UT

CHAPTER 2)
The Vedic
Period
he Vedic literature was written in
SYLLABUS The term, Veda' has been derived from . Sanskrit.,
The Vedic Perlod Sanskrit word, 'vid' which means knowledoe
Sources: Vedas and Epics (brief mention); Vedic literature is divided into two
Iron Artifacts and Pottery. parts,
namely the Shruti and the Smriti. It is believed
Brief comparative study of Early and Later that the Shrutiwas revealed to the sages by (Cod
Vedic society and economy. and they passed on that knowledge orally from
generation to generation. On the other hand
Smriti literature was composed by the Rishis
Scholars and historians refer to the period The Vedic literature can be classified into
wher(Aryans first settled in India as the Early the following categories:
Vedic Period (i.e., 1500-1000 BC). Between
1000 BC to 500 BC when iron had come to The four Vedas, i.e., the Rig, Sama, Yajur
and Atharva Vedas and their Sambitas.
be used, it is believed that Aryans followed (ii) The Brahmanas attached to each Samhita
the course of the rivers and settled along the
valley of the Yamuna and the Ganga. The (iv) (ii) The Aranyakas
The Upanishads.
iron tools helped them to clear the forests. )
They moved in the eastward and the south 1. Tae VEDAS
castward directions. Aryans, so far nomadic in rThe Rig Veda: It is the oldest religious text in
nature, gradually settled in the Gangetic valley. the world and is, therefore, known as the first
This period is known as the Later Vedic Age. testament of mankind'. It is divided into 10
(1000 BC to 500 BC).(The culture of the period mandalas. It is said to have been composed
is referred to as the Vedic culture because it
during the Early Vedic Period. The hymns are
was basedon the Vedic texts) dedicated by the sages to Gods. They were
SOURCES passed on orally from teachers to their disciples.
The Rig Vedic hymns are the authentic sources
A. LiTERARY SoURCES of knowledge of the life of people of the time.
The Vedic texts may be divided into two broad Much of the Indian philosophy is based on the
chronological groups: the Early Vedic texts Rig Veda. It also contains the famous Gayatri
(1500-1000 BC) when most of the hymns of the mantra'.
Rig Veda were conmposed, and the Later Vedic texts (fhe Sama Veda: The term, Sama'means
(1000-500 BC) to which belong the remaining 'Sweet Song' or the melody'. In this Veda, some
Vedas and their branches (Brahmanas, Aranyakas, of the hymns are borrowed from the Rig Veda.
Upanishads, etc.) The two periods correspond to The hymns in Sama Veda were meant to be
the two phases of Aryan expansion in India. sung at the time of the sacrifice by the priests.

