Tamil Cultural Elites and Cinema: Outline of an Argument

Author(s): M. S. S. Pandian
Source: Economic and Political Weekly , Apr. 13, 1996, Vol. 31, No. 15 (Apr. 13, 1996),
pp. 950-955
Published by: Economic and Political Weekly

Stable URL: http://www.jstor.com/stable/4404028

JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide
range of content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and
facilitate new forms of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact support@jstor.org.

Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at
https://about.jstor.org/terms

Economic and Political Weekly is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend
access to Economic and Political Weekly

This content downloaded from

202.61.121.12 on Mon, 22 Jul 2024 08:14:35 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
 SPECIAL ARTICLES

Tamil Cultural Elites and Cinema

Outline of an Argument
M S S Pandian

The arrival of the talkies in Taniil in the 1930s confronted the Tamil elite with a challenge in that whil
implicated in the cinematic medium in more titan one way, they, in retaining their exclusive claim to hi
had to differentiate their engagement with cinema fronit that of the subalterns. This essay discusses how
elite negotiated this challenge by deploying notions of realism, ideology of uplift and a series of binaries w
the dichotomy of high culture and low culture within the cinematic medium itself.

I than one way, they, in retaining their consideration of language should be im-
exclusive claim to high culture, had to ported so as to lower or impair that standard"
THE arrival of talkies in Tamil during the differentiate their engagement with cinema
[Arooran 1980:260].2
1930s was received with much enthusiasm from that of the subalterns. This essay In contrast to Bharatanatyamn and Carnatic
by the lower class film audience. However, explores in broad outline how the Tamil elite
music, company drama and 'therukoothu'
such subaltern enthusiasm for this new form negotiated this challenge by deploying (folk street theatre) constituted the so-called
of leisure was simultaneously accompanied notions of realism, ideology of uplift and low
a culture patronised by the Tamil subaltern
by enormous anxiety among the upper caste/ series of binaries which recuperated within classes. Therukoothu, which was confined
class elites. 'Though this anxiety was initially the cinematic medium itself, the dichotomy
to the countryside, was performed throughout
framed in terms of low cultural tastes of the of high cuiture and low culture. the night particularly in the post-harvest
subalterns and resolved within the binary of summer months and during festivals in non-
high culture vs low culture, the elites were II brahminic Hindu temples. Therukoothu was
soon confronted with newer problems. treated by the Tamil elite as a marker of low
Quickly they realised that cinema as a By the turn of the 20th centutry, the cultural taste and was despised. Writing
medium carried the unwelcome possibility boundaries between the so-called high culture about his childhood days, Jayakaantan, a
of upsetting and recasting the already existing and the low culture were already well- Tamil fictionist, noted, "My 'lupper caste'
and carefully patrolled boundaries between affirmed in specific ways in the Tamil social [status] informed me that these interesting
high culture and low culture. milieu. On the side of high culture, one had masqueraders, who had their faces [full of
Cinema's ability to upset pre-existing Bharatanatyam and Carnatic music, which paint] and told stories from Mahabaratlham,
cultural boundaries and to reallocate were almost exclusively monopolised by the were lowly people" [Jayakaantan 1980:9;
previously ghettoised cultural practices brahmins and a very small section of the emphasis mine].
followed from the unprecedented ways in non-brahmin upper castes. Needing years of Company drama, though performed mostly
which it brought together the elites and the training, with rules of training worked out in towns, traversed both the rural and the
masses. First of all, the pleasure of spectating in meticulous detail, and marked by caste urban areas. Capturing the flavour of the
did not fail to draw sections of the elite exclusivity, these cultural forms were company drama performances, Baskaran
towards cinema as audience, though most available only to the upper caste elites. (1991:755) writes,
of cinema's patrons came from the lower Both Bharatanryam and Carnatic music The repertoire of these companies was
classes. Secondly, cinema as a medium was affirmed themselves decisively as markers limited to a few mythologicals. written as
informed by what one may term as of high culture with their institutionalisation musicals. The stories were standardised in
'intertextual excess' whereby it could borrow
by the Madras elite in the form of Madras a series of songs. The playwright, in these
both from high and low cultural universes Music Academy in 1928. We may note here companies, called 'vathiyar' (teacher), wrote
at the same time and recombine them in the songs, composed the music and also
that the first Tamil talkie Kalidas appeared
directed the plays. All the actors had to be
unexpected ways. Thirdly, as cinema evolvedonly in 1931. Interestingly, the Music
singers, including the clown. And there was
into an industry and trade, i e, as an avenue
Academy was conceived during and funded
the pit orchestra, with a harmonium and a
for investment and profit, the elites were by the 42nd session of the Indian National
tabla. The emphasis was on singing, not on
drawn to it. Then such profit-seeking criti- Congress held in Madras in 1927. The drama. When a character died on the stage
cally depended on the subaltern consumers Academy not only conducted annual music after singing a song, he would get up without
of cinema who were kept in contempt by and dance festivals with much fanfare, but any hesitation to respond to cries of 'once
the elite because of their allegedly low also functioned as a watchdog institution more' and start singing all over again.
cultural tastes. Finally, the act of putting monitoring the so-called purity and standardsWhat is important for our argument is the
together a film required mobilisation of of classical music and dance. For instance, fact that, similar to therukoothu, company
different kinds of skills - some of which at the annual conference of the Academy in dramas were also shunned by the Tamil
were almost exclusively available only to 1941, it responded to the demand that there elites as low-brow entertainment of the
the elites (direction/camera/editing), while should be more Tamil songs instead of subalterns. Rao Bahadur P Sambanda
other sorts of skills, which were equally Telugu and Sanskrit songs in Carnatic music Mudaliar, who was part of the highly
critical, were, forhistorical reasons, availableconcerts by resolving that "it should be the educated upper caste elite of the Madras city,
among the lower classes (acting). aim of all musicians and lovers of music to reminisced of his childhood thus: "Though
In other words, while the elites were preserve and maintain the highest standards there was a 'koothukottagai' (drama
implicated in the cinematic medium in more of classical Carnatic music and that no auditorium) close to the house where I grew

