Seeding- Seeding is the technique of scheduling outstanding teams so that stronger teams

do not face each other right at the start of a tournament. The reason of seeding teams is to
prevent the elimination of a strong team. Eliminating a strong team, in the beginning,
would mean that another team with a lesser caliber would make it to the finals, which
would not be fair. Another reason is for fan support in the case of international sports.
The stronger team will usually have a larger fanbase and will hence bring in more money
to the sport.

SPORTS TRAINING

Training is a process of preparing an individual for any event, activity or job. Usually in
sports, we use the term sports training, which denotes the sense of preparing sports
persons for the highest level of performance. According to Mathew (1981), “Sports
training is the basic form of preparation of a sportsman.” Keeping in view the aim of
sports training in competitive sports, the following objectives of sports training may be
set to reach the aim.

1. Personality development
2. Physical fitness and development
3. Skill/Technique development
4. Tactical development
5. Mental Training

STRENGTH
Strength is the ability of a muscle to exert force in single muscle contraction or it is the
ability to overcome resistance. Strength is an essential component of physical fitness.
Types of strength are:

1. Dynamic Strength
a. Maximum strength
b. Explosive strength
c. Strength endurance
2. Static Strength
Training Methods for Improving Strength

(i) Isometric Exercises

An isometric contraction occurs when there is tension on a muscle but no movement is
made, causing the length of the muscle to remain the same. These isometric exercises
were first introduced by Hettinger and Muller (1953). Examples of these exercises are
pressing or pushing a wall, holding a static position, pulling the rope in tug-of-war etc.
Advantages of isometric exercises are as follows

 Develops static strength.

 Need less time.
 Can be performed anywhere because no equipment is required.

(ii) Isotonic Exercises

Isotonic exercise is a form of exercise which involves controlled contraction and
extension of muscles and mobilization of the joints around those muscles. Examples
include a push-up or squat. These were developed by De Lorene (1954). Isotonic
exercises are of two types

 Concentric
 Eccentric

Advantages of isotonic exercises are as follows

 Strengthens the muscle throughout the range of motion.

 Can be adapted easily to suit different sports. Disadvantages of isotonic exercises
are as follows
 Muscle soreness after exercise because of the high stress level.
 Muscles gain the dynamic strength when they are at their weakest point of action.

(iii) Isokinetic Exercises

Isokinetic exercises are performed on specially designed machines. These exercises were
developed by J.J.Perrine in 1968.
In these exercises, there is movement along with continuous tension in both flexor and
extensor muscles.

Advantages of isokinetic exercises are as follows

  They develop a high level of dynamic as well as explosive strength.
 These are effective for almost every game.

Disadvantages of isokinetic exercises are as follows

 They require special types of equipment.

 They must be performed under observation of a coach.

ENDURANCE
Endurance is the ability to do sports movements with the desired quality and speed under
conditions of fatigue.

Endurance

Types of endurance are:

1. On the basis of nature of activity:

(a) Basic endurance: Basic endurance is also called aerobic endurance because basic
endurance depends mainly on aerobic endurance. In fact basic endurance is the ability to
perform movements in which large numbers of body muscles are involved and the
activity is performed at slow pace for long duration.

(b) General endurance: General endurance is the ability to resist fatigue caused by
different types of activities. These activities may be aerobic or anaerobic in nature. These
activities may be of low or high intensity but for longer duration.
(c) Specific endurance: Specific endurance is the ability to resist fatigue caused by a
specific or particular sports activity. As the nature of fatigue is different from sports to
sports.

2. On the basis of duration of activity:

(a) Speed Endurance: This is required for cyclic sports for the duration of 40-45
seconds. It is higly fatigue producing.

(b) Short Term Endurance: This is required for cyclic sports for the duration of 45
seconds to 2 minutes.

