Notes in Educational Psychology: Part One Concepts and Definitions

As pointed out earlier, the word psychology derives from two Greek words psyche and logos.
‘Logos’ stands for rational discourse of a study or simply put, ‘study of.’ The issue has always been
with, Psyche which originally meant soul. Psychologist have subjected the interpretation of the
word ‘psyche’ to serious debate so much that the word has been in a state of change from time to
time leading to subsequent changes in the ways the term ‘Psychology’ has been defined. Let us
examine the stage by stage evolution of Psychology.
By taking the meaning of the word ‘psyche’ as soul, psychology was first defined as ‘study of the
soul.’ During that period, the subject of philosophy wielded enormous influence on the thinking of
psychologists. One can therefore think of the above definition as the philosophical definition of
psychology. Soon enough, this definition faced criticisms because questions arouse such as, ‘what
is soul and how can it be studied.’ Inability to provide answers to this questions lead to search for
new meaning of psychology.
Researchers also tried to define psychology as the ‘study of the mind’ by interpreting ‘psyche’ to
mean the mind. Although the word ‘mind’ was less vague and mysterious than ‘soul’, it faced the
same criticism with questions like, what is the mind? How can it be studied?
As the search for better meaning continued for psychology, famous psychologists like William
James, Wilhem Wundt and Edward B. Titchener began to interprete ‘psyche’ as ‘consciousness.’
Thus psychology was defined as the ‘study of consciousness.’ This may also be described as study
of behaviour and mental processes. According to these psychologists, the discipline seeks to
describe and explain states of consciousness by using the method of introspection (looking within).
In the state of consciousness, we remain aware of the situation or alive to the task we are doing
while we investigate the mind.
This definition was again rejected because it was too narrow in perspective and did not pay due
attention to the subconscious and unconscious activities of the mind. The subjective nature of
findings made through the method of introspection also provided grounds for critics to discard this
definition.
The current stage is largely a reflection of the modern era of science and technology.
Psychologists like William Mcdougall in 1905 wrote that, ‘Psychology may be best and most
comprehensively defined as the positive Science of the conduct of living creatures.’ Three years

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later, he modified the above into a more meaningful definition by stating that, Psychology is a
science which aims to give us better understanding and control of behaviour of the organism as
a whole.
A vivid analysis of the definitions of psychology as depicted above shows that from their vague
and mysterious concepts (then, tied to philosophical roots), psychology is now focused on the
scientific investigation of behaviour. As Woodworth (1948) has said, ‘First psychology lost its
soul, then its mind, then it lost its consciousness, it still has behaviour of sort.’
From the foregoing, we can simply define psychology as “the science that systematically
studies and explains observable (overt) behaviours and their relationship to the unseen (covert)
mental processes that go on inside the organism”. In other words, psychology is a scientific study
of behaviour and mental processes. This definition contains three key words scientific, behaviour
and mental processes, and the words are used in a specific way by Psychologists.
Scientific refers to the fact that the study of psychology is based on data collected through
systematic procedures known as the scientific method. For example, Piaget in his study of
cognitive development, through systematic observations of his children came out with the stages
of development in children and how they perceive things at the stages of the development. The
systematic procedures in which he based his observations (data collected) made his findings and
other similar studies valid which could be confidently relied upon.
Behaviour refers to any activities that can be observed, recorded, and measured. This may
include what human beings or organisms do, that is their movements in space. It also includes what
people say or write. Behaviour entails psychological or bodily changes such as changes in blood
pressure or brain waves.
Mental Processes - they include thoughts memories, emotions, motivations, dreams,
perceptions and beliefs. The study of this processes are not easy. However, psychologists have
developed many methods they use in studying these processes. Such methods include, observation,
measuring, inferring or deducing. These methods are scientific and they require intellectual
curiosity, objectivity, determination, perseverance and the willingness to look beyond common
sense and obvious answers. These qualities are necessary if psychologist must achieve their goals.
In the present time, Psychology is concerned with why people behave the way they do.
Is Psychology A Science?

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 There have been prolonged discussions among researchers in the field of psychology on
the acceptance of psychology as a science. It has been arrived that psychology deserves that status
of science. The famous authority Munn (1967) writes that, ‘Psychology is a science and a properly
trained psychologist is a scientist, or at least a practitioner who uses scientific methods and
information resulting from scientific investigation. The following arguments justify the status of
psychology as a science.
• Psychology has an organized and systematic body of knowledge, facts, principles
and theories which are subject to change with discovery of new facts and
emergence of new theories and principles. This is similar to other fields in the
Sciences.
• Psychology believes in the cause and effect relationship by asserting that every
behaviour has its roots, the factors of its cause and development.
• Psychology also emphasizes the search for truth like sciences. It studies facts of
behaviour and describes laws governing them.
• Psychology also adopts a method of systematic inquiry and scientific approach as
used by sciences.
• Lastly, like other sciences, psychology too has its pure and applied aspects.
Psychology is a science encompassing (involves) biological and social (behavioural) sciences.
As a biological science, psychology studies the developmental growth from infancy to adulthood
and the behavioural pattern reflected at each stage.
Psychology is a social science because it studies the cultural and social problems of the
society in a scientific manner. Such studies are carried out through observation of human behaviour
including that of animals and logical conclusion are drawn as to why such behaviours are
manifested in a particular fashion or way. Other members of the family are anthropology which
deals mainly with human societies, and sociology which deals with mans’ social life. The major
difference between psychology and other behavioural sciences like anthropology and sociology is
that psychology focuses, on an individual while anthropology and sociology are mostly focused
on the study of a group.

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Misconceptions about Psychology
Often we hear people say that they use Psychology to get what they wanted. For example,
a young man who wants the love of a girl, after getting her, may conclude that he used psychology
on her to win her love. Also when a person starts behaving funny, it is said that the person has a
psychological problem. A doctor who is unable to track down the sickness of his or her patient
attributes it to psychological problems. All these are rooted in the various misconceptions that
people hold about psychology.
Some people have the nation that psychology is “mysterious”, or that it is “just common
sense”.
Psychology is not mysterious and it is not magical as people imagine. There is an approach
or psychological method used psychologists to depict the reasons for human behaviour and why
they behave the way they do. Anyone who knows how to use the method and uses it well will
undoubtedly have an advantage over anyone who does not know the method or approach. The
“magic” is through observation and experimentation.
Secondly, Psychology is not just common sense. It does not agree with all that common
sense holds and common sense sometimes accepts as right what psychology has shown to be
untrue. For example psychologist have the belief that insane people have the ability to reason,
while there is that notion that insane people cannot reason properly or accurately. There is that
belief that those people who are insane or seriously mentally ill have lost their minds. To
psychologist, such does not hold water, though intellectual abilities are sometimes disturbed in
mental illness and those who are psychotic are not necessarily suffering from lack of ability to
reason.
Goals of Psychology
The goals of Psychology are similar to those of any science. Science exists because people
are curious, they want to have accurate knowledge and because they want to improve their lives.
To achieve these needs, psychologist set out four goals in its realization:
- To describe behaviour and mental processes
- To explain behaviour and mental processes
- To predict behaviour and mental processes
- To modify behaviour and mental processes.

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 To describe is to observe and measure behaviour and mental processes. This involves the
use of careful and systematic observation. Observation involve paying painstaking attention to the
characteristics of a given phenomenon or occurrence for the purpose of gathering considerable
information to enable one make a statement about that phenomenon. For example, to study children
at play, we might begin by watching the children and recording who talks to whom, how often and
measure the amount of time the children spend at each game. Specially designed tests (personality
tests) can be administered to assess personality and measure intelligence. In all the cases, the main
objective is to gather data in an objective and accurate manner.
To explain - the data collected has to be analyzed and explained. This is usually achieved
by formulating a theory with coherent assumptions to explain the data. This process is not easy and
it is quite challenging because many factors may influence ones behaviour and the mental
processes. For example many reasons may be attributed to the negative behaviour of a student
whose lecturer felt snubbed by him. Possible reasons may be.
1. The student might be hungry and too preoccupied with how to get money to
buy food.
2. Somebody else might have offended him and was only transferring his
annoyance to the innocent you. etc Any one of these reasons might explain your
friend’s behaviour. Note that a valid hypothesis has to make sense. It must be
an intelligent guess.
To predict - Psychologist offer many different theories to explain various behaviours or mental
processes. Prediction has to do with suggesting what an individual will do in the future, based on
past events. a good theory should allow psychologist to predict what will happen in a given
circumstance. The test of a theory’s accuracy and usefulness is its ability to predict behaviour and
mental processes. For instance, Piaget in his theory of cognitive development is able to predict and
specify the kinds of thinking a child can manage at a particular age. Another instance may be that
children who are subjected to corporal punishment by teachers are almost likely to develop
aversive behaviour to school. While this may not hold true in every case, we are merely saying
that given the conditions which we have specified, there is a high probability that the outcome can
be predicted.
To Modify Behaviour and Mental Processes - This is the last goal sometimes referred to
as the ultimate goal. It is the application of knowledge to promote human welfare. This is a typical
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concern of applied psychologists who apply psychological principles in solving problems. An
instance is in the subfield of clinical psychology where our knowledge of behaviour and mental
processes is used in treatment of psychological disorders. As well as the educational psychologist
who utilize research knowledge in psychology to how we raise and teach children; test
administration and qualifying examinations.
In summary, let’s clarify theses different goals with the example of psychological studies
of Aggressions in children. Some psychologists describe children’s aggressive behaviour in the
classroom. Others explain why children are more aggressive after watching a violent movie. Still
others might predict children’s aggressiveness in Nursery school or as Kindergartens. Finally,
applied psychologists might try to change or modify the children’s behaviour, to make them less
aggressive.
APPLICATION OF PSYCHOLOGY TO DAILY LIVING
Psychology enjoys a special place in today’s world, because it is taught and sometimes
applied in high institutions, it is used by everyone illiterate or literate alike. It is one thing that is
applicable to all human being and lower animals. It is used in our daily living, consciously or
unconsciously. Psychology touches almost every aspect of our lives. As societies become more
complex, psychology assumes an increasingly important role in solving human problems.
Psychologists are concerned with an astonishing variety of problems. Such as: why do people differ
in intellectual ability? Why are people aggressive? What child-rearing methods produce happy and
effective adults? How can mental illness be prevented? What conditions male adolescence adjusts
well? What is the nature of grief? Why are some people unable to recover from the loss of a loved
person when others manage to return to normal living?
What is prejudice? Why is it so difficult to change the opinion of a prejudice person? What accounts
for all kinds of cruel behavior? Why do people fight wars?
These are some of the questions for which psychologists seek answers. Psychologist can attack
these problems from a number of angles. Broadly speaking, there are three main approaches: the
behaviorist approach, the subjective approach and the physiological approach.