950 Economic and Political Weekly April 13, 1996

This content downloaded from

202.61.121.12 on Mon, 22 Jul 2024 08:14:35 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
up years back and though Tamil dramas III produced during the 1930s had similar
were staged bften in different places in number of songs. Also, most of their themes
Madras city, I did not watch one even for Tamil talkies made their appearance during were from Hindu mythologies and Puranus
five minutes. Not only that I did not watch the 1930s in this milieu of great divide as in the case of popular stage productions.
Tamil dramas, but had great contempt for between high cultire aInd low culture. Equally significant, as during the silent era,
them" [Sambanda Mudaliar 1931:1 ].3 Instantaneously, they became popular among the early Tamil talkies drew its actors fromi
Moreover, the Tamil elites derisively the lower class audience. In any case, they the stage. These actors were not ashamed
referred to the popular stage artistes as had been the patrons of silent cinema, before. of their career on the stage and otten acted
'koothadi gal' (mountebanks), refused to rent Moreover, cinema, silent or otherwise, both in films and dramas. As late as 1944,
them houses and feared them as possible functioned as a social cqualiser of sorts. N S Krishnan. who was a towering,
abductors of young women [Avvai 'The cineina hall was the tirst pertormance personality of both tile Tamil scr-een and
Shanmugam 1983:33]. According to Avvai centre in which all the Tamiliis sat under thle stage, claimnied in public, "Is it fair to accu
Shanmugam, a doyen of 20th century Tamil saine roof. The basis of the seating is not cinema as having killed the dramila? [No]
stage, "Parents would not allow theirchildren on the hierarchic position of the patron Draima anid cinema have born of the sa;me
to watch dramas. Youths were ashamed to but essentially on his purchasing power" mother... One is real and the other, image"
admit in public that they had been to drama. [Sivathamby 1981:18-191. [Arantahi Narayanan 1994:671.
Opposite to [every] drama hall, a toddy shop A contemporary account of the situation This overlap between the early talkies and
would be present" (ibid). in the cinema halls ot Madras city captures the company drama, which had already been
The best illustration of the elite scorn for inscribed as part of the Tamil low culture.
the flavour of subaltertn enthlusiasm for this
these artistes is the way they were treated new medium ot entertainment: offered the Tanmil elite with sullicient basis
by the leadership of the Tamil Nadu unit If we wishi to watch films in Madras city,to negotiate this new medium. They, to
of the Indian National Congress. During the the greatest difficulty is ,,etting tickets. There
begin with, ghettoised it as part ol the low
pre- 1947 period, a large number of these are huge cr-owds at the ticket counter. As cultural universe of thc subaltern classes.
artistes used the medium of drama and songs tickets began to be issued, they jostle each Reflecting this elite cultural politics in
to spread the message of nationalism. other and soine climnb on the others and get Tami Nadu, the practitioners ot classical art
However, their contribution, for most part, the tickets. In betweein such commotion. forms shunned cinema' i... Carinatic
some policemen surtace, beat them up and
was never acknowledged by the Congress musicians looked dowin, with a shudder,
harass tliIn. Some people approach those
leadership. For instance, referring to upon the idea of singing in films, the same
who couk. not get the ticket but stand away
Madurakavi Baskara Das, whose songs way that ladies of respectablet f.aili.es looked
watcling t(le fun, and offer, 1I will get you
thle ticket. Give ine quariter Anaa." WantingupoIl visiting a cinema hall" [Guy 1988]. As
evoked widespread nationalist passion
among the Tamil masses, R Saarangabani, to watch thc film, thiey give the money. B S Ramaiya (1943:269). who straddled
one of those numerous artistes who sang Those who collect thci money merge with simaultaneously tihe exalted world of creative
Baskara Das's songs on the stage, wrote thc cr-owd. Thereafter they cannot be seen. writing and the lowly one of cinema, noted
with much distress, "On August 15, 1947, Most of thlose who go for filmns.,are the poor. about the classicists' conitempt tor cinenma,
India attained freedom along the Gandlhian They go there and stiulfer so much...5 it was common anmonig those well-versed in
paLth. On that golden day, no one remem- Rao Bahaldur P Sainhandamn, who had his classical music to ridicule tilmii songs by
bered our poet Baskara Das, I alone wrote own encounter with early Tamil talkie as posing 'To what school of music they
an essay on him" [Aranthai Narayanan actor, script-writer and so on, vouched tor belong'?' [Ramaiya 1943:2691.
I 988:91.4 the popularity ot cinemai during the initial It was the same elite politics which made
Within this already enforced divide years of talkie and noted, "...it is a decade visitingcinema halls ataboo lor 'respectable'
between high culture and low culture, the since talkies appeared in our country. Therewomen from upper caste/class fanmilies. If
cinema of the silent era was treated by the is no douht that during these 10 years, talkie
visiting cinema halls was a taboo, acting in
Tamil elite as being on the side of the low has spread all over the country... In Tamil films was unthinkable for thein. Thavamani
culture. This was because the cinema of the Nadu alone, there are 250 cinema halls... We Dcvi. a.n actress who came Irom Ceylon to
silent era drew its performing artistes can say without any reservation that in a few Madras to act in Modern Theatre productions,
t'rom the despised universe of low culture, years, there will not he eveni a simiall village made an appeal in the 1930s that womlen
i e. conmpany draml-a, circus and wrestl- without ci nc ma" [S ambanda Mudaliar from respectable l:amilies should give up
ing [Baskaran 1981:88-89] sums up the 1938:50]. This popularity of talkie among their reluctance anid act in tfilnms. Respontdingr
situation: the Tamil subaltern clalsses itselt was good to this appeal, a Tamil magazine allegcdly
The stigma that was attached to the popularenough reason for thle elite to keep away published her photo in a swimming costume
stage and those working for it was extendedtrom it. Tlhen. there were more substantial and captioned it thus, "Thavamnani Devi, ain
to the world of cinema also. The witnesses reasons too. actress, who has come from Ceylon to act
who deposed bclore the Cinenmatography The early Tamil talkies were basically as chaste Akalya, appeals to women fromii
En(quiry Coinmittee rcleatedly declared that film versions of plays by drama companies. [respectable] families to act in filims"
thley were either averse to watching films already proveln to be successlul on the stage. [Aranthai Narayanan 1981:1151.
or that they had never secn one, that only "The practice was to hire a whole drama
the low class trequented cinema houses, and
company anid shoot the filmil in one stretch. IV
that cinema was harmtul to the cominunity.
So the stage actors, who were not classical
Typical of this attitude was the statement
musicians but singers tamilliar with classical A small section of the Tamil elite clung
oflthe president of the Corporation of MadrIas,
music, found theinselves in the tinsel world" on rather resolutely to this idea that cineina
G Narayanaswamy Chetty, who told the
coimmittee: 'I find the uncultuted tlock to
[Baskaran 1991:755]. In keeping with lihe is incorrigibly a sign ot low culture. C
the cinema. It could be said that 75 per cent
tradition of company drama, these talkies Rajagopalachari is perhaps the most tellilng
of cinema patrons are of the lower order. carried a large number of songs and placed representative of this cinephobic minority:"
The Indian members of the Board of Film less emiphalsis on dialogue. The first Tamil and even the invocation of nationalism could
Censors, Madras. also adopted the same tallkie Kallidast (19)31) was not exceptional not convert this nationalist to cinlema. In
view [emphasis mine]. in having 5() songs. A number of them 1939, when the Indlian Motion Picture

