Management and Administration

This resource has been prepared to assist candidates preparing for:

IFE Level 3 Certificate in Fire Science, Operations, Fire Safety and Management, Unit 4 –
Management and Administration

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Contents

CONTENTS PAGE
Section 1 – Elements of Organisation
The Purpose of an Organisation 3
Strategies 3
SWOT Analysis 3
Organisation Structure 5
Objectives 11
Planning 13
Performance Management 13
Roles, Responsibilities and Relationships 17
Task, Team and Individual 20
Operational Risk Management 24
Health and Safety 26

Section 2 – Leadership and Management

Leadership and Management 31
Leadership Styles/Types 33
Motivation 37
Effective Allocation of Work 42
Effective Delegation 43
Effective Communication 44
Managing Performance 47
Discipline 49
Grievance Procedure 51
Conflict Management 52
Equality and Diversity 55

Section 3 – Organisation Systems and Administration

Management Information 58
Financial Management 62
Quality Assurance Systems 66
Meetings 66

Section 4 – Training and Development

Training, Development and Learning 69
Training Needs Analysis 71
Training Methods 72
Exercises 77
Continuing Professional Development (CPD) 79
Manager’s Role in Relation to Training and Development 81

Bibliography 83

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Section 1 – Elements of Organisation

The purpose of an organisation

Every organisation has a purpose, which is the reason it exists and why it was set up. However, over
time the purpose may change; for example, as well as fighting fires, Fire and Rescue Services have
extended their role to include prevention and protection.

The purpose of an organisation is derived from the needs and preferences of customers and other
stakeholders whether internal or external and it is met by the collective efforts of employees. With a
public service, expectations may come from local or national politicians and will often be laid down
in legislation and major policy documents such as the Fire and Rescue National Frameworks.

An organisation’s purpose is often set out in more detail in a Vision or Mission Statement. These
statements paint a picture of the organisation’s aspirations and purpose.

Strategies
The mission, values and vision are developed into strategies and are usually set out in the form of a
Strategic or Corporate Plan.

Strategies are declarations of intent. They define the overall long-term direction in which the
organisation is going in order to achieve its mission. At corporate level they are a means of expressing
the vision of top management about where they want to be in the longer term, broadly how they want
to get there and what specific goals need to be achieved. They enable an organisation to identify the
amount and type of resources which will be required, allow plans to be developed and provide the
basis for performance management.

Top level strategies provide the framework for departmental strategies. Once an organisation has
identified its corporate objectives, it can develop policies which set out how it intends to achieve these.
Policy statements usually indicate what it will and will not do; examples include: diversity will be
valued; bullying and harassment will not be tolerated; everyone has a responsibility to take
reasonable care of their own health and safety etc.

SWOT analysis
As part of the strategic planning process, some organisations, undertake a SWOT analysis. SWOT is
an acronym for Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities and Threats. A SWOT analysis is a strategic
planning tool and is used to help an organisation understand the favourable and unfavourable
factors which can affect it.

In a SWOT analysis, strengths and weaknesses are internal factors while opportunities and threats are
external factors to be found in the environment in which the organisation operates. The analysis can
be applied to the whole organisation as illustrated in the table below, or to a particular aspect of the
organisation or objective.

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 Helpful Harmful
Strengths: these are the aspects of an Weaknesses: are aspects of the organisation that
organisation that are helpful to achieving the are harmful to achieving the strategic objectives.
strategic objectives. Examples include: Examples include:

• Specialist expertise which other • Lack of a particular expertise

organisations do not possess, i.e. fire and • Staff turnover
rescue skills • Short-term funding/ Cash-flow problems
• Creativity and imagination of staff • Organisational infrastructure
• A new product or service • Reliance on services which are provided by
• Location of the organisation in relation to others
its customers or its operational • Wrong type and amount of physical
requirements resources
• Service delivery systems • Location of the organisation and the
• Quality processes and procedures service delivery systems
• Experience of community work and • Poor quality goods or services
working with difficult to reach • Poor working relationships, both internally
communities and externally
• Ability to work with other organisations to • Ineffective managers
tackle major issues • Damaged reputation
• Negative organisational culture eg blame
culture

Opportunities: these are external conditions that Threats: these are external conditions which could
are helpful to achieving the strategic objectives. have a negative impact on the achievement of
Examples include: strategic objectives. Examples include:

• The opportunity to develop a new service • A new competitor who provides similar
• The opportunity for additional funding services
• Income generation opportunities • Reducing market for a particular product or
• Mergers and strategic partnerships service
• Future funding not secured or likely to be
reduced
• Attitude of the Government towards the
organisation

Using a SWOT analysis enables the senior managers in an organisation to look at how they can:

• Use and capitalise on each strength.

• Improve each weakness.
• Exploit and benefit from each opportunity
• Mitigate each threat.

As part of carrying out a SWOT analysis, organisations sometimes examine external factors by using
a PESTLE analysis. A PESTLE analysis considers the Political, Economic, Social, Technical, Legal and
Environmental factors which could have an impact.

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The SWOT analysis enables an organisation to consider all aspects of its operation and position
(including style, structure, systems staff, skills and culture) and may identify the need for major
changes and re-structuring of the organisation.

Organisation structure
There is no one best way of designing an organisation. The best design for a structure depends on
the type of product/service, the size of the organisation and the technologies used. Reviews of a
structure often result from problems occurring and/or a SWOT analysis.

The design of the structure needs to be based on the strategy of the organisation, should result from
a detailed analysis (not ‘top of the head ideas’) and take into account:

• How work should be organised

• The need to group activities together logically
• The need to provide for cooperation between different parts of the organisation
• The need for flexibility so that new situations can be responded to
• The need to ensure that there is good communication across different parts of the organisation

The structure shows how the organisation divides up its various activities into departments, functions,
units and jobs. The organisational structure is the skeleton of the organisation; it is normally set out
in an organisational chart which identifies:

• The number of different departments/units

• Type of work performed in each reporting arrangement in terms of who reports to whom.
• Number of levels of management
• Span of control of managers – how many staff they will be responsible for
• Departments/staff they are responsible for
• Where different types of decisions are made

Given below are some examples of the most common organisational structures, these being
functional, geographical, product and matrix.

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Functional structure

This term describes the structuring of an organisation into departments or units on the basis of the
work carried out by staff. Given below is an example of a Functional Management Structure

Chief Fire Officer

Director Director Director Director Director

Service Finance Human Community Technical
Delivery Resources Safety Services
    
Fire Finance HR Dept Fire Safety Supplies,
Stations Dept Dept Workshops,
Estates Dept

Unless an organisation is very small, it is usually broken up into different functions so that staff who
are doing similar sorts of work are working together in a specific part of the organisation. Sometimes
this is in a technical function such as Finance or Human Resources. Many UK Fire and Rescue Service
have Community Safety Departments and Transport Departments. In the private sector, it is often
common to find Research and Development Departments and Marketing Departments. Some
functions will be responsible for the actual provision of products or services, others, such as Finance
and HR, will provide support to other departments.

Within functional departments, communications usually happen within the department. If information
or project work is needed from another department, a request is transmitted up to the department
head who then communicates the request to the other department head. Functional Departments
are sometimes described as ‘silos’ or ‘fortresses’ because staff can concentrate solely on their own
particular needs and fail to see the ‘big picture’ of the whole organisation and the effect that decisions
taken in their particular area can have on other parts of the organisation. To avoid this, functional
heads need to work with colleagues to ensure that there is good coordination.

Given below is an example of a functional department.

Set out below is a description of the type of work after carried out within a Human Resources
Department.

• Workforce planning to ensure that the organisation has the right number of suitable staff.
• Recruitment (sometimes separated into attraction and selection).
• Induction.
• Training and development.
• Personnel administration.
• Wages and salaries administration.
• Pension administration.
• Employee benefits administration.

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• Advising and supporting line managers with Personnel issues.
• Development of personnel policies e.g. Equal Opportunities, Discipline and Grievance, Bullying
and Harassment, Performance Appraisal.

Geographical structure

Some organisations also operate on a geographical structure with a senior manager being
responsible for a particular area of operation. Many UK Fire and Rescue Services operate on the basis
of Areas which are often based on the boundaries of the Local Authority Areas they serve. The Diagram
below illustrates a Geographical Structure.

HQ DEPTS
Chief Fire Officer

AREA A AREA B AREA C

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Product structure

Some organisations operate on the basis of divisions, based on particular products or service. In
hospitals, there will different Chains of Command for Doctors, Nurses and Support Services such as
Radiology and Physiotherapy.

Chief Executive Support

Depts i.e.

Finance

Personnel

Medical Staff Nursing Staff Physiotherapy.

Matrix structure

Where an organisation is involved in major projects, a matrix type of organisation is often found. This
type of structure combines both lateral and vertical lines of communication. This is illustrated in the
diagram below.

OPS FINANCE HR

PROJECT A

PROJECT B

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Staff will be allocated to a project on the basis of their particular skills and will be responsible to both
their normal line manager and also the Project Manager. This type of structure brings together the
skills needed to complete a task but it does mean that staff have two bosses so good communication
and coordination is needed.

Centralised and de-centralised organisation

De-centralisation is the transfer of authority and power for planning and decision making from higher
to lower levels of organisational control.

In a centralised organisation, a few senior managers will retain the major responsibilities and powers.
However, in de-centralised organisations responsibility for specific decisions will be spread across
various levels of management. An example of a de-centralised structure is the supermarket chain.
Each store has a manager who can make certain decisions concerning their store. The store manager
is responsible to a regional manager.

De-centralisation provides the opportunity for staff at all levels to make a greater contribution to the
way in which the organisation is run.

Organisations may also decide that a combination of centralisation and de-centralisation is effective.
For example, functions such as Human Resources and Purchasing may be centralised to save costs.
The table below sets out the advantages of centralisation and de-centralisation.

Advantages of Centralisation Advantages of De-centralisation

• Senior managers have greater control over • Senior managers have time to concentrate
the organisation so it is less likely to become on the most important decisions.
a collection of separate parts

• Standardised procedures and service • Empowerment can increase motivation and

provision can result in budgetary control job satisfaction. In addition, different
and cost savings. geographical areas may have different
• Ensures consistency of treatment for needs and customers needs cannot be met
customers and stakeholders and prevents by a ‘one size fits all approach’
parochial attitudes amongst staff. • This can provide a way of training junior
managers.

• Decisions can be made to benefit the • People at all parts of the organisation have a
organisations as a whole, rather than greater understanding of the environment
individual departments they work in and the people (customers and
• An organisation-wide rather than a purely colleagues) that they interact with. This
local view is possible which can prevent the knowledge skills and experience can enable
development of a silo mentality them to make more effective decisions than
senior managers who are a long way from
the ‘front line’

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• The organisation benefits from the decision • Empowerment will enable departments and
making of experienced senior managers. employees to respond faster to changes
and new challenges.

• In uncertain times strong direction and • Empowerment makes it easier for people to
leadership may be needed accept the need to change.

Importance of Organisational Structure

The importance of having an effective organisational structure is illustrated by the effects of a poor
structure. A poor organisational structure usually results in:

• Staff being unclear about their roles so decision making is slow.

• Lack of coordination and the sharing of ideas.
• Poor communication leading to mistakes.
• Duplication of tasks.
• Tasks being overlooked.
• Different departments failing to work together.
• Money and staff time being wasted.

Chain of Command

A chain of command sets out reporting relationships so that staff are clear about who their boss is. In
both public and private sector organisations, the term ‘Chain of Command’ refers to the hierarchical
‘path’ down which orders and decisions are communicated at the top of the organisation down to
‘shop floor’ or front line workers.( It is also the route via which information goes from the front lines of
the organisation to more senior staff.) Organisations achieve order, by the use of authority,
implemented through a defined hierarchy. Managers have direct responsibility for giving orders to
their subordinates.

In The private sector the Chain will be from the Board of Directors of a company. In say a Fire and
Rescue Service, this will be from the Chief Fire Officer who is responsible for running the organisation,
to fire fighters who provide the front line service.

The chain of command also sets out lines of communication which need to be followed. This helps to
ensure that information reaches the right person in the organisation and that staff are aware of whom
to approach if they encounter problems and who is responsible for providing them with guidance.

Where the chain of command is not clear, staff could receive conflicting information and time could
be ‘high jacked’ by managers in different parts of the organisation leading to confusion and to taking
staff away from the activities of their actual job.

Nowadays the tendency is for shorter Chains of Command on the basis that they:

• Allow faster communication.

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• It is less likely for there to be a misinterpretation of communication.
• Can help relationships between managers and staff, because front line staff are able to interact
more easily with more senior staff.
• Senior staff can more easily see their decisions being implemented by workers below them.

Objectives
Corporate level objectives

Corporate level objectives, (top management level) are based on the organisation’s mission, core
values and strategic plan. Every organisation has a purpose and the management strategy,
developed by the ‘top team,’ aims to provide the direction an organisation needs to take to fulfil its
purpose. The purpose is derived from the needs and preferences of customers and other stakeholders
whether internal or external.

The corporate level objectives usually set out the longterm aims of the organisation, establish policies,
set out decision-making systems, identify the key competences needed, identify customers and key
stakeholders, the services to be provided, what success will look like and performance management
monitoring systems. They tend to consist of statements of intent rather than containing detailed
objectives.

In order to achieve corporate level objectives, each objective must be allocated to specific senior
managers and departments.

With a private sector organisation, expectations mainly come from shareholders. With a public service
organisation, expectations may come from local or national politicians and will often be laid down in
major policy documents. Within the public sector the prioritising of objectives, enables funds to be
directed to front line services at the times of reductions in government grants.

Examples of Fire and Rescue Service top level objectives follow:

• Reduce life loss and injury arising out of fires and other emergency incidents.
• Reduce the number of fires and other emergency incidents.
• Reduce the commercial, economic and social consequences of fire and other emergency
incidents.
• Protect the environment and the local heritage.
• Provide a safe, healthy, competent and representative workforce.
• Support the wider agenda of community cohesion.
• Provide a better value for money services.

Private sector organisation objectives

For a private sector organisation, the objectives may include objectives such as: stay profitable,
develop new products and services to stay ahead of competitors, grow and expand market share.

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 Department level objectives

Departmental level objectives are related to the contribution which a specific department is expected
to make to the high level corporate objectives and the targets to be achieved.

Team level objectives

First-line managers are often responsible for implementing a specific part of their Departmental Plan
through the effective performance of their team.

Team level objectives are specifically related to the purpose of a team and what it is expected to
achieve. Again these will depend upon the type of organisation and the type of industry it operates
within. Team level objectives are very often set out in Team Work Plans.

Individual level objectives

Objectives for individual employees are often based on: team work plans, the tasks which make up
an employee’s job role, what they are expected to achieve and how they contribute to team,
department and organisational objectives. As the result of staff appraisal, employees may also be
set development objectives which set out what they need to do to improve their competences. The
requirements placed on staff will also depend on the type of organisation and the industry.

The diagram below shows how the work of individual employees contributes to the achievement of
team plans, how team plans contribute to the achievement of departmental plans and how
departmental plans contribute to the achievement of the organisation’s corporate/strategic
objectives which are based on the vision and mission.

VISION AND MISSION

CORPORATE/STRATEGIC OBJECTIVES

DEPT 1 DEPT 2 PLAN DEPT 3 DEPT 4 PLAN

TEAM TEAM TEAM

A B PLAN
C PLAN

WORK OF WORK OF
WORK OF
EMPLOYEE A EMPLOYEE C
EMPLOYEE B

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Planning
The achievement of objectives usually requires a plan.

For a plan to be effective, its purpose, the defined objectives on which it is based and its relationship
to other organisational plans must be clearly identified and it must be suitable for the level at which
it will operate i.e. strategic/corporate, departmental, team, cross-organisational. The plan should:

• take the organisation from where it is now to where it wants to be in the future.
• take account of all available information from both internal sources and external organisations.
• Identify resources needed and ensure that resources, staff numbers, staff skills, information,
equipment and buildings are used to best effect.
• clearly identify roles, responsibilities and communication channels, so that everyone is clear
about what they need to do and the relevant staff are consulted and their views taken into
account.
• prioritise actions to be taken but be flexible so it can be adapted to changes in circumstances,
particularly important if the plan is over a number of years.
• take account of any health and safety issues so that any hazards are identified, risk assessed,
and ways of avoiding risk are put in place
• take into account the needs of different stakeholders, who will be affected by or who could affect
the success of the plan. Plans which involve other organisations can be more difficult to achieve
than internal plans.
• reflect the standards to which the organisation needs to operate such as legislation, technical
standards and agreements.
• set realistic timescales related to the complexity of the plan and identify review periods
• set out evaluation processes so that lessons are learnt for future reference.
• result in the identification of clear implementation aims and objectives and SMART targets.
• be risk assessed so the potential effects of failure are identified and mitigated.

Performance management

The Corporate Plan needs a performance management framework so that the organisation as a
whole knows what has to be achieved, departments/sections know their role and individual
employees know their role.

