face so that they will not mark
the plate very much.

Doc Ref: Page 35 of 80

Issue Date: MEM18001C Use hand tools
Validated By: Learners Guide Version 1.1
 LEARNING & ASSESSMENT
RESOURCES

Types of Hammers

Engineer’s Hammers

Engineers’ hammers have a slightly convex face

for general work and a hemispherical ball-pein at
the other end. They range in size from 100
grams to approximately 1.5 kilograms.

The flat, or slightly convex face is used to strike

chisels, punches or the job itself, while the ball-
pein is used for doming or shaping the shank of
solid rivets.

Other types of hammers are available such as:

Peining Hammer
 straight pein
 cross pein

Doc Ref: Page 36 of 80

Issue Date: MEM18001C Use hand tools
Validated By: Learners Guide Version 1.1
 LEARNING & ASSESSMENT
RESOURCES

Hammer Maintenance and Safety

 Before using any hammer, use a clean dry

cloth to wipe your hands, the handle and the
head of the hammer. Oil, grease and
dampness can cause the handle to slip from
your hand or the striking face to slip from
the work.

Safety Checks

 Feel if the head is firmly fixed to the handle

and that the wedge is tight. Check that the
head is square and in line with the handle. If
the handle is loose, refit the head and have
it re–wedged.

CAUTION: Heads flying from poorly fitted or

broken handles can inflict serious injuries.

 Inspect the striking faces of the head and

discard any split or badly chipped heads.
Have any burrs or tiny chips ground off,
making sure the faces are smooth, bright,
clean and dry.

 Inspect the handle and replace if it is cracked

or split. Smooth any splinters with
sandpaper and make sure that the handle is
clean and dry, free from oil, grease or
dampness.

 Never hit two hammer faces together.

- The faces would split and chips would fly

dangerously. Never hit any hardened metal
directly. Always use a piece of soft metal
between the hammer and hard steel.

Doc Ref: Page 37 of 80

Issue Date: MEM18001C Use hand tools
Validated By: Learners Guide Version 1.1
 LEARNING & ASSESSMENT
RESOURCES

Mallets
A blow from a steel hammer might damage or
mark the material more than what is considered
acceptable. This is often the case when using
soft metals like lead, copper, aluminium. In
these situations mallets, sometimes called soft
faced hammers are more suitable as the force of
the blow is distributed over a larger area and
any stretching of the metal is reduced or even
eliminated.
Types of Mallets

Rubber Mallets
The rubber mallet has a cylindrical head made
from solid rubber moulded to a wooden handle.
Correct use of this mallet will prevent damage
to surfaces which may have been painted,plated
or finely machined.

Doc Ref: Page 38 of 80

Issue Date: MEM18001C Use hand tools
Validated By: Learners Guide Version 1.1
 LEARNING & ASSESSMENT
RESOURCES

Soft Faced Mallets or Hammers

There are two types of soft faced mallets: -

 Plastic mallets

 Copper and rawhide faced mallets

Both types of mallets have cast steel heads

where inserts can be screwed in. Inserts are
made from copper or lead, rawhide and plastic,
and should be replaced once they are worn or
marked.

If possible set the work in a vice. Rebound can

be a problem when using mallets.

Soft faced mallets are used when very little, or

no damage or marking is allowed.

Doc Ref: Page 39 of 80

Issue Date: MEM18001C Use hand tools
Validated By: Learners Guide Version 1.1
 LEARNING & ASSESSMENT
RESOURCES

Review Questions
1. Identify the following hammers.

a.

b.

c.

d.

Doc Ref: Page 40 of 80

Issue Date: MEM18001C Use hand tools
Validated By: Learners Guide Version 1.1
 LEARNING & ASSESSMENT
RESOURCES

2. From your study notes select an appropriate hammer for the following applications: -

1. Assembling mating parts in a plastic die

2. Striking finished metal surfaces

3. Driving home dowel pins

3. Name and indicate on the diagram, the location of the device used to lock the hammer head to
the handle. Also state the material from which this device should be made.

4. Answer True (T) or False (F) to the following: -

a. Using a hammer with a loose head is acceptable if you think it

will not fly off in use.

b. You must NEVER strike two hardened steel hammers together.

c. If a pinch bar is not available, a hammer handle makes a useful

pry bar.

d. When using any tools where flying particles may cause eye
damage, safety glasses must be used.

e. Soft faced hammers are used where very little if any damage to
the part being struck is acceptable.