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(b) The Behaviorist Approach
Some psychologists concentrate on studying what people say and do as it can be observed
by the onlookers. They are interested in observable behavior and the process bringing it about.
These psychologists are classified as behaviorists.
Behaviorists do not want to know what a person is privately thinking or secretly feeling. Nor are
they interested in her/his explanation. The psychologists may measure body reactions such as brain
waves or changes in blood pressure when these are related to questions regarding behavior.
(c) The Subjective Approach
Subjective psychologists concentrate on the aspects of the person that the onlookers cannot
see. They are interested in what goes on in the privacy of the individual’s mind.
They find out by asking the subject how she/he views situations, how she/he feels about
such situations and what thoughts fit her/his mind. In other words, they are asking the subject to
introspect, to look into his mental process and describe what he sees. Introspection is the main tool
of the subjective psychologists. They are likely to work in an office, not a laboratory.
(d) A Physiological Approach
Other psychologists concentrate on the anatomical sources of behavior and mind activity. They
study cells, nerve impulses and the structure of the brain itself, as well as physiological reactions
outside the nervous system. These are the physiological psychologists.
If a physiological psychologist were studying anger, he might conduct surgical experiments
with animals, removing portions of their brains or cutting connections in their nervous systems in
an attempt to localize the physical basis of anger. He would take advantage of accidents that happen
to human brains and of the surgery that disease makes necessary in order to try to find out what
functions the various parts of the brain perform.
Combination of approaches: all these ways of getting psychological information of course,
come into play to some extent with all psychologists. They may lean toward laboratory
experiments, or towards introspect or towards anatomical and physiological explorations. But they
learn from each other’s techniques.

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Applying Psychological Knowledge
Psychology is one of the most important of the sciences because the subject matter is largely
human life. Psychologists want to find ways of improving ordinary daily living as well as to find
solutions to the extraordinary problems that often beset human beings.
Psychology also affects our lives through its influence or laws and public policy laws
concerning capital punishment, sexual behavior, property ownership and the conditions under
which individuals may be held legally responsible for their actions are influenced by psychological
theories of human nature. Another example is the censure of television programmes. The
psychologists most often provide evidence of harm on children done by obnoxious and dangerous
(i.e. programmes on crimes) programmes shown on television before T.V. officials take action.
Because psychology affects so many aspects of our lives, everyone should have knowledge
of the subject matter. Such knowledge can help you evaluate the claims made in the name of
psychology especially in news media. Headlines such as the following appear in the newspapers
occasionally:
“Experiences during infancy determine adult intelligence”
“Violent crimes related to defective genes”
“Emotional stability and family size closely related”

Psychology in Everyday Life

We are surrounded by references to psychology in everyday life. A friend pleased with a
good mark or grade in a difficult examination, may tell you “I was really psyched up for that
examination” if your room-mate is astonished at another student who jumped from a fourth floor
to the ground safely, she/he might exclaim “That guy is a real psycho” at least, sometimes in your
life when you complain of ache, someone had dismissed it and said “it is psychological” When a
friend is well dressed, she/he is told, “You are looking psychedelic”.
All these point to how we use psychology in our everyday life.
Human life from conception to death is based on psychological principles. Psychologists
study the formation of life and make useful suggestions especially with regards to formation of
genes.

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 Rearing of the child is also based on psychological principles. The developmental
psychologists tell you about the physical, intellectual, emotional and social development of the
child. Time to feed, to wane, to send the child to school outside the immediate home; boarding or
day school, and such life decisions are all based on psychological principles.
Parents’ ability to cope with life demands and to understand the adolescence are based on
the principles or theories of psychology.
Psychology is part of life and its principles are manifested in our everyday life.
Exercise 2
(a) List psychological problems you or some other person has experienced.
(b) List and discuss any psychological solution you have applied to problems.

Approaches or Perspectives to the Study of Psychology

Psychologists have different conceptual approaches or ideas about the nature of human
behaviour. Contemporary psychology in interested in an enormous range of topics, looking at
human behaviour and mental process from the neural level to the cultural level. Psychologists study
human issues that begin from birth and continue until death. By understanding the history of
psychology, you can gain a better understanding of how these topics are studied and what we have
learned thus far.
It is also very important for the prospective teacher to understand the systematic
development of psychology in order for him to study the behaviour of learners from different
approaches so that he may take advantage in effecting changes in learners without rigidly adhering
to any system of psychology.
More so that the scope of psychology is impressive: from microscopic neurons to large
crowds of people. In fact, psychology spans the enormous distance between biology which
examines the structure and function of living things, and sociology which studies group behaviour
and how institutions function in society. It would therefore be impossible for a single approach to
be endorsed by researchers. Thus, we will be considering some of the perspectives.
Bio-Psychological Perspective:
Biopsychology is a combination of disciplines, the physiology of the brain and psychology - study
of mental processes and behaviour. Also known as the neuroscience approach. Biopsychology is
based on the assumption that for every behaviour, feeling, and thought there is a corresponding

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physical event in the brain. Biological psychology is the science that attempts to explain human
behaviour's basis in biological foundations (Wickens, 2005). The goal is therefore to understand
the relationship between these two realms. For example, a biopsychologist will want to ask or
know:

 What happens to the chemistry of the brain in mental illness?

 How do drugs such as valium act on the brain to give relaxing effect?
 What happens in the brain when a person commits a violent act?

Psychodynamic or Psychoanalytic Approach

Sigmund Freud (1856-1939), a medical doctor, was the first person to practice
psychoanalysis. He did not intend to develop a psychological system but merely attempted to
develop theories to support his therapeutic techniques as a physician. His studies majored on
development and maintenance of personality with emphasis on such thing as early childhood
experiences and unconsciousness sources of motivation.
The method of inquiry generated through the evaluation of psychoanalytic principles has
vastly affected areas such as clinical psychology, counselling psychology and development
psychology.
A major contribution was in the area of unconsciousness motive where he state that
‘childhood experiences determine adult personality.
Freud (1944) used the term ‘Psychoanalysis’ to describe both his psychological theories
and his method. Freud in his theories of human development concluded that:
i. Human beings are irrational and motivated by biological drives and some of which
are not acceptable.
ii. Human beings are born with unconscious biological drives and from the day a child
is born, he seeks an outlet or some kind of expression.
iii. Many of the drives that young children have violate social norms for proper
behaviour. For example young children like play with their faeces while being toilet
trained, or hitting their playmates. Parents will normally forbid these behaviours.
As a result of these restrictions by parents many innate drives are repressed and pushed
totally out of conscious awareness. An important aspect of psychoanalytic theory is that repressed

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drives continue to demand some kind of expression or satisfaction. Thus, they will be manifested
indirectly since they cannot be expressed in behaviour or even admitted into consciousness. For
instance, Freud felt that many drives for socially unacceptable behaviour were sublimated, that is
channeled into some kind of approved or even highly praised behaviour.
To him a young man’s drives for a forbidden intimate relationship with his sister may spur him to
marry a woman that closely resembles his sister. He also argued that a feeling of hostility in a
person may be as a result of denied love when he was an infant - child denied of proper breast
feeding by his mother. He has the belief that psychological treatment can be used to treat
psychological related problems. Freud’s work transcends many perspectives. His published work
in the interpretation of dreams had an enormous impact not only on psychology but on medicine,
literature and philosophy.
Other approaches include, Behaviourist Perspective, Humanistic Perspective, Cognitive
Perspective.
Branches of Psychology
Psychology can be roughly divided into two major sections: Theory-based Field (Research),
which seeks to increase our knowledge base, and Practice-based (Applied), through which our
knowledge is applied to solving problems in the real world. While some psychologists engage in
research to gather information about the nature of behaviour and mental processes (theory) others
are engaged in applying the understanding provided through research to address various behaviour-
related problems in society (applied).
Research based fields include: cognitive, developmental, personality, social psychologists.
Practice-based fields include: clinical, counseling and industrial-organizational psychologists.
A discussion of some of them and their job description is important.
Developmental Psychologists
Developmental psychologists study all aspects of human growth like physical, cognitive,
social emotional and psychological growth. They may study specific areas such as language
development or changes taking place in the growing child, or a particular period of life such as in
infancy, the pre-school years and adolescence. Such psychologists study both normal and abnormal
development of human beings throughout life. Through the findings from the study, he or she is
able to advice parents, educationalists and government on needs and problems associated with the
abnormality.
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Personnel Psychology
Also called industrial or organizational psychologists. They are mainly concerned with
training programmes and management development. They provide the management with all the
necessary orientation in company policies and scientific principles for effective planning and
organization. They also measure employees’ attitude and morale and possible means of increasing
productivity.
Legal or Forensic Psychology
They are concerned mainly with the use of psychological methods of investigation to detect
crime. They study and interpret environments and background of persons connected with crime,
for example they will want to find out the personality of the individuals involved in crimes, they
will want to know the dynamic and social forces in a given crime and the childhood experiences.
Forensic psychologists are not legal or criminal justice personnel but they are experts in
criminal investigations, and they work mainly with the police, army, prisons, immigration,
intelligences organizations, law courts and other agencies involved in detecting crime.
Clinical Psychology
This is the largest area of practice. Clinical psychologists are employed at medical facilities
like clinics or hospitals or group practice. They apply psychological principles in the diagnosis and
treatment of emotional/behavioural problems such as mental problems, juvenile delinquencies,
criminal behaviour, drug addiction, mental retardation and maladjustment problems.
Approximately 30% of all psychologists are in the clinical area. They are concerned with
the use of psychological techniques to recognize and treat behaviour disorders. They also conduct
research into the cause of such disorders. Behaviour disorders are abnormal, creating problem for
the individual as well as the society.
Counselling Psychology
About ten percent of all psychologists are involved in counselling psychology. They use
psychological the techniques to assist individual in coping with normal personal problems. Such
individuals are not classified as abnormal or mentally ill, but are seeking help with problems, such
as vocational or interpersonal relationships. They use psychotherapeutic techniques, but treatment
of severely abnormal problems is usually referred to a clinical psychologists or psychiatrist.