(c) Medium Term Endurance: This is required for cyclic sports lasting up to 2 minutes
to 11 minutes. Eg: 1500m, 3000m

(d) Long Term Endurance: This is required for cyclic sports for the duration of more
than 11 minutes. Eg: 10000m, Marathon

Training Method for Endurance Development

Methods for endurance development are

1. Continuous Training- This method consists of long distance running without

break or recovery or pause. And the distance should be covered in same pace.
2. Interval Training - This is best method for improving Endurance. It is widely used
for the development of speed and endurance. This method is based on tire principle
"effort and recovery". This means during training, the recovery of athlete between
specified workouts, some recovery period or interval is given. The pulse rate
increases, blood pressure also increases. The heartbeat ranges from 170 to 180 beats
per minute. for example, the athlete runs 300 mts. with maximum speed followed
by a rest of 2-3 minutes and again gets ready for next repetition.
3. Fartlek Training- Fartlek training method is used for developing endurance. The
word 'fartlek' is a swedish word means 'speed play'. this training method lays
emphasis on both the aerobic and anaerobic systems. In this method, speed is not
preplanned so it is left up to the individual. Self-discipline plays a vital role in
fartlek training method. The rate of heart beat ranges between 140 to 180 per
minutes.
 SPEED
It is the ability to cover distance in minimum possible time or the ability to perform
movement in the shortest possible time. It is the quickness of movement of body parts.
Speed used in endurance is called speed endurance. It is the ability to do work faster.
Different types of speed are:

1. Movement Speed: It is the ability to do a single movement in minimum

time. It depends upon technique, explosive strength, flexibility and
coordination abilities

2. Reaction ability : Reaction ability has great significance in sports

specially start in Sprint Events.

 In case of simple reaction ability athletes try to workout repeated

movements as fast as possible on the given signal.
 In case of complex reaction ability the athlete has to respond to
unexpected signal quickly and accurately. Both need a lot of
training for nervous system and coordinative abilities.

3. Acceleration ability:-It is ability to achieve maximum speed from a

stationary position or from low speed state.

4. Locomotor ability: Locomotor speed ability is the ability to maintain

maximum speed for maximum time to cover more distance in less time.
Sprints depend on locomotor ability as sprinters have to run with maximum
speed to excel.

Training Methods for Speed Development

A speed development programme can be framed according to need, level and training
state of the players.

1. Acceleration Run Acceleration runs are usually adopted to develop speed specially
in attaining maximum speed from a stationary position.
2. Pace Runs: It means running the whole distance of a race at a constant speed. In
pace races, an athlete runs the race with uniform speed, generally 800 m and above.
 FLEXIBILITY

Flexibility can be defined as the maximum range of motion at a joint that is the extent of
movement possible about a joint without undue strain. Flexibility is not a general quality;
it is specific to a particular joint, such as the knee or to a series of joints. This means that
an individual can have a better range of motion in some joints than in others.

Types of Flexibility are:

1. Active flexibility :- The ability of an individual to do the joint movement for a

longer range without any external help. Ex. doing any stretching exercise without
external help.
It is two kinds :-
(a) Static Flexibility :- It is usually required by a sports person when he remains
in static position e.g. Diving, sitting, lying, etc.
(b) Dynamic Flexibility :- It is the ability to perform dynamic movements of the
muscles to bring a limb to its full range of Motion in the joints.

2. Passive Flexibility :- the ability to do joint movement with a greater range with an
external help of partner. This flexibility is largely determined by joint structure,
stretch ability of the muscle and ligament. Passive flexibility helps in the
development of active flexibility.
Methods to Improve Flexibility

(i) Ballistic Stretching: The individual performs these stretching exercises while in
motion. This dynamic method uses the momentum generated from repeated bouncing
movements to stretch the muscles. Although it is very effective, most experts do not
recommend this method because it may overstretch the muscles and can cause muscle
soreness or injury. This method includes various exercises like swinging the trunk
sidewards, forward, backward, swinging the legs etc.

(ii) Static Stretching: It is an extremely popular and effective technique. Static stretching
involves gently and slowly moving into the stretch position and holding it for a certain
period of time. Movement should take place through the full range of motion until a little
tension or tightness is felt in the muscles or group of muscles.

(iii) Passive stretching: Passive stretching techniques are usually performed with a
partner who applies a stretch to a relaxed joint. Partner stretching requires closer
communication between partners, and the slow application of the stretch in order to 4
prevent injuries due to forceful manipulation of the body segment.

(iv) Proprioceptive Neuromuscular Facilitation (PNF)

technique is the most appropriate method for increasing or developing flexibility in the
shortest possible time. In this method the muscle being worked on is strongly contracted
against a resistance, when the resistance is removed the muscle is immediately stretched
to the end of its range. It involves use of muscle contraction before stretching to achieve
maximum muscle relaxation.