The ‘building blocks of effective performance management are:

A vision to stretch and motivate the organisation

A set of performance measures and targets
Ownership of the targets
Performance Review
Motivation to encourage and support staff

Performance management is a means of getting better results from the organisation, teams and
individuals by managing performance within an agreed framework of goals and standards. It covers
many different aspects of an organisation and involves:

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• Knowing what priorities you should be focusing on. For example, a Fire and Rescue Service may
want to reduce the number of deaths and injuries caused by fires in the home while a private
sector organisation may want to increase market share.
• Having clear objectives and targets that focus on priorities. A Fire and Rescue Service may want to
achieve a 5% reduction in deaths and injuries while the private sector organisation may want to
increase market share by 10%.
• Developing Plans to achieve the objectives. A Fire and Rescue Service may need staff to work with
different community groups and other agencies while a private sector organisation may need a
major advertising campaign.
• Allocating resources in terms of money, buildings, and equipment and staff skills.
• Measuring actual performance against agreed targets, to identify if plans are ‘on track’
• Identifying performance problems and remedying them. This may be by improving the
performance of staff, or reviewing objectives and targets if they prove to be too ambitious or
inappropriate.

The process is identified in the diagram below:

PERFORMANCE MANAGEMENT FRAMEWORK/CYCLE

Identify Priorities

Set Objectives
Review and Report
on Performance

Monitor Develop Business

Performance Plans

Resource and Focus

on Objectives

In many organisations, staff are the most important resource and performance management
enables everyone to understand what needs to be achieved. One of the roles of a first-line manager
is to explain to their team members what is expected of them both as a team member and as an
individual.

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Main Features of Performance Management

• Performance management is about the actions which people take to achieve the priorities,
including the use of resources, such as buildings, equipment, information, money and mitigation
of risks.
• In a good organisational climate, management places emphasis on improving performance,
using the knowledge, skills, abilities and competences of staff.
• Managers set challenging but realistic goals, give regular feedback and make sure that
performance measures are adequate and clear. Individual employees are given plenty of
opportunity to take part in the goal-setting and planning process.
• Performance management is an approach to managing and developing people and is focused
on three things:
o how managers and team leaders work effectively with those around them.
o how individuals work with their managers and with their teams.
o how individuals can be developed to improve their knowledge, skills and expertise and
their levels of competence and performance.

Staff motivation and training and development are therefore important.

Performance appraisal is part of the performance management process which begins with the
strategic plan. It is the end of the ‘golden thread’ which links the role of the employee to the objectives
of the organisation. The main resource of most organisations is staff so the work of individual
employees has to contribute to the needs of the organisation.

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 Performance Management: Links between the overall plan and the individual

ORGANISATION INDIVIDUAL

Defines mission, values, Understands and agrees

strategies and objectives objectives

Defines tasks, standards and Understands and agrees tasks,

performance measures standards and performance

measures

Monitors organisational, team

Monitors own performance
and individual performance

Develops team and individual Develops own performance

performance

Targets/Performance Measures

The development of standards of performance, the setting of targets, comparing results against the
standards and targets and using the feedback, allows an organisation to monitor the implementation
of the strategic, departmental and team plans and may highlight that all is well and that staff should
be praised or identify the need for corrective action. This may result in new performance standards
and targets being set where it becomes obvious that the original targets were not appropriate.

Characteristics of effective targets:

• Demanding and related to performance improvement i.e. reduction in fires.

• Manageable in terms of numbers.
• Both long (typically 3-5 years) and short-term (the year ahead).
• Financial and non-financial.
• A mix of input, output and outcome measures.
• Under continuous review, not set in stone.
• ‘Owned’ by specific senior managers so they don’t get overlooked.
• Cascaded, so that the whole organisation understands the links between targets and where
responsibility lies for improvement.

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• Relevant to what the organisation is aiming to achieve.
• Avoid perverse incentives – not encourage unwanted or wasteful activity.
• Well-defined – easy to understand so that data will be collected consistently.
• Comparable – with either past periods or similar programmes elsewhere
• Verifiable – with clear documentation behind it, so that the processes which produce the measure
can be validated.
• Focused – on the priorities of the organisation – its core objectives and service areas in need of
improvement.
• SMART-see table below.

Targets need to be SMART ie

Specific not vague and should be easily understood by staff;

relates to the organisation’s objectives, key performance indicators and
areas where improvements in performance are needed
Measurable capable of being subject to some form of analysis, which will result in the
production of meaningful information which can be used by managers
Achievable not over-ambitious as this can lead to frustration and lack of motivation;
(Looking at past performance data can help to identify the rate of
improvement which is likely to be possible.)
Realistic/Relevant must be seen as relevant to the achievement of objectives and not ‘Pie in
the sky.’ (Setting realistic targets means being fair on the people who will
have to reach them and should relate only to performance improvements
that staff can actually influence.)
Timebound to be achieved within a set period of time. An individual’s progress towards
a goal will be more rapid if they have a clear sense of the deadlines against
which progress will be assessed.

In relation to performance measurement it is important to remember:

• If you don’t measure results, you can’t tell success from failure.
• If you can’t see success, you can’t learn from it.
• If you can’t recognise failure, then you can’t correct it.
• What gets measured gets done.

Roles, responsibilities and relationships

Within every organisation, each member of staff has particular responsibilities, based on plans, which
they must meet. Different levels of staff within organisations tend to have different types of
responsibilities. These are illustrated below and will be the basis of both informal and formal appraisal.

Responsibilities of top-level managers

• Have extensive knowledge of management roles and skills.

• Understand the situation in which the organisation is operating
• Be very aware of external factors such as markets and Government Policy.

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• Building relationships with others, very often involving senior staff in other organisations.
• Make strategic decisions about the long-term future of the organisation.
• Providing a vision for the future.
• Identify the need for major organisational changes and re-structurings.
• Use detailed information and data for decision making.
• Control budgets for very large amounts of money (millions rather than thousands) and identify
and mitigate corporate risks.
• Be responsible for the operation of a number of different parts of an organisation and lead and
manage departmental heads.
• Work in cooperation with other senior managers and other partners.
• Achieve synergy and develop the culture of the organisation.
• Meet any occupational standards laid down by the industry/organisation.

Responsibilities of middle managers

• Have a specialised understanding of a specific part of the organisation.

• Lead and manage the staff in their department and promote health and safety
• Carry out the decisions made by top-level management.
• Set performance targets to meet organisational and departmental objectives.
• Make operational decisions based on the role of their department using departmental data.
• Make medium term decisions.
• Provide performance information to senior managers.
• Work in cooperation with other Middle Managers and other partners
• Control a department budget.
• Meet any occupational standards, laid down by the industry/organisation.

Responsibilities of junior managers and first-line supervisors

(These staff directly supervise front-line staff in an organisation or basic grade staff)

• Build teams and encourage commitment and creativity.

• Motivate team members to perform in the workplace.
• Manage conflict in the workplace.
• Induct new staff into the workplace.
• Follow organisational and departmental procedures and polices.
• Plan day to day work efficiently.
• Manage and promote health and safety at work.
• Work with costs and budgets.
• Work to meet performance objectives.
• Break departmental targets down to team and individual staff targets.
• Provide information to the Departmental Manager.
• Manage the efficient use of materials.
• Manage the effective use of equipment.
• Meet any occupational standards laid down by the industry/organisation.

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Responsibilities of front-line staff

• Do not have any supervisory responsibilities.

• Work to the requirements of their job description and the guidance and instructions of their
supervisor
• Meet any occupational standards laid down by the industry/organisation
• Individual employees can also contribute towards the achievement of objectives by:

o Being a good team player.

o Working cooperatively with other employees.
o Contributing to team discussions.
o Developing new skills and abilities.
o Accepting change.
o Being willing to try new ways of doing things.
o Challenging existing systems and procedures.
o Putting new ideas forward.
o Help with the training of new staff.

In one way or another every employee can be seen as a leader.

Ensuring that employees understand their role

When an employee is appointed to a new role, the line manager agrees the key aspects and
boundaries of the role during the induction process. This is an important phase in the process. It
means that both parties are very clear about the role to be carried out, what tasks the role entails,
when and where it is to be done, and for how long.

Managers will usually let their staff know what is required of them by:

• Referring to the job description for the post which provides a comprehensive picture of the
purpose and context of the job. The information a job description contains includes;
o Job title.
o Purpose of the job and role within the organisation.
o The reporting structure which shows who the line manager is.
o The actual duties carried out by the post holder.
o What the employee is expected to achieve in terms of targets.
• Individual instructions
• Team briefings.
• Providing constructive suggestions and advice and guidance on the best ways of meeting
targets.
• Guidance given on a regular basis, which allows a continuous assessment of the employee’s
progress, identifying any problems early in the process and enabling them to be dealt with well
ahead of any formal disciplinary action.
• Giving feedback during day to day staff management activities. The value of effective feedback
lies in the fact that it:
o is focused on specific behaviour and not on personal issues.
o provides a continuous assessment of the employee
o is related to actions which the person can do something about.

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 o is well timed.
o ensures that the employee knows just what the supervisor is referring to.
o is focused on and encourages improvement.
o recognises success as well as problem areas.
o clarifies the position and the next steps.
o leaves the employee feeling helped and supported.
o results in a joint plan of action.
o develops trust.
o suggest remedies rather than focusing on faults.
o recognises the feeling of the person receiving the feedback.
• Explaining policies and procedures, which set out how tasks are to be carried out and how staff,
are expected to behave towards one another.
• Using regular guidance and informal appraisal to provide employees with information on how
well they are contributing to the aims of the organisation.

Task, team and individual needs

An important factor in motivating staff can be the balancing of task, team and individual needs,
which are interlinked as the diagram below shows.

THE THREE CIRCLES

At any time, the emphasis on each circle may vary according to circumstances. However, they are all
interdependent so managers need to be able to balance task, team and individual needs to be truly
successful.

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The basic work unit of most organisations is the team, which is led by a manager or team leader and
consists of individual employees. Some writers like John Adair have identified that Managers and
Leaders in organisations have to do three things ie:

1. Make sure the task is completed.

2. Build and maintain effective teams.

3. Develop individual employees.

A task (measured in days and weeks) is a logical grouping of actions to achieve a goal. Most tasks
need to be carried out by a team because they cannot be accomplished by a single employee.

Team needs have to be met otherwise the task will suffer and the individual employees will not be
satisfied.

If an individual employee’s needs are not met, then the team will suffer and performance of the task
will be adversely affected.

Leadership in relation to task, team and individual involves:

• Defining the task so that individuals know what is required and using SMART goals (Specific,
Measurable, Achievable, Realistic and Time-Constrained) to set clear objectives.
• Allocating work effectively.
• Providing feedback which is clear and objective and allows staff to respond appropriately.
• Planning and making sure that more than one solution to a problem or situation is identified
• Making sure there are plans for contingencies and that plans are tested.
• Team briefings to create the right atmosphere, foster teamwork and motivate each individual.
• Allowing the team to take some responsibility for work allocation and problem solving.
• Good control systems, effective delegation and monitoring to get maximum results from
minimum resources.
• Evaluating the performance of the organisation’s, managers, teams and individual employees.
• Motivating staff and spending time working with the team
• Understanding health and safety issues and the importance of well being at work.
• Organising themselves, their team and their organisation.
• Setting a good example and being a role model for others.

Task needs

These have to be accommodated if the task is going to be completed and consist of:

• A series of coordinated actions.

• Information.
• Progress.
• Resources, such as raw materials.
• People, who have the right competences and attitude.

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Needs of team members

These needs have to be accommodated if the team is going to be successful and include:

• Direction, guidance and advice from the manager.

• A manager who has good team building skills.
• Clear team objectives.
• Clear standards.
• The opportunity to put forward improvement ideas.
• Clear information about what the task actually is.
• A clear plan.
• Knowing what resources are available.
• Information to do their work effectively.
• Real-time information (so decisions are timely and relate directly to what they are doing.
• A To-Do list of all their actions.
• To be notified of any changes that are likely to affect them.
• Knowing how they contribute to the overall organisation and departmental objectives.

Good team work requires:

• A well-motivated manager.
• Team building on the part of the manager.
• A good atmosphere where team members cooperate and support each other
• Well managed change.
• Good communication with clear team tasks and procedures.
• Clear team roles.
• The right size of team
• Clear objectives and goals with staff working to achieve organisational objectives
• An emphasis on team members examining their progress and looking for ways to improve.
• The opportunity to reflect on the task to be completed
• The opportunity for team members to take advantage of training/development
• High level of participation and flexibility.
• Respect, trust and support between colleagues.
• A willingness to deal with conflict constructively.
• A free exchange of ideas.
• Working across team boundaries.
• Healthy competition with other teams doing similar work, to help maintain,
• cohesion and team spirit.

Benefits of good teamwork:

• Allows an organisation to achieve something that an individual working alone cannot; for
example, the way that teamwork operates on the fire ground or at an incident.
• Improved morale as staff feel they have some control over their work.
• Greater flexibility as work can be shared across team members and staff absences will not hold
up the work flow.
• Increased innovation through the generation of ideas.
• Tasks can be completed much more quickly.

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• Increased job satisfaction from being part of a successful team.
• Individuals feel supported when part of an effective team and less likely to feel the stresses and
strains of the working day.
• Improved productivity and performance.
• Better problem solving as each person brings along their own ideas.
• Team members learn from each other.

Individual needs

The factors below have to be in place for the employee to feel motivated;

• A sense of personal achievement from what they do and the contribution it makes.
• A well designed and challenging Job which stretches them.
• Opportunity to develop new skills.
• A working environment which is free from conflict.
• Feeling that they are fairly treated.
• Recognition for ‘a job well done’.
• Control of areas of work for which they are accountable.
• Feel that they are progressing in terms of experience and ability.
• Help and support from their manager.

One way in which managers can assess the effectiveness of their leadership, motivational and
interpersonal skills is by reflecting upon how motivated their team members are.

3Es of economy, efficiency and effectiveness

In the public sector, organisations are responsible for spending public money wisely and are therefore
expected to have the objective of achieving Value for Money via the 3Es of economy, efficiency and
effectiveness.

In simple terms, this means making the best use of available resources, including getting better
outcomes for the same spend, or freeing up resources that are being used inefficiently for other
purposes.

An example of each of the Es is given below;

Economy - Minimising the costs of resources used for a goods service or activity, for example;
purchasing supplies at the best possible price.

Efficiency - The relationship between outputs and the resources used to produce them, for example;
ensuring that a course programme makes the best use of a trainer’s time.

Effectiveness - The extent to which objectives have been achieved, for example; using community
safety activities to educate the public and reduce the number of fires.

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Organisational risk management
As part of the process of having effective plans to meet organisational objectives, many organisations
also attempt to manage risks.

Risk has been defined risk as “the uncertainty that surrounds future events and
outcomes.” It is the likelihood and impact of an event which has the potential to prevent the
achievement of organisational objectives.

Risk Management can be described as “a systematic approach to setting

the best course of action under uncertainty, by identifying, understanding, acting on and
communicating risk issues”.

Organisational Risk Management helps Fire and Rescue Services to:

• Recognise and address important risks

• Make decisions about how to handle these risks
• Monitor progress in managing these risks
• Learn how to make improvements in dealing with risk
• Increase the benefits and decrease the costs for uncertain activities

Identifying risks

Identifying and acknowledging a risk is the first step toward managing it. Often, risks are classified
using the following headings:

• Human health and safety.

• Environmental resources.
• Property, buildings, or other assets.
• Financial.
• Political and reputational.
• Technological.
• Operational (organisational interruption, liability).

Risk management and decision making

Risk management is critical to effective decision making. As part of setting priorities and objectives,
organisations need to understand what could happen to prevent them from achieving their aims and
how they will deal with such an eventuality should it arise. Even well-run organisations experience
fires, floods, malign intent, an episode of poor judgement or simply changes in the external
environment that mean that a chosen course is no longer feasible or appropriate.

Risk management entails asking the following questions:

• What is the risk here? (risk identification).

• What will happen to desired outcomes? (risk evaluation – impact).
• How likely is the event to happen? (risk evaluation – probability).
• Does the benefit outweigh the risk? (risk/benefit analysis).
• Can we do anything to reduce the risk? (risk reduction).

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• Has anything happened which alters the risk? (risk monitoring).
• What plans can we put in place in case the event should happen? (contingency/service
continuity planning).
• What insurance can we buy to mitigate the risk or can we contract out this risk? (risk transfer).
• What financial provisions should we hold for the primary or residual risk? (risk funding.

Risk register

An important part of risk management is the use of a risk register. The purpose of a risk register is to
ensure that risk assessments are linked to the strategic objectives of the organisation. It is a
management tool that enables an organisation to identify a comprehensive risk profile. It provides a
structure for collating information about risks that helps an organisation make decisions about how
the risks should be treated.

The risk register should be used to inform the decision making process and ideally all decisions and
the resultant procedures and processes need to implement the decision or affected by the decision
should result in a reduction of risk. The risk register has to be regarded as a living document.

Risk register tends to contain the information listed below and can operate at process, project, section,
unit, department and organisational levels.