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Physiological and Comparative Psychology
These psychologists often employ experimental procedures to study problems within their
areas of specialization. Physiological study bodily foundations of behaviour. Information gathered
is applied in industrial, clinical or educational psychology.
Comparative psychology often studies bodily processes, but the primary interest is in
making comparisons of the behaviour of one species with that of others. Comparative
psychologists may test the effect of deprivation on the behaviour of one species of bird and
compare it to the effect of the same kind of deprivation on another species of bird.
Educational and School Psychology
There are concerned with the use of psychological principles to increase the effectiveness of
the learning experience. It includes the study of learning facilities, curricular, teaching techniques,
or particular student problems. School psychologists specifically attempts to test, counsel or guide
students. While school psychologists most often work with students, educational psychologists,
may often work with teaches in an attempt to make them more affective in the classroom.

RESEARCH METHODS IN PSYCHOLOGY

Research methods in psychology are methods used by researchers to obtain psychological
information. The research method a researcher chooses depends largely on exactly what they are
studying. There are two basic types of research methods—descriptive research and experimental
research.
Descriptive Research Methods
Descriptive research such as case studies, naturalistic observations, and surveys are often used
when it would be impossible or difficult to conduct an experiment. These methods are best used to
describe different aspects of a behaviour or psychological phenomenon. Once a researcher has
collected data using descriptive methods, a correlational study can then be used to look at how the
variables are related.

Experimental Research Methods

Experimental methods are used to demonstrate causal relationships between variables. In an
experiment, the researcher systematically manipulates a variable of interest (known as the

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independent variable) and measures the effect on another variable (known as the dependent
variable). Unlike correlational studies, which can only be used to determine if there is a relationship
between two variables, experimental methods can be used to determine the actual nature of the
relationship. That is to say, if changes in one variable actually cause another to Let us take a look
as some methods of research in psychology.
Naturalistic Observation
In the early phases of scientific inquiry, it is necessary to begin by examining the variety
of natural events that seem relevant to the subject of the inquiry. By noting whatever arises
naturally, the scientist begins to generate a body of knowledge in which he can find patterns and
detect possible cause-and-effect relationships.

Such naturalistic observation is a method of investigation in which an interested

person simply observes and records events without trying to influence them in any way. It
was the historical precursor of scientific experimentation as we know it today, and such procedures
still have value in scientific study. When a biological researcher sets up a camera to photograph
the nest-building behaviour of the crane, he is engaging in naturalistic observation. He has not in
any way disturbed the birds; he has merely observed and recorded their behaviour. We observe
behaviour around us every day; to some extent such observations help us predict and control our
own behaviour and affect the behaviour of others.

The advantages of this method include its simplicity, natural form, economy, flexibility as
well as the reliable and verifiable results produced.

Some of the disadvantages include:

• Only observable behaviour can be studied

• Findings may be subjective due to narrow perspective of individual researchers.
• It is time and location dependent and may not be replicable
• It is also not possible to establish cause-effect relationship.

Experimental Research Method

It is an artificial arrangement of conditions meant to give objective conclusions about the
effect of some factor on some aspect of behaviour. This is because it is not naturally possible to

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know with objectivity a number of factors responsible for a behaviour manifested by an individual.
This is also described as the causative method. It is regarded as the most reliable and advanced of
all the methods of obtaining data.

Observations help us form ideas and hypotheses about behaviour that can be tested
experimentally. For example, you might start to investigate the effect of giving more (or less)
reward, or the relationship between the frequency of punishment and the number of days required
to train the puppy. When a scientist begins to influence the things he observes, and record the effect
of those changes, he has taken a step beyond naturalistic observation. He has imposed some control
on the situation in order to refine his knowledge of cause and effect in this case, the effect of reward
and punishment on a puppy's behaviour.

The experimental researcher usually is interested in knowing the extent to which a given
variable can be said to have a causal link with another variable. Hypotheses are usually generated.
A hypothesis is an intelligent guess that if A, then B.
In an experiment, it possible to hold down certain factors by controlling the variables that
are likely to have potential influence on behaviour. For example, controlled variables may include
age, sex, experience and background of the subjects variables are controlled, the result obtained
may not be near accurate. These maybe called intervening variables.
The factor whose effects we want know more about is called independent variable, while
the particular aspect of behaviour that is observed is called dependent variable (outcome
variable). For example, suppose we want to find out the effect of anxiety on the academic
performance of secondary school students. Anxiety is the independent variable, while academic
performance is the dependent variable. This method is scientific because it involves the use of
statistical manipulation that helps to reject or accept the hypotheses formulated.
Advantages of Experimental Method
1. It helps to isolate casual factors in a way no other method of investigation can.
2. It can also help to isolate specific uses because the complexities behaviour often exceeds the
researcher’s ability to control all the relevant factors in a single experiment.

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Limitations of Experimental Method
1. For ethical reasons, many experiments cannot be performed as subject may not be
available.
2. The control of intervening variables can be difficult.
3. Most often it is expected that the researcher should have knowledge of statistics,
essential in dealing with the hypothesis raised. Yet, not many researchers are interested
in statistics.
4. Psychological researchers are often affected by “experimental effect”. For instance,
human beings are sensitive to hurts and they know what is expected from the questions
raised in the research. So people tend to live up to or down to the experimental
expectation.
5. It is costly and time consuming.

Sampling Strategies in Research

This involves a representative selection from a given population. It is difficult to study the
human with precision given the size, diversity and his complexity. For instance: the study of say
all students who sat for the JAMB examination in 2003, or all married women in Abuja or
adolescents in Ilorin or all the final year students in Nigerian Universities. These are very large
population but it is possible to study these by sampling, and this involves selecting a
representative’s sample of 500,000. A representative sample of 540 Students may be used but it
has to be scientifically justified.
The most used type of sampling are Random sampling. It gives, the opportunity to
everyone in the population to be selected, and
Stratified sampling which gives possibility for every sub-group in the final population to be
represented in the final selection for the study. Careful selection of sampling from a population
helps determine the dependability of the research result.

Ethics of Psychological Research

As earlier mentioned, the study of human behaviour is complex, and human behaviour
could be manifest in various forms and in varying degree. For instance, behaviour could be
manifested in form of crying, depression, acute anxiety and rage. Research carried out by
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Zimbardo, Harvey and Banks (1973) confirm this claim. It was this research that actually prompted
the American Psychological Association to adopt a guideline that should be used when conducting
a research on a child.
(1) The Child has the right that supersedes the right of the researcher, no matter how
young the child is.
(2) The child should be made to understand the details involved in conducting the
research. That is he should be well informed.
(3) The child should be willing to participate in the research. That is the research should
respect the child’s freedom and seek his consent as well as those of his
parents/guardians.
(4) All information obtained about the participants should be kept in confidence.
(5) The research instrument must not be harmful to the participants in any way. Be it
physically or psychologically.
(6) The researcher should be careful in the presentation of results bearing in mind the
social, political and human implications.
(7) Finally, researchers must be sensitive to the use of deception and avoid getting
involved in the privacy of the participants.

DEVELOPMENT AND GROWTH

These two terms are used interchangeably and taken as synonymous. Both relate to the
measurement of changes that occur in an individual after conception. Psychologists believe that
development and growth have significant effects on a person’s behaviour and also his subsequent
adjustment to learning environment. While change is implied in both cases, in a strict sense these
two terms have different meanings.

S. No. Growth Development

1. Physical change Overall change in form and structure
2. Quantitative: increase in Qualitative: Improved working and
size, length, height and functioning. Movement from a less
weight advanced position to a higher one
3. Growth does continues throughout Development continues throughout
life life (Womb to Tomb)

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 4. Easy to Measure and observe Difficult to measure and observe
5. May or may not bring development Development is possible without growth as
e.g. a child ma grow and become fat seen in cases of children who a dwarfs. They
without any corresponding do not grow physically but improve
improvement in development functionally e.g speech, intelligence e.t.c.

6. Refer to changes which take place in Describes changes in the organism as a whole
particular aspects of the body and not in parts.
STAGES OF HUMAN GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT
For human beings, life starts from a fertilized ovum in the womb of the mother. As one grows,
and attains maturity, he moves from the dependency stage of childhood to adolescence and then
adulthood where he is supposed to play a responsible role in society. There are a number of stages
in the growth and development process of human beings. Each stage has its peculiar characteristics
and it is related to the next stage. Stages are as follows:-
Name of Stage Period and Approximate Age
1. Pre-natal Conception to Birth.
2. Infancy Birth -2 years
3. Childhood 3-12 years (till the onset of puberty)
4. Adolescent 13-19 (onset of puberty till maturity)
5. Adulthood 20 years- above

Principles of Development
The changes brought about in an individual by the process of growth and development tends to
follow some well defined principles. Some of them include:
Principle of Continuity: Development goes from womb to tomb and never ceases.
Principle of Individuation: Principle of individuation laid emphasis on the premises that
development is generally from generalized responses to localized responses. For instance, when
young, the child tends to react with his entire body, like in crying, rolling of the body and kicking
of leg etc - that is form general movement to specific movement. The same is true of how children
perceive things or the way the child sees or understands things. For example, a child tends to see
all women as mothers and all men as fathers.
Principle of Uniformity of Pattern/Maturation: The principles of maturation states that no stage
of a child’s development can be skipped, no matter the experiences the child passes through. This

18
mean that there are fixed phases a child must pass through as a result of natural unfolding of traits
and characteristics of an individual which may be attributed to heredity. For example, you cannot
make a child to walk until this phase is naturally reached. He must follow, most often the following
phases: sitting first, crawling, standing and walking. One may succeed but it is not possible to skip
the stage or phases.
Optimum Time Principle: For every aspect of development there is the idea of the best time at
which to begin training a child. For example, training a child to acquire a spoken language, we
should begin the training the training early enough to enable he child learn it accurately. The only
language the child learns at optimum time is the mother language and the child tends to know this
best.
If you teach a child to learn Ebira and Yoruba at the same time, he or she learns both easily
and also speaks both equally well. This is because both languages were learnt at the optimum time.
With optimum time principle, it is clear that it is more difficult to train an adult to write than with
a child. This is because at old age the muscles of the hands and fingers have became stiff while,
while that of the younger ones and flexible.
Principle of Anticipation: This principle is sometimes known as the principle of precocity.
Precocity means developing a skill or mastering an operation much earlier than expected. In
development, the child is said to look forward or anticipate what he would have to do in later life.
For example, the sounds or syllables the makes as a child is anticipation for normal speech he
makes when older than when he made the syllables or sounds.
Rate of Growth and development is not uniform: It proceeds more rapidly in the early years of
life but slows down in the later years of childhood. At the onset of puberty, there is again sudden
rise in the speed of growth and development.
Principle of Individual Differences: There exist wide individual differences among children with
respect to their growth and development. Each child grows at his own unique pace.
Principle of Developmental direction: Development is “cephalic caudal” as well as
“proximodistal.”
By cephalic caudal we that development proceeds in the direction of the longitudinal axis (head to
foot). A child first gain control over his head and arms then on his legs so that he can stand. By the
proximodistal tendency, it proceeds from the centre to the periphery. Control over fundamental