COORDINATIVE ABILITIES

There are seven types of coordinative abilities. There are different abilities for different
games/sport. They are:

(a) Differentiation ability: It is the ability to achieve a high level of fine tuning or
harmony of individual movement phases and body part movements. It is a high degree of
accuracy and high level of mastery over sports movements for effective application in
competition.

(b) Orientation ability: It is the ability to change the position and movements of the body
in time and space in relation to a definite field of action. In gymnastics the position
and the movement of head and eyes is important for orientation.
(c) Coupling ability: It is the ability to coordinate body part movements in relation to a
definite goal, oriented body movement. For example: In football, the foot-movement for
all control or dribbling have to be coupled with the whole body movement of running.
Jumping, etc. Likewise in wrestling movements of hands, legs. trunk and head have to be
successfully combined.

(d) Balance ability: It is the ability to maintain balance between body movements. Both
static as well as dynamic balance is important in sports.

(e) Rhythm ability: It is the ability to produce a rhythm, existing in motor memory, in
motor action. For example, In Gymnastics the sportsman has to perceive an external
rhythm, given in the form of music and to express it in his movements. in other sports
rhythm is not given from outside, the sportsman has to make use of rhythm stored in his
motor memory.

(f) Adaptation ability: It is the ability to adjust or completely change the movement
programme during tire movement on the basis of changes or anticipated changes in the
situation. The situational changes may be expected ones or may suddenly take place. It
depends heavily on experience.

INTRODUCTION TO SPORTS TRAINING CYCLE – MICRO, MESO,

MACRO CYCLE
The sports training cycle is a systematic approach to planning, organizing, and
implementing training programs for athletes. It involves a series of stages that are
designed to help athletes reach their peak performance level for competition. The training
cycle is a continuous process that begins with the development of long-term goals and
objectives and ends with the evaluation of the training program's effectiveness.

Micro cycle

Microcycle is a short period of training, usually lasting for a week. It is the shortest and
most specific period of the training cycle that focuses on achieving specific training
goals.

In a microcycle, athletes usually train for a particular sport-specific skill, technique, or

physical attribute such as speed, strength, power, and endurance. The training program
for each microcycle typically includes warm-up and cool-down routines, skill-specific
drills, and exercises, as well as strength and conditioning exercises.
Meso Cycle

The mesocycle is the second phase of the sports training cycle, which typically lasts
several weeks to a few months. The mesocycle aims to achieve specific training
objectives that are linked to the overall goals of the athlete or team. It is during this phase
that athletes typically experience the most significant improvements in their physical
abilities and skills.

During the mesocycle, the training plan is divided into several smaller phases or blocks,
each with a specific focus. For example, one block may focus on building strength, while
another may focus on improving endurance. The blocks are typically sequenced in a
logical manner to ensure that the athlete progresses from one phase to the next in a way
that maximizes the benefits of training and minimizes the risk of injury or burnout.

Macro Cycle

A macrocycle is the longest training cycle that spans an entire season or multiple seasons,
with the goal of achieving peak performance at the most important competitions. It
typically lasts for several months to a year.

The macrocycle involves setting long-term goals, planning and scheduling training
phases, and monitoring progress towards the desired outcomes

The macrocycle is designed to progressively build up the athlete's physical, technical,

tactical, and mental capacities, with a focus on peaking at the right time for the most
significant events. The training intensity and volume vary throughout the macrocycle,
with the highest intensity and volume occurring during the pre-competition phase,
followed by a tapering period leading up to the competition.

CIRCUIT TRAINING
In this training method in which certain exercise of various kind are performed with or
without apparatus with given dosage. It was developed by ―Adamson and Morgon‖ in
1957. This is considered for the development of ―strength & Endurance. Circuit training
method is a scientific method which is based on over coming various exercises at once. It
is meant for to develop strength &endurance. It is an off-season training method. It is a
form of body conditioning or resistance training using high-intensity aerobics. It targets
strength building and muscular endurance. An exercise “circuit” is one completion of all
prescribed exercises in the program. When one circuit is complete, one begins the first
exercise again for the next circuit.
Benefits of circuit training.
1) It is easy and interesting method.
2) It requires short duration
3) It can be performed indoor and as well as outdoor
4) It involves the all organs of body
5) It can be easily supervised by the coach.
6)It provides an interesting atmosphere.

Image Showing illustration of Circuit training