Contents of a risk register:

• Risk number (unique within register) so that in future it can be easily identified from amongst
all the information in the risk register
• Risk type. The type will influence the mitigating actions required
• Author (who raised it). This also identifies the level or the part of the organisation which could
be affected by the risk
• Date identified. This shows how long the risk has existed and whether it needs to be reviewed
to determine if it still exists
• Date last updated. This is to ensure that risks are being reviewed on a regular basis.
• Description. This will identify which part of the organisation should be responsible for the
management of the risk.
• Likelihood of the risk occurring. If there is a high likelihood, then more attention needs to be
given to the risk
• Interdependencies with other sources of risk. Some risks will have a knock-on effect which
could result in more than one part or aspect of an organisation being affected
• Expected impact and potential consequences. This will help the organisation assess how
many problem could be caused to the organisation if the risk is not mitigated
• Bearer of risk. This will help the organisation assess if the risk could be transferred i.e. by
insurance of the outsourcing of some aspects of the organisation
• Counter-measures. .Actions which have been taken to mitigate the risk, these should be
reviewed on a regular basis to ensure that they remain current.

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Health and safety

The management of health and safety is an important part of the day to day operation of all
organisations. It therefore needs to be lead and directed by senior managers, who have a direct
impact on the attitude and behaviour of their subordinates. It is essential that senior management
demonstrates that health and safety is a key priority of their business.

Control of occupational health and safety and problem prevention can be achieved by:

• Clear procedures and policies.

• Health and Safety inspections which check for faults in systems, equipment, plant and machinery.
• Recognition and elimination of hazards.
• Separating employees from hazardous substances, e.g. by personal protective equipment.
• Changing processes and substances to remove risks.
• Safe Person concept.
• Training workers how to avoid risks.
• Properly maintaining plant and equipment.
• Good housekeeping practices in relation to toxic substances such as proper storage and usage.
• Regular recording and updating of risk register.
• Taking into account the design and use of equipment, to avoid such things as employees
developing back injuries and repetitative strain injuries.
• Regular medical check-ups for staff that are at particular risks.
• Analysing accident statistics to identify problem areas.
• Introduction of occupational stress policies

Showing health and safety is a key priority

• Ensuring that health and safety is established as a key business priority.

• Stating that the safety of employees is paramount.
• Showing that safety takes precedence over expediency.
• Involving staff in the development and implementation of health and safety policies and
procedures.
• Showing that health and safety legislation is complied with both in the spirit and letter of the law.
• Ensuring managers’ commitment to legal compliance is visible, i.e. demonstrated to employees.
• Involving senior management in monitoring of performance standards.
• Developing a trusting relationship with staff.
• Encouraging co-operation between management and workers.
• Providing resources for managers (time, money and trained staff) to implement, maintain and
manage health and safety performance.
• Measuring managers on their achievement of key performance indicators.

Employer’s duties

To prevent workplace injuries and ill health employers, are expected to:

• Have a clear health and safety policy which is brought to the attention of all staff.
• Ensure that they provide and maintain a safe workplace which uses safe plant and equipment.

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• Ensure that there are systems in place to identify risks and hazards.
• Ensure that there are systems in place to report accidents and near misses.
• Prevent risks from use of any equipment, substance and from exposure to harmful substances,
noise and vibration.
• Ensure there is no improper conduct or behaviour which is likely to put the safety, health and
welfare of employees at risk.
• Ensure that instruction and training is provided to employees on health and safety.
• Ensure that protective clothing and equipment is provided to employees.
• Ensure that employees are not subject to workplace stress caused by excessive workloads,
bullying or harassment.
• Ensure the appointing a competent person as the organisation’s Safety Officer.

Employees’ duties

To prevent workplace injuries and ill health, employees are expected to:

• Take reasonable care to protect the health and safety of themselves and of other people in the
workplace.
• Make sure they do not engage in improper behaviour that will endanger themselves or others.
• Make sure they are not under the influence of drink or drugs in the workplace.
• Undergo any reasonable medical or other assessment if requested to do so by the employer.
• Report any defects in the place of work or equipment which might be a danger to health and
safety.

Hazards, Risks and Risk Assessments

As part of ensuring the health and safety of employees, employers should carry out a risk assessment
to identify any hazards present in the workplace, assess the risks from such hazards and identify the
steps to be taken to deal with any risks. A hazard is something with the potential to cause harm.
Hazards may be physical, chemical, biological, ergonomic or psychological.

Examples of Hazards

• Water on a staircase because staff could slip and injury themselves.

• Loud noise because it can cause hearing loss.
• Breathing in asbestos dust because it can cause cancer.
• Moving vehicles which could collide with people and or equipment.
• Failure to wear protective clothing which could lead to head injuries, burns, fracture, coming into
contact with hazardous chemicals and radiation.
• Poorly stacked goods which could fall.
• Poorly loaded equipment which could fall.
• Working at heights which could lead to a serious fall.
• Moving parts on machinery which could trap limbs or clothing if not used correctly.
• Dealing with emergency situations such as fires, road collisions, which bring a wider range of
different hazards.
• Lifting and carrying goods in the incorrect manner which can lead to muscular damage.
• Poorly designed workstations which lead to eye sight and strain injuries.

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• Excessive workloads which can lead to stress and lack of concentration.

A risk is the likelihood that a hazard will actually cause its adverse effects, together with a measure of
the effect. Once identified an organisation can assess the likelihood of a risk and give it a rating. If the
risk seems highly likely, then ways of removing it or reducing it can be identified.

Risk Assessment involves a number of steps

Step 1: Identify the hazard.

Step 2: Decide who might be harmed and how.
Step 3: Evaluate the risks and decide on precautions.
Step 4: Record the findings and implement them.
Step 5: Review the assessment and update if necessary.

Risk Assessment often also involves a probability rating so that the highest and most likely risks are
identified. A Risk Assessment should lead to action and a safety precedence sequence.

The employer should also prepare a safety statement which is based on the risk assessment. The
statement should also contain the details of people in the workforce who are responsible for safety
issues. Employees should be given access to this statement and employers should review it on a
regular basis.

ALARP principle

Where Health and Safety legislation is in place, the ALARP principle of risks is expected to be applied.
ALARP stands for "as low as reasonably practicable". For a risk to be ALARP, it must be possible to
demonstrate that the cost involved in reducing the risk further would be grossly disproportionate to
the benefit gained. The ALARP principle arises from the fact that infinite time, effort and money could
be spent on the attempt of reducing a risk to zero

Safe Person Concept

An important part of Health and Safety, particularly within organisations such as Fire and Rescue
Services is the Safe Person Concept.

The principle of the concept is that, in view of the unpredictable and hazardous nature of the fire
ground environment, support systems should be developed to ensure the safety of individuals whilst
still enabling them to react flexibly to unforeseen or changing situations Support systems encompass:
safe systems of work, training, equipment, information, personal protective equipment. These
together aim to result in a ‘safe person’ rather than a safe working environment – with operational
incidents, it could be impossible to provide a safe working environment. A safe person will follow safe
practices whereby they, rather than the environment, control risks.

Protective equipment and measures

The employer should tell employees about any risks which require the wearing of protective
equipment. The employer should provide protective equipment (such as protective clothing,

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headgear, footwear, eyewear, gloves) together with training on how to use it as necessary. The
protective equipment should be provided free of charge to employees.

An employee should take reasonable care for his/her own safety and to use any protective
equipment supplied.

Reporting accidents

All accidents or ‘near misses’ in the workplace should be reported to the employer. The employer
should record the details of the incident and use the information to improve workplace practices. A
near miss is an unplanned event that did not result in injury, illness, or damage - but had the potential
to do so. Only a fortunate break in the chain of events prevented an injury, fatality or damage. It is
important that near misses are recorded an investigated. Although human error is commonly an
initiating event, a faulty process or system invariably permits or compounds the harm and should be
the focus of improvement

Ways in which managers can encourage a positive attitude to health and safety:

• Set a good example.

• Be seen to make health and safety a priority in terms of decision making.
• Have regular consultations with staff.
• Make sure staff are aware of their responsibilities.
• Consistently inform staff about safety issues.
• Be aware of the risks in their particular area of operation and take action to eliminate them.
• Identify emerging hazards and ensure that these are assessed.
• Ensure that correct procedures for the reporting of accidents and near misses are followed.
• Be seen to take action where staff are behaving irresponsibly eg not wearing protective clothing
or indulging in ‘horseplay’
• Give praise and reward for good practice.
• Make sure staff have the right equipment and know how to use it safely.
• Train staff in the correct techniques and procedures.
• Try to ensure that safety equipment is comfortable to wear.
• Keep staff aware of any changes to safety procedures.
• Be seen to deal with bullying and harassment promptly.
• Make sure that the correct reporting procedures are followed.

Work-Related Stress

Originally health and safety was seen purely in terms of physical injuries. However, work-related stress
in now also seen as a health and safety issue which managers need to be aware of.

Well-designed, organised and managed work helps to maintain and promote individual health and
well-being. However, where there has been insufficient attention to job design, work organisation and
management, work-related stress can occur. Work-related stress is the process which arises where
work demands of various types and combinations exceed the person’s capacity and capability to
cope. It is a significant cause of illness and disease and is known to be linked with high levels of

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sickness absence, staff turnover and other indicators of organisational underperformance - including
human error.

Causes of work-related stress

• People having no control or influence over the demands placed upon them.
• Lack of a clear job description or chain of command.
• Badly managed change.
• Job insecurity or poor career prospects.
• Temporary work and fixed term contracts.
• Poor leadership.
• Cuts in budgets leading to increased workloads.
• Pressure piling up and being prolonged.
• Working Patterns.
• No recognition for good job performance.
• No opportunity to voice complaints.
• Heavy responsibilities with no authority or decision making attached to them.
• No opportunity to use personal talents or abilities.
• Fear/blame culture.
• Harassment and bullying in the form of intimidating, malicious or insulting behaviour.
• Unpleasant or hazardous working conditions.
• Conflict-ridden workplace.
• Little or no recognition by management of work-related stress.

Preventing work-related stress

Managers need to take the following factors into account:

• Demands of the job such as workload, work patterns and the work environment.
• Control ie how much say or control the person has in the way they do their work.
• Support provided by the organisation including, encouragement, line management, team
building and resources.
• Relationships ie ways in which conflict and unacceptable behaviour are dealt with
• Role: staff understanding what their role is and not having conflicting roles.
• Change ie how organisational change is communicated and managed.

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Section 2 - Leadership and Management

Leadership and management

Leadership is the process of influencing the behaviour of staff to achieve results.
For the majority of organisations, the main resource involved in achieving the purpose and mission
and providing quality goods and services are its people. Even with a robotic production line, a human
hand is ‘pushing the buttons’.

Effective staff management and leadership are therefore particularly important and the way in which
staff are led, managed and motivated will be a major influence on how successful an organisation is.
They are important parts of the role of a first line manager.

Originally leadership was seen in the light of planning, organising, directing and controlling. However,
over time, the definition of leadership has broadened as the diagram below shows:

MANAGING LEADING

Planning Showing

Organising Listening

Directing Caring

Controlling Sharing

Getting Results Improving Systems

(Hard Skills) (Soft Skills)

Nowadays planning, organising, directing and controlling are seen by some, as what constitutes the
managerial role, with, showing, listening, caring, sharing, supporting, communicating, influencing and
mentoring being seen as constituting the leadership role. However both are an important part of the
role of a manager and some writers see leadership as being management which is done well.

What Does a Manager Do?

Managers are responsible for getting things done, usually through other people. Managers perform
the same type of job activities. However, the time spent on each activity and the importance given to
each will differ considerably depending on a manager’s role within an organisation.

Planning: Before any action is taken, a plan needs to be made and planning is an activity concerned
with making decisions about end result and includes:

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• Identifying how objectives and targets will be met. At the highest level, this will take place after
a SWOT or PESTLE analysis
• Identifying how their team will meet targets.
• Identifying the skill and resources (including financial) which will be needed
• Allocating budgets to activities.
• Reviewing progress against targets and taking remedial action if necessary.
• Ensuring that health and safety is taken into account.

Organising: This involves putting people and other resources in place to make things happen.
Organising includes:

• Ensuring that effective procedures and work instructions are in place for staff to follow.
• Ensuring that all staff have the equipment, information, skills and training to do the job.
• Effective meetings and appraisal interviews.
• Making effective use of their own time.
• Allocating responsibility to staff and delegating effectively.
• Ensuring accurate records are in place to aid decision making.
• Being able to make operational decisions.
• Using resources to respond to new situations or problem.

Controlling: This involves measuring results and comparing the actual outcomes with the results
which were intended. Controlling involves:

• Measuring results using statistical information and comparing them with the results which were
intended.
• Taking corrective action when needed
• Budgetary control to ensure that overspending does not occur.
• Using reporting procedures so that the organisation has accurate data which can be turned into
information.
• Knowing schedules of work to be completed, especially when part(s) of a process involve other
departments or organisations.
• Mitigation organisational risk

Planning, Controlling and Organising are often regarded as the ‘hard skills’ of Management.

What Makes A Good Leader?

Leadership involves the process of influencing others to achieve goals and ensuring that all parts of
the organisation work in harmony. Leadership takes place at different levels within an organisation.

The importance of leadership can be seen by what can happen when good leadership is absent.

The following are important qualities and skills needed for effective leadership:

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 • team building skills
• showing concern
• enabling
• being accessible
• commitment to the development of good employee relations.
• Being emotionally intelligent
• encouraging the acceptance of change
• developing a learning culture/learning organisation

Leadership styles/types
Leadership is about influencing the behaviour of others and the terms ‘leadership style’ and
‘leadership type’ are used to describe the way in which a manager relates to staff. A number of
different styles have been identified by writers on the subject.

Organisational leadership involves the motivation of staff to enable them to contribute to the success
or otherwise of an organisation. The style which is chosen, can have a great influence on how well or
how badly a manager does their job and the respect, or otherwise, which staff have for them.
Sometimes the style a manager uses has to vary depending on the situation in which they find
themselves and an understanding of the different styles is therefore important. Much of the success
of a manager is routed on them using the right style.

Decision making style

The table below identifies a range of styles in relation to decision making.

Leadership
Tells Sells Explains Offers Consults Shares Delegates
Style
Makes Makes Makes Makes Discusses Gives Decisions
Leadership Decision. Decision. Decision. tentative problem, info, by staff,
Approach Informs Sells to Explains, decisions. considers defines within
staff Staff. responds Accepts ideas, limits, org'n
to ideas. improved makes staff limits
ideas decision decide

Autocratic leadership

The style is characterised by a leader who exerts high levels of power over staff. People are given few
opportunities to contribute ideas and suggestions and often staff can resent this and it stifles
creativity, development of good team spirit and prevents staff using the benefit of their experience.

However, it can be an appropriate style for very routine jobs or where there are a large number of new
and inexperienced staff who need to be closely supervised until they become more proficient; it can
also be appropriate in dynamic situations where the opportunities for discussion or debate are
limited. As a permanent leadership style it can lead to high levels of absenteeism and staff turnover.

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Bureaucratic leadership

This style describes leaders who work “by the book”, ensuring that their staff rigidly follow procedures.
Whilst it is an appropriate style for work involving serious safety risks (such as working with machinery,
with toxic substances or at heights) or where large sums of money are involved (such as cash-
handling), in other work situations it can demoralise staff because of the inflexibility and can prevent
the organisation from adapting to new circumstances.

Charismatic leadership

One of the main features of charismatic leaders is that their personality can create great enthusiasm
amongst staff. However, because their style is routed in their personality, the commitment which staff
have to an organisation can be undermined if they leave. There is a view that such leaders believe
more in themselves than their team(s).

Democratic leadership or participative leadership

Whilst this type of leader will make the final decision, they invite other members of the team to
contribute to the decision-making process. This increases job satisfaction because staff feel involved,
team members know ‘what’s going on,’ and people’s skills are developed. As employees and team
members feel in control of their own destiny, they are often motivated to work harder.

Participation takes time so this style can lead to things happening more slowly than an autocratic
approach but often the end result will be better. As a style, it can produce the best results where team
working is essential and where quality is more critical than speed to market or productivity.

Laissez-Faire leadership (also sometimes known as Country Club leadership)

This French phrase means “leave it be”. It is used to describe a leader who leaves their colleagues to
get on with their work. This style can be effective if the leader monitors what is being achieved and
communicates this back to the team regularly. It is a style often found with teams where the members
are very experienced and skilled self-starters. However, this style is least successful in situations where
managers are not exerting sufficient control and/or where staff are new and inexperienced.

People-Oriented leadership

With this type of leadership, the emphasis is on organising, supporting and developing the people in
the leader’s team. It is a participative style and as such tends to lead to good teamwork and creativity
amongst team members. However, if taken to extremes, it can lead to failure to achieve the team's
goals. In practice, most leaders use both task-oriented and people-oriented styles of leadership.

Task-Oriented leadership

Task-oriented leaders focus only on getting the job done and can be quite autocratic. They precisely
define the work required, putting structures in place to plan, organise and monitor. Unfortunately, they
sometimes spare little thought for the well-being of their teams. This style, therefore, has the same

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disadvantages as seen with Autocratic Leaders. However the approach can be beneficial with
inexperienced staff who have to work to very tight deadlines where there is no room for error.

Transactional leadership

This style of leadership is based on the belief that team members agree to obey their leader totally
when they take a job on. The “transaction” is (usually) that the organisation pays staff in return for
their effort and compliance. This also means that the leader has the right to “punish” team members
if their work fails to meet the pre-determined standard. Team members often find there may be little
they can do to improve their job satisfaction. Sometimes they have some control over the work
through productivity incentives.