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muscles is first gained before smaller muscles needed for refined movement. E.g. control over
fingers comes after control over the arm and the hand.
Principle of Interrelation: growth and development in various dimensions like physical, mental,
social etc. are interrelated and interdependent. Changes in one dimension may affect other
dimensions. For example, children with above average intelligence are generally found to possess
above average physical and social development.
Educational Implications of the Principles of Growth and Development
For children, parents and teachers there are a wide range of educational meaning from the
principles.
1. Knowledge of these principles intimates us of possible individual differences with respect to
children’s growth and development. This must be considered while planning for their education.
2. It helps to know what to expect and when to expect from an individual child with respect to
his physical, mental, social development etc at different stages.
3. It helps us to know the direction as well as the general pattern of development. This will guide
us in locating the degree of abnormality in children and to take likewise remedial steps.
4. Principle of interrelation shows the interdependence of various aspects of growth and
development and the resulting harmony in personality development of the child. This warns us of
the consequence of developing a particular aspect at the cost of another.
5. Due to uniformity of pattern of growth and development, teachers, parents and children benefit
from knowing well ahead of time upcoming changes in their growth and development. This implies
greater readiness to cope.
6. Knowledge of the role of heredity and the environment in the process of growth and
development helps us to pay sufficient attention over the environmental conditions in the
upbringing of children.

SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT
The first signs of socially constructive behaviour are manifested early, when newly born babies
react to the cries of other babies by starting to cry themselves. It is widely believed that this
contagious crying is the earliest form if empathy, the sharing of another’s feelings, which is the

20
basis for helping and for a variety of other behaviours referred to as pro-social a major aspect of
the child’s socialization.
In this lecture socialization is perceived as the way by which a new born as he grows acquires the
capacity to live an acceptable life according to societal norms in terms of coexistence with the
members of immediate and global society. The discussion is based on nature, factors, and
predisposing conditions for acquisition of societal values in various ways conscious, unconscious,
direct, indirect, deliberate, intended or unintended means. It is noted that the discussion does not
follow the usual chronological order but highlights important concepts in socialization.
(a) Acquiring a Social Identity
Psychologists agree that socialization requires identification, a psychological process that
contributes to a sense of who one is and who one wants to be. Experts disagree however, about the
mechanisms by which identification is achieved. Four proposed mechanisms have figured most
prominent in discussions of this basic developmental process. These include differentiation,
affiliation, imitation and social learning.
(b) Sex Role Identify
Sex is an attribute that shapes many social roles, determining whether we are sons of daughters,
husbands or wives, girl friends. Sexual identity also influences our choice of work and our social
status. Because sexual identity is so central to adult experience, the question of how children
acquire the understanding that they are a boy or a girl and how they interpret that role is of great
interest to developmental psychologists. Usually at the early stage of sex-role identification, the
best children can think of how to get what they want is literally to take the place of the person they
want to be life. In this dimension boys use differentiation technique while girls make use of
affiliation technique.
(i) Identification through Differentiation
By far the best known account to identify formation is by Sigmund Freud (1964). Freud
believed that early in life, perhaps late in the first year, infants recognize that some objects
in the external world are like themselves. He called this primitive recognition, primary
identification. During the third year of life, secondary identification occurs. This
identification is the endeavour to mould a person’s ego after the fashion of another that has
been taken as a model. In other words, having noticed that a particular adult or perhaps an

21
 older child is somehow similar to themselves, children identify with that persons striving
to take on that person’s qualities.
According to Freud, in middle childhood, male children reach the next level of sex role
development, latency, by defending themselves against the perceived threats from angry fathers.
The change to latency requires the simultaneous operation of two defence mechanism. Freud’s
term for the psychological processes that people use in protecting themselves from unpleasant
thoughts. First, males use identification, a strong desire to look, act and feel like their fathers by
literally playing the role of the father. Secondly, the boy represses his feelings towards his mother.
He stops desiring total possession of her, thus removing the original source of guilt feelings. (ii)
Identification through Affiliation
Freud claimed that the key event in the development of a girl’s sex identity is triggered by
her discovery that she does not have a penis. According to this account the girl is mortified
by the comparison with boys’ far superior sex organ. She blames her mother for this
deficiency and transfers her love to her father. Then she competes with her mother for her
father’s affection.
Later, the girl overcomes her fear and guilt by suppressing her feelings for her father and
identifying with her mother. As a result of this sequence, Freud said a woman’s
psychological makeup never becomes as independent of its emotional wellbeing her initial
identification with her mother – as does a man’s. This, Freud believed render women an
undeveloped version of men. He concluded that women shows less sense of justice than
men, that they are less ready to submit to the great exigencies of life, and that they are more
often influenced in their judgment by feelings of affection or hostility. All these and more
often influenced in their judgment by feelings of affection or hostility. All these are
characteristics that females adopt by affiliation from mothers or other women folk.
(iii) Identification through Observation and Imitation
Sigmund Freud is not the only exponent of the explanation of identification.
Another explanation is the one presented by the social learning theorists. According to this
theory, it is assumed that the process of identification is not driven by inner conflict, but is
simply a matter of observation and imitation.
Exercise 1
a) What is Socialization?
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 b) List the four methods (mechanisms) by which a child acquires identity?

Albert Bandura (1969, 1986), Walter Mischel (1966) and other social learning theorists believe
that behaviour is shaped by environment just as behaviour is. According to this view, children
observe that male and female behaviour differs. Further, children learn that boys and girls are
rewarded differently by adults for different kinds of behaviour so they choose to engage in sex
appropriate behaviours that will lead to rewards. In Bandura’s view the ability to learn from
observation depends upon several factors: (a) Availability
The behaviour to be learned must be available in the child’s environment either directly or through
a medium such as a book or television programme. (b) Attention
Children cannot learn from observation unless they pay attention to the model (the mother, the
father or the peer group) and perceive the significant features of the behaviour in question. A child
often needs repeated observation before determining the significant features of a complex
behaviour.
(c) Memory
Observation will have no lasting effect if children immediately forget what they observe. Bandura
believes that when children have a name for modeled events, their observation becomes especially
effective and memorable. Significantly, early childhood is the time when children are acquiring
both language and knowledge of basic social categories and their memory capacities are also
increasing.
(d) Motor Reproduction Process
Observation shows the child which behaviours to imitate. However, if a behaviour is too complex,
the child will usually not try to form it. (e) Motivation
For imitation and subsequent learning to occur, the observer must perceive some pay off.
Motivation, like learning, can occur by observing the experiences of others. Exercise
2
In Bandura’s view, the ability to learn from observation depends upon social factors. List any four
of them.

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(c) Agent of Socialization
Socialization is a process by which children acquire behaviours, attitudes and values; a process of
acculturation which enables individuals to function effectively as members of the society, become
internalized by various methods and techniques which are often called agents of socialization. Six
of these will be discussed in this lesson:
(i) Parenting Styles
The role of parents in the socialization of the child is generally acclaimed. One of the best known
programmes on the consequences of different parenting styles was conducted by Diana Edmund
(1967, 1980). The study involved observation of children in nursery school at home after dinner
till bed time and on interview of parents on their beliefs and practices with children.
Using a 72 item behaviour scale, an analysis resulted in 3 main parenting styles viz:
(a) Authoritarian Parents
These try to shape, control and evaluate the behaviour and attitudes of their children according to
set standard. They stress the importance of obedience and used punitive measures to curb
children’s willfulness. This become a standard norm for differentiation of affiliation as discussed
earlier.
(b) Authoritative Parents
This assume that parents have more knowledge and skills, control resources, have more physical
power but believe the rights of children and parents are reciprocal. Unlike authoritarian parents,
these are less likely to use punitive method and physical punishment. They control behaviour,
explain rules, decisions and reasoning. They are willing to listen to their children, set high
standards and encourage independence and individualism.
(c) Permissive Parents
These exercise less control than the other two because they either think children should behave
through their own experience, or do not take the trouble to provide discipline. They leave children
to determine their own schedules and activities, demand less achievement and put up with less
mature behaviour of their children.
In this research it was discovered that each parenting style is related to distinct child behaviour
and socialization viz:

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 (1) Children of authoritarian parents tend, to lack social competence in dealing with other
children. They rarely take initiative and in moral matters, look outside for standards. They
lack spontaneity and intellectual curiosity.
(2) Children of authoritative parents seem to be more self-reliant, self-controlled, willing to
explore, and more self-content than those raise by authoritarian and permissive parents. This
difference could be due to the fact that while authoritative parents set high standards for their,
children they also explain to them they are being rewarded and punished. These explanations
tend to improve children’s understanding and acceptance of the social values.
(3) Children of permissive parents relatively tend to be immature, had difficulty in controlling
their impulses, accepting responsibility for social actions or acting independently.