18
Total History andCBvics-IX
 The Yajur Veda. It deals with hymns Upanishad, Aitareya Upanishad and Taittiriya
recited during the performance of Yajnas. The Upanishad
hymns in this Veda throw light on the social
and religious life of the Aryans. ALLIED VEDIC LITERATURE
fhe Atharva Veda: The hymns contained (i) The Vedangas: They deal with the ways in
fnis Veda deal with magic and charm. Most which the Vedas ought to be chanted; and are thus
of the hymns are taken from the Rig Veda. important in the understanding of the Vedas. The
Pesides the powers of spirits, the hymns deal six Vedangas deal with pronunciation, grammar.
etymology, metrics, rituals and astronomy.
with gyan (knowledge), karma (action) and
upasara (írivocation). Sone hynns also deal with (ii) The Sutras: They are divided into three
medicines for the treatrnent of various diseases. groups: the Srautasutras, which deal with yajna
and sacrifices, the Grihyasutras or Smartasutras,
THE BRAHMANA8 which deal with the ceremonies connected with
family life; and the Dharmasutras, which provide
Written after the Vedas as their simple rules of conduct for the various classes of people
cornmentary, the Brahrmanas are in prose. They and the various stages in their life.
explain the social and religious importance of
rituals as well as the value of sacriices. The (ii) The Upavedas: As the name suggests,
they are subsidiary Vedas. They are four in
Brahmanas are of great historical value. Each number. Ayurveda deals with Indian system
Veda has several Brahmanas.
of medicine: the Dhanurveda, describes the art
Ahe Aranyakas of warfare; Gandharvàveda describes the art
of music and Shilpaveda deals with art and
They are known as forest books' written for the architecture.
guidance of the hermits and the students living (iv) Darshanas: There are six schools of
in forests. They form the concluding part of the Indian philosophy known as Shad-Darshanas.
Brahrmanas. Their main thernes are mysticism They include - Nyaya Darshana, Vaishesika,
and philosophy. Sankhya, Yoga, Purva Mimamsa and Uttar
The Upanishads Mimamsa. They all propagate the virtues of life
They are philosophical commentaries on the and are opposed to external rituals.
Vedas. The doctrines such as Karma, Moksha and (v) The Dharmashastras: \ The law-books
Maya are explainedin detail. The Upanishads called the Dharmasutras and the Smritis
form the basic source ef Indian philosophy. together with their commentaries, are called
Composed by different sages, they are said to Dharmashastras. They lay down the duties for
form the foundation on which later additionsto different classes of people as well as for kings and
Vedic Literature rest. The most famous of these their officials. Manusmritigives the description
Upanishads are Chandogya Upanishad, Kena of Hindu code of law including the Varnas (the
Castes) and the Ashramas.
(vi) The Ashtadhyayi: It is a treatise on
Sanskrit grammar by Panini. Information is given
about the roots of the words and the context in
which they were used in Vedic literature.

Th hportance of the Vedas

) Vedas are the storehouse of knowledge
about the Vedic Age. The social, economic,
political and religious aspects of the life
of the people is reflected in the Vedic
literature.
(i) Although religious in nature, the Vedas
Sages Performing Yajna are a valuable source of information on

The Vedic Period

19
 various subjects like music, medicine,
history, philosophy, grammar, metrics,
astronomy, art and architecture.
(ii) The information contained in the Vedas
is all the more important in the absence
of any other material remains for giving
a glimpse of the Vedic Age.
2. THE EPIcs
The Ramayana and the Mahabharata are
important epics.
Ramayana: The Ramayana was originally
composed in Sanskrit. The Sanskrit version is
saîd to be the work of Maharishi Valmiki. scene from the Mahabharata. Lord Krishna
A
The story of Ramayana revolves around Rama
and the abduction of his wife Sita by a demon
gaveArjunaa
discourse which is compiled in the Bhagwad Gia
Rama took the help of Sugriva and Hanuma
king, Ravana. The battle between Rama and
They crOSsed the ocean and
Ravana; duty, devotion and love shown by the defeated
Ravana
Rama then, along with Sita and Lakshman.
brothers is told in detail. proceeded home having completed the fourtee
Rama was thè eldest of the four sons of
years' exile. He was crowned the king.
Dashratha, the ruler of Ayodhya, who had three Mahabharata: Believed to be the work
queens. Rama was thè son of the eldest gueen, of sage
Vyasa, Mahabharata is written in
language. Originally, it was called JayaSanskri
or thet
Kaushalya and was the heir-apparent to the
throne. After Rama was married to Sita, he was
to be installed as the king, At this juncture,
King Dashratha's other queen Kaikeyi reminded Mahahharata: The king of HastinapurDhritarashtr
him of the promise he had madè earlier to grant had 100sons known as Kauravas. Dhritarashtra's
her a wish. Kaikeyi wanted her son Bharata to brother Pandu who had died earlier, had five sons
known as Pandavas.
be the king and Rama to be sent into exile for
fourteen years. Rama along with his, wife Sita In course of time, Dhritarashtra named the
and brother, Lakshmana went to the forest. eldest Pandaya Yudhisthira his successor.
In disguise of a sanyasi, Ravana, the demon This angered Duryodhayana, the eldest of the
king, abducted Sita and took her to Lanka. Kauravas. It became the cause of enemity and
jealousy between the cousins.
Once during a game of dice, Yudhisthira, the eldest
Pandava lost his kingdom as well as Draupadi
to Duryodhana. In accordance with the terms
of agreement, the Pandavas had to go into exile.
After the completion of the exile, the Pandavas
asked the Kauravas to retlsrn their kingdom but
Duryodhana refused to give anything. So the war,
known as the Mahabharata,) followed. Arjuna, a
Pandava was reluctant to fight.Krishna ultimately
gave him a discourse and previled upon him to
do his duty. This discourse at the battleield is
compiled in the form of Bhagwad Gita. It forms
a part of the Mahabharata.
The Mahabharata war lasted for 18 days. In the
killed and
war, all the Kaurava brothers werè
Yudhisthira became the ruler of Hastinapur.
Ascene from the Ramayana.