Doc Ref: Page 41 of 80

Issue Date: MEM18001C Use hand tools
Validated By: Learners Guide Version 1.1
 LEARNING & ASSESSMENT
RESOURCES

5. Suggest six (4) materials from which soft hammer heads could be made from.

1. 4
.

2.

3.

Doc Ref: Page 42 of 80

Issue Date: MEM18001C Use hand tools
Validated By: Learners Guide Version 1.1
 LEARNING & ASSESSMENT
RESOURCES

Files
Files are one of the most important and most frequently used of the fitter’s hand tools. The varieties in
use are the result of many years of development. They are one of the oldest tools used by man; files
made of bronze are reputed to have been used as far back as 1090BC.
Modern files are made of high grade 1¼% carbon tool steel. During manufacture they pass through the
processes of forging to shape, grinding of the surfaces, cutting of the teeth, hardening and tempering.
The teeth were originally cut by hand with a chisel like tool but today are in most cases produced by a
machine which eliminates the hand process.
They have a large range of applications for roughing and finishing surfaces. They may be used to shape
small parts, reduce the size of one part so that it will fit another, remove tool marks left by chipping or
machining, prepare a surface for scraping or for polishing, and for many other purposes.

Parts of a File
The diagram below shows the principal parts of a file. Some files have two faces; others like the half
round file, have only one face, the curved side being referred to as the back.

Figure 1 – Parts of a File

PARTS OF A FILE

Classification of Files

Files are classified by the following features:

 Length
 Kind of cut
 Grade of cut
 Longitudinal shape
 Cross-sectional shape or most common use

The Length of a File

This is measured from the point to the heel or shoulder and does not include the tank (see
above). The common types of file are made in various lengths.

Doc Ref: Page 43 of 80

Issue Date: MEM18001C Use hand tools
Validated By: Learners Guide Version 1.1
 LEARNING & ASSESSMENT
RESOURCES

Kinds of Cut

Single cut files have their teeth formed by a

single set of parallel chisel cuts. Each tooth runs
the full width of the side of the file at an angle to
its edge. These files are used with lighter
pressure than double-cut files and give a
smoother finish.

Single cut files are made in three grades of cut:

bastard, second cut and smooth.

Double cut files have their teeth formed by a

double set of parallel chisel cuts that cross each
other diagonally. This gives a series of small
diamond shaped teeth.

Double cut files are made in three grades of cut:

bastard, second cut and smooth.

Dreadnought cut files have coarse, curved teeth

and are used for cutting soft metals such as
aluminium and lead.

Grades of Cut

The grade of cut is indicated by the pitch or size

of the file teeth. The grades found on common
types of files are known as rough, coarse,
bastard, second, smooth and dead smooth.

Doc Ref: Page 44 of 80

Issue Date: MEM18001C Use hand tools
Validated By: Learners Guide Version 1.1
 LEARNING & ASSESSMENT
RESOURCES

Types of Files

The types of files most commonly used in engineering are:

Doc Ref: Page 45 of 80

Issue Date: MEM18001C Use hand tools
Validated By: Learners Guide Version 1.1
 LEARNING & ASSESSMENT
RESOURCES

File Handles

Each file must be fitted with a handle for two

reasons:

 To avoid the danger of the sharp long tang

piercing the hand.
 To give control over the pressure and
direction of the file.

Usually wooden handles are used on files but

plastic handles are also available. The length of
the file governs the size of the handle required.
The handle must fit firmly onto the tang.

How to use a File

Long steady strokes of medium pressure made at T his i m ag e c an not c ur r ent ly be dis pl ay ed.

about 35 to 45 strokes per minute are ideal for

average filing. If the pressure is too light, or the
speed too great, the file tends to slip over the
work without cutting. Slipping damages the file
teeth. Always use enough pressure so that you
“feel” the file cutting.

For heavy filing increase the pressure and

decrease the speed of filing. If the work is very
soft, or its surface very narrow, use less pressure
and a greater speed of filing.

Doc Ref: Page 46 of 80

Issue Date: MEM18001C Use hand tools
Validated By: Learners Guide Version 1.1
 LEARNING & ASSESSMENT
RESOURCES

Draw Filing

Draw filing can be used as a final finishing

process on parts that are longer than they are
wide. This method is only used when the work is
nearly flat and close to size. It produces a
smooth, even surface with all the file marks
running in one direction.