(ii) Socialization in a Single-Parent Family

Majority of single parent homes are the product of divorce. Other sources could be an off-spring
of unmarried mother, separated family or widowed parents. Unfortunately, most of the single
parent family is headed by women and this is basically the source of the problems which go to
affect the child’s socialization. Some of the effects of single parent home include:
(a) financial strain, whereby the financial resources of two become that of one.
(b) the mother in a single parent household is often socially isolated and lonely without support
when her children question her authority. Of course, the male child will have difficulty of
identification.
(c) she has one to act as buffer between her and her children when she is not functioning well.
The direct effect is on the children who needed good support.
(d) the children receive less adult attention and are involved in fewer joint activities with adults.
(e) children of divorce homes lose out an important kind of social and intellectual stimulation in
addition to obtaining less guidance and assistance.
(f) family feud before and after divorce from major risk factors in social development of children.
All the above are indicators of the importance of family in the training and eventual socialization
of the child. The effect of divorced home experience of later life (adult) development of individual
is still receiving great attention from psychologists. (iii) Role of Peers

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The role of peers in socialization is readily seen in the work of Harry Harlow with infant monkeys.
Such monkeys that are deprived of stimulation of sight sounds and prevented from social
relationships with other monkeys developed among other things.
(a) Abnormal motor behaviour
(b) Fearful
(c) Played very little with other monkeys
(d) Inability to engage in normal sex activities
Whereas an analogous result has been obtained with children the method of behaviour
modification has been further researched. Such monkeys and children were seen to improve when
attached to smaller monkeys or children as smaller children are less threatening. Also, less timid
and younger children were found to help socialize and train the older time ones.
The damaging effect of absence of friendship has also been researched on. It would seem that
children who have no friends or who are extremely unpopular are likely to have school or
behaviour problems. As adults, they stand greater change of having psychological problems. What
factors influence children popularity? Unfortunately, most of these are variables. The child has
little control on, for example, physical attractiveness and names, negative interactions,
daydreaming, fearfulness and shyness. (iv) Schooling
Researches on Day Care Centers and Nursery schooling has provided a most clear-cut effect of
these institutions in the realm of social development of children. Results indicated that children
who enjoy these early age institutions tend to be more:
(a) Self – sufficient
(b) More independent of parents and teachers
(c) More helpful and cooperative with peers
(d) More verbally expressive
(e) More knowledgeable about social world
(f) More comfortable in new situations
(g) More aggressive
These effects may vary with the quality of day care and the involvement of parents. Of
course the more involved the parents the greater the effect on social development of the child. A
similar result as the above was the result in the study of nursery children. In addition, to improve
socialization of such children, it was also discovered that such children had higher intelligence

26
scores, were better in mathematics, unlikely to be placed in remedial classes and had higher
occupational aspirations.
(v) The Mass Media
Newspapers, magazines, books, television, radio, films also serve as socialization agents.
They too, communicate values and standards of behaviours that influence the individual. The mass
media are growing in importance. But at present, its effect depends very much on the
socioeconomic level of the parents. Children from lower socio-economic levels are unlikely to be
greatly influenced.
(iv) Reference Group
A reference group is a group with whom a person identifies and whose attitudes and values
be or she tends to adopt. People usually act out their social role with reference to more groups.
They may not even belong to the group, yet as long as they identify with its standards and attitudes,
the reference group will continue to influence their behaviour and providing socialization
experience. In the school system, a senior class in the secondary school, a club, the

College Prefects Group or students of a special school easily make one another reference groups.
Exercise 3
List any five socializing agents.
(d) Social Dimension of Ability to Regulate One’s Self
The ability to regulate one’s self as a process of socialization is readily appreciated in the process
of internalization and self-control concept. Children at the end of infancy become sensitive to
society’s standards of good and bad even when they are not explicitly instructed, or have not yet
seen how those in authority will respond to a particular act. Instead, they begin to anticipate adult’s
reactions and plan their own actions accordingly. Once children want both to conform to adult
wishes and are able to anticipate adult reactions, they are said to have internalized adult standards.
In other words, they have succeeded in gaining self-control. Freud conceived of internalization in
terms of development of conscience. According to him, conscience once developed through
internalization forever divided the child within himself by establishing an inner voice of self-
observation, self-guidance and punishment. This is a very high state of socialization.
Self control:

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Macooby (1980) attempted to identify four kinds of inhibitions that preschoolers begin to master
in the process of gaining self control. Socialization becomes more advanced the moment the
developing child is able to control certain inhibitions. For example:
(i) Inhibition of Movement
A number of studies have shown that it is easier for small children to start an action than to stop
one already in progress. Thus a child who does not know when or how to stop an action is likely to
have problems.
(ii) Inhibition of Emotion
In the preschool period, children begin to gain control over the intensity of their emotions. The
more emotions the child is able to control, the more sociable and the more stabilized. (iii)
Inhibition of Conclusions
Before the age of 6, children presented with a difficult problem tend to respond quickly failing to
note that the task is more difficult then it seemed at first glance. In other words, they are more
impulsive. As children grow older, they slow down to reflect on the problem and improve their
performance. They rush less at giving solutions to problems. It is an indication of advanced
socialization.
(iv) Inhibition of Choice
An important element of adult self-control is the knowledge that it is often better to pass shortterm
gratification for a larger long-term goal. Thus, most infants will prefer a smaller gift (cake)
immediately, than wait a few hours for a much larger and better cake.
The ability to be able to postpone payoffs which is better than what is available at present is an
indication of advanced social development.
(e) Development of Aggression
The idea that one person commits an action that hurts another may not simply be called
aggression, since not all ways in which one person hurts another counts as aggression. For example,
a teething baby who bites the mother’s breast while nursing and cause pain will not be said to have
been aggressive. In the real sense, to be counted as aggressive, a behaviour must be intended to
harm others. Normally, aggression begins only after children understand that they can be the cause
of other’s distress. To be aggressive, children must know that they can get others do what they want
to causing them distress.
As children mature two forms of aggression appear:
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(i) Instrumental Aggression: This is directed at obtaining something desirable, for example,
hitting another child to obtain a toy.
(ii) Hostile Aggression: Sometimes called ‘person oriented’ aggression: This is more specifically
aimed at hurting another person, either for revenge or as a way of establishing dominance, which
in the long run may gain the aggressor possession.
Between 12 and 24 months of age, tantrums, which were not directed at anyone in particular were
children’s most common expression of anger. But by 4 years, some 20 percent of the children’s
outbursts are directed at a particular person whom they perceived as doing them wrong.
Between 3 and 6 years, the expression of aggression undergoes several related changes. First
physical tussles over possessions decrease, while the amount of verbal aggression increases.
Second, hostile aggression becomes evident. Studies have indicated that boys were more
aggressive than girls, both physically and verbally.
(f) Causes of Aggression
The causes of aggression are summarized under evolutionary explanation, rewarding
aggression and modelling.
(i) Evolution
Because all animals are involved in aggressive behaviour, researchers have said that it is an
important mechanism of evolution. Because each individual is in some sense competing with every
other individual for the resources for survival reasons, and reproduction, evolution would seem to
favour competitive and selfish behaviour.
(ii) Rewarding aggression
This is related to social learning view. It is that aggression is learned because it is often rewarding
to the aggressor. This is more so if each aggression is followed with reward or reinforcement for
the aggressor, for example, in form of giving or retreating. Such victories increase probability of
repeat performance. But if aggressive behaviour is negatively reinforced, the probability of a repeat
is much less.
(iii) Modelling
Evidence for this type of aggression is from parents who inadvertently teach their children to
behave aggressively by modelling aggressive behaviour in the act of punishing them. The work of
Albert Bandura is illustrative of this process. Simply given, parents who are violent with their
children who shout at these children, who prefer canes, who have no time for discussion or

29
reasoning, are by so doing, breeding children who become extremely aggressive. It is related to
social learning.
Incidentally, the same theories that attempt to explain aggression also point to mechanisms that
are likely to be effective in controlling it for example, punishment. When aggression is punished
or unrewarded, but the person who suffers aggression is given attention and favour, aggression is
likely to be abated. This is synonymous with reward of non aggressive behaviour. The frustration
and catharsis myth is another suggested way of abating aggressive behaviour. In this, aggression
is thwarted before it ever materialize by the observer or experimenter. This could be in form if a
sympathetic reinterpretation of an emerging situation in other to dissipate anger and aggression
which may result. (g) Development of Pro-Social Behaviour
Pro-social behaviour can be summed up as ‘kindly’ behaviour. For example, when a child of four
offers his biscuit to another age mate who is crying because a dog snatched his, they are engaging
in prosocial behaviour. A great part of pro-social behaviour is seen in the process of empathy. This
is a major stimulus for human pro-social behaviour, that is, the sharing of another’s emotional
response. As children develop, their ability to emphasize broadens and they become better able to
interpret and respond appropriately to the distress of others.
(i) Development of Empathy
Four stages are distinguishable in the development of empathy.
(a) First year of life. This is before children become aware of the existence of others. Typical
example of empathy at this stage is the response cry of an infant who hears another infant
cry. Empathy at this stage is akin to innate reflexes since infants do not have any
understanding of the feelings of others.
(b) Second year. At this stage, a look at a distressed person is understood by an observer infant
who turns round to comfort the other infant. This is momentary as he is unable to keep
other people’s point of view in mind for a long time.
(c) Fourth and fifth year. Development of language and other symbols equip the child with
ability to empathize with a wider range of feelings even for people not present.
(h) Promoting Pro-Social Behaviour
Adults are always anxious to encourage children’s pro-social behaviour. Two methods that have
been shown to be effective by recent researches are explicit modelling in which adults behave in

30
ways they desire the child to imitate and induction, which is the giving of explanations that appeal
to children’s pride, their desire to be grown-ups and their concern for others. Studies have indicated
that when the training is carried out in a nuturant, loving way children showed the effects of the
training as long as two weeks later. This provides the evidence that the effects of modelling can
last for sometime.
Application of induction strategies in which adult attempt to reason with children, has usually been
carried out with older children. However, a study of early pro-social behaviours in the home found
that the children of mothers who attempted to induce pro-social behaviour did, in fact, perform
more pro-social acts.
It is worth remembering that in real like outside of research settings, the strategies to increase pro-
social behaviour do not occur in isolation from efforts to decrease aggressive behaviour. Rather a
great variety of techniques are likely to occur in combination with each other, creating diverse
overall patterns of socializing influences.
PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT AND THEORIES INTRODUCTION
Personality, as the unique characteristic which makes an individual what he is in an important
aspect of human development, like socialization. Most text books treat personality as a dimension
of socialization.
(a) Definition
Have you ever heard a friend tell you or comment that: ‘That speaker has a personality?’ What do
you understand by this? Do you consider personality as something which only some people have
and others do not have? No! Personality is a dimension which every human being has. This is why
personality is defined as the sum total of enduring characteristics that make an individual what he
is, has been and will become. It is a dimension of socialization. Therefore to say that a person has
personality is redundant and verbose. All living individuals have personality. According to Freud,
personality can be considered as the expression of two conflicting forces viz: life instinct and death
instinct. This is a basic psychodynamic theory.
Therefore in general terms the unique characteristics which make up the personality of an
individual may include: physical, roles, qualities, attributes, habit, politeness, submissiveness,
talkativeness, integration in terms of mental, physical, moral, emotional and social qualities as
manifested in individuals to other people. It includes also self concept, attitudes, values and