Total History and Civics-IX

20
colection dealing with victory. Subsequently (vi) The Bhaqwad Gita elaborates the Karma
it carne to be known as Bharata, because it
contains the stories of the descendants of one of
philosophy and the immortality of the
soul.
he earliest Vedictribes called Bharata. The final
compilation came to be known as Mahabharata B. ARCHAEOLOGICAL SoURCES
The Bhagwad Gita, which forms a part of the The available archaeological sources of the
Mahabharata, is one of the most popular religious period include iron implements and tools and
tevts considered sacred by many people in India,. remains of pottery.
The interests of the self night conflict with 1. Iron Artifacts: The discovery of iron
duty and whenever there is such a conflict the
marks an important stage in the march of
Bhagwad Gita gives the answer.That is the secret civilisation in the world.
of the undying popularity of this religious text.
It teaches that the Soul is immortal. In India, the Iron Age began in 1000 BC. It
is believed that the Rig Vedic people knew of a
The fnpgrtance of the Epics metal called ayas, which was either copper or
(i)The Epics serve as the main source of bronze. In the Later Vedic literature, however
information on the political institutions ayas was qualified with Shyama or Krishna
and the social and cultural organisation meaning black to denote iron. Archaeology has
of the Epic Age. revealed that iron began to be used around
(ii) They provide information on various Aryan 1000 BC which is also the period of Later Vedic
Kingdoms, their armies and the weapons literature.(Iron was a harder metal than copper
they used. The Kshatriyas were entrusted and bronze. It was cheap and available in plenty.
with the defence of their kingdoms and It was used in the following areas:)
they believed that death on the battlefield () Agriculture: When the Aryans migrated to
was the noblest act in the life of a warrior. the northern and eastern parts of India, they
(ii) The Epics are considered as the finest found that the area received more rainfall than
literary works of the ancient period
and are acclaimed for their literary and the north-western part of India. Consequently,
this region was covered with thick rain forests
philosophical value.
(iv) They reveal the high ideals of family life which could not be cleared by copper or stone
of the Aryans. tools used by the Early Vedic people. But by
(v) The great heroes, depicted in the Epics, using the iron tools they were able to clear the
dense rain forests and convert forestland into
are the embodiment of high moral
principles, and made a significant impact cultivable land in a relatively lesser time.
on successive generations. With the use of iron plough-heads, sickles
and hoes, they could bring vast tracts of land
under cultivation. Gradually, the Vedic people
acquired better knowledge of seasons, manuring
and irrigation. This resulted in the substantial
enlargment of settlements like Hastinapur and
Kaushambi towards the end of the Later Vedic
period) The production of more rice, wheat,
barley, vegetables and fruits not only improved
the standard of living of the peasants but also
enabled them to spare some part of their produce
for the chiefs, princes, priests and artisans.
Ai) Occupation: The use of iron gave rise to
hew trades by providing durable implements
Iron Implements
like saws, chisels, hammers, nails and tongs.