E(conomic and Political Weeklv April 13, 1996 951

This content downloaded from

202.61.121.12 on Mon, 22 Jul 2024 08:14:35 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
Association sought a ban on anti-Indian had their stint in films." [Baskaran Significantly, this anxiety about lack of'
foreign films, he, as the prime minister of 1991 :756).X realism in Tamil films was framed in terms
Madras state, noted cynically, "I have a Equally important is the fact that cinema of its shared characteristics with popular
notion that in most cases the objection comes as a state of spectating pleasure too worked theatre. The nationalist Tamil newspaper
from competing companies that want in the towards breaking the boundaries between Dinamanicomplained in 1935, "Tamil films
guise of patriotism to keep out as far as the elites and the masses. Sections of the are devoid of acting and without life like
possible well executed films that carry away elites were indeed drawn towards the mediumTamilplays.""' It elaborated further: 'Tamil
the money. There is so much objectionable as its consumers. Writing in 1939 about cinema greatly disappoints those who have
matter in the films prepared in India that thethree-fourths of the people "among developed their appreciation for acting by
'anti-Indian' objection pales into ourselves" (i e, the Tamil elites and the watching American films and those who
insignificanice."7 His objection to cinema middle classes which exhibited elite innately know what is the art of acting. There
continued well into the post-1947 India. pretensions), 'Kalki' R Krishnamurthy is very little.dialogue; and even whatever
Addressing the South Indian Film Chamber claimed, "We will keep talking about the ills little is there is in vulgar Tamil ('Kodun
of Commerce in 1953, he was unrepentingly done to the world by cinema. But, as we hear Tamil'). The rest is all songs. Songs appear
critical of cinema for it, according to him, that a good film is being released, we are [in the films] as one faints and as one gets
catered to the uncontrolled sexual urge in only too willing to spend our money and killed." It compared the songs in Tamil films
the human beings [Diwakar and spoil oureyesight." For him, ignoringcinema to the "intolerable wrestling and fencing"
Ramakrishnan 1978:156-63]. was any longer a futile exercise: "What is present in the early Bombay films.''
As much as representations about cinema the use in someone saying 'I object to Similarly, Sambanda Mudaliar, in listing the
in the elite political sphere, elite literary earthquake'? What is the use in someone shortcomings of Tamil films, noted that they
representations too exhibited such saying 'I dlon't accept rain'?" [Karnadagam were made "music concerts" [Sambanda
cinephobia. Ku Pa Rajagopalan, a Tamil 1939:45-471 Similarly, Chandilion, a writer Mudaliar 1938:50]. Perhaps the most
fictionist belonging to the elite nationalist ot historical fictions in Tamil, responded to instructive instance ot elite antipathy to songs
Monikodi group of writers, published a short R;ajagopalacihairi 's cinephobic commentsin films is the review of Lava Kusa by
story 'Studio Kathai' (Studi Story) in the thus: "Ignoring cincm;la... will be similar to 'Kalki' Krishnamurthy. Instead of callinC it
early 1 940s. The story narrates how an the story of the old womani who tried to a talkie, he called it 'paatti' punning on the
educated girl takes to the career of acting sweep hack jwith a broom] a turbulent Tamil words 'paattu' (song) and 'paalti'
so as to sanitise the film world of its evils ocean" ICIa;ntdilion 1987:301. In other (grandmother). For him, Lava Kucsa was tull
and make it unthreatening tor respectable words, ci nemal had coine to stay whetherofonesongs and moved at a grandmotherly slow
women. She gives up the mission atter a day likes it or niot and tihe elites were part of it [Guy 19881. We need to hear in mind
pace
in the studio tloor. While she resents the both in the proccss of its production and here that songs (instead of dialogue) were
director physically touching her and leaves consumlptionl. a common feature of both company dramaizs
the studio. the director exclaims, "Why The cultural elite of Tanmil Nadu now and early Tamil talkies.
should a pativratha come to the studio'?" required inew modes of' negogitating the In the place of songs. what got privileged
Setting in opposition the immorality of the challenige thrown by cinema. They could no in the new discourse of the Tamil elite on1
film world and the chastity of respectable lonlger mercly braniid it as the leisure-time cinema was dialogue. For instance, the review
woman, Ku Pa Rajagopalan names the activity atnd entertainiment of those who of Irai Sagol/harargal published in Manikodi
director in the story as Krishnan and the lacked high cultuiral tastes, for they have noted, "What infuses life into Iri
failed actress as Sita [Ku Pa Rajagopalan become pairt of it. As a first move towards Scagoiliarargal is its realistic dialogue. We
1986:82-87]. redefininig lheir enigagement with cinema, see (sic) in this film-n interestling dialoggues
However, large sections of the Tamil elite the Ta;mil elite privileged realism as the which fit the situation... We see everywlhere
realised, within years of the arrival of the governing principle ot good cinema. This in this lfilm fluent dialogue." The review also
talkie, that this cinephobic mode of was a move, as wc shall see soon, that was exclaimed, "lsn't it a wonder inTamil cinema
engagement with cinema was inadequate. basically imieant to free cinema from its world?" [Aranthai Narayanran 1988:38-391.
As cinema expanded into an industry and deeleaning identity with compan) drama. Exhibiting siimiilar attitudc, N Shrinivas, the
as a dominant mode of leisure, it offered C K Sachi, soon after his return from founder of the film magazine Talk-a-Tone
hitherto unavailable possibilities for the England where he worked in film studios, (which announced itself as "A motion picture
Tamil elites. At one level, it had become a complained of the lack of realism in Tamil magazine with a mission and a purpose'),
site of financial investment and a source of films. According to him, wrote, "Dialogues should be written so as
profit and fame. These new possibilities At present in western countries, those who to fit the roles of the actors... One who is
enjoy watching reality ion the screen] are
even lured the practitioners of classical art drawn lrom upperclass speaks in a particular
forms such as Carnatic musicians, who incrcasing in numbers. They do not like way. Illiterate low caste person speaks
carefully kept themselves away from cinemamere stories. Good Emrth portrays the realdifferntly. When a rich man addresses
life of the Chinese people and the real labourcrs, he speaks in a specitic fashion.
asa way of maintaining theirclaimto cultural
modesty ot the Chinese women. That is why
superiority, towards cinema: "Movie Labourers do not speak the same way as thlir
it ran for four months in London on its first
business came to mean big money and this employers..." [Shrinivas 1942:51 1. Tlus. it
release; and it is running for [the past] four
did not fail to catch the attention of the was not only that dialogue should replalce
months on re-release... But look at our films.
classical musicians who had hitherto been What we see in [Tamil film as a dasi is a
songs, but dialogues also should be realistic.
ignoring cinema as a plebian entertainment...marvellous image which none has seen in We may note here that thils wais exactly
Musicians like Papanasam Sivan, who wrote life. [Similarly] thieves app:larin [these films]the basis on which the alliterative dialogue
and composed more than 500 film songs, in unheard of English constumes of hat and of the DMK genre of films were critiquCd.
entered films and seduced the other classical coat... If there is a thief [in the film] he As M Karunanidhi, who along with C N
musicians also into cinema. Musical should [look like] a real thief.' Annadurai, introduced suclh dialoguc to
luminaries of the late 1930s like G N As much as Sachi. others tike S Tamil films, noted in 1951, "Does the
Subramanian, Dandapani Desigar, Mlusiri Satyamurthy too stood on the side of common man on the street. whom we meet
realism
Subramanya Ayyer and V V Sadagopan, all [Aranthai Narayanan 19t8 1:66]. everyday, speak in alliteration ' Then, why