As a leadership style, transactional leadership has serious limitations where knowledge-based or

creative work is involved. It can, however, be an appropriate style where specific targets or standards
have to be met within a given timescale eg productivity targets.

Transformational leadership

This style is one where a leader inspires his/her team with a shared vision of the future.
Transformational leaders are highly visible and place great emphasis on communicating with staff.
They don’t always lead from the front as they tend to delegate responsibility amongst their teams.
While they have great enthusiasm, they often need to be supported by “detail people”.

Transformational leadership is seen by many as the ideal style because it encourages collaboration,
cooperation, team building, empowerment, creativity, innovation, trust and respect.

Both transactional and transformational leadership are needed within an organisation. The
transactional leaders ensure that routine work is completed reliably while the transformational
leaders look after initiatives that will add new value to the organisation and, in the private sector, help
ensure its survival.

Servant leadership

This is a concept which was developed by Robert Greenleaf in the 1970s. Unlike leadership approaches
with a top-down hierarchical style, servant leadership instead emphasises collaboration, trust,
empathy, and the ethical use of power. A Servant leader is a servant first, making the conscious
decision to lead in order to better serve others, not to increase their own power. The objective is to
enhance the growth of individuals in the organisation so that they become wiser, freer, more
autonomous, better team members and feel a greater sense of involvement with the organisation.
Characteristics of this type of leader are:

• Devote themselves to serving the needs of organisation members.

• Focus on meeting the needs of those they lead.
• Develop employees to bring out the best in them.
• Coach others and encourage their self-expression.
• Facilitate personal growth in all who work with them.
• Attempt to unleash the energy and intelligence of others

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• Are skilled communicators
• Listen and build a sense of team spirit.
• Are self aware
• See an organisation in terms of a system where the whole should be greater than the sum of the
parts

As a leadership style it is said to be effective because the needs of staff are of such importance that
they reach their full potential and hence perform at their very best because they are respected, valued
and motivated. It is a style which is at the opposite end of the scale to Autocratic leadership. However,
other writers believe that the accent on serving means that no leadership is actually being provided
- the emphasis on individual employees can lead to the needs of the whole organisation being
ignored.

Principle-Centred leadership

A major writer on this style of leadership is Stephen Covey who believes that building trust is the
fundamental basis of effective relationships and that principle-centred leadership and power must
have trust at their origin.

The key principles of this leadership style are trust in others, trustworthiness as a person,
empowerment of teams and individuals and being able to align the three previous principles with
other external principles. These principles operate at personal, interpersonal, managerial and
organisational levels.

With principle-centred leadership, power is invited, not forced and is created when employees believe
their leaders are honourable. Perceiving a leader as being honourable, allows employees to trust
them, be inspired and committed to the goals set out by the leader.

Situational leadership - situation influences style

A good leader will switch instinctively between styles according to the people and work involved. This
is referred to as “situational leadership”. It is based on the fact that there is no one “right” way to lead
or manage that suits all situations. The situation being influenced by the purpose of the organisation,
the organisation’s strengths and weaknesses, structure, systems, number and types of staff and skill
levels of staff and the culture of the organisation. At any point in time the most effective approach will
depend on the above factors and so leadership has to be adaptive.

Factors influencing situational leadership

• The skill levels and experience of the team.

• The work involved (routine/ new / creative).
• The organisational environment (stable/ conservative, traditional, radically changing, fighting for
survival, adventurous).
• The preferred style of the manager

Many writers have also identified that a leader needs to combine vision, with ability to ‘get things
done’. The precise balance between the two depends on the requirements of the organisation.

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Motivation
People management in one form or another has been around for a long time. The main interest in the
subject began with the development of mass production systems and during the 20th century the
importance of motivating employees came to be recognised as being important to the success of
organisations.

The Hawthorne Studies – Elton Mayo

In 1924 the Western Electric Company near Chicago decided to call in Elton Mayo, a professor at
Harvard University, to study human behaviour. The company had already installed the systems of
Taylor and Gilbreth, (scientific management) but the results were below expectations. Apparently
productivity depended upon other factors that remained unknown.

The investigation was designed to test the effect of various factors on productivity by altering working
conditions. Two equal-sized groups (A and B) of female operatives were formed and studied by Elton
Mayo and his colleagues over a number of years. Lighting intensity was increased with Group A and,
as expected, output increased in sympathy. For no apparent reason, Group B also increased its
output, although the lighting was unchanged. The lighting was returned to its original intensity in
Group A and output increased further instead of falling back in sympathy.

In view of this unusual result, a whole series of experiments were conducted over a period of five years.
Two voluntary female groups were formed and observed by the research workers who worked closely
with the operations. All changes, which were made regularly every few weeks, were communicated
to the operatives who had the opportunity of commenting, asking for additional information, seeking
advice, and airing any grievances.

This particular series of investigations was carried out in the relay assembly test room at the
Hawthorne plant. Communication was ideal as information was allowed to flow freely in both
directions. The supervisor had frequent conferences with the women, their views were requested and
in some cases they were allowed to veto a proposal. The women had complete freedom to voice
their thoughts and to decide their own working conditions.

A happy working group developed. The women worked freely and confidently with very little anxiety.
A supervisory relationship was established which allowed them to feel a new sense of responsibility
for their work. On the social side they seemed glad to be together in outside activities and enjoyed
themselves through a sense of group solidarity which reflected itself in both the social and work
environment. The studies provided evidence to prove that factors other than pay and working
conditions have a significant effect on output. This was the first major study of people at work or in
human relations. It raised important questions and many lessons were learnt which could be applied
by managers in trying to ‘get the best’ out of their staff.

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Need

Maslow was much influenced by the Hawthorne Studies and in 1943 he put forward what has become
a widely accepted theory on the subject. He maintained the process of satisfying human needs is
continuous: as soon as one need is satisfied another one takes its place. This implies that needs form
a hierarchy of importance and when one need is satisfied it no longer acts as a sustained, effective

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motivator. Maslow subdivided needs into the following groups which are in ascending order of
importance, commencing at the lowest level.

Fulfilling full
potential

Self esteem recognition

Social needs - friendship

Safety – free from threat

Basic needs – food; water, shelter; sex

The above diagram is known as a Hierarchy of Needs. This theory says that a happy worker is a
productive worker and it stressed employee welfare, motivation and communication. The hierarchy
also reminds managers that as one level of need is fulfilled, the employee may move to the next level
and then develops other needs.

The table below shows the relevance of the different needs in the workplace.

Need Relevance in the workplace

Physical need Working conditions, such as ventilation, clean toilet facilities, adequate breaks.
Pay systems
Safety need Knowing who your ‘boss’ is,
Knowing what your job is.
Knowing that information about you will be treated with confidence
Job security.
Feeling that Health and Safety is regarded as a priority
Social need Good communications
Being part of a team.
Esteem need Being recognised, empowered, thanked and trusted.
Having a job which provides job satisfaction
Feeling able to put ideas forward and suggestions to improve working practices.
Being consulted about changes which are being planned.
Being able to contribute to the way change is implemented.

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 Being treated with dignity and respect.
Fulfilling full Being able to develop new skills and fulfil potential, CPD, being able to meet new
potential(self challenges.
actualisation) Being supported to be the best you can be.
Being given training and development opportunities
Higher level work/responsibility being delegated

Hertzberg’s Theory of Motivation

Hertzberg identified factors which can cause staff to be dissatisfied with their organisation. These
include, pay rate, company policies and physical working conditions. He called these hygiene factors
and managers need to be aware of these as dissatisfaction can cause conflict.

Hertzberg also identified that the ‘hygiene factors’ do not actually motivate staff to ‘go the extra mile’.
Job satisfaction he believed came from the job itself and the need for well designed jobs which
provide a challenge, a sense of achievement and recognition.

Douglas McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y

According to McGregor, Theory X managers assume workers are lazy and irresponsible and require
constant supervision and external motivation to achieve organisational goals. Theory Y managers,
on the other hand, have a different view of staff and believe that employees:

• Want to work,
• Can direct and control themselves
• Are interested in contributing to the achievement of organisational objectives,
• Can learn if the conditions are right,
• Accept and seek responsibility, and
• Have the capacity to be imaginative and creative.

McGregor advocated a Theory Y perspective, suggesting that managers who encourage

participation and allow opportunities for individual challenge and initiative would achieve superior
performance. He also suggested that unless the right management style is used employees will not
achieve their full potential. He saw it being the role of a manager, to develop the conditions under
which staff can achieve their self-fulfilment needs.

How to motivate staff and build effective teams

Staff motivation is an important part of the role of any manager. Senior managers, middle managers,
junior managers and supervisors are all line manager for members of staff and for most, if not all
employees, the most important aspect of their working life is their immediate line manager. The main
reason for people deciding to leave an organisation is often a poor relationship with their immediate
supervisor.

It is important that line managers at all levels reflect on the extent to which they have inspired and
energised employees under their care and the extent to which their words and actions have
developed or destroyed confidence and self-belief.

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The success of all organisations depends on maintaining the interest and commitment of staff and
encouraging them to ‘go the extra mile’. The ability to motivate has to be developed and managers
need to reflect on the success of different approaches. Various writers have produced guidance for
managers on motivating employees and for achieving ‘employee engagement’ (where staff feel
positive about their job, know where their job ‘fits in’, want to make things better, respect and support
colleagues, can see the ‘bigger picture’ feel appreciated by their boss, trust their boss, feel listened to
and are prepared to ‘go the extra mile’).

Ways to motivate staff include:

Be motivated yourself: Genuine enthusiasm and commitment is contagious. When you’re having
difficulty motivating other people, check that the real problem is not your own lack of motivation. If
you don’t want to do something, why should anyone else?

Provide a vision: staff need a vision of the future which they can ‘buy into’ and need to be able to see
how they contribute to organisational, departmental and team objectives. Be seen to support
organisational values, by ‘walking the talk’.

Give staff a challenge: People are motivated by a challenge – first for the struggle, and second for
the achievement. It is important that a challenge has both elements. No-one wants all struggle and
no achievement – or vice versa. In an organisation, this means setting targets that are steep but
attainable through real commitment. challenge can also be provided by empowering staff, by
ensuring that they have a meaningful job, have some control over their work, are involved in the
setting of team objectives and the development of team work plans, are encouraged to make
suggestions on the allocation of work, or improvements, given responsibility for making some
decisions on the use of their time and resources, and by using delegation to broaden their experience.
Challenge can enable staff to develop a ‘can do’ attitude.

Ensure that staff have the right resources: Staff need to be provided with sufficient resources to
enable them to complete tasks otherwise frustrations and tensions can arise.

Be centred on people and relationships: Staff need to feel that they are viewed as being important
and can see that working cooperatively with others is an important part of their working life. Managers
should take time to find out what the aspirations of staff are and help them to achieve these. The
manager needs to be in touch with the staff they are responsible for managing and this in turn
develops the loyalty of staff.

Treat staff with respect: A human being’s fundamental emotional requirements are love, attention
and respect. Be seen to support the organisation’s commitment to equality and diversity.
Demonstrate to people that you like them, are interested in them and value their time, thinking and
efforts. Once you have established these, you can motivate people to do almost anything. Respect
also means accepting that staff have the right to their own opinions as long as these do not adversely
impact on other employees

Listen to staff: The shortcut to giving people love, attention and respect is to listen to them. There is
no point in always having your door open if you mouth is always open too. Shut up and listen to what
other people have to say. Listening is a faster way of getting people to do something than telling

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them to do it. It also allows a manager to benefit from the experience of staff. Some organisations use
one or more of the following: staff surveys to gauge the views of employees and test the state of staff
morale, communication methods which allow staff to provide feedback and focus groups to use staff
knowledge.

Help staff learn: People like learning to do new things and will generally volunteer for new experiences
if they think there is something valuable to be learnt. Creating an environment where people can
learn as much as they can handle is hugely motivating. Conversely, boredom is a real and dangerous
enemy to a motivated workforce.

Encourage staff to welcome difficulty: Most people want an interesting life rather than an easy one.
Solving complex and difficult problems is intensely stimulating for many people. That doesn’t mean
you have to make your business deliberately complex and difficult, but it does mean you should
acknowledge difficulties and encourage people to view them as a chance to do things differently and
learn something new in the process. Demonstrating to people that they are constantly learning and
developing is a good way of keeping them engaged and also of keeping them in the organisation.
This requires setting new, more interesting and more difficult challenges. Fortunately, there is usually
no shortage of these in any organisation.

Encourage teamwork: People need to be loyal to the organisation and proud to belong to it. In most
roles, they need to be able to cooperate with others in order to get the job done. Managers should
make sure they motivate staff, resolve conflicts quickly, avoid micro management so staff can learn
from their mistakes, encourage staff to voice their opinions, provide the resources needed to ‘do the
job’, foster co-operation between individuals, provide their team with clear objectives, encourage the
sharing of ideas, and the appreciation of the work and roles of other team members.

Be clear: People rarely give their best when they are not sure what they are expected to do. It is
important to make sure that employees know exactly what is expected of them and how they can
contribute to the organisation’s goals. Policies, procedures and lines of authority should also be clear.

Provide job satisfaction through well designed jobs which:

• Are seen by employees as a whole job rather than just undertaking a limited number of tasks.
• Have definite goals and targets
• Make a significant contribution to the completion of the product or service.
• Provide variety of pace, method, location and skills.
• Allow for some control in the timing, sequence and pace of work efforts.
• Include some responsibility for outcomes.
• Provide opportunities for learning and problem solving (within the individual’s competence).
• Provides contact with other employees

Use job enrichment: This can be achieved by providing staff with a broader range of activities to
carry out, having fewer controls over them, granting extra authority and decision making powers,
providing them with information, granting specific responsibilities so that they can develop additional
skills and complete a whole piece of work rather than just one part and have increased accountability
for the work they produce.

Use job rotation: This is so that staff are not constantly carrying out the same tasks but are able to
develop a broader range of skills.

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Recognition: The most important part of reward and recognition is the recognition. A very public
“thank you” is worth more in motivational terms than a very private cheque. Similarly, not thanking
someone for their contribution can do more damage than constructive criticism. Sharing credit is the
fastest way to build credit.

Develop trust

Maintain good employee relations

Appreciate the need for a work/life balance

Be seen to be committed to equality and diversity

Effective allocation of work

Effective allocation of work to teams involves the following:

• Ensuring that a thorough brief is given to the employees in particular the parameters in which
they have authority. A useful pneumonic to use when going through the brief is SMEAC.
o Situation - What is the issue that needs working on?
o Mission - What needs to be done in order to achieve the desired outcome?
o Execution – How is the desired outcome going to be achieved?
o Ask Questions – Has the employee got any questions regarding the brief?
o Confirm - Ensure that the employee is clear about the work that is allocated and confirm
understanding
• Ensuring that the work allocated is within the employee’s ability range; if the work allocated is of
a technical nature then they should be competent within that particular area of expertise.
Managers should also balance the experience of the employee against the allocated task.
• Ensuring that the work allocated is in line with departmental plans which in turn are dictated by
the overall strategic objectives of the organisation.
• Ensuring that the work allocated is SMART –Specific, Achievable, Realistic and Time Orientated.
• The manager having a complete grasp of the current workload of employees and the team.
• Balancing current workload against the amount and type of work which is to be allocated.
• Prioritising workload if there are competing demands on the employee and team.
• Giving feedback at regular intervals so that team members know if they are meeting the required
standard.
• Checking timescales at set points and adjusting the priorities if necessary.
• Conducting a stress assessment should the employee/team show signs of suffering from the
excess workload.
• Letting staff know if any changes occur.
• Considering how the work allocated could be used as a development opportunity for the
employee/team.

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Effective delegation

Part of the organising role of managers is to decide when the use of delegation would be appropriate.
Delegation is the handing over of tasks to appropriate subordinates, whilst still retaining overall
responsibility for the work which is produced.

As well as being a way of ensuring that the needs of a workload are met, delegation, if properly
planned, can be a valuable way of motivating staff because it can provide a developmental
opportunity and help prepare them for more senior roles.

Factors which influence a manager’s decision to delegate tasks include:

• The degree to which a manager is under pressure as a result of the volume of work and or
complexity of work.
• The need to spend more time communicating with staff.
• The degree to which a manager feels able to handle the risks associated with delegation.
• The capabilities and experience of the staff.
• How much benefit staff might obtain from being given increased responsibilities.
• The degree of cost involved in the work to be delegated (financial cost, reputation etc).
• The amount of help available to the subordinate from colleagues.
• The extent to which delegation will contribute to an employee's development plan.
• The number of staff the manager is responsible for.
• The perceived benefits of enabling decisions to be taken as close to the point of impact as
possible. E.g. devolved budgets.
• The need to develop a junior manager’s skills in decision making and help them to understand
the potential consequences of their actions
• Whether the responsibilities broaden the scope of a job and bring greater job satisfaction

Successful delegation happens when:

• The right tasks are delegated and staff see the work as meaningful.
• Delegation is an accepted practice and staff do not feel coerced.
• Staff are properly briefed and are clear about what is expected of them in terms of performance
standards and the level of authority which they will have.
• Staff are given sufficient time to settle in and feel able to approach their manager for guidance.
• Early mistakes are regarded as learning points rather than poor performance
• Staff are given the resources they need.
• Staff report back on a regular basis to their line manager so that additional guidance can be
given as needed
• At the end of the period of delegation, staff are given feedback.
• Staff are thanked.
• Staff are encouraged to reflect on the experience they have gained

Unsuccessful delegation happens when:

• The delegation is poorly planned.