To draw file use the following procedure:

 Balance the file across the work at right
angles to its length.
 Grip the file with both hands as close as
possible to the work, with your thumbs on
the rear edge and your fingers on the front
edge.
 Make sure you keep the file level and move
both hands at the same time.
 Make the cutting stroke by moving the file
directly forward using light pressure.
 Don’t use heavy pressure on the file on the
return stroke.
 Continue at a speed suited to the job.

Doc Ref: Page 47 of 80

Issue Date: MEM18001C Use hand tools
Validated By: Learners Guide Version 1.1
 LEARNING & ASSESSMENT
RESOURCES

Fitting the File Handle

Two methods are used when fitting wooden
handles: -

 An axial hole is drilled in the handle with a drill

that has a diameter equal to the width of the
tang at its mid point.

- The tank is then inserted into the hole of the

handle. With one hand hold the body with
the file upright. Steady the file with the
other hand. Bring down the handle sharply
on a solid bench top.

 Alternatively, a small diameter pilot hole is

drilled axially in the handle. Then the tang is
heated while the blade is protected by a wet
cloth. When the tip of the tang is red hot, it is
pushed into the handle to a depth of ¾ of its
length and then withdrawn. Once the tang is
cool, it is reinserted into the hole and firmly
fixed in the handle.

To fit a file in a plastic handle: -

 File three grooves in the tang

 Heat the tang until it is cherry red

Push it into the plastic handle. The heat will melt

the plastic into the grooves and solidify when it
cools.

Storing and Safety

Files are fine cutting tools. To cut well, they must
be kept clean. Because they are tempered so hard,
they are very brittle and easily damaged.

To care for files ensure that you follow these rules.

 Keep the job and files clean and dry.

 Never hit bend or put excessive pressure on a file.
 Make sure that handles are sound and firmly fitted.
 Store files separately on a file rack.

Doc Ref: Page 48 of 80

Issue Date: MEM18001C Use hand tools
Validated By: Learners Guide Version 1.1
 LEARNING & ASSESSMENT
RESOURCES

Review Questions
1. Name the parts of the file on the sketch below.

2. Because of the variety of shapes, sizes and uses for files, it is important to be able to select a file
correctly. Name the five points which correctly classify a file.

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

3. All files fall into three groups which classify their type of cut. List the three kinds of cut.

4. Name the grades of cut found on common types of files

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

Doc Ref: Page 49 of 80

Issue Date: MEM18001C Use hand tools
Validated By: Learners Guide Version 1.1
 LEARNING & ASSESSMENT
RESOURCES

5. Name the files shown below.

a.

b.

c.

d.

e.

f.

Doc Ref: Page 50 of 80

Issue Date: MEM18001C Use hand tools
Validated By: Learners Guide Version 1.1
 LEARNING & ASSESSMENT
RESOURCES

6. A template of the shape shown below is to be finished by filing. Name the cross-section shape
of the files used.

7. Complete the following statement

i. Coarse or Bastard cut files are used only for

ii. Second cut files are used for

iii. Smooth or Dead Smooth files are used to produce the

8. When using a hand filehow many strokes per minute should be completed ?

Doc Ref: Page 51 of 80

Issue Date: MEM18001C Use hand tools
Validated By: Learners Guide Version 1.1
 LEARNING & ASSESSMENT
RESOURCES

HANDSAWS
Hacksaws

Hacksaws are the most commonly used

handsaws.

Parts of a hacksaw

Most hacksaws have frames that are adjustable so

they can be moved to take several different
lengths of blades. A set screw allows the bow to
be set in different positions in the handle.

Hacksaw blades

Two metals commonly used to make hacksaw

blades are:
 Low tungsten steel
 High speed steel
In each case, different heat treatments are used
to vary the characteristics of the blades.

Blades come in different sizes but general purpose

blades are made in 230mm, 250mm and 300mm
lengths.

Doc Ref: Page 52 of 80

Issue Date: MEM18001C Use hand tools
Validated By: Learners Guide Version 1.1
 LEARNING & ASSESSMENT
RESOURCES

Set of teeth

Set refers to the sideways bending of the

teeth which makes the width of the slot
or “kerf” cut by the blades greater than the
width of the blade.
This set prevents the blade binding in the
slot and provides clearance for any chips
which are then easy to remove.

The type of material and the section to be

cut have to be considered when selecting
the pitch of the blade.

Fitting the blade

 Set the blade to the correct length to

suit the blade. T his i m ag e c an not c ur r ent ly be dis pl ay ed.