952 Economic and Political Weekly April 13, 1996

This content downloaded from

202.61.121.12 on Mon, 22 Jul 2024 08:14:35 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
should those on the screen speak alliterative Coincidental events were plenty in these participate to a large extent in the struggle
language? Such questions are now being films. The protagonists would appear either for the liberation ot the country. It is possible
posed loudly..." [Thirunavukkarasu] as Rama or as Kamsa. There was excess of for the cinema to carry on simultaneously
dialogue
1990:95].12 It was this desire for realism in in their tilms" [ibid:38]. For him, in several places a great agitation that can
dialogue which made Muktha Seenivasan, the period between 1976 and 1985, when be carried on only by great orators aind
who has worked closely with the DMK Tamil cinem. camne to terms with "partly writers... A new spirit can be created amlong
script-writers, to credit T V Chari and realistic and anti-sentimental stories", was the people by introducing the songs oft poet
lllangovan forchanging the pre-existing trend the best so tar. though it was still inadequate.Bharathi in political, economic, social and
Despite the fact that Seenivasan's scheme
that "cinema, like the stage, had little dialogue devotional films."'4 It wasonly in theconltext
in between songs and for bringing literary was one ol ca.lenldric periodisation, it is of nationalism as uplil-t that people likc K
taste to cinema" and to refer, in contrast, to simultanctoalsl) .i classificatory system by Subramaniyam and S Satyamurthy could he
the dialogue written by Karunanidhi and which individual filmlis and tilm-makers can part of the world of cinemna and
Annadurai as "sensational" [Seenivasan be evaluated in terms ot their closeness or simultaneously claim an un.sullied repulttion
1993:1401. otherwise to realism. In other words, this amonig the Tamil culturail elites.s In the
The shared qualities between company teleology, which privileged realism, offered post- 1947 T'amiiil Nadu, the ideology of uplift
drama and early Tamil talkies did not stop the Ta-mil elite with a space to locate had different incarnations. To mentiol just
with the presence of large number of songsthemiiselves within the universe of cinema one it set in opposition films that appeal to
in both. In addition to songs, both the mediaand at the saime time to assert their superior emotions and tilms that appeal to milid and
drew their stories from mythological and aesthetic sell'. annexed the lattcr as part of its territory. For
purainic sources. Once again, this was targetedIn an eflfrt to furtlher their agency over instance, f'ilmis ot K Balachandar were
by the Tamnil elite for criticism. While the clinimatic mincduiuI, the Tamnil elites, as
appropriated as part of elite self'-dcl'initloll
Dintamtani trcated the religious ones and a seconld mnove, brought in the criterion ofwithin this dichotomy. According to Muktlha
"tthose who are mad atter songs" as equals uplitt. Good cinema could not merely be Sccnivasan (1993; 168). Before the time of
in sharing low cultural tastes in the context realistic, but should also have a social Balachandar, cinemna-goers rcmained merely
of film spectatinig,') Samiibanida Mudaliar purpose. In 1939, 'Kalki' Krishnamurthy, as appreciators oft cmotioins" anid it was he
(1938:50) specified "ancient stories" as a criticising those who kept themselves away who convertcd thcm to the higher ideal ot
shortcoiming of Tamil films. What they from cinema, wrote, "As the best of the applying their mind.
preferred instead was so-called contemnporaryintellectuals aLre ignloring ciniiema, its bad
themes with realist orientation. A review ot effects are proliferating uncontrolled; V
AMaania Swaintakshanam in Pesumipadamn intellectuals are [on the other hand] ignoring
(April 1945) noted, it because ol its baid cltects! In short, a T hough notions of realism and the ideology
The Tamil film Maana Samraksalla.anam is a powerlul instrumicnlt. which is capable of of uplitt recovered lor the Tamil elite thle
great consolation for the cinema fans who directing people's mind, is being used for neccssary space to be part of the cinema but