31
ambition. Don’t you think you have some of the above? They are all an expression of your
personality.
(b) Determinants of Personality
Every child has certain endowment that helps him to develop his personality as he grows and
interacts with his environment. Personality is derived in part through identification with a variety
of people. The child gradually finds himself as he experiments with various roles and finally
achieves personality at least in connection with his dominant values. The following are some of
the factors in general terms that influence personality development:
(i) Inherited Capacity
The question: What makes a man or a woman? Why is man different from other animals – goats,
sheep, baboon, camel? Heredity is the important factor for these major difference between man
and animals. If you are an offspring of man then you will definitely grow to become a man. We
have made reference to characteristics which makes up personality, physical, mental, moral
attitudes, values, ambition – all these are characteristics that man exhibit. If you are not a human
being these will in a great majority be absent from your personal make up.
(ii) The Home
The foundation for personality is unquestionably set in the home. The extent to which the child
comes in contact with the family and others is likely to provide the most powerful formative
influence on personality development. Besides determining the child’s development, the home is
a major factor in accelerating or retarding all aspects of the child’s development. Think of morals,
habits, dressing, attitudes and emotional state. All these are greatly influenced by the family.
Radke’s (1946) findings concerning the influence of various parental patterns on child
development given an insight into the important influence of the family on development of the
child’s personality:
a) The rejecting home – promotes submissiveness, feelings of insecurity, nervousness, and
non compliance.
b) Overprotecting home promotes infantile and withdrawal reactions. Submissiveness,
feelings of insecurity jealousy and nervousness.
c) Dominating parents – children are shy, submissive, polite and self-conscious

32
 d) Submissive parents, have aggressive, careless, disobedient, independent and selfconfident
children
e) Disharmonious homes promote aggressive, neurotic, jealous, delinquent, and
uncooperative children
f) Harmonious homes promote co-operation, good adjustment, superior achievement and
independence
g) Defective home discipline promotes poorly adjusted, aggressive, jealous, delinquent, and
neurotic children
All the above are indications of the effect of the home on personality development.
(iii) Cultural Factor
A child who is forced to move about with his parents from one environment to the other is bound
to come in contact with new culture which will influence his personality development. A person
who has not learned the appropriate sex role or who has not developed adequate independence or
social skills may be considered to have poor personality with respect to any society which makes
these demands upon its members.
(iv) The School
The school play an important role in providing a relatively objective basis form which the child
can find his bearings and assess his potentialities for growth. The school provides identifying
figures by establishing good pupil-teacher relationships, maintaining a healthy school atmosphere
and avoiding unpleasant and frustrating experiences.
The teachers can also influence their pupil’s personality development by having democratic
attitudes towards them, by being friendly and considerate, by being impartial, by having good
humour, good manner and good citizenship in the school community.
(v) Crisis in the Individual’s Life
This is very important in the development of independent and self-reliant personality. Such crises
tragedies and events like death of a parent or parent’s serious illness, birth of a new child in the
family, failure, success and others affect the personality of the child.
It is here that over protection becomes a great liability and independence and adventure and
struggles become assets in strengthening personality.

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(vi) The Peer Group
There is great importance in the type of group societies, cliques or gangs a child associates with.
This is because the group provides natural figure for identification purpose. Manners, habits,
moral, attitudes aspirations are thereby greatly modified by group standards. Better understanding
of personality development call for examination of some of the theories that have explained how
personality is acquired and developed from infancy to old age. The behaviouristic view is the first
to be treated in this respect.

Psychosocial Theory of Personality Development

Erick Erickson was a student of Sigmund Freud. Both of them researched on personality. Erickson
preferred to work on an area which his teacher Sigmund Freud overlooked in the development of
personality. Erickson’s work is based on the social dimension of personality development.
Psychosocial theory deals with developmental tasks which individuals come across as growth and
development takes place. Every human being is supposed to go through the task identified by
Erickson and it is failure or success in these tasks that is directly related to an individual’s
personality. The tasks are related to what Erickson referred to as psychosocial dilemma. These are
crises at each stage of life depending on the task that is to be accomplished. According to Erickson,
revolving these crises creates a new balance between a person and the social world. An
unfavourable outcome throws one off balance and makes it harder to deal with later crises (tasks).
A string of successes produces healthy development of personality and a satisfying life. Those who
are faced with unfavourable outcomes may experience life as a rocky road. These stages that every
man is supposed to pass through and successfully for development of amiable personality are eight,
viz:
Stage one: first year of life. Trust v. Mistrust: during the first year of life, the child is completely
dependent. This is when the basic attitude of trust and mistrust develops. Regular satisfaction of
babies needs coupled with adequate warmth, love and physical care give a sense of safety and
security. The opposite, coldness indifference, rejection, hostility breeds insecurity suspiciousness
and difficulty to relate with others. As it were these early experiences are generalized and are
evident in an individual’s personality.
Stage two: 1 – 3 years. Autonomy v. shame and doubt: the growth and development of bones and
muscles place the child in a position of relative freedom of movement and ability to explore the
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environment. Autonomy is encouraged by placing the child in a position where he tries new skills
coupled with reassurance by the parent even if he fails, however, over protection, testing, ridicule
does create problems. This brings about feelings of shame of their actions and consequent doubt
of one abilities. Thus feelings of shame and doubt are the unfavourable outcome of this stage.
Stage three 3- 5 years. Initiative v. Guilt: normal personality development according to the
psychosocial theory excepts accomplishment or success in the earlier stage before getting to the
next stage. Failure to have this does lead to personality problems. Therefore, the simple selfcontrol
of stage 2 leads to an ability to take initiative. Initiative is reinforced giving freedom to play, ask
questions, use imaginations and choose activities. Emotional handicap is however created by
severe criticism and discourage play and radical questions. This brings about feelings that their
play, ideas, or questions are silly or stupid and therefore ashamed. This feeling of guilt is also
created when they feel that their actions are taken as nuisance by parents.
Stage four: 6-12 years: Industry v. Inferiority: the gateway to primary school open series of new
challenges. This is entrance to life. The challenges and skills are those valued by the society and
success of failure can have lasting effects on feelings of adequacy. To win praise for getting high
scores for good reading for answering questions which are rewarded open up the sense of industry
or the child. But if accomplishment are regarded as messy, unimpressive, childish or inadequate –
feelings of inferiority results. Appearance in primary school signal the importance of other people.
Classmates, teachers, adults, outside the home other than parents in the shaping of the child’s
attitude toward himself is an important index of personality development. Stage five:
Adolescence, Identity v. Role Confusion: the youth faces unique problems during the stage
between childhood and adulthood. His major task this time is to develop a sense of identify out of
self perception and relations with others. The totality of which is the ability for him to answer the
question ‘who am I? Inability to develop a sense of identity leads to role confusion – an uncertainty
about who they are and where they are going. This tend to lead to over identity and emulation of
social heroes. Identity is aided at this stage by available opportunities for exploration.
Stage 6: Young Adulthood: Intimacy v. Isolation: after establishing a stable identity comes the
need for intimacy – a need which requires the ability to care about others and a willingness to share
experiences with them. Marriage is however no guarantee for intimacy as many marriages are
nothing but partnerships. Failures to establish intimacy means isolation – a state of feeling alone
and uncared for in life.
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Stage 7: Middle Adulthood. Generativity v. Stagnation: interests in guiding the next generation –
generativity is the main source of balance at this stage. In general this means the ability to care for
one’s self, one’s children and having a clear goal for the future. Generally, this need includes caring
for other’s children, contributing to welfare of others and society and engagement in some
productive and creative work. Failure to develop these abilities implies stagnation – a state of
confined concern for one’s self. This could lead to loss of meaning in life and one feels bitter
abandoned and dreary. This is a poor personality.
Stage 8: Late Adulthood Integrity v. Despair: the previous seven stages are the index of successful
aging. He who has lived a rich and responsible life attain integrity at this stage. This helps to face
death with dignity. The opposite situation lead to despair – a feeling of lost opportunities in life of
failure and feelings of hopelessness which is irreversible. Aging and the threat of death then
become a source of fear and depression. This is unlike the individual who achieved integrity.
Generally, old age is a time of life review – during which vivid memories of earlier events bring
to the surface unresolved questions conflicts and issues. At this stage older people re-evaluate the
meaning of life and ideally find new meaning that reduce fear and anxiety and prepare them for
facing death.
It is importance to recognize the comprehensive nature of Erickson’s work. Unlike other
psychologists he was convinced that personality development does not stop at adolescent. His
exposition indicated that in all life stages there are newer challenges which is successfully faced
leads to distinct personality and if there is failure in meeting the challengers a difficult personality
emerges. Certainly, a life that is filled with integrity is distinct and quite different in substance with
life that is filled with despair.

Sigmund Freud’s work on personality development has been generally acclaimed because of many
reasons one of which are the unique concepts in his work and the interesting and amusing
explanations he gave to most of them. The interest in Freud’s work is in spite of the fact that the
major concepts in his work are unobservable and even difficult to put to test. Things such as the
ego, id, superego, the subconscious, the Oedipus complex, and others are really theoretical
concepts.

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The Freudian explanation of development of personality is chronological in nature and spans
through six definite stages, which terminate at adolescence. The interest in Freud’s work is
heightened with his discussion of psychological defence mechanism, a major aspect of personality.
(a) The structure of personality
The work of Freud began with the discussion of the structure of personality. Freud wants us to
understand what makes up the personality. These include the Id, the Ego and the Superego.
According to Freud, the major part of personality cannot be totally explained by the interplay of
the conscious, preconscious or the unconscious part of man, neither is the explanation limited to
the interplay of life and death instincts. In his search of clarifying human behavior, personality,
Freud went further to explain that the mind also involves an interaction between three main
components which form the structure of personality. These are the Id, the Ego, and the superego.
(i) The Id

This is the first structure of personality as given by Sigmund Freud. The Id is characterized by:
i. being unconscious and inherited
ii. instinctual urges especially sexual and aggressive instincts
iii. lack of contact with reality
iv. lack of no values, morals, logic and it is rationality
v. always bent on satisfying all immediate gratification in terms of the good things
of life for the individual. This is called the ‘pleasure principle’ which the Id
always obey.
vi. Lack commonsense and therefore places human beings in jeopardy of
retaliation from the environment. Freudian explanations indicated that the Id is
natural, primitive, unlearned and self-preserving. Thus the idea of wanting the
best for oneself, being at advantage, getting all that an individual feels he/she
should get whether morally right or wrong are all the activities of the Id. It is
present in all individuals. Indeed to be governed completely by the Id is for a
youth to be delinquent, anti social or become sub-human.
(ii) The Ego
Freud indicated that the activities of the Id is moderate by the work or ego – the executor as it is
called. The Id cannot possibly help itself. It must depend on the ego for execution of all its motives.