• Staff are not properly briefed and are therefore unsure about what they are meant to do.

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• Staff are not given the resources they need to carry out the tasks.
• Staff do not have the right skills or experience, particularly if the work is very complex or highly
technical.
• Staff do not feel able to approach their manager for help and advice.
• Unpleasant tasks, which should remain with the manager, are delegated.

Effective communication

Communication is essential for the effective functioning of every part of an organisation.

Communication is the sharing of information between two or more individuals or groups to reach a
common understanding and involves the creation, transmission, interpretation and use of
information. It can be verbal, written and visual. Verbal communication can provide immediate
information and allow for discussion and clarification, visual information can provide complex
information in the form of diagrams or short sharp messages in the form of posters and written
communication is best where a permanent record or semi-permanent record is needed.

Management and supervision includes the need for effective communications. Managers need to
decide the best method of communication to meet the needs of the circumstances. When providing
verbal information, managers need to have a positive approach, be aware of body language and
tone of voice.

Organisations with good communication channels tend to be more successful than those which do
not.

The best form of communication is one that incorporates feedback, to show that the message has
been received and understood. Employees and colleagues should not only have the opportunity to
listen, but should always have a chance to ask questions, discuss, express own views and put their
ideas forward.

Employees’ views should always be received with courtesy and they should feel able to approach
their manager and colleague and discuss problems with them. Team members and departments
should be encouraged to share information, so that best practice can be identified. It is also important
for organisations to seek and respect the views of service users and other stakeholders.

In many organisations, senior managers will often try to meet all new staff to welcome them and
make them feel very much part of the organisation and someone who wants to contribute to the
success of the organisation.

Where partnership arrangements are in place, the ability to communicate clearly and effectively with
a range of people can be very important.

Team Briefings

In many organisations, team briefings are a major communication channel between managers and
their team members. Team Briefings are a regular and systematic process that ensures
communication takes place between management and employees. The objective is to make sure

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that every employee knows and understands what they and others are doing in the organisation and
why.

The process involves managers and their team getting together on a regular basis, for example, for
about 30 minutes, in a formal setting, on a weekly basis to discuss issues and exchange information
relevant to their work and the wider organisation. Everyone has the opportunity to discuss specific
job-related matters with members of their team.

Effective team briefings

• Allow the standardisation of information which can ensure that staff at all levels receive
consistent information on corporate and local issues relevant to them.
• Provide a channel for explaining financial, commercial and strategic issues.
• Enable managers and team leaders to provide technical information to staff or pass on
information from higher up the organisation.
• Enable managers to explain ‘customer’ requirements
• Enable a manager to identify the expected work and behaviour standards.
• Identify recording systems which must be used
• Ensure that staff have received and understand the information that has been communicated.
• Enable staff to contribute by asking questions, obtaining additional information and putting
forward suggestions.
• Can be used as a channel for letting staff know about the rules and procedures that they need to
follow and the deadlines that they have to work to.
• Give feedback on performance discuss performance data and any shortfalls in team
performance.
• Enable problems to be discussed.
• Enables any change to work routines, team objectives and targets or new requirements to be
discussed.
• In addition, team briefings can:
o Help to develop a shared sense of mission, vision and collective aims.
o Help create a 'can-do' culture.
o Improve working relationships:
o Allows a manager to give praise and say ‘thank you’ for a job well done
o Allow teams to talk about team goals, successes and failures.
o Be an important part of building a team - ‘Getting the team together’ reinforces the working
relationships in particular the manager – employee relationship and develops the manager’s
leadership qualities.

Barriers to effective communications

Managers also need to be aware of the barriers to good communication. Barriers include:

• Jargon, which is not understood by everyone.

• Noise and other physical distractions which can result in information being misheard or misread.
• Language barriers where organisations contain people (or are communicating with external
partners) who speak different languages.
• Emotional state of the receiver, especially if there are poor working relationships.
• Distrust, if the receiver has reason to mistrust the sender/ grapevine rumours.

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• Employees perceiving that communication is always ’one way’ and that they do not have the
opportunity to express their views or give feedback.
• Wrong channel and location. This can occur, when information is given verbally, which would have
been better written down.
• Mistaken meanings where the sender and receiver are at cross purposes.
• Receiver being unable to understand the information because it is too complex.
• Information overload so that there is too much information to ‘take in’ effectively.
• Lack of clarity when the sender is not fully sure of what they are trying to achieve.
• Faulty presentation where the information is over-complicated.
• Incompatible viewpoints, where people see the world differently and therefore attach different
meanings to words.
• Deception which occurs when people tell lies or feel uncomfortable about giving negative or
unpopular information.
• Lack of communication channels which can be found where an organisation does not have
effective managerial or technical systems in place.
• Too long a chain of command where information has to pass through a number of different levels
and there is therefore the possibility of distortion and ‘Chinese whispers’
• No opportunity for feedback so that there is no way of checking that information has been
effectively received and areas which are unclear questioned.
• Workplace culture that does not recognise the importance of effective communications.
• Managers being unwilling to share information on the grounds of rivalry
• Poor partnership working and departmental or organisational ‘silos

Lack of effective communication may lead to:

• Staff not understandings what they are being asked to do so errors occur.
• The ‘Grapevine’ becoming the communication system within the organisation.
• Frustration, conflict, low morale and lack of job satisfaction for employees.
• Lack of information resulting in slow/ poor decisions/ problems not being solved.
• Decrease in employee commitment, enthusiasm and performance.
• Decrease in the effectiveness of the organisation, particularly where there is a waste of human
and physical resources or poor service being provided.
• Useful knowledge which employees could provide remaining ‘untapped’.
• Poor relationships with colleagues, partner organisations and other stakeholders.

Overcoming barriers to effective communication

Overcoming barriers to communications requires there to be a range of mechanisms in place to

ensure that information ‘moves’ around an organisation, down the organisation from managers to
staff, up the organisation from staff to managers and laterally across the organisation (and, in many
cases, across different organisations).

Downwards communication

This is concerned with the flow of information from senior manager, manager, and supervisors to staff
at all level within an organisation. Downwards Communication can be achieved by:

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• Staff meetings and team briefings.
• One-to-one conversations to provide advice and guidance
• Briefing notes to reinforce the message.
• Organisation-wide communication systems, such as:
o Bulletins:
o Staff newsletters/magazines
o Notice boards:
o Intranet/web based systems/e-mail:
o Procedures Manuals, such as Service Orders, which set out instructions for dealing with
situations.
o Senior Manager briefing sessions.

Managing performance

Part of a manager’s role is to monitor the performance of staff throughout the year and provide
feedback to staff. Where poor performance is identified, the first approach, unless gross misconduct
is involved, is the provision of guidance to an employee rather than resorting immediately to
disciplinary procedures.

The manager needs to identify with the employee the cause of the poor performance (rather than
crudely attaching blame) so that any action is based on a factual analysis of the situation.

Reasons for poor performance can include:

• Inadequate support or guidance being provided to the employee

• The employee not understanding what is required of them
• Work being delegated without the necessary information
• The employee not having the ability needed to do the job
• The employee possessing insufficient skills
• External factor(s) beyond the control of the employee e.g. poor materials and decisions being
made in other parts of the organisation
• The employee being provided with incomplete or incorrect information so that the wrong action
is taken
• Poor team work within the work unit
• Conflict with the workplace possibly including bullying and harassment
• The employee having the wrong attitude e.g. is a poor team player where team work is important
or has an unfriendly attitude towards customers.
• Lack of recognition for good work which leads to lack of motivation.
• The employee has personal problems which are affecting their work

Actions a manager can take to deal with poor performance:

• Act as soon as the problem becomes evident. Failure to quickly may lead other staff to believe
that mediocre or under-performance is acceptable.
• Explain to the employee, why and how their performance is unsatisfactory.

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• If appropriate, undertake confidential informal counselling with the employee to identify causes
of the problems which are contributing to the under-performance.
• Explain to the employee what is required of them in the workplace and the objectives and targets
they are expected to meet.
• Identify solutions with the employee so that a way forward can be found by agreeing the
performance required and the targets to be met.
• Provide the necessary support and resources. This could be improvement of skills and abilities
through training, mentoring and coaching and provision of additional experience. welfare support
if personal problems are involved, via counselling (see below)
• Agree a performance improvement plan and timescale.
• If the poor performance is due to conflict, bullying and harassment then the manager needs to
take the necessary action to resolve the situation
• Where the employee’s attitude is the problem, the manager needs to explain the effect this is
having to the employee, team and organisation.
• Whatever the cause, the manager needs to provide feedback to the employee on the extent to
which they are making progress and agree further action if necessary.

Whenever poor performance occurs, it is always an opportunity for a manager to consider is if their
own particular management style has in any way contributed to the situation and reflect on how they
can use this information. If the manager has failed to provide proper training, information, support
and resources, then they may well be the reason for the poor performance.

Where poor performance continues to be a problem, then it may be necessary to take more formal
action using the organisation’s Disciplinary Procedure. Someone who persistently performs poorly,
places additional pressures on other staff, and they have a right to expect that action will be taken,

Counselling

Some organisations provide Counselling Services for employees which are provided by trained
Counselling staff. This is on the basis that they can help employees resolve both work related and
personal problems by providing a supportive atmosphere that helps someone find their own solutions
to problems by putting them into perspective.

Counselling can be used for helping employees resolve:

• Personal difficulties.
• Family problems.
• Financial problems
• Drug and/or alcohol problems.
• Ways of coping with stress, depression or anxiety.
• Relationship issues.

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Discipline

The majority of staff in practically all organisations understand that they are expected to behave in a
certain way. It is part of the role of supervisors and managers to provide guidance to staff as part of
their day to day work and to encourage them to meet the required standards of work and conduct. A
quiet word is often all that is required to improve the performance or attitude of an employee.

Where problems continue it may be necessary for a manager to use the formal disciplinary
procedure. Actions which tends to lead to discipline are such things as continuing poor performance,
absenteeism, conflict with other staff, disobeying the line manager, bullying and harassment and
conduct which affect the ‘good name’ of the organisation.

In some countries, legislation sets out the rights of employees where action is to be taken by
employers. The law usually expects there to be a disciplinary procedure in place, which has clear
stages.

An example of a disciplinary procedure follows:

Disciplinary Procedure

1. Purpose and scope

The purpose of a disciplinary procedure is to help and encourage all employees to achieve and
maintain standards of conduct, attendance and job performance and this procedure apply to all
employees. The aim is to ensure consistent and fair treatment for all in the organisation.

2. Principles usually found in a Disciplinary Procedure

Disciplinary action will only be taken against an employee, after the case has been fully
investigated. At every stage in the procedure, the employee will be informed of the nature of the
complaint against him or her and will be given the opportunity to state his or her case before any
decision is made.

The employee will have the right to be accompanied by a trade union representative, or work
colleague at all stages of the Procedure

No employee will be dismissed for a first breach of discipline except in the case of gross misconduct,
when the penalty will be dismissal without notice or payment in lieu of notice.

An employee will have the right to appeal against any discipline imposed.

The Procedure

The actual procedure usually has a number of stages, to cope with situations where the employees
do not improve. Each stage usually has a specific timescale.

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Stage 1 - verbal warning improvement note: unsatisfactory performance
Stage 2 - first warning
Stage 3 - final written warning

However, Gross Misconduct can often lead to instant dismissal;

Appeals

An employee who wishes to appeal against a disciplinary decision must do so within a specified
period of time.

The main features of a good disciplinary procedure are:

• It follows good practice guidelines laid down in employment law.

• It shows leadership in letting staff now how they should be contributing towards the operation of
the organisation.
• It provides a clear ‘pathway’ for managers to follow
• It enables problems which arise and which it has not been possible to overcome with guidance
from the line manager to be dealt with fairly and consistently.
• It demonstrates to the organisation that persistent poor performance or gross misconduct will be
taken seriously.
• It is written down and staff are made aware of its existence so have access to guidance on
conduct.
• It provides a speedy way of dealing with disciplinary problems.
• It should make clear who has what powers.
• Confidentiality must be maintained throughout the process
• A staged approach ensures that no employee is dismissed for a first offence unless this is gross
misconduct.
• It has progressive stages so that disciplinary action is consistent with the offence. The first two
stages being geared to achieving improvements.
• It demonstrates a consistent approach and therefore fairness.
• It should ensure that employees are made aware of why disciplinary action was taken against
them.
• It should ensure that cases are fully investigated so that judgements are based on clear evidence.

o An investigation should be confined to the facts.

o The person carrying out the investigation should be seen to be impartial and only acting
within the limits of their authority.
o The investigator should search for all relevant evidence.
o Statements form colleagues and customers should be taken where relevant.
o Records should be kept.
o They should explain to the employee that an investigatory meeting is not a disciplinary
hearing
o The investigator should if possible keep the allegations being investigated confidential.
o Open questions should be asked, to avoid implying that the employee being investigated in
guilty.
o The employee should be given relevant documents such as witness statements

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 o The outcome of the investigation, will be used to determine if a disciplinary hearing should be
held.

• It should let employees state their case and be accompanied by a trade union representative or
colleague so that they feel supported.
• It ‘spells out’ timescales for improvement so that the employee is aware of the action they have
to take and what the next stage will be if there is no improvement.
• A written record of shortcomings is provided for future reference.
• It should ensure that there is a right of appeal.
• Employees should only be suspended where:

o Working relationships have broken down.

o Evidence might be tampered with.
o Where an allegation is serious and might be classified as gross misconduct

• Where an employee is suspended, they should be informed that suspension is not assumption of
guilt.

Grievance procedure
There can be few workplaces that can claim to have the perfect working environment and a
workforce which is entirely happy. Every workplace has its problems.

A grievance is a complaint by an employee about his/her employer, relating to action taken or

which is going to be taken, which affects them.

Most organisations have systems in place to allow employees to raise issues which concern them,
including those related to workplace conflict.

The value of a grievance procedure lies in the fact that it:

• Recognises that employees may have legitimate grievances which need to be responded to
promptly and sympathetically
• Provides a route for informal resolution in the first instance with more formal proceedings if
necessary.
• Can be a way of clearing up tensions and conflicts
• Allows an employee to raise issues of concern with the management of an organisation
• Allows employees to explain what they would like to see happen to resolve the situation
• Provides a route for the solving of problems about which staff feel strongly.
• Allows issues to be aired rather than fester and cause conflict.
• Recognises that problems are a fact of organisational life.
• Reassures staff they do not need to suffer in silence.
• Can result in improvements in the organisation and in relationships.
• Can identify crunch points within an organisation.
• Provides a clear process and timescale for issues to be raised.
• Represents good human resource management and employee relations practice in that it
ensures consistency, transparency and fairness in the handling of problems.

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• Allows an employee to be supported by a friend or trade union representative.

Grievance procedures usually have different stages each with their own timescale. The aim however
is to resolve the situation as quickly and as fairly as possible. There are usually three stages:

• Informal stage. The employee raises a grievance with immediate line manager. At this stage the
role of the manager is to:
o Listen to the facts being presented.
o Obtain the employee’s side of the story.
o Ask questions to obtain clarification as staff my feel upset or emotional and may not always
present things in a clear way
o Summarise the problem so that it is clear.
o Check the situation with anyone else involved.
o Consider what action could be taken and what the consequences could be. The aim being to
find a ‘win win solution.
o Reply to employee who has submitted the grievance and record the facts and the decision
taken for future reference.

• Formal stage. The grievance is submitted in writing and there is a timescale for a written reply.

• Appeal stage. The grievance is considered by the next level of management, a hearing has to be
held within a specific period of time and a decision has to be provided within a specific period of
time.

At all stages it is normal for an employee to be able to call upon the help of a friend or trade union
representative.

Records

It is always important that records are kept in relation to a grievance, such as:

• The nature of the grievance.

• The different stages used.
• The decisions reached.
• Details of any meeting and the outcome.

Conflict management
As well as dealing with difficult people, managers and team leaders can also find themselves having
to deal with conflict. Conflict is defined as any workplace disagreement that disrupts the flow of work
(and can often be caused by difficult employees).

Given the multitude of personality types present in any workplace and the range of internal and
external pressures that exist, it is no surprise that conflict exists.

When conflict isn’t dealt with it festers, it creates bad feelings, it escalates, it gets blown out of
proportion, and it creates gossip and rumour. When conflict isn’t dealt with it takes on a life of its own.

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The way is it handled by managers and team leaders can have an important effect. If it is handled
well, then the problem is solved. If it is handled badly, then it can have a negative effect on working
relationships for a long time.

Signs of conflict

• Negativity and arguing.

• Incessant gossiping and backstabbing.
• Direct personality clashes.
• Workplace disputes and interpersonal conflicts.
• Heated exchanges between staff – either between staff within the same team or between staff
from different parts of the organisation.
• Bullying and harassment, evidenced by low morale, poor performance,
absenteeism, high staff turnover, intra-team conflict, aggressive behaviour.
• Disrespect for the team and for customers.
• Clash of values, where each person sees the world from their own perspective.
• Poor selection/pairing of teams.
• Poor performance management.
• Bullying/harassment
• Perceived discrimination and unfair treatment.
• Unresolved problems from the past - ‘old sins cast long shadows’
• Rivalry between departments or groups.
• Misunderstandings due to poor communication between people, often caused by the inability
to articulate needs or poor listening skills.

Causes of conflict

• Personality clashes/warring egos.

• Difficult/negative employees.
• Stress.
• Heavy workloads/inadequate resources.
• Poor leadership/line management
• Lack of honesty and openness.
• Lack of role/accountability clarity
• Clash of values.
• Poor selection/pairing of teams.
• Poor performance management.
• Bullying/harassment
• Perceived discrimination.

Cost of conflict

• Potential for losing customers as the result of poor service and poor reputation.
• Potential for losing good employees who leave because they do not like the working atmosphere.
• Staff become less motivated, are not willing to take on extra tasks and do not contribute to
discussions.
• Valuable time is lost in resolving issues and dealing with queries and complaints because people
are not cooperating with each other which can affect the achievement of goals and targets.

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• Conflict kills creativity and innovation.
• Decrease in trust and honesty – conflict is increased when members of staff make derogatory
remarks towards each.
• Having to work in a toxic atmosphere can lead to demotivation and work-related stress.
• Increase in absenteeism can lead to the need to pay for additional hours or staff.
• Conflict reduces team effort.
• Conflict between colleagues can often result in bullying and harassment complaints and
litigation claims.

What can managers do to address conflict at work?

• Don’t ignore the signs; the more quickly it is dealt with the more quickly it is resolved.
• Identify the causes so that appropriate action can be taken.
• Do not assume that the conflict is being caused deliberately. It may be due to fear, confusion or
lack of motivation.
• Stay calm and professional.
• Let irate employees have their say and give them the opportunity to explain the issues/situation
causing them to become angry or frustrated.
• If helpful, use policies and procedures such as the grievance procedure.
• Clearly set out expected standards of behaviour and be a role model.
• Maintain a professional approach, concentrating on issues rather than personalities – deal with
the behaviour not the person.
• Never involve themselves in whining or gossiping.
• Make sure that they communicate with staff on regular basis. As a manager, they are more likely
to be able to interpret the behaviour of employees if they have regular channels for open
communication and consultation.
• Listen to the views of employees so that potential problems can be identified and resolved at an
early stage.
• Try to create a climate of openness and trust. If an employee feels able to approach their
manager at an early stage, then problems can often be solved.
• Make sure that staff have the necessary resources.
• Undertake team building exercises, so that everyone begins again the respect their work
colleagues. These may involve activities outside the working day.
• Share their thinking and rationale with their teams at every opportunity.
• Be aware the ‘crunch points’ around which heated feelings gather in their teams and
organisations.
• Demonstrate to staff that they are capable of dealing with problems.
• If helpful, a problem may be split into several small problems that are easier to solve.
• Analyse obvious stressful events and attempt to rearrange, reduce or eliminate causes
• Remember the priorities and so avoid crises.
• Accept the inevitable parts of the job that cannot be changed, but change those parts that are
flexible and may be causing problems.
• Concentrate on investigating areas of uncertainty, which can lead to stress and tensions and try
to reduce these.
• Be optimistic and confident, as these attitudes ‘rub off’ on staff.
• Recognise that one size does not fit all. Different circumstances warrant different approaches.
• Remember that every conflict presents an opportunity for positive change, including the manager
reflecting upon his/her own actions and approach.

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• Resolve conflict between two team members by:
o Identifying the situation.
o Finding out who is involved.
o Listen to the point of view of both parties.
o Evaluate what is said.
o Reach preliminary conclusions.
o Bring both parties together to discuss and defuse the situation and look for remedies
o Do not allow either party to bring up past problems or anecdotal evidence, but make
them stick to the facts.
o Explain that at the end of the day there is a job to be done.
• Use mediation if appropriate.

Equality and diversity

Equality and Diversity are important aspect of a Human Resources policy.

Equal opportunities - emphasises the structures, systems and measures of groups within society and
within organisations. Equal opportunities are about addressing representation and balance and are
about creating a fairer society where everyone can participate and has the opportunity to fulfil their
potential. In many countries the concept is backed by legislation designed to address unfair
discrimination based on membership of a particular group.

Diversity - is about the recognition and valuing of difference in the broadest sense. It is about
creating a working culture and practices that recognise, respect, value and harness difference for the
benefit of the organisation and individuals.

Equality and diversity are related to the actions and responsibilities of everyone - users of services,
work colleagues, employees, people in other organisations and the public in general. It is the
responsibility of every person to act in ways that support equality and diversity.

Valuing and promoting equality and diversity is central to the effectiveness of Fire and Rescue
Services and their ability to protect the public through fire prevention, fire protection and emergency
response.

Characteristics of organisations committed to Equality and Diversity

• Strives in the workforce and in service provision to reflect the richness of diversity that exists in
society and includes people of different abilities, ages, bodily appearances, classes, castes,
creeds, cultures, genders, geographical localities, health, relationship, mental health, social and
economic statuses; places of origin, political beliefs, race, religion, sexual orientation, and those
with and without responsibilities for dependents.
• Stresses the importance of all staff and service users being treated with respect and dignity.
• Carries out Equality Impact Assessments to ensure that policies and procedures do not
discriminate in any way.
• Strives to be seen as providing a service for all sections of the community and understanding the
needs of different communities.

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• Have processes in place to engage with different communities.
• Provides targeted information to meet the needs of different communities.
• Works with hard to reach groups to prevent attacks on fire-fighters.
• Works with other agencies to improve services to all sections of the community.
• Uses surveys and consultation exercises to measure performance.
• Learns from good practice used by other organisations.
• Ensures that managers are aware of their role in promoting equality and diversity.
• Emphasises the importance of treating everyone with dignity and respect, and acknowledging
others’ different perspectives.
• Recognises that if equality and diversity are not an integral part of the culture of the organisation,
then discrimination may occur.
• Put in place policies and procedures to prevent discrimination, bullying and harassment and
reinforce that this type of behaviour is seen as being unacceptable.
• Has open and transparent recruitment and promotion procedures.
• Ensures that the organisation has the required skills by recruiting from as wide a pool of potential
applicants as possible.
• Recognises the need counteract the effects of past discrimination and to abolish stereotyping.
• Sets targets for the recruitment of staff from under-represented groups and use management
information to monitor progress.
• Supports the recruitment, promotion and development of under-represented groups in the work
force by:
o Recognising which groups are under-represented.
o Finding out the reason for under representation.
o Finding out what the perceived barriers are.
o Meet with people from under-represented groups to discuss possible concerns and
misconceptions.
o Ensure that under-represented groups form part of any general consultations processes.
o Demonstrating how respect for cultural issues are in place such as prayer room facilities.
• Recognises that they may have to take positive action to attract job applicants from under-
represented groups. Strive to ensure that all staff feel accepted, supported and valued.
• Emphasis on all staff achieving their full potential.
• Is prepared to make reasonable adjustment for disabled employees and potential employees
who have a disability.
• Provides personal development opportunities in the form of secondments, special projects and
other opportunities to undertake new challenges and extend experience in managerial roles
where certain groups are underrepresented at managerial levels.
• Recognises the benefits of having a diverse workforce, which include:
o ‘Opens doors’ for staff into different communities
o In the public services can improve relationships with communities and assist with promoting
fire prevention and health initiatives.
o Employees developing valuable skills in relation to working with a much wider group of people.
o Improved customer care and marketplace competition.
o Increase competitiveness through staff understanding the needs of different customers and
markets.
o The organisation being seen as complying with legislation where this is in place.
o The organisation having a positive ‘brand image’
o Enhanced corporate image and reputation through maintaining ethics and values.

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o Organisation can be perceived as giving something 'back' to the community, which in turn
increase the reputation.
o Respect by employees for those who they perceive as being different in some way.
o Different ideas, views and experiences being brought into the organisations.
o Results in a greater skills base.
o Dissimilar mind sets enhancing flexibility, creativity and innovation.
o Can be seen as an employer of choice to attract and retain talent.
o Creation of an inclusive culture, rather than one dominated by a particular group.
o Improved morale and motivation because staff feel part of the team, rather than the ‘odd
one out’
o Reduced turnover and increased retention, because staff do not feel they have to be a ‘clone’
of the majority workforce.
o Reduced recruitment costs.
o Managers recognising the importance of being a positive role model.
o Improved knowledge and skills within managers which in turn creates increased confidence
and the ability to resolve performance issues.
o Increased objectivity and removal of old fashioned perceptions of favouritism and 'jobs for
the boys'.

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Section 3 – Organisation Systems and Administration

Management information

Effective information is needed to see if targets are being met, if policies are actually working and to
highlight deviations which might suggest that not everyone is ‘on board’ or that processes are not
working properly. Organisations therefore set up various types of recording systems, and use
Management Information Systems to convert various types of data into information.

The information which managers need comes from a combination of record systems and
management information systems.

Records

Much of the data used with Management Information Systems will come from organisational records.
All organisations, however large or small, need to keep certain records, some because the law
requires them, and some for internal purposes such as ensuring the objectives are met and targets
achieved.

Every employer also needs records of workers joining them including their job title, pay and so on. All
organisations, private or public, need to plan and to formulate policies and procedures which will
enable them to remain competitive and provide good service to their customers. Planning depends
on information and good quality information depends on accurate and effective record-keeping. The
reason for having information in the first place is to be able to make good and valid decisions. If
information is inaccurate, then it is very likely to lead to poor or wrong decisions being made.

The sort records that need to be maintained will depend very much the type of organisation and the
industry in which it operates. For departments, teams and individual staff the records which have to
be kept will depend upon the part of the organisation in which they work. Staff working in a Human
Resources Department may be responsible for maintaining a whole range of personnel procedures.
Staff working in a Fire Station will need to record the location and type of incidents they attended. It is
important that staff understand the importance of records and provide information in the correct way
to prevent ‘garbage in garbage out’ occurring.

A wide range of information will also help to ensure that effective performance management takes
place, i.e. strategic plans, objectives, risks which could prevent the achievement of objectives, targets,
monitoring information, team plans, work allocated to teams and individuals, responsibilities of
individual employees, counselling, quality standards, health and safety records, disciplinary action,
appraisals, staff training and development needs, decisions made, debriefing information, budgets,
use of materials, improvement ideas from staff.

Effective records can help a manager to:

• Make decisions based on fact rather than ‘guesswork’.

• Identify performance targets, monitor performance and take remedial action.
• Know what staff resources are available to meet production/service requirements.
• More accurately assess levels of performance and productivity.

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 • Know the level of absenteeism and staff turnover.
• Use the outcomes of staff appraisal to identify training needs.
• Comply with legislation.
• Be aware of Health and Safety issues.
• Identify risks and ‘Head off’, potential problems.
• Know what is happening with budget monitoring.
• Know when maintenance is required for pieces of equipment.
• Know who has the power to make certain decisions.
• Be aware of operational procedures.
• Debrief after exercises and incidents.
• Deal with customer enquiries.

What type of system?

Any record keeping system, whether developed within the organisation or 'bought in', needs to fulfil
certain criteria. It must be:

• Accurate, reliable and consistent.

• Accessible and readily available.
• Effectively linked to specific processes and policies.
• Confidential with regard to personal details.
• Adaptable, so that it can cater for future developments and changes.
• Economical in its introduction, use and maintenance.
• Compliant with any relevant legislation.
• Comprehensive, covering all relevant activities.

Before deciding on the type of system, the organisation must also have considered:

• Whether the records will be kept manually, computerised, or in some combination of systems.
Even though nowadays many records are computerised, many organisations still use a wide
variety of paper-based systems. In some cases, this is because of the cost of transferring
them onto a computer or, in other cases, because a paper –based ‘back up’ system is
required in case of computer failure.
• Where the records are going to be located (how much space will be required for secure
storage).
• How the design of documents affects the type of system, and vice versa.
• Which staff should have access to which records?
• Procedures to comply, with both organisational security and data protection requirements.

Reviewing the records system

As with any system, record systems should be reviewed from time to time to check their effectiveness.
Any review should include the users and operators of the system as they will know the strengths and
weaknesses.

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The main questions to ask in any review might include:

• Does it provide the answers required quickly and accurately?

• What has been the failure rate.
• Is the organisation making effective use of the information that is available?
• Is all the information useful and necessary?
• Is there any unnecessary duplication of records?
• Is it proving easy to keep the records up-to-date?
• What improvements might be made to the system?

Management Information Systems (MIS)

To ensure that objectives are being met and that targets are on track, many organisations set up
control systems which:

• Identify the required standards of performance, such as the reduction in the number of fires, or
reduction in the number faulty items being produced.
• Measure actual performance against the standard.
• Compare the actual performance with the intended performance.
• Identify where and if corrective action is needed eg better raw materials, better maintenance of
equipment, more staff training, the need for new and different skills, and the need for a better
motivated workforce.

All of these activities are based on data. Data is the basic facts and figures of operational life which
are stored on manual or computer systems e.g. incident statistics, staffing levels, hours worked,
budgets and invoice values. When data is sorted and assembled into relevant groupings, it becomes
information. Data is information which has been analysed, summarised and interpreted for the
benefit of the potential user (manager).

A Management Information System is a technical, computer-based system which converts data

from internal and external sources into information and then communicates that information, in an
appropriate form to managers at all levels to enable them to make timely and effective decisions for
planning, directing and controlling the activities for which they are responsible. The effective
measurement of performance is heavily dependent on the relevance, timeliness and accuracy of
information.

The diagram below shows the process for converting data into decisions.

Data to Decisions Process

Raw Data MIS Process Useful Information

Decisions User Processes

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Organisations need to ensure that their information systems will be able to produce the right data in
the right format, otherwise accurate measurement would be impossible and performance may not
be measured against the appropriate standard.

A Management Information System should be:

• Focused
o Why is the information being collected and will it provide useful feedback? It is important to
understand who will use information, and how and why they will use it. Staff collecting data
need to be able to see the end result.
o Is the performance information focused on the core aims and objectives of the organisation?
o What actions could the performance information provoke management to take? (If the
answer is “none” then there is no reason to collect the information)

• Appropriate
o Do stakeholders receive the performance information they need? Otherwise incorrect
decisions may be made or no decisions at all.
o Can variance be quickly identified and notified to the appropriate manager?
o Is it right information presented in the right way for each group of users?

• Balanced
o Do measures cover all significant areas of work in the organisation?
o Are both financial and non-financial measures collected?
o Are indicators of future performance included as well as measures of past results?

• Robust
o Can the system survive changes in personnel and changes in the structure of the
organisation?
o Are there any key people without whom the performance information system could not
survive?

• Integrated
o Are the results of the performance information system monitored and used as part of the
business planning and management process?
o There should be links between the performance indicators used by managers for operational
purposes, and the indicators used to monitor corporate performance.
o Is there consistent performance information at all levels of the organisation?
o Are performance measures for individuals and teams, consistent with measures for the
organisation?
o Do people within the organisation 'own' the system? Do they take notice of the results and
use them? Did they contribute to its design?

• Cost Effective
o Are the resources put into collecting performance information proportionate to the benefit of
the organisation?
o What is the actual cost to the organisation of the performance information? (Including the
burden of form filling and time spend reviewing the information).

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The table below shows the way in which effective management information systems contribute to
organisational effectiveness.

MIS contribution to organisational effectiveness

Control Systems can monitor the organisation’s activities against targets and objectives and and
report on them, e.g. performance and productivity and ‘flag up’ potential problem areas and risks.
Database systems can process and store information which can be drawn upon as an
organisational memory bank.
Enquiry Systems, based on either internal or external databases, can carry out investigations into
the performance of departments, products, etc. to assess effectiveness.
Decision Support systems provide computer-based facilities for conducting analyses, simulations
etc. This enables decisions to be based on facts rather than guesswork
Operational/Incident information systems enable the type and number of incidents to be identified,
the need for preventive action and Health and Safety issues to be identified, and operational
efficiency to be assessed. It also enables experience from debriefings to be utilised.
Personnel information systems allow an organisation to assess pay rates, ensure that staffing levels
are correct, identify staff issues such as high turnover and absenteeism, identify training and
development needs and Health and Safety issues
Financial Information systems allow an organisation to monitor budgets to ensure there is no
overspending, analyse costs for various activities, and compile profit forecasts and cash flow
projections.
Marketing/Sales Information, systems enable the profitability of products and services to be
identified, customers to be analysed, selling prices to be decided and orders to be tracked.

Financial management

All organisations need money to operate; for example, staff need paying, supplies and equipment
need to be purchased. Therefore effective budgetary control is an important part of an organisation’s
strategic planning process.

In most organisations, leaders, managers and supervisors all have a responsibility for financial
management. Senior managers in a large organisation may be responsible for very large sums of
money. Supervisors will have a more limited responsibility. However the principles of good financial
management are the same at all levels within an organisation.

Budget

A major aspect of financial management is a budget. A budget is basically a plan agreed in advance
and is a statement which sets out the financial resources which are available for carrying out specific
activities in a given period of time. It helps to co-ordinate the activities of the organisation eg the
money set aside to maintain equipment or employee staff.

In very large, organisations the budget tends to be allocated over departments. Heads of
Departments may then split the budget up over particular teams or groups. This is called Devolved

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Financial Management. This approach is often used by organisations because it gives greater
ownership of financial matters to staff, makes staff more aware of costs and allows decisions to be
made at the lowest possible level, thus using the expertise of staff.

Forecasting

Setting the overall budget involves budget forecasting so that any situations which could affect the
organisation are taken into account. These include:

• Current costs.
• Any likely increase in staff costs and materials.
• Any major organisation changes which are planned.
• The expected level of income/profit. In the public sector a reduction in government grants may
mean that the overall budget will need to be reduced and ways of saving money identified.

Effective forecasting helps an organisation, meet the challenges it faces.

Types of expenditure

Budgets tend to identify two types of expenditure: revenue and capital expenditure.

Revenue costs: these type of costs relate to the day to day running of an organisation.

Capital expenditure. This type of expenditure relates to major projects which will be expensive and
require an investment such as new buildings, fleets of vehicles, replacement of all breathing
apparatus, new IT systems.

Features of an effective budget

• As many people as possible are involved in drawing up the budget so nothing is overlooked.
• The budget covers the whole organisation so that everyone can see what money is available.
• The budget is flexible enough to allow for changing circumstances.
• The budget is monitored on a regular basis with reports going to senior managers.
• The budget can allow Devolved Financial Management so that certain aspects of the budget can
be devolved to frontline managers who can use their expertise and that of their staff in getting
the most out of expenditure.

Budgetary control

Budgetary control is a technique which is used to compare what is actually being spent against the
money which has been allocated. Usually managers are responsible for a particular part of a budget
and are expected to ensure that they do not overspend.

Variance is the term used to describe the situation where there is a difference between the budget
and what has actually been spent. This could be due to seasonal variations, delays in projects being
set up or overspending. It is important for managers to be aware of the variance, so that they can
quickly identify problems which might be developing that could lead to overspending.

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Advantages of budgeting and budgetary control

• Effective means of controlling the use of financial resources

• Makes managers accountable for the public funds they use and shows that money is being wisely
spent.
• Allows trends to be seen over a number of years which might signal the need to review budgets.
• Allows senior managers to compare the performance of different parts of the organisations and,
in the public sector, comparisons can also be made against other public bodies
• Allows the costs of projects to be monitored against estimates so that the actual costs, as the
work progress, are known and the project does not overspend.
• Enables variations to be analysed to find out what has caused them. This then allows corrective
action to be taken or best practice can be identified and shared with other parts of the
organisation.
• Encourages managers to look ahead and set out detailed plans for achieving the targets for each
department.
• Helps to ensure that the various aspects of an organisation are coordinated as expenditure in one
part on organisation can affect another. For example, the purchase of new equipment may mean
that the training budget will have to be spent on running courses so that employees are able to
use the new equipment.
• Defines areas of responsibility.
• Enables remedial action to be taken if overspending looks likely.
• Helps an organisation to decide how to allocate money to capital schemes – this can be very
costly.

Strategic Plan/Budget Planning

Budget planning needs to be linked to the strategic plan for the following reasons:

• The strategic plan sets the direction for the organisation

• The objectives from the strategic plan will identify priorities for the allocation of resources
• Budget planning has to be seen as part of the process of implementing corporate, department
and team plans
• Budget planning has to be seen as part of the process, geared to achieving organisational
objectives
• Allows budget monitoring to take place against the background of organisational objectives
• Strategic planning identifies new activities which need to be financed
• Enables the organisation to assess if money needs to be moved around the organisation to meet
objectives or if parts of the organisation need to be reduced in size.
• Budget planning is part of the role of managers who work to targets derived from the strategic
plan
• Linking strategic and budget planning is a way of assessing the competence of managers
• Enables financial management information needs to be identified
• Ensures that financial management is flexible enough to allow for change
• Allows devolved financial management to be focused on meeting organisational objectives
• Identifies the links between different departments and how the achievement of the objectives in
one department may affect other parts of the organisation
• Can prevent conflict as staff can see the rational for budget allocation

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• In the public sector, can justify the use of public money as spending is seen to be in the light of
the objectives of the organisation and the achievement of goals and targets.

Problems which can occur with budgeting and budgetary control

• Inaccurate record-keeping can mean that the spending is not properly monitored.
• Unless responsibility is clearly defined, it can be difficult to decide just who is responsible for
spending what and the poaching of other managers’ resources can occur.
• Conflict can occur between departments over the allocation of the budget, particularly where
one department’s budget is being cut and another department’s is being increased.
• It is difficult to reconcile personal/individual and corporate goals.
• Waste can occur if managers adopt the view, "we had better spend it or we will lose it". This is
sometimes coupled with "empire building" in order to enhance the status of a department.
• In some countries a system called participatory budgeting is used, whereby community groups
are allowed to allocate a small percentage of the total budget against competing priorities. This
is a fairly new development; however it means that managers can be responsible expenditure on
projects over which they have no control.

Participatory budgeting

Participatory budgeting is an initiative found in some public services which enables local
communities to become directly involved in making decisions on what should be the spending
priorities for public services. It allows an area or community to participate in the allocation particular
parts of a budget of, for example, a fire service, police service or other public body.

The local residents meet to discuss debate and vote on spending proposals from a range of options.
The aim of this approach is to increase transparency in the use of public funds and also to increase
the understanding by communities that not everything can be funded.

Benefits of participatory budgeting

• It gives the public a say on how money should be spent and increases the participation of the
public.
• It gives people a feeling of the ownership of public money and how it is used.
• It can enable ‘hard to reach’ groups to feel included.
• It allows public services to engage with more people.
• It can produce better targeting of public funds to solve problems.
• It can provide more cost effective services.
• It enables local knowledge to be used to make the best use of funds.
• It enables a debate to take place about spending priorities.
• It can result in stronger community leadership.
• Local ownership of decisions can ensure that selected projects deliver and people feel a greater
commitment t to them.
• It can mean that work to address and deprivation and exclusion is better targeted.
• It can encourage local communities to work more closely with public services and in doing so
develop better relationships which can be built on to promote prevention of problems.

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Quality assurance systems
The achievement of corporate objectives often includes the use of Total Quality Management or
Quality Assurance Systems geared to ensuring the quality of goods and services being provided by
the organisation. The purpose of quality systems is to ensure that customer requirements are met
and that the organisation has ways of identifying these and has systems in place to ensure that these
are met.

Benefits of quality assurance systems

• Remove activities which don't have value.

• Reduce waste by doing things right first time so there are zero defects.
• Reduce the knock-on effect of problems across the organisation.
• Examine critical processes on a regular basis.
• Remove potential tensions between staff which could impact on the end product.
• Improve staff morale by giving a sense of pride and removing frustrations, because
• Quality is seen as the responsibility of everyone.
• Improve the image of the organisation – this is very important for a public sector organisation
which is dependent on public funds.
• Maintain good working relationships with staff in other organisations.

Managers have an important role in encouraging their team members to come up with improvement
ideas. It is also important to see other colleagues as customers who need some form of help and also
as suppliers who need to know what they can do to support the work of other colleagues. Nowadays
people from other organisations need to be seen as customers and suppliers.

Meetings
Working with others both within an organisation and with external partners and trade unions usually
involves the holding of meetings. A meeting may be held to formulate a strategic, departmental or
unit plan, try to resolve a difficult situation, share information, obtain the views a range of people,
obtain the views of service users, discuss a new project, enable a group of staff to put their views
forward, and develop successful working relationships with outside organisations.

However, if meetings are not well planned they can be very time consuming and frustrating for all
concerned.

Characteristics of effective meetings

Meetings which fulfil their purposes tend to have the characteristics listed below:

• A clear need for the meeting having been identified.

• Clear objectives have been identified and shared with participants.
• Procedural items/arrangements to enable a meeting to be conducted in an organised and
productive manner.
• Terms of reference so that discussions are focused and decisions specific and those attending
are clear what the meeting is about.
• The limits of any decision making powers having been clearly identified

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• An agenda has been developed and shared so that the areas to be discussed are known as well
as the order in which they will be addressed and the person who will present each item.
• Minutes so that decisions and discussions are recorded for action and future reference.
• Methods of discussing items. In some meetings, particularly Committees, there may be a very
formal structure with motions being addressed through the Chair, discussed and then voted
upon. In others the style may be more relaxed.
• The right staff being invited to the meeting.
• Staff who will be attending:
o Understand their role.
o Know the limits of their decision making powers
o Research the relevant information.
o Submit items within the required timescale.
o Contribute to discussions.
o Contribute ideas
o Ask open questions and clarify information.
o Confirm the action they will need to take.
o Report back on any action they have taken
• The agenda and papers for the meeting being provided well in advance, particularly if any
detailed reports are involved. This enables those attending to be fully prepared.
• Appropriate timing.
• Suitable venue (in terms of space, lighting, temperature and seating) and provision of
refreshments and equipment.
• System for ensuring that everyone is informed of action they need to take and that this is followed
up.
• A Chair to run the meeting and control discussions. The Chair has a critical role in making a
meeting successful and in this respect needs to:
o Ensure there is a quorum where there is a formal protocol involved.
o Explain the purpose of the meeting and terms of reference so that everyone is clear about
why they are there
o Ensure that the objectives of the meeting are met
o Make good use of the time available
o Introduce breaks if the discussions are complex or the meeting is going to be lengthy
o Take into account who the participants are and the purpose of the meeting; if staff from
outside a department or the organisation are attending they may need to be welcomed and
introduced
o Explain any procedures which are to be followed
o Control the meeting so that the agenda is followed and people do not go off at a tangent
o Discourage unhelpful arguments
o Ensure that everyone is given the opportunity to speak and that single individuals or groups
do not dominate the discussions
o Encourage participation, the sharing of ideas and the asking of questions
o Use open-ended questions to that people have to say more than “yes” or “no”
o Be seen to be respecting everyone’s views. Body language and tone of voice can be
important.
o Avoid becoming a participant- this is not the role of the Chair
o Be sensitive to emotions, for example, during an incident de-briefing
o Ensure that decisions and action points are being recorded.
o Summarise progress so that everyone is clear about the decisions being made.

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 o Ensure that those attending are informed of any action they have to take

Successful meetings enable a wide range of views to be taken into account, leading to better decision
making. However, decision making tends to be slower and some managers may try to blame
problems on committee decisions.

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Section 4 - Training and Development

Training, development and learning

Training and development is concerned with ensuring that an organisation has the knowledgeable,
skilled and engaged workforce that it needs. It involves enabling employees and team members to
acquire knowledge and skills, to achieve specific improvements.

People learn in many different ways, from colleagues, from being a team member, from discussions
with their manager, from people outside the organisation, by carrying out new tasks. Part of the role
of a manager is to be aware of the training and development needs of their staff and, in part, identify
how they might develop new skills and competences. Giving staff the opportunity to learn new skills
can be an important motivator.

Training: Training relates to particular skills which are needed within an organisation for it to operate
successfully and may be concerned with the organisation as a whole, or with specific departments,
teams or individuals. It tends to be geared to meeting an immediate rather than future need.

Development: Development is more concerned with enabling individuals to grow in knowledge, skills
and experience in order to be of greater potential use to the organisation at some later date. It is
broader in scope than training and is career-oriented rather than job-oriented. It tends to contribute
to personal growth as much as it does to securing future resources for the organisation. It helps to
ensure that organisations have a pool of suitably qualified staff who can move up the career ladder.

Managers in all types of organisations have the responsibility for developing the abilities of their staff
to enable them to achieve both greater job satisfaction and also to be able to take on more
demanding roles and if they wish, seek promotion.

Learning: Learning is the process of acquiring knowledge, skills and attitudes and can take place by
a number of different means. Managers can help staff to enjoy positive learning experiences.

Managers can promote staff development by:

• Setting a good example by promoting the benefits of learning and CPD.

• Encouraging employees to reflect on what they have learned.
• Explaining how learning fits into the appraisal system.
• Encouraging the development of a learning plan.
• Helping colleagues to set SMART objectives
• Helping colleagues identify current skill level and identify gaps.
• Working with colleagues to identify and prioritise learning needs.
• Helping colleagues identify their preferred learning style.
• Helping colleagues to identify suitable learning activities.
• Giving feed back to staff on learning activities.
• Making time to support colleagues and providing ‘on the job’ learning
opportunities.
• Making resources available.

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• Providing opportunities for staff to develop new skills, through
delegation and project work and undertaking new ‘one off tasks.

Systematic Training and Development Cycle

This is often used by organisations as the process for meeting the training and development needs
of staff

The diagram that follows sets out the stages in the systematic training cycle. The asterisks indicate
that the stages may be carried out by line managers or specialist training staff based in training and
development departments.

The cycle can involve a mixture of informal and formal training and development activities.

SYSTEMATIC TRAINING CYCLE

*IDENTIFICATION OF TRAINING NEEDS IN

LINE WITH ORGANISATIONAL

OBJECTIVES

*EVALUATION OF TRAINING *PLANNING OF TRAINING

* DELIVERY OF TRAINING

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Training needs analysis

A Training Needs Analysis is used to identify training and development needs.

Training and development requirements should be based on the needs of the organisation and the
achievement of strategic objectives. They will be influenced by the type of organisation i.e. private or
public sector and the type of product or services provided.

A Training Needs Analysis is designed to help an organisation identify the precise areas where training
is required. It can be undertaken at different levels within an organisation eg organisation as a whole,
for a specific department or area of work, for a team, for an individual.

A Training Needs Analysis takes into account:

• Organisational policies such the Individual Personal Development System

• Guidance documents such as role maps.
• The knock on effect from changes in legislation

• The skills/knowledge /competences needed by staff for them to carry out the job (normally new
employees will have only been appointed if they have the necessary skills. However, in Fire and
Rescue Services, new recruits will need to be taught a whole range of skills and develop team
spirit).
• The need for critical skill levels to be maintained.
• The equipment, tools, machinery or software they use.
• Introduction of new equipment and procedures
• In emergency services, feedback from operational incidents can highlight training needs
• Health and Safety issues which can arise where:

o Insufficient training schemes are in place to address necessary staff training.

o Operation of plant is carried out incorrectly due to poor staff skills.
o Maintenance of plant is carried out incorrectly due to poor staff skills.
o Staff are unable to recognise hazardous situations.
o Incompetent staff, who operate hazardous processes.
o New risks and hazards have been identified
o Accident and near misses statistics highlight a problem

• What training was previously provided for each competence level across each skill?
• When and where training was previously provided.
• Results of staff appraisal interviews.
• Any major changes which are to be introduced which will have a ’knock on effect to staff and
their jobs. This can involve identifying;

o The skills needed to carry out the new job/role

o The employees existing skills
o The gap between the existing skills and those now needed

• The organisation’s Induction Policy.

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• The wishes of an employee to develop and learn new skills, or gain experience.

Training methods

There are many methods that can be used as part of the training and development of staff, some of
which are detailed below.

On the job training methods

Method of Training Advantages and Disadvantages

On the job Advantages:
instruction/experiential • Understanding can be developed gradually over a period of
learning time
• The employee learns at his/her own pace.
This is sometimes referred • Self-directed learning where people learn and retain more
to as “sitting next to Nellie.” information if they find things out for themselves.
This takes place within the • Staff can reflect on what they have learnt and immediately
actual workplace and is apply it; they can understand its relevance in practical terms
directly related to the • Mistakes can be quickly spotted and remedial action taken by
actual job. It can be the trainer.
carried out by a line • Can develop good relationships between the supervisor and
manager, team leader or team member
another employee. Some • Can include planned experiences to enable staff to acquire the
organisations develop necessary skills.
trainers in the workplace Disadvantages:
to train and assess the • May not be properly structured.
acquisition of skills, • Depends on the skill of the person doing the training.
knowledge and • Poor habits can be picked up from the trainer.
understanding so that the • The instruction may not be in line with company policy.
process is structured and • Noise and pressure of work can be a distraction.
appropriate to the needs • Inconsistency of approach if a number of different staff are
of the employee and involved in the training and therefore provide differing
employer. training/methods.
Secondment Advantages:
• Allows an employee to gain new experiences and skills.
The employee undertakes • Can create new interest in the work carried out by others
a different role in another • Enables an employee to learn how to work with a different group
part of the organisation. of staff.
• Could involve undertaking higher level duties and enable the
employee to develop knowledge and understanding and/or
skills needed for a supervisory/managerial role.
Disadvantages:
• Length of secondment may be insufficient to allow the
employee to fully develop new skills.
• Employee may fail if not properly prepared, trained or
supervised during the initial stages.

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 • Can be difficult to organise as they can cause disruption within
teams and departments.
Project Advantages:
• Can generate a high level of commitment.
A specific problem or • Utilises an employee’s problem solving skills.
opportunity for the • Uses a ‘real life’ situation.
organisation is worked on Disadvantages:
by an individual or team. • Complexity of the project may outweigh the learning
opportunity.
• Staff may find that the complexity of the problem is beyond
their skill levels.
• Disappointment may result if the ‘solution’ is not accepted.
Brainstorming Advantages:
• Good way of involving staff who can see how their suggestions
A group is asked to contribute to the solving of an actual problem and the making
suggest ways of dealing of decisions.
with a problem or issue • Encourages creativity.
and none of the • One idea can spark off other ideas
suggestions are criticised. • Can encourage staff to think about different ways of doing
things
• Enables the employee’s knowledge and experience to be used.
• Encourages participation as all ideas tend to be recorded
• Can be carried out as part of a team briefing session.
Disadvantages:
• Needs a participative management style.
• Will only work well where there is good team spirit.
• Staff may be reluctant to put ideas forward.
• Can become unfocused.
• Staff may find it hard to think ‘outside’ their existing experience.
• If not well facilitated staff can feel afraid of ridicule and criticism

Off the Job training - internal

Methods of Training Advantages and Disadvantages

In-house Lectures and Advantages:
Talks • Useful for putting across factual information in a logical manner.
These tend to cover a • Can stimulate discussion and the generation of ideas after the
specific subject area or lecture
topic. • Allow information to be given to a number of staff at the same
time.
• Can be enhanced with the use of handouts and visual aids
Disadvantages:
• Depend heavily on the qualities of the speaker
• Usually only 20% of what is heard is remembered
• May be little opportunity for audience participation.

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 • Some subject matter may be very complex and difficult for staff
to follow.
• Amount of time staff can concentrate is limited
• Communication is ‘one way’.
• Whether or not learning, has taken place, can be difficult to
gauge.
Group Discussions Advantages:
A group of staff consider a • Useful for generating ideas.
particular topic away from • Allows everyone to be involved
the actual work situation. • Enables staff to learn from others.
• Help staff see other points of view.
• Can be part of a team briefing
• People tend to feel happier in small groups.
• Helps staff learn how to ‘speak up’.
• Gives all staff a chance to join in.
• Enables staff to ask direct questions.
• Enables a manager to check understanding.
• Managers can let other staff lead the discussion and this
provides additional learning opportunities.
Disadvantages:
• Requires good leadership.
• Manager or particular individuals may dominate.
• Staff may not have the confidence to join in.
• Discussions may get ’side tracked’
Role Playing Advantages:
• Provides practice in dealing with face to face situations such as
Staff take the role of counselling, giving feedback, selection interviews, raising issues
different characters is a of poor performance, formal appraisal interviews, grievances,
particular situation and running meetings
are given feedback on • Useful for developing social skills/soft skills.
their performance and • Develops skills in dealing with situations where emotions are
assessment of the involved.
situation being • Can help develop confidence.
considered. The sessions • Can help staff to see a situation from a number of different
are usually carried out by ‘angles’ thereby increasing perception.
a qualified trainer and role • Role reversal can increase understanding of the complexities of
playing exercises are also situations
often used as part of • Can help to develop analytical and problem solving skills.
training courses. Disadvantages:
• May not seem real and therefore may not be seen as relevant.
• Requires very careful organisation.
• Insufficient information can lead to inappropriate results so very
clear
• definition of the problem is needed
• Needs specially qualified staff to run the sessions.
• Staff may not take it seriously.
• Staff may not be able to think beyond their preconceptions and
prejudices

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 • If recording of the role play is involved, staff may feel
embarrassed.
• Giving tactful feedback can be difficult.
Self developed learning
See notes on CPD and
Personal Development
Plans
Instruction Advantages:
• A number of staff can receive instruction at the same time.
A trainer uses a plan for • Skill being learnt is very job-related.
teaching a skill which • Good for teaching tasks which can be broken down into
consists of telling, sequences where
showing, explaining and • direct instruction is required such as running out and connecting
demonstrating. The fire hoses.
learner imitates the • A safe way of learning key practical skills.
instructor until the Disadvantages:
required level of • One size fits all approach.
performance is reached. • Trainer cannot always work at the speed of the slowest learner.
• The slowest learners may feel embarrassed.
Action Learning Advantages:
This is used to train • Develops skills in dealing with real life situations.
mangers to deal with real • Develops skills in working in collaboration with other managers.
problems and usually Disadvantages:
involves bringing together • Can be time consuming.
a group of 4-5 managers • Dependent on the group being able to work together
who have to solve a work-
related problem by
working together. Solving
the problem is based on
use of a project plan,
setting objectives,
planning resource usage,
initiating action and
monitoring progress.
Case Studies Advantages:
Involves the description of • Promotes the exchange of ideas and considerations of different
an event/ set of viewpoints, particularly when used with group discussions.
circumstances which can • Demonstrates that the causes of problems may be complex and
be analysed to identify the that simple solutions may not always be applicable.
root cause of the problem, • Can develop problem-analysis and problem-solving skills.
thus enabling solutions to • Enables the application of skills and knowledge to an unfamiliar
be found. scenario in a controlled manner.
May be used in the • Can be useful in training managers and supervisors.
development of learners Disadvantages:
to familiarise them with a • May seem to be too theoretical to be relevant.
set of circumstances that • May not seem relevant to the learner’s particular situation.
they have not

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 experienced, e.g., to train • If examined in a group situation, some learners can be more
managers/team leaders, dominant a group situation and not allow others to fully express
but may also be a safe their ideas/views.
and effective way of
preparing people to work
in high risk situations.
e-learning Advantages:
• Can be delivered by a variety of methods including in house
This is delivery of learning intranets, CD, ROMs and websites.
via technology such as • Information can be provided in ‘bite sized chunks’ and target
computers or mobile specific subjects.
applications. It includes • Can be delivered/supported by an in-house trainer.
simulation exercises in • Can be structured to meet organisational needs
relation to operational • Provides the opportunity for learners to access learning
incidents and driver materials at their own pace, so can be beneficial for those who
training. have erratic schedules or shift patterns
• Can be used in the workplace to supplement in-house training
• Allows managers to check learning activity/assessment of
learning if web or intranet based
Disadvantages:
• Not good for soft skills such as team building/communications
• Can be costly in terms of IT equipment/support, learning
packages
• Learning packages can quickly go out of date therefore learners
can be learning incorrect or inaccurate information
• Staff may lose motivation if they are using electronic learning
packages without support, particularly if they encounter
difficulties with equipment or learning materials.
• Lack of engagement with other learners may not suit everyone,
leading to problems with maintaining motivation.

Off the job external training

Methods of Training Advantages and Disadvantages

College courses leading Advantages:
to a qualification • Can lead to a qualification.
• Organisation is seen as supporting staff.
• Can bring specialist skills into the organisation.
• Increases the skill level within the organisation.
• Provides a pool of staff capable of progressing within the
organisation.
• Can increase the reputation of the organisation.
• Can support the career development ambitions of staff.
Disadvantages:
• Organisations are faced with the risk that employees may make
use of their qualification by moving to a competitor before

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 making any further contribution to the business unless a
financial penalty is involved.
• The pay-off in developmental courses is medium to long-term
rather than immediate.
• Can represent a significant commitment on the part of the
organisation.
• The time employee is away from the workplace and the effect
on workload.
• Selection process needed to choose the staff who will attend to
ensure fairness.
• Jealousy of other staff.
Short college courses Advantages:
A course can provide a • Supplement in-house learning.
few hours or a few days of • Independent of internal policies.
instruction and/or • Allows greater use of training methods.
practice opportunities in Disadvantages
closely specified skills, May be ‘packaged ‘based and not fully met the needs of the
such as how to conduct a organisation.
selection interview
Bought-in training from a Advantages:
commercial training • Organisational needs will be given a high priority.
provider • Can fill gaps in company training.
• Wide range of training methods are available.
• Can be developed in conjunction with in-house training staff.
Disadvantages.
• May be very expensive.
• May rely heavily on pre-set ‘packages’

At the end of the course, whether it was organised internally or arranged by an external provider, the
organisation can expect to see some noticeable improvement in the way knowledge or skill is applied
in the workplace. The course should be appropriate for the trainee and they should be capable of
benefiting from the training. If these conditions are not met then no effective training will have taken
place.

Some courses are not designed with specific skills or knowledge in mind. These are the more broadly
developmental courses that key employees are sent on to widen their horizons, increase their self-
confidence and improve their ability to think in strategic terms. What takes place is development
rather than training.

Exercises

Emergency services such as Fire and Rescue Services are expected to be fully prepared for a wide
range of emergencies. An important part of being prepared is the development, practicing and
testing of emergency plans via exercises. These can range from simple situations to major civil
emergencies.

An exercise is a simulation of an emergency situation.

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The purpose of Exercises

• To validate plans and ensure that they are actually workable because ‘everything works on
paper’. Without exercises there could be false confidence placed in a written plan.
• To check that staff can actually operate effectively in their roles.
• To develop staff competencies and give them practice in carrying out their roles in the plans.
• To test well-established procedures.
• To build morale and team spirit especially where a number of different organisations are involved.
• To enable debriefing to take place, so that problems can be highlighted and dealt with.

Types of exercises

There are three main types of exercise:

• Discussion-base.
• Table top
• Live

(A fourth category combines elements of the other three.)

The choice of which one to use depends on what the purpose of the exercise is, it is also a question of
lead - in time and available resources.

Discussion-based exercises are cheapest to run and easiest to prepare. They can be used as a 'talk-
through' of how to finalise the plan. More often, they are based on a completed plan and are used to
develop awareness about the plan through discussion. In this respect, they are often used for training
purposes.

Table top exercises are based on simulation, not necessarily literally around a table top. Usually they
involve a realistic scenario and a specific amount of time, which may be real time or may speed time
up. The staff involved are expected to know the contents of the plan and they are invited to test how
the plan works as the scenario unfolds. They are very useful for validation purposes, particularly for
exploring weaknesses in procedures. Table top exercises are relatively cheap to run, except in the use
of staff time, but require careful preparation.

Live exercises are a live rehearsal for implementing a plan. They are particularly useful for testing
logistics, communications and physical capabilities. They can also make very good training events
from the point of view of experiential learning. Helping staff develop confidence in their skills and
providing experience of what it would be like to use the plan's procedures in a real event. Live exercises
can expensive to set up on the day and need intensive preparation.

In developing an exercise plan it is important to:

• Identify the actual purpose of the plan.

• Identify the resources which will be needed.
• Identify the roles and responsibilities which individual employees will have.
• Determine specific goals and milestones.
• List the tasks to be performed, by whom and when.

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• Determine how problem areas will be resolved.
• Identify when and how debriefing will take place.

The member of staff developing the plan for the exercise and running the exercise will need to:

• Know how to access, interpret and provide relevant information.

• Be aware of organisational policies, aims and objectives and sources and availability of
information.
• Develop objectives through risk assessment.
• Collect and confirm information relevant to the known and anticipated risks to people, property
and the environment.
• Plan action to lead and support the staff response to the incident.
• Determine initial action against available resources, using a realistic assessment of their
suitability for operational use.
• Ensure that the action plan provides sufficient flexibility to meet the known and anticipated needs
of the incident.
• Determine how to apply practices that maximise the health, safety and welfare of themselves
and others during the exercise.
• Know how to communicate clearly and effectively with the range of people involved.
• Know how to solve problems, make decisions and plan for contingencies.
• Be aware of the capabilities and limitations of personal and operational equipment.
• Make appropriate adjustments to the plan based on an initial assessment of the incident.
• Deploy resources to meet priority needs.
• Re-deploy resources to meet the changing priorities of the incident.
• Operate within the agreed level of their responsibility and authority.

Continuing professional development (cpd)

Being a manager or team leader is an important role and individuals need to have appropriate
knowledge, skills and abilities. It is therefore important that they are committed to the concept of
continuing professional development; continuing professional development is part and parcel of
being a professional.

Importance of CPD

• Professionals understand and accept the need for a lifetime of learning and the identification of
new skills which may be required.
• The CPD process involves identifying present knowledge, skill and abilities and also strengths and
weaknesses.
• CPD enables a professional to maintain their existing knowledge and skill levels; knowledge and
skills could decline or go out of date if not continually refreshed.
• Being a professional carries a responsibility for being up to date and having a capability for sound
judgement so that the best possible advice is always provided.
• Commitment to CPD demonstrates a commitment to professionalism, to the organisation,
manager, stakeholders and customers.
• CPD helps individuals keep informed about specific initiatives within their sector.
• CPD helps people to identify gaps between their level of understanding and their current role.

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• CPD encourages individuals to take responsibility for their own learning.
• CPD can be integrated with the needs of the organisation.
• CPD enables a manager to be a good role model to their team members and contribute to the
development of a learning organisation.
• CPD provides the basis Personal Development Plans

Evaluation of learning events

The success or otherwise of a learning event can be assessed by:

• How well the programme was organised and managed.

• How those who attended the course felt about it. Did they feel that they developed new skills or
abilities?
• What effect the training has had in the actual work situation.

Benefits of identifying and meeting training and development needs:

• Unless the right staff with the right skills are present, an organisation may struggle to implement
strategies and achieve targets.
• Enables training requirements to be prioritised and the most effective ways of providing the
training to be identified.
• Gives the organisation, department, team and individual a broader skill-set and improves
organisational flexibility
• Improvements in day to day performance
• Team training can improve cohesion and the commitment of staff
• Well planned induction can help a new starter settle in more quickly, gain a favourable impression
of the organisation, become an effective employee in the shortest possible time, become aware
of the geography of the workplace, be introduced to team colleagues and become aware of
policies and procedures and ‘the way we do things around here’.
• Well-planned training can be an effective retention strategy.
• Gives staff a sense of achievement and lets them know that their career aspirations are being
recognised and can increase their commitment to the organisation.
• Helps staff cope with organisational change.
• Provides mangers with increased management and leadership skills
• Providing effective training for staff can have an immediate impact on the services to customers,
the attitude of staff, and prepare and help an organisation prepare for future changes.
• Improves organisational flexibility by extending the skill range available.
• Providing higher levels of service to the public in terms of operational response, investigation of
fires and incidents, preventative advice, partnership working and ensuring that Fire Safety
legislation is adhered to.
• Ensures that staff are aware of Health and Safety factors.
• Contributes towards the development of Learning Organisation/Learning Culture,
• Can attract high quality employees.
• Provides line manages with the skills needed to manage, motivate and develop employees.

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Manager’s role in relation to training and development

A manager’s role in relation to training and development encompasses:

• Influencing and supporting staff to think about taking responsibility for their training and
development and identifying their particular learning style.
• Administrative role in terms of keeping records of training undertaken and when refresher
courses are needed, undertaking of training skills analysis
• Training role in terms of giving practical instruction to staff, involving planning, preparing and
delivering and where possible taking into account the different learning styles.
• Organising role in terms of the planning of training events.
• Decision making role in terms of when and which staff are to be given access to training
based on the needs of the organisation and taking into account the organisation’s equality
and diversity policies.
• Overseeing role where training is being organised by a specialist training department or
being delivered by a commercial organisation.
• Facilitator in terms of bringing together the skills of their team so that staff can learn from
each other and in identifying development opportunities for their staff.

Planning training sessions

Managers and front line supervisors are often required to provide training to the staff within their team
or to provide information to specialist training staff. The effective planning of training sessions will take
into account the factors below:

• The programme or event has the support of top management

• The training will contribute to the achievement of organisational objectives
• The event or programme is based on a thorough evaluation of learning needs.
• Objectives are clearly identified so staff know what they will be able to achieve at the end of it.
• Key learning points are clearly identified for each part of the training.
• Standards are set for the delivery of the event or programme.
• Success criteria and methods of measuring success have been established
• The best way of providing the training is identified. This may be,’ on the job’ or ‘off the job’, in house
or using external training providers.
• A blend of learning and development methods are used – informal and formal – that are
appropriate for the established needs of those taking part.
• The responsibilities for planning and delivering the programme or event have been clarified.
• Those responsible for the learning activity are well qualified in whatever role they are expected
to play.
• The required resources will be available.
• The content of a training session is carefully planned
• Appropriate training methods are selected and used
• Use of appropriate Training Aids is considered
• The programme can implemented effectively as planned, within budget and in accordance with
designed standards
• Feedback and review arrangements are identified so that the training can be evaluated on the
basis of:

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o Whether those attended felt that they had developed new skills
o The affect that the training had in the actual work situation

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Bibliography

Armstrong’s Handbook of Human Resource Michael Armstrong

Management Practice 12th Edition Published by Kogan Page 2012
Particularly the Sections on;

Knowledge Management.
Employee Communications
Employee Engagement.
Motivation
Commitment.
Learning and Development.
Performance Management.
Employee Relations
Health and Safety.
HR Policies
Leadership.
Recruitment and Selection.
Managing Conflict
Workforce Planning
Management Theory and Practice G.A. Cole and P. Kelly
(7TH Edition) Published by South Western Cengage
Parts 1 and 2. Learning EMEA
Section 13 of Part 3
The John Adair Handbook of Management and Published by Thorogood 2005
Leadership
Leadership and Management Booklet (free download- Members of the Examinations Committee
this document)
Fire and Rescue Service National Framework Published by the Department of
Communities and Local Government
Delivering Safer Communities. A Guide to Effective Published by the Department of
Partnership Working Communities and Local Government
Fire and Rescue Service, Partnership Working Toolkit Published by the Department of
for Local Area Agreements. Communities and Local Government

HSG 65 Successful Health and Safety Management UK Health and Safety Executive
http://www.hse.gov.uk/pubns/priced/hsg65.pdf

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