 Hold the handle in one hand and

check that both pins face the same
direction.
 Hold the front of the blade in the
other hand with the teeth facing
towards the front of the frame.
 Fit the blade on the pin near the
handle and steady it with your thumb,
then fit the blade on the other pin.
 Use your thumbs to press the blade
hard against the flats of the blade
holders and tension the blade with the
wing nut. Take up the slack then give
three full turns on the wing nut.
 Check the tension – the blade should
“ring” sharply when the back of the
blade is plucked with your thumb nail.
If the blade flexes sideways when
cutting, more tension is needed.

Doc Ref: Page 53 of 80

Issue Date: MEM18001C Use hand tools
Validated By: Learners Guide Version 1.1
 LEARNING & ASSESSMENT
RESOURCES

Cutting with a hacksaw

Holding the hacksaw

At all times control the hacksaw with both

hands and keep it straight and upright. Do
not allow the blade to twist or move
sideways.

Stance

 Stand in a comfortable, well balanced

position approximately 400 – 500mm
behind the vice with the right foot
perpendicular to the line of the cut.

 Allow the body to rock forward and

back with each stroke keeping the
right arm close to the body with the
forearm in line with the blade.

 At the beginning of each stroke most

of the pressure will be directed from
the left hand. Gradually transfer the
pressure to the right hand by the end
of the stroke.

Doc Ref: Page 54 of 80

Issue Date: MEM18001C Use hand tools
Validated By: Learners Guide Version 1.1
 LEARNING & ASSESSMENT
RESOURCES

Review Questions
Engineering Hand Saws

1. List the three common styles available in modern metal cutting hacksaws.

a.

b.

c.

2. What are the two most common hacksaw blade materials available?

3. What is meant by the term “set of teeth” with regard to a hacksaw blade ?

4. When fitting a hacksaw blade which direction should the teeth face?

Doc Ref: Page 55 of 80

Issue Date: MEM18001C Use hand tools
Validated By: Learners Guide Version 1.1
 LEARNING & ASSESSMENT
RESOURCES

Hand Scrapers
Introduction to Scraping

Engineers’ scrapers are extremely hard cutting tools which have either one, two or three cutting edges.
When a cutting edge is pressed against a surface and given a very short movement, the scraper
removes a very small shaving of metal. Scrapers are used to correct slight errors on flat or curved
surfaces that must be finished more accurately.

Scraping is used to produce a high degree of fit between two flat or two curved surfaces, particularly
where the surfaces can rub together in use.

Common Types of Scrapers

There are five common types of scrapers

which can be divided into two main
groups:

For scraping flat surfaces there are:

 Flat scrapers with straight
rectangular blades
 Hook scrapers with rectangular
blades bent at right angles.

 For scraping curved surfaces there

are:
 Half-round scrapers of segmental
section which may be curved slightly
towards the curved surface.
 Three square or three cornered
scrapers of triangular section often
with each of the three faces hollow
ground.
 Bullnose scrapers in which the
rectangular blade is forged to a disc
like end.

Doc Ref: Page 56 of 80

Issue Date: MEM18001C Use hand tools
Validated By: Learners Guide Version 1.1
 LEARNING & ASSESSMENT
RESOURCES

Half-Round Scrapers
Half-round scrapers are segmental in section and taper slightly towards rounded points.
Most of the centre of the lower flat face is hollow ground to leave two long raised facets
About 3mm wide.

All facets are ground along the rounded surface to form the cutting edges. The cutting angle of
these edges is between 45º and 65º.
Hollow grinding reduces the area of contact with the abrasive stone during honing. This
facilitates sharpening and tends to prevent any rounding of the cutting edges.

Three Square Scraper

The three square scraper is triangular in section and tapers to a sharp point. For easy
sharpening, the centre of each face is hollow ground to leave at each edge a facet of 3mm wide.
Thus a 60º cutting angle is formed at each of the three edges.

The three square scraper is used to scrape small diameter holes and for deburring the edges of
accurate holes. In use the cutting edge is moved at right angles to its length.

Doc Ref: Page 57 of 80

Issue Date: MEM18001C Use hand tools
Validated By: Learners Guide Version 1.1
 LEARNING & ASSESSMENT
RESOURCES

NOTE:
When using a small three square scraper one handed it is important to scrape away from the
body.

Bull Nose Scrapers

The bull-nosed scraper has the end of its

rectangular blade forged into a flat circular
disc. This gives curved cutting edges which
form almost two thirds of a circle. Two cutting
angles of approximately 90º may be formed.

It is useful for scraping large bearings .