are tired of seeing only puranic films duringbad ends" [ Karnadagarm 1939:481. He f urther still be ditterent, it was inadequate. As we
the past four or tive years. It is not only that argued, "To the extent one is genuinely have noted earlier in this essay. !hc cinematic
human beings appear instead of gods in this interested in social uplift, one should pay nedium carries the possibility otf intertextual
filinm but it is tull of realities of the
attention to cinemna... It cinema leads to excess'. That is, cincma can aippropriate
con(einporary lite that it makes one happy.
moral degradation, one shouldl prevent it andartefacts of high culture and low culLure
K Subramaniyam has become j wpilair for
transtorm cincm;a as a. medium for moral simultaneously zind represcnt thecmii in ways
his social tilms. He is a master in observing
uplift" [ibid:47J. Even B S Ramaiya, wh(o which subvert the boundaries bctwecn stich
and reproducing in minute details
conmmoi.er's life situations, attitudes and was basically convinced that cinema was the divisions. As Revathi, a national aw;arid
daily realities in films. It is these skills which most popular enterlainmnent medium of the winning actress and a B3haratainatyami J clr,
lhe has correctly applied in this film lAranthai lower classes and who was never ashamed lamented reccntly, Iillmi.s canl have a dLi.Sco
Narayanan 1988:2751. to get involved with cinema for that reas(n,dance number in Bharatanatvami costume."
ln other words, the privileged teleology could not give up the temptation towards the The elite, so as to miaintairn their cultural
of cinema in the elite discourse was one of ideology ol uplilt. In his book, Cintem,la...?,
hegenmony, needs to contain such i ntertex tual
progress towards realism - a realism which which is a brilliantly written practical manual
excess' ot cinema.'7 Their anxiety in thi.s
would annul cinema's lowly association with for film-makers, he wrote, "It is the reg,ard was predomiinanitly atbout the
the cultural products of the subaltern classes responsibility ot everyone to strengthen cinemnatic representations ol'claissical dance
such as company dramas and therukoothu. cincemia and make it uselul for the people. and classical music. To negotiate this
For instance, Muktha Seenivasan periodises The responsibility of the educated and the challenge, they imported into the cinematic
the first three phases of Tamil cinema as journalists, who are concerned about the universe those cvaluatory schemes which
(i) puranic, mythological and folklore periodfuture of the country, is great in this they had already becn deploying tor
(1931-50), (ii) melodramatic story period Imission l" [Ramai ya 1943:2731. If 'Kalki' boundary-maintenance in the case of dance
(1951-75) and (iii) partly realistic anti- Krishnamurthy wanted the intellectuals to and music. In other words, they granted the
sentimental stories period (1976-85) he invested with agency to carry out social stamp of approval only to those cinenmaic
(Seenivasan 1993:25-261. Within this uplitt, for Ramaiya, they were the educated. representations of dance and music which
periodisation, he charactenses the first periodThe career of the ideology of uplitt in approximated the so-called pure torm.
as one in which films "had nothing to do Tamnil cineina is complex and needs separate Let us tirst take up the question of music.
with real life" libid:331. The second period,study. In tl)e pre-1947 phase, the ideology Though, in Muktha Seenivasan'steleological
i e, the period of melodrama, was also not ot uplilt was franmed in terins of nationalism.
scheme, the first phase of Tamil talkies did
much to be proud of; it was a period of Even the conservative nationalist daily not constitnte good cinema, they Jid have
exaggeration: "Scenes of extreme sacri- Di,minmani did not mind cinema as longother
as positive consequences- The first
fice, totally unconnected with real lite, it served nationalist cause. In 1936, it positive consequence of Tamil films of the
were seen in their films. Events of family appealed, "What our country wants at present
period 1931 to 1950 is that they cultivated
life were presented in an exaggerated form. are only propagandal films. The cinema can morality. Secondly, they protected
individual