The Vedic Period

21
 "ORIGIN OF THE ARYANS This yve rise to natiihs seh
The origin of the Aryans 4s well as the spinning, carpentry, tanning snd tonl thski
background of the people who settled in India f its dtahility
is ful of controversies. Sone historians believe easy avsilability, iron was tztensiveky us
that Aryans were the natives of India, Others making wespons like swrds,
like Bal Gangadhar Tilak, after the study of Rig shields.
Veda and Zend Avesta, concluded that the original 2. Pottery:(Pottery
home of the Aryans was the Aretic region, A.C
Das, a historian tried to prove that the original sOurce of intormation,yfheforms arn importa
Grey Ware (GW s
home of the Aryans was Indis, hecording to the Painted Grey Ware (PGW) pottery
him, they ived in the Sapta Sindhu (Punjab) at different sites in Punjab snd discoveeA
Harysna
and migyated to other parts of Indis, Swami believed to belong, to the Rig Vedic Aryana
Dayanand Sataswati believed that Tibet was the The important sites include
home of the Aryarns, (Kurukshetra), Dadheri (Laudhiana),BhagWsnpura
Katpaan sn
Professor Msy Mueller, the German scholar, Nayar Jallandhar). These cultures are reyarded
believed that the Atyans came to India from Central as Rig Vedie becuse they belong to the same
Asia. He gave two reasons in,support of thís period and sarme reyjon as mentioned in the iy
theory. The first wave of migrations from the Veda. However, in the Gang Yamuna doah, the
Steppes, Central Asia h¡d started around 1500Pc,
The Aryans bore strong resermblance to bands earliest iron objects are yenerally associated with,
of warlike people of Central Asia. The Central PGW. Here, a number of sites assiated wih
Asian theory holds the origýn of Ronans, Celts, the prolific use of iron have been discovered
Indíans, Greeks and Persians fron the same stock. The PGW Culture corresponds to the Later
Many historians agret with the Central Vedic period(The PGW is a very fine, srmooth and
Asian Theory of Max Muellet, Their reasons for even coloured pottery. It was rmade out of well
accepting the theory are: worked, high quality clay with geonetric patterns
1. In ancient tírnes, the land in Asia Minor was painted on it in black. Floral patterns and sun
fertile which made ít suitablè for agriculture syrnbols are sen in some cases, The pottery
and donestication of animals)
inchudes open mouthed bowls and dishes )
2. The stone inscriptions díscovered in Asia
Minor prove that the Aryan gods like Indra
The PGW phase was followed tyy the Northern
and Varuna, were worshipped in ancient Black Polished Ware (NBPW) phase, the
tirmes. beginning of which yoes back to 700 BC (This
3. The fora and fauna and objects referred to
in the Rig Veda were found in Asisa Minor.
4. Asia Minor is equidistance from Europe and
India.
5. Biologists noticed the genetic traits (DNA) of
the Steppe people of Central Asia and found
sírnílar traits in 35 per cent of the people
ín north India. Thus, they conciuded that
the Indo-Aryans migrated frorn Central Asia
to India,

However, the issue of the origin of the Aryans

ís still being disputed.

* This is additional infornation.