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But the ego will not execute all motives without questioning. It brings to awareness social norms,
the consequences that could result and the available strategies for execution. Whether the will of
Id will be carried out or not depends on the relative powers of the Id and the ego. Other
characteristics of the ego are the following:
i. It makes up for the shortcomings of the Id
ii. Discharges the urges of the Id in a less brutish and irrational ways than that proposed by
the Id.
iii. It is organized, rational and reality oriented
iv. It employs learning, memory and perception to satisfying the individual’s needs
v. It operates on reality principle, that is, it always defers the gratification of the Id until the
time, place, and methods are right.
vi. Contains large conscious elements unlike their…
vii. Has delicate role. While satisfying the demands of the Id, the safety and the integrity of
the organism must be upheld. The individual urge to become rich easily by breaking into
the bank safe must be planned by the ego such that in executing the robbery the individual
is not caught.
From the above, you can appreciate the working of the mind of human being which
reflects personality. It is the reality of this explanation that makes Freud’s work to be unique.
(iii) The Superego
The superego is readily known as the judge as ego is known as the executive. Whether the will of
Id will be carried out or not depends on the relative powers of the Id and ego. But the activities of
the Id are also always tempered by the activities of the superego - the judge. This is the aspect of
personality that weighs the relative merit or limitations of a given action contemplated by the id.
The following characteristics of the super ego are noteworthy:
(i) Largely based on conscious instincts
(ii) Represents the ideas and values of the society transmitted by parents and recognized
authorities.
(iii) Has two sections: ‘conscience’ – made up of the acts punished by parents and therefore
give guilt feelings. ‘Ego ideal’ made up of acts reinforced by parents. It is the source of
self-pride and personal worth.

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 (iv) Concerned with morality, not necessarily reality. It moderates excesses of the id.
(v) Pressurizes the ego to execute only morally acceptable acts.
(vi) Motivate individuals to strive for perfection.
The Freudian theory called psychoanalytic theory explains that these three structures work
together to bring about any action behavior which is a feature of personality. The goal is a balance
whether possible, but the relative strength of each determines any consequent action. For example,
the individual who thinks of getting rich fast is prompted by the id to think of a bank robbery. The
ego immediately makes known the risks involved and brings to awareness possible means of
success. But the super ego – the judge, decides and makes known that burglary is a crime, a social
evil, unacceptable in the society. The above illustrates the conflicts which must be resolved in the
theory.

(b) The Dynamics of Personality

The interaction of the three structures that make up personality is important in the understanding
of the development of personality. The interaction of the id, ego and the super ego clearly explains
aspects of human characteristics and behavior which are the bases of our personality. Since the
three structures are represented in individuals it would seem the role of the ego is not easy, but
very necessary and dangerous. For example, if it allowed the id or super ego to always gain the
upper hand the individual will surely come to grief. In other words, just as the delinquent
adolescent or adult who is always controlled by the id gratification will have serious resistance in
the society so the idealist, morality or ardent critic of the society finds difficulty in human
interaction – necessity for good adjustment. In other words, a good adjustment is not likely to result
from the excesses of either the id or the super ego. Therefore, the three structure cannot decide to
go their own separate ways. The result, for better or worse, gives the adult human personality.
Finally, it should be remembered that the structure are not really little people in the head of actual
entities in human being. Freud was dealing with human instincts and the id, ego, and super ego are
merely concepts devised by Sigmund Freud to describe processes he inferred for human behaviour.
(c) Freudian Developmental Stages of Personality
Sigmund Freud considered sexuality as important in childhood and this was how he developed his
theory now being considered and called psychosexual development of personality made up of five
stages, the oral, anal, phaliclatency and genital. According to him, at each stage, a different parts

39
of the body become an exogenous zone (an area capable of producing pleasure). Each then serves
as the principal source of pleasure, frustration and self expression. Furthermore each stage is
marked by the investment of energy (libido) in the particular parts of the body. Should individual
experience difficulty in graduating through a particular stage, the possibility increases that certain
adverse characteristics symptoms will develop.
It is important that effort is made to gratify each of the stages. However, excessive gratification at
a given psychosexual stage may result in the individual becoming ‘Fixated’ (stagnate) at that level.
In other cases, failure to receive proper gratification at a given level may lead the individual to
forever seek those lost pleasures. This is why Freud felt that many adult personality traits can be
traced to fixation in one or more of the psychosexual stages. Fixation implies unresolved conflict
or emotional hang-up caused by over indulgence of frustrations. This following are the
psychosexual stages of personality given by Freud: (i) The Oral Stage 1-18 months
This is a dependency stage. Most of the infant’s pleasures came from stimulation of the mouth,
lips, and tongue. Sucking and swallowing become the chief means of reducing tension. When
weaning begins, it can be traumatic if handled poorly by parents. Some possible negative outcome
of this stage include passivity and strong dislike for various foods. Furthermore, the adult
expression of oral needs in later life include gum, chewing, nail biting, smoking, kissing over
eating and alcoholism – all of which are personality dimensions.
Various types of fixations are possible during this stage. Early fixation result in oral dependent
personality characterized by trustful and dependent on others. Improper care of course leads to
aggressive behaviour. In general terms, proper care in rearing children at this stage will lead to
desired behaviour in their personality.

(ii) The Anal Stage 1-4 ½ years

During this stage, the final weaning of the child occurs and a sibling may be on its way too. This
calls for urgency in the child overcoming toilet training. The pressure attached to this calls for the
functioning of the ego as the id can not longer be easily gratified. When parents attempt toilet
training, the child can gain approval or express rebellion or aggression by ‘holding on’ or ‘letting
go’. Therefore, harsh or indulgent toilet training may establish such responses as personality traits.
For example, there is the anal-retentive (holding on) personality which turns out to be characterized

40
by being obstinate, stingy and compulsively clean. The oral expulsive (letting go) personality is
disorderly, destructive cruel or messy.
During this stage, the super ego has begun to emerge. This is why sometimes even after the anal
stage has been mastered the child is able to punish the parent by choosing to what to be in the toilet
at the wrong time.
(iii) The Phallic Stage Age 4-7 ½ years
During this stage, there is an increased interest in sexual matters, especially the genitalia. The
child begins rubbing, pulling, touching and exhibiting the genitalia. Sometimes there is interest in
the parent’s genitalia too and he is often found peeping into bathroom when the opposite sexed
adult is engaged or found accidentally opening the bathroom door. He also begins to sense that
babies are not made in heaven but rather is a more concrete way which he seeks to understand.
This development leads to an increase in the boy’s interest and closeness to the mother which often
upsets the father (and sometimes) the (mother too). If warned, he becomes aware of the father’s
jealousy. Recognizing that the father is bigger and has greater authority, a fear that his genitalia
will be cut (castration anxiety) gets hold of him. This makes him to avoid the father but come
closer to the mother. Freud called this Oedipus complex after the figure in Greek tragedy who
murdered his father and married his mother.
The relevance of the phallic stage to personality is the concept of ‘identification’ that the boy must
resolve to accept as a means of resolving his anxiety. The boy must learn to identify with the father
for two reasons.
(a) To ward off punishment from the father
(b) To permit him a means of possessing the mother. If he learns to behave like the father,
adopt his goals, values and manners, he would succeed at winning the love of the mother.
This is therefore the beginning of the building up off a personality consistent with his/her
sex.
The concept of electra complex – attempt to explain the attachment of daughters to fathers.
She has come to realize that her own genitalia has already been castrated and the mother was
responsible. It was therefore needless or dangerous coming close to her. Freudians felt this is
a probable explanation of the generally held view that girls experience a lifelong ambivalence
(dislike) for their mothers. Psychoanalysts often assert that the girl’s attachment to the father

41
is based on ‘penis envy’ and it is suggested that women are throughout life always seeking for
penis substitute in form of power, envy of the male role and devaluation of self because of
inadequate anatomy and the desire to have a baby. However, just as the boy eventually resolved
the conflict by rational identification with the father, so the girl come to realize that her
castration is permanent, she needed to enter a more complex relationship with the mother. She
identifies with her and is sure that doing this will also guarantee her relationship with the father.
She learns to take up women values, manners and goals. She by this develops something close
to feminine personality.
(iv) Latency Stage – Age 6 ½ puberty
This is actually not a stage but represents a period in which psychosexual development is
temporarily interrupted. This is difficult to accept. Granted this is the beginning of formal
schooling during which new associations and values are formed, a period of intensive
socialization. It is possibly that what Freud implied is that this is a relatively quiet time
compared to the earlier stormy years. Perhaps the latency is more true for boys than girls.
Boys are more frequently seen playing with boys unlike girls.
(v) The Genital Stage (Adolescence)
Development here is based on the hormonal changes. Sex interest at this stage is unlike what
operates in earlier stages. At this stage, it could begin with masturbation. The stage is often a
trying time filled with emotion and turmoil often innocently caused by the parental authority.
The ultimate development in this stage is a mature interest in heterosexual relationships,
courtship, marriage and a family.
Comparison of Psychosexual (Freud) and Psychosocial (Erickson) Stages of Development
Approx. Freud (Psychosexual) Erickson Psychosocial) Age
Age 01 Oral Stage: The mouth is the focus of the Trust v. Mistrust: Infants learn to trust or baby’s
pleasurable sensations. Sucks mistrust others to care for their basic needs.
Age 2 Anal Stage: The anus is the focus of Autonomy v. Shame/doubt: Children learn
pleasurable sensations. Elimination to exercise their will and to control self or
controlled. uncertain/doubt ability to do things
themselves.
Age 3 – 6 Phallic Stage: Children develop sexual Initiative and Guilt: Learn self initiated
curiosity. Gratification by masturbation. activities. If not allowed feel guilty for
Fantasy about parent of opposite sex. attempt at independence.
Guilt

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 Age 07 Latency: Sexual urges are submerged. Industry v. Inferiority: Children learn to
Puberty Children focus on mastery of skills be competent and effective at activities
valued by adults. valued by adults, peers or feel inferior.
Ageless Genital Stage: Adolescence have adult Identify v. Confusion: Personal identity
sexual desires and they seek to satisfy established as part of social groups. Or
them. become confused about who they are or
want to be in life.
Early Adult Find intimate life companion or risk
loneliness/isolation
Middle Age Generativity v. Stagnation: Need to be
productive and raise next generation or risk
stagnation.
Old age Integrity v. Despair: Reflect no meaningful
life or despair for ill spent life.

PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT IN ADOLESCENTS

The term adolescence has no clear-cut definition. For instance, is a 14 year old mother an
adolescent? Is a 27 year old unemployed graduate an adolescent? Apparently, adolescence as we
know it is modern concept that grew out of several social institutions established in response to the
Industrial Revolution (Hothersall, 1985).
The concept of adolescence is a shifting one, depending not only on cultural factors but
also on the person’s own self-perception. For example, an individual may feel like an adolescent
in one situation such as participation in rioting and like an adult in another situation such as,
attending an interview for a job. Any definition of adolescence must, therefore allow for such
variations.
Generally, psychologists define adolescence as a period of rapid transition between
childhood and adulthood. It begins roughly at age 11, when the sexual systems begin to mature.
The end of adolescence period is more arbitrary, but for many people, adolescence extends into the
early 20s. by this time most youths have made the transition to adult roles and functions and their
bodies have reached full adult naturally.

(b) PHYSICAL CHANGES (i) Sexual Maturation in Girls

In girls, physical changes associated with sexual maturation appear approximately in the following
order:

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 (1) Enlargement of the breasts
(2) Appearance of straight pigmented public hair
(3) Maximum rapid bodily growth
(4) Menarche (the start of menstruation)
(5) Growth of axillary (wider arm) hair
The normal range within which menstruation first occurs is from ten, to seventeen years, the
average time being fourteen years. It is rare for a girl (without a glandular anomaly) to reach the
menarche before age nine or late as eighteen. Most girls are likely to have their first menstrual
period during age 12, 13 and 14.

The menarche does not give a complete indication of sexual-maturity. After the first menstruation,
there may be irregularities in the menstrual cycle. It appears that girls begin to menstruate before
their ovaries produces eggs that are fertile and before uterus are matured enough to support the
bearing of children.

(ii) Onset of Puberty in Boys

The following is the order of appearance of some external changes in boys during the pubertal
stage of growth.
1. The growth of the testes is accelerated usually followed by that of the penis.
2. There is growth of hairs on the sides of the face
3. Growth of pubic hairs
4. The penis and testes attain hair proper to the young adult is present on forearm, arms, legs and
thighs.
According to most authorities, the average boy reaches sexual maturity about two years later than
does the average girl.

(iii) Physiological Differences between the Sexes

Girls not only reach sexual maturity earlier than boys, but are biologically more matured
than boys in order ways during the first fifteen years of life. As girls approach the teens, they are
about two years ahead of boys in skeletal maturity as measured by standard x-ray photographs of
the hand and wrist. They also display a number of secondary sex characteristics and reach mature

44
stature earlier. More males die at birth or during infancy than females. Girls survive physical
hardships such as malnutrition better than boys.

(iv) Physical versus Psychological Maturity

There has been a trend towards earlier onset of puberty. The age of menarche has declined
from sixteen years (generally recorded in 1940s) to thirteen years. Boys also tend to mature earlier
nowadays than they did half a century ago.
In keeping with earlier sexual maturation, present-day boys and girls are taller and heavier
nowadays, than they were some generations ago. These changes have been attributed to various
influences, including a higher standard of living, especially during the period when the country of
the nation was good.
What are the psychological implications of early development of youths? Earlier sexual maturity
has not, by and large, been matched by a lowered age of induction into adult society, especially
among adolescents that are schooling. Research on the question of psychological development at
adolescence has shown that there are some changes in their social maturity over the years.
Adolescents today, as compared with a few generations ago, are more precocious in their
heterosexual interests. They demand the right to have boyfriends and girl friends at an earlier age
and they demand more privileges.

(c) Psychological Reactions to Physical Changes

According to various reports, girls react to their first menstruation with feelings ranging from
shock to joy. Shock is most likely to occur if the menstruation comes as a surprise to a girl who is
utterly unprepared for it. Many girls by contrast, feel a glow of pride, believing that they are
capable of reproduction. Reaction to menstruation is influenced by a variety of factors other than
the physical event itself. Her prior attitudes of accepting or rejecting her role as a girl, her own
anxieties about sex, and the attitudes of her parents can all contribute to the happiness or horror of
a girl’s response to womanhood.
Generally, girls tend to worry more about their physical look than boys, but for both sexes, an
adolescent’s feelings about her/his unattractive physical characteristics rarely correspond with the
way he/she is viewed by others.

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Early maturing boys have a psychological advantage over late maturers. Such boys are likely to
stand higher in the interrelated attitudes of acceptance by peers, self-acceptance and positive
feelings toward others. But early maturing girls feel differently, especially at the early teens. They
feel awkward especially among their age-groups who are not as physically developed.
(d) Sex Roles and Sex Differences
There are many behavioral differences between the sexes. These differences are the result of both
genetic and environmental factors. On the genetic side, Koff, Rierdan and Jacobsen (1981) report
that the production of male hormone (androgen) may be eleven time higher in one person than in
another.
Differences in male and female sexual behavior are also influenced by what society deems to be
appropriate sex roles. In most traditional standards in Nigeria, boys are aggressive but girls are
expected to be passive and to inhibit aggression. If a girl has hostile or aggressive impulse, she is
expected by tradition to curb or hide them. Girls may not compete aggressively with male. One
result of such restriction is that some girls do not do their best in contests with boys and especially
in secondary schools.
By this standard, the girl is expected to play a passive role in hetro-friendship, and even in
courtship if she does otherwise, she is seen as “cheap”. Thus, the feminine female is permitted to
be dependent and confronting but the masculine male is not supposed to have – (or at least to show)
such tendencies. Girls should be capable of tenderness and compassion, permitted to cry, to be
submissive and can act more helpless than boys. Boys are supposed to be decisive, strong and
active. These expectations may vary from one culture to the other.
COGNITIVE OR INTELLECTUAL DEVELOPMENT
In discussing the cognitive skills of adolescents, we will consider the view of Jean Piaget. He
was a Swiss psychologist who worked on cognitive development form 0 infancy to adulthood.
In Piaget’s view, preoperational (2 to 7 years) and formal operational (11 years throughout
adulthood). It is the forth one, formal operational that we are concerned with here. He used the
term “formal operational thinking to describe the reasoning skills that develops during
adolescence.
Piaget believed hat pre-adolescent children acquire a number of logical abilities as they
developed intellectually but they remain limited to dealing with materials that are concrete or
tangible. They are incapable of dealing with abstract issues. The adolescent, on the other hand,
46
 is at the formal operations and can easily deal with abstractions especially when they involves
verbal propositions and symbols. Consider the following problems:
If Audu is taller than Ojo and Ojo is taller than Anate, who is taller? The concrete operational
child (7 -11 years) is unable to solve this problem correctly. But if given a similar problem
involving concrete objects (such as three pencils that can be seen) the child will have no
difficulty. The formal operational adolescent, on the other hand is able to solve the verbal
version with ease.

Cognitive reasoning of adolescent are characterized by the following:

i. Hypothetical-deductive reasoning
This is another feature of formal operational thoughts. The adolescent is now capable of
making logical deductions from hypothetical premises. This type of reasoning involves making
use of “if…. then” statements problems solving.
ii. Idealized thinking
The adolescent is able to deal with events that he/she knows are not true but such events
take place on an imaginary level. For example, if we were to demonstrate to a seven year old child,
the black objects attract heat and then as time answering because she would not accept the premise
that cotton wool could be black. A formal operational adolescent would readily accept the
assumption of black cotton wool and go on to answer the question.
iii. Combinatorial reasoning
At this level, the adolescent is able to form systematically combinations of events.
Piaget’s classical demonstration of this ability involved presenting children with four containers of
colourless chemical solutions. When solutions form two of the containers were mixed together and
combined with a substances from a fifth container. Children in the concrete operational stage would
try solving the problem haphazardly, mixing liquid from different containers. But adolescents
would explore all the combinations more systematically.
These properties that characterized adolescents intellectual or cognitive reasoning lead
them into realms of philosophical speculation. Hence, we see many adolescent spend hours
discussing theoretical questions, moral and political issues. Hypothetical-deductive reasoning also

47
enable adolescents to project themselves into future roles or occupations and it may help them to
establish on identity.
The adolescent’s ability to think abstractly may also lead her to an egocentric belief in
correctness and logic of personal views. Sometimes attempts are made by the adolescent to make
others think the way she does. But the ability to use symbols lead many youths into creative pursuit
such as writing poetry, music etc.
Some studies (i.e. Neimark, 1975) have confirmed Piaget’s notion that formal operations
are important aspect of cognitive development but stressed that this level of ability is not universal.
A number of follow-up studies have shown that not all people attain formal operational thinking
in the adolescent years and some never achieve and concluded that formal thought was not
universal, but depending in part on individual attitude and specific experiences that promote
abstract thinking.
Although Piaget’s theory helps in understanding a great deal about adolescent thought processes,
it has at least three weaknesses. (1) For one thing, a number of adolescent fail tests used to measure
formal reasoning. This implies that many children do not advance beyond the stage of concrete
operations, at least not in adolescence. (2) Piaget’s theory does not easily allow us to account for
differences in intellectual functioning. (3) The extent to which the thinking of the adolescent differ
from that of younger children can be questioned. Although some of the qualities shown in
adolescent thought are not immediately evident in younger children, this does not necessarily mean
that children completely lack the abilities.
In spite of the above weaknesses cited, the theory has educational implication. The primary school
teachers (teaching children under 12 years) know that teaching must be supported with concrete
materials as teaching aids. This is also because these children (6-11) are not capable abstract
thinking.

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