Doc Ref: Page 58 of 80

Issue Date: MEM18001C Use hand tools
Validated By: Learners Guide Version 1.1
 LEARNING & ASSESSMENT
RESOURCES

Review Questions

1. List four items of safety equipment worn in the workshop.

a.

b.

c.

d.

2. The outlines of four scrapers are shown below.

a. Write the name of each scraper below the sketch.

b. Which of these scrapers can be accurately used on curved surfaces.

a. b. c. d.

3. Fill in the missing word.

When using a small three square scraper one handed it is True / False
important to scrape away from your body.

Doc Ref: Page 59 of 80

Issue Date: MEM18001C Use hand tools
Validated By: Learners Guide Version 1.1
 LEARNING & ASSESSMENT
RESOURCES

Taps and Tap Wrenches

Tap wrenches are designed to hold and turn the tap when cutting an internal thread in metal. Choose
the size and type of tap wrench to suit the size of tap, the position, and ease of access for the hole.

Types of Tap Wrenches

Bar Tap Wrenches

Bar type tap wrenches have a flat centre

section containing jaws shaped to grip
the squared end of the tap. One sliding
jaw is adjusted by a screw operated by
turning one of the handles about its axis.
The ends of the two handles are knurled.

Choose the smallest capacity wrenchthat

will hold the tap firmly. Check that the
handles of the tap wrench can beturned
without striking anything.

The smallest capacity bar type tap

wrench holds taps ranging from 3mm
to13 mm in size. There is a range of
different capacity bar type wrenches.

Tee Tap Wrenches

Tee (‘T’) tap wrenches are for work where

there is not enough room to turna bar
type wrench. These wrenches havea small
adjustable two jaw chuck on the end of a
stem with a handle. There are difference
capacity tee (‘T’) type tap wrenches. The
largest capacity takes taps up to 13mm
in size.

Doc Ref: Page 60 of 80

Issue Date: MEM18001C Use hand tools
Validated By: Learners Guide Version 1.1
 LEARNING & ASSESSMENT
RESOURCES

Pin Chucks

Pin chucks are for delicate tapping of

small threads in instruments. They have
a very small adjustable two jaw chuck
mounted on the end of a knurled rod.
They are used for threads smaller than
2.8mm diameter. The pin chuck is
twisted between finger and thumb. This
operation requires a delicate sense of
feel. Learn to use large taps first.
Vee threads
Vee thread forms

The illustrations show some basic vee thread

forms. In practice, some slight variations of
some of these basic forms are allowed.
Check how one thread differs from another
by inspecting: -
The thread angle between the sloping flanks
of the thread measured in an axial plane
The shape of the crest or top of the ridge
The shape of the root or bottom of the
groove
The height and pitch of the thread, which
form a definite ratio.
The ISO thread form is a modern general
purpose screw thread form, developed by
the International Organisation of Standards
for both ISO and Metric threads and the ISO
Inch Series threads.
The American National thread form and the
DIN Metric thread forms were commonly
used prior to the introduction of ISO and
Unified threads.
The Whitworth thread form was once a
widely used general purpose thread in
Australia.
The British Association thread form was
widely used for small screws in electrical
fittings and scientific apparatus. It has a
metric pitch.

Doc Ref: Page 61 of 80

Issue Date: MEM18001C Use hand tools
Validated By: Learners Guide Version 1.1
 LEARNING & ASSESSMENT
RESOURCES

Cutting Internal Threads with Taps

Taps are normally used in sets of three to allow progressive cutting of the threads. There are many
types of taps.

Three are described to indicate some of the major features. Ask about any other type you see being
used.

Regular Hand Taps

These taps are used for most general work. Each set consists of a taper, an intermediate and a
bottoming tap. Each tap in a set has identical length and thread measurements and only the tapered
lead is different.

Hand Taps

Doc Ref: Page 62 of 80

Issue Date: MEM18001C Use hand tools
Validated By: Learners Guide Version 1.1
 LEARNING & ASSESSMENT
RESOURCES

Common Thread Forms

1. I.S.O. METRIC

A modern, general purpose screw thread form.

Thread angle 60º

Important Formulae

a. Depth of Thread - External Thread = 0.61 x pitch

- Internal Thread = 0.54 x pitch

b. minor diameter (md) – Major Dia (MD) – 2 x depth

md = MD – 2d

c. Tapping Size Drill (T.S.D.) = Major Dia (MD) - pitch

T.S.D. = MD - p

There are two series of I.S.O. Metric Threads

A. Coarse Series for general use

B. Fine Series for special application

In each case the nominal diameter of the thread is given first in millimetres and then the pitch is
given in millimetres.

eg. M36 X 4 Coarse Series

or

M36 x 3 Fine Series

Doc Ref: Page 63 of 80

Issue Date: MEM18001C Use hand tools
Validated By: Learners Guide Version 1.1
 LEARNING & ASSESSMENT
RESOURCES

2. WHITWORTH FORMS
Whitworth thread forms are based on a British System for general purpose applications.
Note: BSW share popularity equally with I.S.O. Metric in general engineering usage.