PGWPottery

22 Total History and Clvics-IX

pottery was glossy and shining. It is believed SOCIETY
that the use of this pottery was made by the SocIAL ORGANISATION
people who dominated the economic and social In the Rig Vedic time or the Early Vedic Period,
life of the period.) the Aryans lived in villages.(The family was the
fundamental unit of the society. It was
EARLY SETTLEMENTS
patriarchal. This means that the oldest male
On the basis of the names of the rivers and member of the family was its head. He was called
mountains mentioned in the Rig Veda, it is Grihapatior Kulapati. After the death of Grihapati
believed that the Aryans entered India from the responsibility shifted to his eldest son)
Afghanistan and settled in the valley of the Kabul Marriages took place after the boy and the girl
river and the Punjab.(They called this north attained maturity. Monogamy was the usual
western part of India, Sapta Sindhu or the land norm of marriage though at times the chiefs
of seven riversnamely Sindhu (ndus), Ravi, practiced polygamy.)
Beas, Satluj, Jhelum, Chenab and Saraswati. Several families lived in a grana or village.
This region covers the present areas of eastern Several villages formed a Visha. Many Vishas
Afghanistan, Punjab, and parts of Western formeda Jana. The head of the village wascalled
Uttar Pradesh/ Later this region was named Gramini, that of Visha, Vishapati. Rajan or king
was the head of a Jana.
Brahmavarta or the land of the Gods' because
the composition of Rig Veda took place here The kings governed with the help of ministers.
The important officers included the Gramini, the
on the banks of river Saraswati, which they
considered most sacred.) Purohita and the Senani. The Senani was the
commander of the army and the Purohita performed
The region provided conditions for stable religious ceremonies. The administration of the
agriculture. The act of moving from place to villages was carried out by the Gramini.
place with herds of animals ceased to have the
pre-eminence it had enjoyed in early days. This The king did not maintain any regular army.
fact too was responsible for the evolution of a However, in times of war, he used to organise
new culture. tribal groups to perform military functions.

EARLY AND LATER

VEDIC CIVILISATIONS
rakshaslfa !
Jhelui
chenar
Indus Early Vedic Civilisation

Later Vedic Clvilisation

Ravi
Harppa (O bpra

Mohenjodae
Satluj Kuikshgsa
Indrapastha O
Tsangpo
ndu
Kosi
KosALA Oo Brahmaputra/
Chambal Ayahya vDEHA
Doab
Betw

Narmada 1Son
Ganga,
pi

Mahanadi)
The Vedic Period
23
 Brahmin
Kshatriya Vaishya Shudra
The Varnas

During the Rig Vedic time, the tribe elected Their participation in Yajnas was not considered
leader of its own. He was not as powerful as
the one in the Later Vedic Period.
necessary. They did not enjoy the right to
An the Rig Vedic Period, three popular
property. The freedom to choose husbands h
WOmen was Curtailed.
assemblies known as the Sabha, the Samiti and
the Vidatha advised the king. CLASS DIVISIONS
The Vidatha was the earliest assembly which Though the caste system is not mentioned in the
used to perform all kinds of furnctionseconomic, Rig Veda but the fact remains that there was some
military, religious and social. Women actively kind of class division in the society. The early
participated in the deliberations in the Vidatha. Aryans called the local inhabitants Dasyus and
The Samitiwas the assembly of the people and did not mix with them. It is said that during this
the Sabha was the council of elders. The Sabha period, the tribal chiefs and the priests acquired
performed advisory and judicial functions. The a large share of the booty and grew at the cost of
Samiti was called to session on special occasions. their kinsmen. This resulted in social inequalities
In the Later Vedic Age, kingship became and the tribal society got divided into three
hereditary and divine elemnents came to be groups warriors, priests and the people. The
associated with the king. This period marked the fourth division called the Shudras appeared
beginning of a taxation system and administrative towards the end of the Rig Vedic period, because
machinery.(During the Later Vedic Age, the the word 'shudra' is mentioned for the first time
popular assemblies lost their earlier importance. in the Tenth Mandala of the Rig Veda, which
The Sabha and Samiti came to be dominated by is usually considered a later addition However,
chiefs and rich nobles. Women were no longer since the economy was mainly pastoral and not
permitted to attend these assemblies.) food producing, there was no scope for collecting
PosrTioN OF WOMEN regular tributes or taxes from the people.)
In the Early Vedic Period, the society was
V During the Rig Vedic Period women were divided into different classes based on their
respected. The institution of marriage had
become sacred. The daughters were given profession. A person could adopt any profession
of his choice as is evident from an excerpt of
freedom to choose their husbands. The system
of remarriage of widows was prevalent. There are the Rig Veda:
no examples of child-marriage. The marriageable "Lam a poet, my father is a physician and my
age in the Rig Veda seems to have been 16 to 17. mother grinds corn on stone. Being of
In the Later Vedic Period, there was the same family, we are engaged in different
significant decline in the status of women. professions."