Economic and Political Weekly April 13, 1996 953

This content downloaded from

202.61.121.12 on Mon, 22 Jul 2024 08:14:35 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
classical music" [Seenivasan 1993:331. Ramaiya Pillai, Hiralal, Dandapani Pillai, good to use the powerful medium [of cincmia I
Within this logic, a number of film artistes, Kalamandapam Madhavan and Gopala- for the benefit of the people. In the north,
who were extremely popular, were appro- krishna Master. This nostalgia of Seenivasan K A Abbas used his writings and films tor
priated as pa.t of elite self-definition. As an is immediately displaced by distress as he the uplift of the nation. I was contemplating
account of the early 'Iamil cinema puts it, moves on to talk about the present state of whether something similar could be done
K B Sundarambal, M K Thyagaraja dance in Tamil lilms: After the period of here, at least at a smaller scale" [Akiloni
Bhagavathar and S D Subbalakshmi were Kumari Kamala et al, "dance lost its 1984:318-19]. He also claimed that he left
the most popular cine artistes much wanted s'acr-edlwexss. Dances are choreographed and the film world because he retused to submit
and adored by the masses for their excellentused now in Tamil films only to feed the his writings to the dictates of filnm producers
talents in the art of music and rendering ofsexual urges lot the audience]" [Seenivasan [ibid:335].
songs in chaste classical style [Centre for The controversy surrounding
1993:168, 263; emphasis mine].
Social Research 1974: 10]. Bharatidasan's lyrics for BaIlainalii will be
If Seenivasan invokes the question of
While K B Sundarambal and M K Thyagaraja
sexuality to inferiorise popular film dance, an instructive example of the stalus of lyric-
Bhagavathar endeared themselves to the writers in the eyes of the elites. Ariyur
it may be because Bharatanatyam, as it was
masses as stage artistes before moving into
reconstituted by the Taimil brahmin elite Padmanabha Pillai called B3haratidasan's
cinema, it was never their pre-history in
during the 20th century, was sanitised of its lyrics as "kavithai kolai" (murder of poetry)
theatre which was foregrounded in elite
eroticism. It is true that a few like T Bala and argued that they violated the rules
accounts of cinema history, but the chaste
Saraswati tried to resist the effots to 'purify' governing the 'virutham' form of Tainil
mannner in which they represented classical
Bharatanatyam of Sringara. As she puts it, poems. Bharatidasan, who inspired
music on the screen.
"Some seek to 'purify' Bharatanatyam by generations of Tamil poets, was torced to
Such appropriation of cinematic
replacing the traditional lyrics which express respond by writing a long rejoinder detfeld-
persotalities was accompanied by a denial
sringara witlh devotionial songs. I respectfully ing how his lyrics were governed by the
of others who did not respect the boundary
submit to such protagonists that there is grammatical rules [Bharatidasan 1984:
between classical and other forms of music.
nothin, in Bharatanatyam which needs to 300-02]. Jayakantan, who shares all the
The popularity of Illayaraja. who specialises
be purified alresh; it is divine as it is and assumptions of the Tamil elite so far as
in hybrid filnm music which synthesises Indian
innately so. The sringara we experience in cinema goes, confessed it all when he
classical, western classical and folk music
Bharatanatyam is never carnal; never, wrote, "Actor is an artiste; even then he can
form1s, is a moment of great anxiety for the
never..." [Guhan 1991:14]. As evident in the never attain and shouldn everaitrailn in society
musical elite. At one level, his music is
above quote, such resistance could not go the high status which a poet (not a song
treated by lhem as crass. The well known
beyond a point iind what Bala Saraswati writer), a writer (not a script-writer) or a
music critic Subbudu, who is a fanatical
could do was to sublimate sringara as bhakti. scientist" [Jayakantan 1980:188, emnphasis
defender of purism in classical music,
Moreover. Seenivasan's mode of mine.]
compared the popularity of Illayaraja' s music
argumentation tlits well within the elite In differentiating their superior aesthetic
to drug addiction. For him, Raja's music was
ideology of uplift. Atter all, preaching self- self from that of the subalterns, what the
similar to swallowing a pill to get rid of a
control (sexual or otherwise) has a sustained Tamil elite endorsed instead was the use of
headache and without any lasting value. ' At
and long career in Tamil Nadu as elsewhere. poems by established poets (Subraaniaii
anotlier level, given Illayaraja's enormous
The subaltern sell always tigured in upper Bharati is a case in point) or stories or novels
success, there are attempts to recuperate him
caste/class discourse as overlaid with excess by established fictionists (Moga Miill of
within the elite schemeof things by invoking
sexuality. Janakiraman is a recent case) in films.
his proficiency in classical music:
We maly also note here that occasionally,
Illayaraja is a brilliant man. We cannot deny
thl opposition hetweeni the so-called classical VI
that. He went to London and conducted a
formiis of music and dance and their other
symphony with big-time composers; and
forms is staged witliin availnt-garde tilm tcxts The notion of realism, the idcology of
they had listenied to him and appreciated
and resolved in tfavour of the tormer. uplift, and the deploymenit ot binaries suci
him... He knows our [classical] music... Now
he is dishing out some easy music. I think.
as classical vs non-classical - all of tlhcmi
Sanlkaacbalranamiiii is a recent case in point.2'
he will slowly increase the dose of high class As mluchl as dance and music, other film- provided theTamil elite with a new language
music and make people knowledgeable about associat.ed practices like writing scripts and to engage with the medium of cinemra,
carnatic music.'9 lyrics were also inferiorised by the Tamil particularly during the period wheni they
This statement by classical musician elite. Hiere they deployed the binaries of realised that they could not attord to ignore
Chemimiangudi Sreenivasa lyer mobilises literature vs tilm script and poetry vs tilm it. All the same, this new languaec did niot
both lllayaraja's competence in classical lyrics. For iinstalnce, Akilon, who won the lead to the hegemony of the elite over cinema.
music as well as the ideology of uplift to Gnanapeet award lor literature and had a The doubt which B S Ramaiya expressed
lfour-year encounter with cinema,
recuperate him as part of the elite universe.2" in 1943 about the ability of cinema to become
Similar moves were deployed by the Tamil diftereiltiate(d literature aind film scriptthe monopoly of the elite continues to haunt
thus:
elite in the case of cinematic representation "If one writes a novel keeping film script them. As Ramaiya (1943:266-67) put it,
ot dance too. They authorised only the las a; modell. the novel will turn out to be "Films are produced at present for tlhe
representation of classical dance forms in a chain of emotional events and will be attraction of the ordinary people. One caIninot
films as good taste. According to Muktha interesting while reading. But it will not say whether cinema will ever reach the place
Seenivasan's account of Tamil film history, stand the timie as [goo(l] literature ex- of classical arts such as music and dance.
Kumari Kamala, Vaijayanthimala Bali and pounding socially relevant ideas."22 In his Under the present circumstances, it is not
Lalitha-Padinini were the best that happened autobiography, Akilon was shame-faced possible to make filmsjust for the satisfaction
to dance in Tamil cinema. For him, during aibout his involvemnent in the film world. He
of the educated classes."
their period, dance in cinema "witnessed alluded to the 'ill-eftects' of the DMK genreThe Tamil elite could succeed in reducincy
astoni shi ng progress". He also does not forget filmiis on the illiterates and legitimised his
Bhalratanatyam and Carnatic music as their
to mention the veteran dance teachers underinlvolvement a1S one of trying to correct the exclusive enclaves where both the perform1ers
situation: 'l u.sed to thinko that it would and
whom allI of t he m got thei rtrai ni ng: V azhuvur be the audience belonged to their ownl