- Thread Angle - 55

- Important Formulae

a) Depth of Thread External = 0.64 x P

Internal = 0.54 x P
b) md = MD – 2d

c) T.S.D. = MD - P

d) Pitch (P) = 1.
T.P.I

Two common imperial thread types.

A. British Standard Whitworth B.S.W.

B. British Standard Fine B.S.F.

eg. ½” B.S.W., 12 T.P.I.

The calculation: Pitch = 1 .

T.P.I

= 1.
12

Pitch = 0.083”

Doc Ref: Page 64 of 80

Issue Date: MEM18001C Use hand tools
Validated By: Learners Guide Version 1.1
 LEARNING & ASSESSMENT
RESOURCES

Tapping in a drill press can be done either by hand or with the use of a tapping attachment. The
advantage of tapping a hole in a drill press is that the tap can be started squarely without
difficulty and maintained that way throughout the entire length of the hole being tapped.

1. Mount the work on parallel strips, centre the punch mark under the spindle, and clamp the work
firmly to the drill press table.

2. Drill the hole to the correct tapping drill size for the tap to be used. Note: The work or table
should not be moved after drilling. The distance you leave between the work and the drill must
allow you to tap the hole without moving the work or the table.

3. Mount a short stub centre in the drill chuck

or

Remove the drill chuck and mount a special centre in the drill press spindle.

4. Place the tap into the drilled hole and allow the drill press spindle to locate until the centre fits
into the hole in the end of the tap shank.

5. As the tap wrench is turned, moving the tap down into the hole, the centre must be kept in
contact with the tap.

6. Tap in the usual manner, keeping light pressure on the drill press down feed level during the
entire operation.

When using the tapping attachments, special types of taps are used, generally two or three fluted taps.
The speed for tapping is usually a slow speed.

Tapping Drill Charts

Previous work in this unit has described a method of calculation for selecting the correct drill to
produce a hole prior to using taps.

A useful method of selection can be obtained by reading the information required from a Tapping Drill
Chart.

A chart typical of those commonly displayed in workshops is shown on the next page. Many styles of
charts are in circulation and due to differences in how the information is arranged and thus read, it is
suggested that you make yourself familiar with those in your work surrounds.

Doc Ref: Page 65 of 80

Issue Date: MEM18001C Use hand tools
Validated By: Learners Guide Version 1.1
 LEARNING & ASSESSMENT
RESOURCES

Doc Ref: Page 66 of 80

Issue Date: MEM18001C Use hand tools
Validated By: Learners Guide Version 1.1
 LEARNING & ASSESSMENT
RESOURCES

Doc Ref: Page 67 of 80

Issue Date: MEM18001C Use hand tools
Validated By: Learners Guide Version 1.1
 LEARNING & ASSESSMENT
RESOURCES

You must learn the method of finding the tapping sizes used for taps in your workshop. Calculations based
on a different standard formula for each thread may be used. Engineers handbooks and manufacturers
give Tables of Tapping Drill Recommendations. Use these whenever possible.
If you are uncertain, try the largest drill that appears suitable in a piece of scrap metal to test the thread
produced.

I.S.O. Metric Screw Threads

Preferred Thread Series
Thread Size
Designation (diameter Tapping Drill Minor Diameter of Minor Diameter of
x pitch) mm Diameter Screw Nut
mm mm mm

1.6 x 0.35 1.25 1.17 1.22

2.0 x 0.4 1.60 1.51 1.57
2.5 x 0.45 2.05 1.95 2.01
3.0 x 0.5 2.50 2.39 2.46
4.0 x 0.7 3.30 3.14 3.24

5.0 x 0.8 4.20 4.02 4.13

6.0 x 1.0 5.00 4.77 4.92
8.0 x 1.25 6.80 6.47 6.65
10.0 x 1.5 8.50 8.16 8.38
12.0 x 1.75 10.20 9.85 10.11

16.0 x 2.0 14.00 13.55 13.84

20.0 x 2.5 17.50 16.93 17.29
24.0 x 3.0 21.00 20.32 20.75
30.0 x 3.5 26.50 25.71 26.21
36.0 x 4.0 32.00 31.09 31.67

Threads Per Inch of Common Threads

Number of Threads Per Inch

Coarse Threads Fine Threads

Diameter B.S.W. U.N.C. B.S.F. U.N.F.

¼“ 20 20 26 28
1’16” 18 18 22 24
3/8” 16 16 20 24
7.16” 14 14 18 20
½” 12 12 16 20
5/8” 11 11 14 18
¾” 10 10 12 16
7/8” 9 9 11 14
1” 8 8 10 12
1 1/8” 7 7 9 12
1¼ “ 7 7 9 12

Doc Ref: Page 68 of 80

Issue Date: MEM18001C Use hand tools
Validated By: Learners Guide Version 1.1
 LEARNING & ASSESSMENT
RESOURCES

Above is shown a table for coarse and fine threads using Whitworth and Unified forms. Reference
should be made to a handbook or to a chart should a complete table be required.

Thread Pitch Gauge

Thread pitch gauges are used as a reference tool in determining the pitch of a thread that is on a screw or in a
tapped hole. This tool is not used as a precision measuring instrument. This device allows the user to determine
the profile of the given thread and quickly categorize the thread by shape and pitch. This device also saves time,
in that it removes the need for the user to measure and calculate the thread pitch of the threaded item.

Doc Ref: Page 69 of 80

Issue Date: MEM18001C Use hand tools
Validated By: Learners Guide Version 1.1
 LEARNING & ASSESSMENT
RESOURCES

Review Questions

1. Name three types of tap wrenches

1.

2.

3.

2. Name the three types of taps available in a regular tap set.

1.

2.

3.

3. What is the function of a bottoming tap?

1.

2.

3.

4. How is the correct tapping drill selected?

5. On the diagram below sketch what is a method of checking tap squareness.

Doc Ref: Page 70 of 80

Issue Date: MEM18001C Use hand tools
Validated By: Learners Guide Version 1.1
 LEARNING & ASSESSMENT
RESOURCES

6. Should a lubricant be used when tapping mild steel?

7. Why is the hole drilled deeper than the depth of thread required?

Doc Ref: Page 71 of 80

Issue Date: MEM18001C Use hand tools
Validated By: Learners Guide Version 1.1
 LEARNING & ASSESSMENT
RESOURCES

Stock and Dies

WHEN AN EXTERNAL THREAD IS

REQUIRED ON A STUD OR PIPE, IT CAN
BE MADE BY THREADING THE ROD
USING A STOCK AND DIE. THIS IS
REFERRED TO AS HAND THREADING.

Parts of a Stock
The stock is the tool used to hold and
turn the die nut when making an
external thread by hand.
 The locking screws hold the die in
position while the adjusting screw
alters the size of thread to be cut
 Knurled handles hold and turn the
die on the stud being threaded
 The recess houses the die and holds
it against the leading face

Parts of a Die
The die is a round or square block of
hardened steel with a hole containing
threads and flutes which are the cutting
edges.
 The first few teeth of the die are
chamfered to allow an easy start
when turning a thread
 A split in some larger dies allows the
die opening to be made larger or
smaller by turning an adjustment
screw

Doc Ref: Page 72 of 80

Issue Date: MEM18001C Use hand tools
Validated By: Learners Guide Version 1.1
 LEARNING & ASSESSMENT
RESOURCES

Die nut

Die nuts are used to clean existing threads and remove burrs, they are turned using a spanner rather
than a stock.

Doc Ref: Page 73 of 80

Issue Date: MEM18001C Use hand tools
Validated By: Learners Guide Version 1.1
 LEARNING & ASSESSMENT
RESOURCES

Review Questions
Threading using a Stock and Die

1. An 1S0 Metric bolt with a diameter of 20 millimetres and a pitch of 1.5 millimetres would be
designated: (tick correct answer): -

a. 20mm x 1.5mm pitch

b. 1.5 x 20 thread

c. I.S.O. 20 x 1.5 series

d. Standard 20 mm I.S.O.

e. M 20 x 1.5

2. What can be used to determine the pitch of a thread quickly and exactly?

3. What is the purpose of the stock?

Doc Ref: Page 74 of 80

Issue Date: MEM18001C Use hand tools
Validated By: Learners Guide Version 1.1
 LEARNING & ASSESSMENT
RESOURCES

4. With reference to the figure shown below, explain the purpose of items 1 and 2.

Item 1

Item 2

5. Explain the reason for “Backing Off” when using the stock and die.

6. Why would you use a die nut?

Doc Ref: Page 75 of 80

Issue Date: MEM18001C Use hand tools
Validated By: Learners Guide Version 1.1
 LEARNING & ASSESSMENT
RESOURCES

HAND TOOL MAINTENANCE

Using an off-hand grinding machine

There are many points to be considered when

using a grinding machine for off-hand grinding.

 Always wear suitable protective

equipment such as eye protection, close
fitting overalls and work boots.

 Make sure you select the right type of

machine for the work to be performed.
Tool sharpening is usually done on a
smaller bench or pedestal type grinder.

 Visually check the condition of the wheel

and work rest positions before starting the
machine.

 Check all guards are fitted to the machine.

 Support yourself comfortably on both feet.

Doc Ref: Page 76 of 80

Issue Date: MEM18001C Use hand tools
Validated By: Learners Guide Version 1.1
 LEARNING & ASSESSMENT
RESOURCES

When Sharpening Centre Punches and

Scribers

 The grinding action of the wheel

transmits any heat generated onto
the solid part of the tool.

 Air flow carried around by the wheel

is directed onto the cutting edge;
this helps to prevent overheating.

 Weakness is caused if the cutting

edge is overheated or “blued”, this is
to be avoided.

 The grinding action is down onto the

cutting edge to produce a burr free
surface.

Sharpening Cold Chisels

Carbon tool steel chisels are sharpened

by grinding. Care must be taken not to
overheat the cutting edge or to remove
more metal than is necessary.

NOTE: Alloy steel chisels must be

sharpened with a smooth file.

Doc Ref: Page 77 of 80

Issue Date: MEM18001C Use hand tools
Validated By: Learners Guide Version 1.1
 LEARNING & ASSESSMENT
RESOURCES

To sharpen cold chisels by grinding

follow these steps.

 Wear a protective face shield or

safety glasses and stand in a
comfortable position to the front of
the wheel.

 Hold the chisel firmly in both hands

and lay it on the tool rest, keeping
your fingers behind the tool rest.

 Incline the chisel upwards and bring

it into contact with the grinding
wheel to form an angle with the face
of the wheel that is half the required
cutting angle.

 Move the chisel slowly back and

forth across the grinding wheel face.
Quench the chisel in cool water
when it becomes heated.

 Turn the chisel over and grind the

second facet when the first is
finished.

Sharpening a Twist Drill

To successfully sharpen a twist drill on a

bench grinder use the following method:

 Put on a pair of well fitted safety

glasses.

 Stand in a comfortable position with

the feet about 400mm apart. Stand
in front of the machine and slightly
left of the wheel.

 Hold the drill at about one-quarter of

its length from the point, between
the thumb and first finger of the
right hand.

Doc Ref: Page 78 of 80

Issue Date: MEM18001C Use hand tools
Validated By: Learners Guide Version 1.1
 LEARNING & ASSESSMENT
RESOURCES

 Support the hand on the tool rest

with the other fingers.

 Hold the shank of the drill between T his i m ag e c an not c ur r ent ly be dis pl ay ed.

the thumb and fingers of the left

hand.

 Keep both elbows against your sides.

 Position yourself by moving your feet

so that the drill makes an angle of
59º to 60º to the wheel face.

 Hold the drill level. Twist it until one

cutting edge is horizontal and
parallel to the wheel face.

 Swing the shank of the drill slightly

downwards and to the left with the
left hand. Support the right hand on
the tool rest.

 Roll the drill to the right by turning it

between the thumb and finger as
you swing the left hand down.

 Watch the cutting edge against the

wheel. Note that as the shank swings
down, the cutting edge will come
slightly upwards and away from the
wheel face.

 Sharpen the second cutting edge

using the same amount of drill
movement as before.

 When these actions are carried out

carefully, the drill will be sharpened
with equal cutting angles.

 Check these angles with a drill gauge.

Doc Ref: Page 79 of 80

Issue Date: MEM18001C Use hand tools
Validated By: Learners Guide Version 1.1
 LEARNING & ASSESSMENT
RESOURCES

Practical exercise

You should now attempt to sharpen the tools listed below for practice. Show your trainer on
completion of each task.

Task Trainer’s Signature / date

Sharpen a twist drill
Sharpen a scriber
Sharpen a centre punch
Sharpen a chisel
Sharpen a lathe cutting tool

Doc Ref: Page 80 of 80

Issue Date: MEM18001C Use hand tools
Validated By: Learners Guide Version 1.1