24
TotalHistory and Civics-IX
 The Brahmacharya The Grihastha

The Vanaprastha The Sanyasa

The Four Ashramas

People followed different professions which Vedic Period, the whole lifespan of an Aryan
became hereditary in course of time. This resulted came to be divided into four periods. The four
in the division of society into occupational classes. stages of life are known as four ashramas, each
Gradually, this took the form of caste and the of 25 years duration. The four ashramas are
present caste system emerged. In the Later Vedic Brahmacharya, Grihastha, Vanaprastha and
Period, Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and Sanyasa.
Shudras became four distinct castes or Varnas. The Brahmacharya Ashrama lasted up to
The Brahmins or the priests performed the age of 25 years. During this period, the
religious rituals.The Kshatriyas participated in pupil was expected to acquire knowledge in the
wars. The Vaishyas engaged in business and gurukul and observe strict discipline.
looked after agriculture as well as industry. The During the period of the Grihastha Ashrama,
Shudras served the upper classes. man was supposed to marry and raise a family.
As statedearlier, during the Later Vedic Age, As a householder, he was to take responsibility
the caste system became rigid. The Brahmins of maintaining his family. This period lasted
and Kshatriyas enjoyed many privileges. from the age of 25 to 50 years.
The priests came to be considered as gods
on earth and the Kshatriyas also increased The third stage was Vanaprastha Ashrama. It
their power and came to be regarded as the lasted from the age of 50 to 75 years. During this
period man was expected to retire from worldly
ruling class. All the three higher varnas were life and acquire spiritual and philosophical
entitled to upanayana or investiture with the
sacred thread according to the Vedic mantras. knowledge.
Inter-caste marriage was not prevalent. The last stage lasting from the age of 75 to
100 years was the Sanyasa Ashrama. This was
Drt FoUR ASHRAMAS the period of renunciation. Man had to leave
In the Early Vedic Period, man grew up according everything forever and go into meditation in
to the family traditions. However, in the Later order to attain moksha or salvation.

The Vedic Period

25
EuCATION
Education was imparted through private
qurukuls. The residence of the guru called the
gurukul, meaning the family of the guru, had
become the most sacred institution. The gurukuls
were often located on the outskirts of the city
and even in forests.The students lived there. The
guru treated his students like his own children.
The student was reguired to do household
chores for his teacher. He had to get up early in
the morning, take a bath and chant the Vedic
mantras. Most of the teaching was done orally. At
the completion of the education, a student used The Gurukul
to give guru dakshina a gift to his teacher.
The gurus were greatly respected and revered. curd, butter, ghee, etc. were used. Soma, a kind
The main object of education was to bring about of intoxicating drink, was consumed during
physical, mental and spiritual development of festivals and religious ceremonies.)
the pupils. The subjects of study included the The clothes worn were simple. They consisted
Vedas, Puranas, Grammar, Mathematics, Ethics, of an undergarment, called Nivi or dhoti, an
Logic and Military Science.
upper piece called Vasa or shirt. An overgarment
Two women teachers named Maitreyi and was known as Adhivasa, a loose piece of cloth.
Gargi were considered gifted and were greatly Men wore turbans.)There were customs of wearing
respected. animal skins. Some of the sadhus (hermnits)
Foop, DRESS AND AMUSEMENTS wore deer skin known as Mrigchal. Men kept
long hair.(Ornaments were worn by both men
The main cereal produced by the Rig Vedic
and women. The ornaments were made of gold,
people was barley. Wheat and rice were not silver, ivory and precious stones.) Some of the
known to them. However, in Later Vedic times, common items of jewellery were earrings, rings,
there is evidence of using rice (urih). Cows were
domesticated and milk and milk products like anklets, bracelets, necklaces, etc.
The main means of amusement in both the
Vedic periods were chariot-races, horse-races,
dancing, singing and hunting. The chief musical
instruments were the drum, ffute, mridang and
lute. People participated in competitive sports,
festivals and gambling.
RELIGIOUs BELIEFS
The people in the Vedic age worshipped forces
of nature. They personified these natural forces
and looked upon them as living beings to whon
they gave human or animal attributes. A large
number of gods are mentioned in the Rig Veda.
The most important among these gods was Indra
to whom 250 hymns are devoted in the Rig
Veda. He is also known as the Purandara (or
breaker of forts) and Jitendra (a winner). He
is considered as the Rain God, who is responsible
Amusement
Chariot-racing for bringing rainfall.

26 TotalHistory and Civics-IX

 (Thesecond position is held by Agni, the Fire
God (Agni). )He is regarded as an intermediary The yajna rituals
between gods and men, for he consumes the
sacrificial offerings and carries them to the
gods in the form of smokel The third position is
THINKIT involved construction
of altars (ved)
fireplaces (agni) in a
and
occupied by Varuna, the god of waters, clouds, variety of shapes such as isosceles triangles,
oceans and rivers.)He determines the path for symmetric trapezia, and rectangles.
all stars in heaven. Varuna is regarded as the The sulbasutras describe steps towards
upholder of natural or cosmic order. construction of these figures with prescribed
There were many other Vedic gods like Vayu sizes. The sides of these figures follow the
(the god of wind, Surya (Sun god), Yama (lord Pythagorean relation, i.e. 32 + 42 = 52, and
of the dead), Rudra (god of storms); etc. 52 + 122 = 132. Such combinations are
Some goddesses were also worshipped. The called Pythagorean triples. There are

most important female goddess was Usha, the references to the pythagoras equation in
goddess of dawn.Other important female deities the Baudhayana Sulbasutra proving that
were: Prithui, a personification of the earth; Aditi, Indians used these long before Pythagoras.
the great mother of gods; Ratri, the spirit of the India preceded the West in which other
night; Aranyani, the Lady of the forest; Dishana, discoveries? How much of our ancient
th¹ goddess of vegetation. knowledge do we utilise in our daily lives?
All these gods were invoked and propitiated
at yajnas or sacrifices, organised by the chiefs caused many changes jn their attitude towards
and performed by the priests.) The Gods gods and goddesses. (Continuous interactions
invoked in the sacrifices supposedly rewarded with the local non-Aryan population also led
the sacrificers with success in wars, progeny, to these changes.yThus, in the Later Vedic age,
increase in cattle and long life. It also increased Prajapati, the creator or Brahma became the
the income of the priests through dana and supreme god and Indra and Agni lost their former
dakshina. significance. Vishnu came to be regarded as the
Changes which occured in the material life of preserver and protector of the people and Shiva
the people towards the end of the Early Vedic age, as destroyer of the universe.
Hour did Yonan helb n u lnehesel

Brahma Vishnu Shiva

The Vedic Period

27
 In the later Vedic Age with religious evolution, divine powers. No ritual or
religious
presenceCelebraty,
simplicity of nature worship was lost and the would commence without the
frequency and number of the yajnas increased. Brahmins.
Rituals and sacrifices (yajnas) became a daily
routine. Besides,the yajnas performed by kings, ECONOMY
the common people performed small yajnas, The Rig Vedic economy was primarily
withpastr
during which milk, ghee, grains and fruits For Aryans cattle was
were offered to the deities. The rich people and a wealthy person
synonymous
was called wealt
gomat.
businessmen conducted bigger sacrifices. During gopati were epithets given to the king. InGopa
such yajnas purohits received gold, expensive Veda, Godhuli is used as a term for a the
clothes and large number of cows as gifts time. Distance is called gavyuti and a measure
dauoh.
(Dakshina). Giving dakshina was also a ritual is called duhitr or the one who milks the
and a pious duty. Ritualism gained strong roots
and even a small deviation while performing Compared to the linguistic evidence &
cattle rearing in the Rig Veda,
certaih worship was considered a sin.
The Brahmins were responsible for bringing
activities find very few references. Apart frm agricultura
'yava' or barley, no other grains are mentione
about many innovations and evolving new There are references to fire being used
doctrines. More emphasis was laid on penance burning the forest cover and the practice
called tapasya which became ritualistic. The shifting cultivation.(Further, the area receiye
new doctrines included the doctrine of karma low rainfall and the major rivers mentioned in te
(action), dharma (duty) and moksha (salvation). Rig Veda, were known to change their courses
The belief in rebirth gained roots. Consequently, frequentlý. In these conditions, the alluva
all these innovations strengthened the position lands near the rivers could not be cultivater
of Brahmins. The Brahmins were said to have on a permanent basis.

oComparison: Early Vedic Age and Later Vedic Age

Basis of Comparison Early Vedic Age Later Vedic Age
Society Family was the basic unit. Joint Family System prevailed.
Women enjoyed equal rights. Significant decline in status of women.
Rigid caste system did not prevail. The caste system was becoming rigid.
Gurukul system of education. Gurukul system was further enlarged.
Food included milk, barley, fruits, vegetables and Consumption of meat was reduced. Rice became staple cereal.
meat.
Worship of nature and natural phenomena Religion became more complex.
prevailed.
Indra, Agni, Varuna, Mitra, Surya,etc. were Brahma; Rama and Krishna as incarnations of Vishnu and Shiva came
worshipped. to be worshipped.
Absence of temples and idols. Hymns were Brahmins introduced many rituals and made their position secure.
chanted in the open. Worship of forefathers and Faith in superstitions and spells. New principles like penance.
belief in life after death prevailed. doctrines of Karma, Dharma and Moksha developed.
Economy In the beginning the main occupation was Agriculture became the chief occupation while domesticabon of
domestication of animals and agriculture was animals also continued.
secondary.
Cattle was the important source of wealth. Land was the important source of wealth.
Many engaged in trade and commerce. Dyeing, Traders guilds had come up and trade had become very important
embroidery; carpentry, weaving, pottery, crafts in Besides occupations of earlier period, many new occupations like
gold and iron were important occupations. physicians, musicians, and many other professions emerged.

Total History and Civics-IX

28
 rights texts usedperiod yoked rice.
TheVrihi, literary
rice and alluvial
textssourçes thpossible
e agriculture of
during
ofmention agriculture
The plough Major
as
middle
include and to
iron the lands by the
craftsmen th e
cultivationa Later
ploughshares the grewchanges
Later
variety plough, staple Ganga in
leather
aras), of
availability the
Vedic the during
diet
of Tandula Sali,
and valley. Later Vedic in
mentionedTowards
suggestingtexts Ganga-Yamuna depict
workers crops of the
the Vedic this
and Both of phase
economy
miths were alsopeople. the vast phase.
period
cultivated.) e
akaras), in metal the thintroduction
archaeological
refer Importance
tracts
the prevalence
tools end The
The took
doab was
denoting to of
Vedic of fertile growth
Vedic made place
and were this Oxen and
of of
LOccupations:
nning, of
important
pottery, dominant surplus
hadtowntrade mostthe
Ayade: domestic
frommentioned. lownone
potters
animals,
and which
introducedbecame status.
of
fishery, During (kulala),
aving, led commoncraft. these
occupations in city
crafts developed to
Besidestrade life the Weaving
the Wool,groups and
coins, trade,
etc. in pivot Latermaterial.
ittingvarious withmoved. raw carpenters
Women agriculture obtained
included other barteraround townsgiving
Vedic seemswere
Although
andmetals,
were countries. considered to
system which and phase rise from (taksan).
yeing.
omestication and
Cotton is have
engaged e cities.
thagricultural to
carpentry, trade, sheep,
was marketsthe
Aryans However,
been
other wholeThus, as
still not was
in of a