954 Economic and Political Weekly April 13, 1996

This content downloaded from

202.61.121.12 on Mon, 22 Jul 2024 08:14:35 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
class. A similar solution was unavailable for so as to break the classical musicians' favours watching fiis, a vaim p-like character
resistance to cinemna. in the filmn, consciously namiied Jolly, dissuades
them in the context of cinema. The very
9 Article on Tainil c:inemila in Dinamn'mi. May himn from going to tflmll.s anid tcl!s him, 11f ai
economy of cinema which initially attracted
24, 1935, reproduced in Diniumlai Vaira VizJia association to finish off ciniemia comnes up, I
sections of the elite towards it, subverted any will be its president. Only Bhalratanatyaini is
Aanidu Molar, Madras, 1994, p 353 (emphasis
such possibility. Their desire for autonomy iniine). fit for our country..." She takes hiuni to a dance
is constantly frustrated by the unavoidable I 0 Aniandlal Viktadanti quoted in Aranthai performnance, drugs himii and chcats hitim ot ', l
dependence on the masses as audience. In Narayanan ( 1988:227-28). his money.

this context of elusive hegemony, the new 11 Ibid. 22 Botnmci, October 1966.
language of the elite about cinema got 12 Despite suchi elite criticism, the alliterative

reduced to a framework for endless angst dialogue of the DMK films turned out to be References
extremcly popuIlar. The comiiplete dialogue of
and lament about the masses.
these filmis were published in the form of low- Akiloni (1984): Ezhiuthunm Vazlikkai-vint, Paamr
priced booklets and they were sold in Puthaga Pannai, Madras.
Notes thousands. In several cases, there were pirated Aranthai Narayanan (1981): Tactnil Cineii1avi
editions illegally puiblished by unauthorised Katliai, New Century Book House, Nldrads.
[An initial version of this paper was presented publishers. The book carrying the dialogue - (I 988): Sutlhantflirapl) Poril Tainil Cinetmtla, Ncw
in the conference on 'Making Meaning in Indian of M Karunanidhi 's Mtiniolhara (1954) becaime Century Book House, Madras.
Cinema' organised by the Institute of Advanced so popular that the publisher got the block Arooran, Namnbi (1980): Tainil Renaissance (11l1
Studies, Shimla, in October 1995. 1 acknowledge for the covcr page (lone in copper from the Dravidiant Natiotnalisnm 1905-1944, Koodal
with gratitude the critical inputs from Anandhi famious G K Velu comiipany so that it would Publishers, Madurai.
S, Venkatesh Chakravarthy, J Jeyaranjan, withstand large-scale printing [Sornam Avvai Shanmnugamn (1983): Yeathtalu Nada ge
Madhava Prasad, Ashis Rajadhaksha, Rajan- 1992:41; see also Thirunavukkarasu Vazlhkai, Vanathi Pathipagamn. Madras.
kurai, Padmini Swamninathan and A R 1990:116]. Baskaran, S Theodore (1981): The Message
Venkatachalapathy, which helped me in revising 13 Dinao,oni(iiii, May 24, 1935. Beatrers.: The Natiiontalist Politics ant thle
the initial draft.] 14 Dhimnam.oai August 7, 1936, quoted in Baskaran Entertanlimnent Media in South Inidia, 18SO-
(1981:120). 1(45, Cre-A, Madras.
I In the specific context of this paper, I define - (1991): 'Music for the Masses: Film Songs of
15 A comilparisoni of the way in which the cultural
elites as those who were part of an ideological elites recuperated K Subramnaniyam and S Tainil Nadtt', Economnicad Plolitical Weeklv,
habitus wherein access to certain cultural Satyaioiurthy then and recuperate Annual Numiiber, March.
products/practices (Carnatic music, Maniratrinain now would be interesting. Both Centre for Social Research (1974): TIme Inilipact
Bharatanatyain) were celebrated as a marker of them sharc the comimion characteristics of ol Filimi oni Societv, Madras.
of superior aesthetic self. deploying nationalism as uplift, though in Chandiliorl ( 1987): Poratant gal, Vanathi
2 For a critical account of how classical music different conitexts. Pathipagamio. Madras.
was deployed by the Tamil elite in defining 16 DitniaI,oooi, October 6. 1994. Diwa;kar, R Rani S Ramiiakrishnan( 1979): Rl?yjjil *
their superior aesthetic self, see [Ra(masamy) 17 If the Taitiil elites despised company dramina, Sl)eechmes, Vol II, Bharatiya Vildya Bhiavan
1990/1944]. one of the possible reasons for this was the Bomiibay.
3 In his adult life, Sambanda Mudaliar took to way it coiitbined different forins of mnusic Guhan, S (ed) (1991): Ba/a onl Blharatanaoatyo.
amateur play writing and acting for an elite without much respect forthe boundaries across The Sruti Foundation, Madras.
audience. While he refers to the actors of theml: "These songs of the draina comiipanies Guy, Randor ( 1988): The First Superstar', Aside,
comnpany dramas as 'koothadigal' were based on Carniatic miusic. In ad(lition Fdbruary 16.
(mountebanks), those of the amateur theatre they introduced a new strain of m11usic into Jayakanthan (198(0): Ori 1ll1akiavalthiin
were for him 'nadaga kalaingrargal' (stage Tamil Nadu, nlatya sangecth' (dramna music). Kala ivullaga( Aniuba v(anigaol. Thean Mozli
artistes). the kindl of Ilin(lustanii m11usic as it came from Pathipagami, Madras.
4 It was the Dravida Munnetra Kazhagain Marathi aind Parsi dramiia comiipanies that had Karnadagamni (1939): Cinemiia Sandai', Anloln
(DMK) and its leadership, which stood soured Tamiiil Nadu in the beginning of the Vikadani,, November 5.
against different forms of brahminical centiury. Through this strain, Hindustani Ku Pa Rafjagopalan] (1 986): Kanagainbaramn.
exclusivity and the elitism of the Indian 'ra;Tas were observed and the synthesis was The Allilace Com1pany. Madras.
National Congress, that corrected this quite popular. Folk music also featured in Panneerselvan, A S (1987): Musical MIission
situation: "Even those artistes who worked these draman;s aind wals usually sung by the frontiline, August 22-Septcinhne 4.
for the nationalist cause during the freedomn conedlian" 113askaran 1991:7561. Ramaiya, B S (1943): C'ineomat...'.. Jyotli Nilayamn.
struggle were derogatorily branded by this 18 Interview with Subbudu, Subatlatnatnla, M ad ras.
society as 'koothadigal' and were made to Februalry 199)'3. Ra[tnasattinyl, Va (1990(/1944): Kaltaiv unm Kalmi
feel ashained [of their profession]. There was 19 Interview with Cheitimnanguidli Sreenivasa Iyer, Valar-ch lvivtmn, Alliance Cotiupany, Madras.
this attitude amiiong the people that actors are Sulba,hn(otlaih, March 1994. Saimibanda Mudaliar, P Rao Bahadur (1931):
lowly and should not be mixed with. The 20 IlIlayaraja him.self is a critic of pigeonholing Natl/ago Aedtii Ninalvivgal, Part 1, Pearlcss
cxclusive credit for ending this situation with miuisic as claissical and otherwise. As he puts Press, Madras.
systemiatic effort and full commitment gocs it, "I lam not a mtusician. For a imiusician raga- (1938): Pesuntp)ad Andbavangol, Pearless
to Aringrar.Anna[durai]" [Thirunavukkarasu is a hurdle: a;lal is a hurdle: his mlusic training Press, Madras.
1990:421. is a hurdle: and his very conception about Sivathamniby, Kartigesu (1981): 7hlie T,ami,,l Filot
5 N G Damodharan in Dintinmani, July 31, 1936, imlusic is a hurdle. Since I ami not a miiusician,
as a Aletdinto oJ qj'Political Coomtnloituticom.
reporduced in Dinwaniiaiii, July 31, 1995. I halve no palramneters to restrict miyself. New Ccntury Book House. Madras.
6 The concept of cinephobia has becn drawn Whatever coimes to my itiind, I have no Sornamin. K (1992): 'Mala.rumn Ninaivugal in
from Ravi Vasudevan (1995). hesitation in doing it. I am able to comiipose Murosoli Pon Vi zza Molar, 1942-92, Madras.
7 Home Department (ins), GO No 2182. dated a son" in a;atohanioto a;lone, while the whole Seenivasan, Muktha V ( 1 993): Tamil Thrlpi-al(l(
April 19, 1939, Tamiiil Nadu Archives. spectruin ot mutisic vidwans believed tor Varaloau, Gang;ai Puthaga Nilayamn, Madras.
8 According to Randor Guy (1989), it was centuries that a song should essentially Shrinivas, N (1942): Cittetna Ulagin Mar-nan gal,
'Raval' Krishna lyer who introduced regular -comiprise 'aarohanotoli a nd alvairohainamn'. This Talk-a-Tone Publication, Madras.
carnatic music and well known musicians to is becausIe I have no bonds" [Panneerselvan Thirunavukkarasu, K ( 1990): Dravidar
Tamnil film. Iyer achieved this "by getting 1987:911. lIvakanutumn Tihira'ipada Ulaiganmiumnl,
veteran musician and composer Harikesa- 21 Sig:nificanitly, M Karunanidhi's Para.cakihi Manivasagar Pathipagamii, Madras.
nallur Muthaiah Bhagavathar (Raval's uncle) (1952), a D)MK genre film, inverts this Vasudtevan. Ravi 5 (1995): 'Retlections on the
to set the music for Lava Kusa..." It seems resolution alnd privileges cinemia over Cinemlatic Public, 1913-43' (unpublishedl
that Iyer had mnobilised his kinship resource Bhalrat;anatyaitt. While the hero of the film paper).

Economic and Political Weekly April 13, 1996 955

This content downloaded from

202.61.121.12 on Mon, 22 Jul 2024 08:14:35 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms