Learning GIS Using Open Source Software

This book introduces the usage, functionality and application of data in geographic
information systems (GIS) for geo-spatial analysis. It offers knowledge on GIS tools and
techniques and explains how they can be applied in real-world projects to architects and
planners in the Indian and Greater South Asian contexts using open source software.
The volume explains concepts on planning and architectural tasks, their data and the
methods and requirements followed, and includes GIS-related exercises on the same tasks.
It takes the reader through the concepts of geo-spatial analysis and its referencing system
while quoting examples from India. Further, the content of the book will help planners
involved in preparing GIS-based master planning for cities under the Atal Mission for
Rejuvenation and Urban Transformation (AMRUT) scheme (see Glossary for details).
A practical guidebook providing a step-by-step guide to learn open source GIS, this
book will be useful for students, scholars and professionals from the felds of architecture
and planning, geography and other spatial sciences, instructors of GIS course on planning
and architecture, urban and regional planners, transport planners, urban design, landscape
architects, environmental planners, departments of town and country planning and devel-
opment authorities. It will also be useful for anyone interested in geo-spatial analysis.
Kakoli Saha is Assistant Professor at the School of Planning and Architecture, Bhopal, India,
and currently heads the Geoinformatics Centre there. She completed her PhD in Applied
Remote Sensing in 2010 from Kent State University, Ohio, USA. Since then, she has suc-
cessfully completed many professional assignments. She was Coordinator for the Doctoral
Programme and was Principal Investigator for the Department of Science and Technology
(DST), Government of India, project under Young Scientist Scheme (2012–2015). Her
research interests span the application of GIS and remote sensing in physical planning and
architecture. Author of several scholarly articles, she is a recipient of the prestigious Erasmus
Scholarship under the framework of the Erasmus Plus Global Mobility Programme, 2016.
Yngve K. Frøyen is Professor at the Department of Architecture and Planning, Faculty
of Architecture and Design, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Norway.
He is a renowned expert in the feld of GIS and information technology for land-use and
transportation planning purposes. With a civil engineering background, he has worked in
a wide feld of planning-related disciplines as researcher, university lecturer and consulting
adviser both in Norway and abroad. He is a member of the group responsible for the MA
in Physical Planning at NTNU, where he has taught since 2010, and he supervises urban
and regional planning topics such as integrated land-use and transportation planning,
sustainable urban transport and urban network modeling. He also teaches mapping and
geographical information systems (GIS) and how GIS-methods and other computer-based
tools can be utilized for planning purposes. His feld of research includes the planning of
sustainable urban transport solutions. In particular, he is concerned with environmentally
friendly modes of transport – walking, bicycling and public transit.
Learning GIS Using Open Source
Software
An Applied Guide for Geo-spatial Analysis

Kakoli Saha and Yngve K. Frøyen

First published 2022
by Routledge
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© 2022 Kakoli Saha and Yngve K. Frøyen
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DOI: 10.4324/9781003056928
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Contents

List of fgures vi
Preface xiii

1 Introduction 1
2 Introduction to open source GIS software 10
3 Spatial referencing system 26
4 Generating data in GIS 43
5 Maps and GIS 68
6 Mapping GIS data: thematic maps 87
7 Attribute tables 104
8 Tools and techniques for terrain analysis 123
9 Introduction to geo-spatial analysis 147
10 GIS for transport considerations in planning (part 1) 177
11 GIS for transport considerations in planning (part 2) 197

Appendix A: Supported data formats 211

Appendix B: Installation guide for QGIS 213
Glossary 214
Index 221
Figures

2.1 QGIS interface 15

2.2 Options available in Project tab: A. ‘Choose QGIS Project File to
open’ window; B. ‘India’ layer is opened in QGIS canvas; C. ‘Save
Map as Image’ window; D. selecting fle name and type 16
2.3 Layer options: A. ‘Add Vector Layer’ window; B. IMC Ward
Boundary shape fle displayed in QGIS canvas; C. Add Raster Layer
window; D. DEM raster layer is added 16
2.4 A. Toolbar on top of Layers Panel; B. Hide raster layer by checking
off the box against the layer; C. Dragging IMC Ward Boundary layer
on the top of raster layer 20
2.5 A. Layer Styling window; B. Display of IMC Ward Boundary was
changed using Layer Styling window; C. Creating a group named ‘Indore’ 20
2.6 Major panels: A. Layers Panel; B. Browser Panel; C. Processing
Toolbox Panel 22
2.7 A. Additional map view foating on main map view; B. Synchronize
View Center with Main Map; C. 3D Confguration window; D. 3D
view of DEM on the top of original DEM 24
2.8 A. Status bar; B. Setting scale dependent visibility; C. Planning bound-
ary layer is not visible at minimum scale higher than 1:5,000,000; D.
Planning boundary layer is visible at scale lower that 1:5,000,000 24
3.1 A. Latitude, longitude and the Earth’s graticule; B. Angular distance
measured in degrees from the Earth’s center to a point on the Earth’s
surface 27
3.2 A. Projecting graticule of spherical (3D surface) Earth on fat maps
(2D surface); B. Linear measurement of a location in projected coor-
dinate system 28
3.3 A. Rectangular coordinate grid is superimposed on the curved grati-
cule; B. UTM zones covering South East Asia 30
3.4 A. Setting DMS for graticule; B. Add Placemark window; C. Adding
four placemarks in the image 34
3.5 A. Save Image option at Google Earth; B. ‘Save as’ window 35
3.6 A. Options in the menu bar to access georeferencer plugin; B. Enabling
Georeferencer Plugin; C. Georeferencer window 35
3.7 A. Loading a raster image to georeference in Georeferencer window;
B. Enter Map Coordinates window; C. Transformation setting window 37
 Figures vii
3.8 A. Coordinate Reference System Selector window; B. Georeferenced
image 38
3.9 A. Save Raster Layer as window; B. Coordinate reference selector
window 40
3.10 A. Visualizing UTM coordinates at the bottom of the image; B.
Properties window 41
4.1 A. The vector model uses a series of x-y locations to represent points,
lines and polygon areas; B. Characteristics of raster data; C. DEM
with elevation value displayed of a particular point 44
4.2 A. Zoomed-in view shows the linear distance covered by the cell on
the ground; B. High spatial resolution shows better precision than
Figure 4.2C; C. Low spatial resolution shows less precision 46
4.3 Common topology errors during digitization 47
4.4 A. Uploading the georeferenced image in QGIS; B. Setting coordinate
in CRS Selector window 49
4.5 A. New Shapefle Layer window; B. Save Layer As window to save
the point layer 50
4.6 A. Data input in Feature Attribute dialogue box; B. Newly created
point feature on image; C. Attribute table of newly created point
features 52
4.7 Deleting point feature. A. Delete button at attribute table; B. Select
tool at main menu bar 52
4.8 A. Symbology window; B. Label window; C. Display of point labels 54
4.9 A. Digitized polygons on the image; B. Attribute table of the polygon
layer created; C. Digitizing tab; D. Snapping setting toolbar 54
4.10 A. Display of vertices; B. Selection of vertices in Vertex Editor; C.
Undo/Redo tool; D. Undo/Redo widget 56
4.11 A. Advance digitizing toolbar; B. Before move; C. After move; D.
Copy and Move; E. Rotate 57
4.12 A. Adding ring polygon using Add Ring tool; B. Before adding part;
C. After adding polygon using Add Part tool 57
4.13 A. Creating a polygon using the Fill Ring tool; B. Feature attribute of
newly created polygon; C. Addition of feature attribute to the exist-
ing attribute table; D. Before and after application of Reshape tool on
polygon feature; E. Before and after application of Reshape tool on
line feature 59
4.14 A. Before and after scenario of application of Offset Curve; B. Single
polygon representing row of buildings; C. Attribute table of single
polygon; D. Setting opacity of the single polygon; E. Splitting the sin-
gle polygon into multiple dwelling unit polygons; F. Updated attrib-
ute table of multi polygons; G. Application of Split Part tool 60
4.15 A. Digitized line along the median of the road; B. Buffer window; C.
Road buffer 63
4.16 A. XYZ Tiles in QGIS canvas; B. XYZ connection window; C.
Quickmap service web browser; D. URL of Google Satellite map 63
4.17 A. Table of content showing three different geometry layers; B.
Package layers tool under Processing toolbox; C. Package Layers
viii Figures
window; D. Selection of layers within Package Layers window; E.
Save fle window for GeoPackage layer 65
4.18 A. Data Source Manager window; B. ‘Open GeoPackage’ dialogue
box; C. Layers within GeoPackage layer displayed in QGIS canvas 66
5.1 A. Same map opened in CAD and GIS software; B. Attribute table in
CAD; C. Attribute table in QGIS 72
5.2 Map with basic elements 74
5.3 A. OSM website; B. Search bar; C. Toolbar to navigate through map;
D. Latitude and longitudinal input; E. saving .osm fle 77
5.4 A. Manage and Install Plugins window; B. QuickOSM dialogue box;
C. OSM data opened in QGIS as shape fles 78
5.5 A. Map open in QGIS canvas; B. Create Print layout Title dialogue
box; C. Print layout canvas 79
5.6 A. Adding frame from Layer Properties window; B. Adding Grid dia-
logue box; C. Adding CRS; D. Defning display coordinate system; E.
Defning font for coordinate values 81
5.7 A. Adding north arrow; B. Styling the north arrow 82
5.8 A. Scale bar properties window; B. Title properties window; C.
Display of second map in the Item list; D. Toolbar of Legend Items 83
5.9 Printable map with map elements generated in QGIS print layout 85
6.1 A. Symbology window for choropleth map; B. Choropleth map
through equal interval classifcation; C. Choropleth map through
Quantile classifcation 89
6.2 A. OSM map link in the browser panel; B. Display of choropleth map
on the top of OSM map; C. Identifying vacant palces from OSM map
under low HH density area 91
6.3 A. The centroid window; B. Save as window; C. Symbology window 93
6.4 A. Symbol size window; B. Data-defned Size Legend window; C.
Proportional point symbol map 93
6.5 A. Diagram window; B. Rendering within Diagram window; C.
Setting size within Diagram window; D. Bivariate map 95
6.6 A. Symbology window; B. Choropleth map showing building heights 95
6.7 A. Key Map; B. Location of M.P. Nagar within Bhopal Municipal
Corporation 96
6.8 Web application of Epicollect5: A. Login option in epicollect website;
B. Create project option; C. Building form; D. Leave page prompt; E.
Manage User window 97
6.9 Mobile application of Epicollect5, A. and B. Adding Gender_move-
ment project in mobile application; C., D., E. Data entry in the mobile
application; F. Saving data; G. Uploading data in the project 99
6.10 Visualizing data through web application. A. Project homepage;
B. Options at the project homepage; C. Visualizing data points on
Epicollect5 map and exporting the data 100
6.11 A. Delimited Text window; B. Proportional point symbol map show-
ing concentration of male footfall; C. Proportional point symbol map
showing concentration of female footfall 100
6.12 Design Proposal. A. Proportional points representing female are
superimposed on male; B. Urban design proposal 102
 Figures ix
7.1 Cardinality: A. 1:N cardinality; B. N:1 cardinality 106
7.2 A. Attribute table interface; B. Toggle multi-edit mode window; C.
Delete selected feature option in the menu bar of attribute table 108
7.3 A. ‘Expression Based Filter’ window; B. Attribute table after fltering 108
7.4 A. Conditional formatting in the attribute table; B. Formatting back-
ground and text color of a feld in the attribute table; C. Docking the
attribute table in QGIS canvas 110
7.5 View modes of attribute table: A. Table view mode; B. Form view mode 111
7.6 Confguring the columns; A. Column header in Attribute table; B.
Organize table column window; C. ‘Confgure Attribute Table Sort
Order’ window; D. Attribute table after sorting 113
7.7 A. Basic Statistics for Field window; B. HTML view of basic statistics 114
7.8 Joining of external table to attribute table; A. Add vector layer
window; B. Adding .csv fle to QGIS canvas; C. Join tab in Layer
Properties; D. Join table window 116
7.9 Joining external table to the attribute table of a feature 117
7.10 A. Processing toolbar; B. ‘Refractor feld’ window; C. Adding refrac-
tor table in QGIS canvas 118
7.11 A. Field calculator window; B. A new feld added to the attribute table 119
7.12 A. Selecting Toggle editing mode; B. Writing expression to build the
query; C. Results of query 120
7.13 A. ‘Save Vector Layer As’ window; B. Selected features added as sepa-
rate layer 121
8.1 A. DEM of Bhopal Municipal Boundary within QGIS canvas; B.
Layer properties window; C. Pixel dimension of a DEM 125
8.2 Generating slope: A. Slope window; B. Slope layer 129
8.3 Generating aspect: A. Aspect window; B. Aspect layer 130
8.4 Preparing a choropleth map: A. Symbology window; B. Choropleth map 131
8.5 Generating contours from DEM: A. Contour window; B. Contours
overlaid on top of DEM 133
8.6 Generating hillshade: A. Hillshade window; B. Hillshade map 134
8.7 The Earthdata website of NASA (last accessed on 25th October, 2020) 136
8.8 A. Search results for ASTER GDEM; B. Selecting AOI on GDEM 137
8.9 Downloading ASTER GDEM for Bhopal: A. ‘View/Download data
links’; B. Link to download data in zip format 138
8.10 Digitizing a polygon in Google Earth: A. Generating new folder in
Google Earth; B. Google Earth Option window 139
8.11 A. Digitizing the site boundary; B. Tracing within site to record eleva-
tion data 140
8.12 A. Setting parameter in GPS visualizer window; B. KML converted to
plain text; C. Dialogue box to save the text fle; D. Importing text fle
in Excel; E. ‘Import Text File’ window 141
8.13 Display .csv data in QGIS: A. Delimited Text window in QGIS; B.
Display of points in QGIS canvas 143
8.14 Generating DEM from elevation points: A. TIN interpolation win-
dow; B. DEM generated from elevation points 144
8.15 A. Contours within 1m interval generated for small site; B. TIN data
model 144
x Figures
8.16 A. Location of Bhopal within India; B. Location of site within Bhopal
Municipal Boundary; C. Base Map of Siddiqui Hussain Cascading
Lake Site 145
9.1 Clip and difference functions in QGIS 149
9.2 Union and intersection functions in QGIS 150
9.3 Buffers: A. Buffer around point; B. Buffer around lines; C. Buffer
around polygons 151
9.4 Variations in buffering: A. Multi ring buffers; B. Buffers along vary-
ing widths along line features 151
9.5 A. Convex hulls; B. Comparison between ‘Difference’ and
‘Symmetrical Difference’ functions 153
9.6 A. ‘Eliminate Selected Polygon’ function; B. ‘Dissolve’ function 153
9.7 Examples of map overlay analysis: A. Key Map; B. Suitability map for
hospital site selection; C. Flood-risk zones of the Krishnai river basin 155
9.8 Performing Clip function with vector layers: A. Before clipping; B.
Clip window; C. After clipping 157
9.9 Clip raster layer by Mask: A. Clip raster by Mask window; B. DEM
layer before clip by mask; C. DEM layer after being clipped by Mask 157
9.10 Performing difference function: A. Before difference; B. Difference
window; C. After difference 159
9.11 Performing union function: A. Before union; B. Union window; C.
After union 159
9.12 Performing intersection function: A. Before intersection; B.
Intersection window; C. After intersection 161
9.13 Eliminate Selected Polygons: A. Intersection output as input; B.
Intersection window; C. Zoomed-in view of intersection output
(before eliminate selected polygons function); D. After eliminating
selected polygons function 162
9.14 Performing dissolve function: A. Dissolve window; B. ‘Multiple selec-
tion’ window; C. Symbology window; D. Output of dissolve function
showing categories of residential areas 164
9.15 Generating ring and Multi Ring buffer: A. Buffer window; B. Ring
buffer; C. Multi Ring buffer window; D. Multi Ring buffer 164
9.16 Visualizing different categories of roads; A. Symbology window; B.
Map showing different categories of roads within IMC boundary 167
9.17 Assigning different buffer widths: A. Attribute table of ‘roads’ layer;
B. ‘Add feld’ window; C. ‘Select by Expression’ window; D. Form
view of the attribute table 167
9.18 Generating roads with different buffer widths: A. Buffer window; B.
Map showing different buffer widths 169
9.19 Generating buffers for input layers: A. Buffer around fre stations; B.
Buffer around existing hospitals; C. Buffer around public toilets; D.
Buffer around railway stations; E. Buffer around residential areas; F.
Buffer around road networks 171
9.20 Executing different geoprocessing tools: A. Merged vector layer win-
dow; B. Multiple selection window; C. Merging of all buffered layers;
D. Extracting public toilet from Merged_buffer layer; E. Extracting
 Figures xi
hospital buffers buffers from Merged_buffer layer; F. Dissolving
extracted output layer to get rid of overlapping polygons 172
9.21 A. Most suitable areas for potential hospital sites; B. Attribute table
of ‘intersection_dissolve’ layer; C. Field calculator window 174
9.22 Generating suitability status map: A. ‘Union 1’ layer; B. ‘Union 2’
layer; C. Attribute table of ‘Union 2’ layer; D. Symbology window of
‘Union 2’ layer; E. Suitability status map of potential hospital sites 175
10.1 A. QuickOSM window to download ‘highway’ data; B. Downloaded
highway data is displayed on QGIS canvas; C. The road network layer 181
10.2 A. Original CRS of the downloaded layer; B. CRS conversion 181
10.3 A. Attribute table of ‘highway_speed’ layer; B. Statistics by Categories
window; C. Selection of feld for calculating statistics; D. ‘highway_
category’ table 182
10.4 A. ‘Select by Expression’ tab; B. ‘Select by Expression’ window; C.
Assigning the value to selected variable; D. Table view after assigning
value 184
10.5 A. Assigning value to PED_speed feld; B. Joining the newly created
felds to attribute table of ‘highway_speeds’ layer; C. Attribute table
after joining 185
10.6 Filtering the road network based on car accessibility 187
10.7 A. Shortest Path (point to point) window; B. Processing history log;
C. Fastest path calculation; D. Map showing shortest and fastest path
for same start and end points; E. ‘Save Scratch Layer’ window 188
10.8 Alternate routing for closed links: A. Filtering road network where
car is allowed; B. Selecting roads for closed links; C. Deleting the
closed links from network; D. Alternate fastest route in case of closed
links; E. Total cost for original fastest path; F. Total cost for alternate
fastest path (cost in seconds) 190
10.9 A. OSM data download; B. Filtering point data to extract railway
stations; C. Selection of railway stations within IMC boundary 192
10.10 Preparing isochrone map: A. Iso Area as Polygons from Layer win-
dow; B. ‘Symbology’ window; C. Isochrone map 192
10.11 Performing Overlap analysis: A. Filtering polygons representing
15-minute walk; B. Filtered polygons in QGIS canvas; C. ‘Overlap
Analysis’ window; D. ‘Multiple selection’ window 194
10.12 Estimating population who can reach a station by a 15-minute walk:
A. Creating a new feld to show estimated population; B. Map show-
ing wards from where population can reach a railway station by 15
minutes of walk and attribute table showing the number of popula-
tion from each ward 194
10.13 Calculation of basic statistics of estimated population: A. ‘Basic
Statistics for Fields’ window; B. Details of basic statistics 195
11.1 A. Downloading building polygons from Indore from OSM; B.
Extract by Location window; C. Display of building polygons which
intersect with village boundary 200
11.2 Generating centroid points for building polygons: A. Centroids func-
tion window; B. Centroids are added to QGIS canvas 200
xii Figures
11.3 Generating regular points: A. Regular Points window; B. Select Extent
window; C. Regular Points added to the map; D. Attribute table of
Regular Points layer 202
11.4 Generating OD Matrix for Fire stations: A. ‘OD Matrix from layers
as table’ window; B. Attribute table of ‘output OD Matrix’ layer; C.
Connecting GeoPackage layer 202
11.5 Summarization and Joining: A. ‘Statistics by Categories’ window;
B. Attributes of ‘Summary table’; C. Joining of Field Statistics with
Regular Point layer 204
11.6 Displaying OD matrix result: A. Attribute table showing maximum
travel time from each origin point to the building furthest away; B.
Choropleth map prepared using maximum travel time values (in
seconds) 204
11.7 A. QuickOSM window to download hospital data points; B.
Filtering ‘hospitals’ which provide ambulance service; C. Display of
‘Ambulance_services’ layer 206
11.8 Creating centroids for ward polygons; A. Centroid window; B. Points
created for each ward polygon 206
11.9 Creating OD matrix for ambulance access: A & B. OD Matrix from
Layers as table window; C. OD Matrix output 207
11.10 Extracting summary statistics: A. Statistics by Categories window; B.
Summary table 207
11.11 A. Joining Summary table to IMC ward boundary layer; B. Attribute
table of IMC ward boundary after joining; C. Map showing distribu-
tion of wards according to ambulance access time (in seconds) 208
Preface

This book introduces students, scholars and professionals in the felds of urban design,
landscape architecture, planning, geography and civil engineering to the usage, func-
tionality and application of vector and raster data in open source geographic infor-
mation systems (OSGIS) such as QGIS. The Government of India launched the Atal
Mission for Rejuvenation and Urban Transformation (AMRUT) in 2015, under which
the formulation of GIS-based master/development plans for 500 AMRUT cities was
proposed. Since this declaration, knowledge of GIS has become mandatory for plan-
ners in India. As of yet, there is no textbook which can teach QGIS from the Indian/
South East Asian perspective. As a result, students, scholars and professionals from
this part of the world often fnd it diffcult to relate to the available practical guide-
books in QGIS as the data and context used by the authors are foreign. This book for
the frst time provides step-by-step guidance to learning QGIS using data relevant to
the South Asian and Indian contexts. Besides QGIS, the book also provides instruc-
tions on how to use other open source applications which can aid GIS projects. Each
chapter of the book focuses on individual topics, introducing associated GIS data-
handling and analysis ranging from basic to advanced levels. As a result, no prior
knowledge of GIS is required to understand the concepts or complete the tutorials
given in any of the chapters of the book. Each chapter is divided in two: while the
frst part discusses the concept of a particular planning task and its data and methods
requirements, the second part contains GIS exercises on the same task. Through this
book, the reader will not only acquire knowledge of GIS tools and techniques but be
able to use those tools and techniques in real-world projects. While urban design is a
design process, one important feature of GIS is to provide methods for analyses. The
highlights of this book are hands-on exercises through which the reader will learn to
integrate GIS analysis into the pre-design and post-design phases of an urban design
project. In summary, the book is an ultimate guidebook for geo-spatial analysts on
how to use GIS and remote sensing analysis in GIS projects.
One of us has 15-plus years of experience in the feld of geo-spatial research in
academics in the United States and India. The other is an academic with 30-plus years
of work experience in GIS and information technology in Norway and abroad. We
put our experience to work for this book in the hope that it will be useful to students,
scholars and practitioners in the feld of GIS. We appreciate comments and criticisms
from readers so that we can improve the book in subsequent editions.
We greatly appreciate the encouragement and useful comments made by reviewers
both at the proposed and fnal review stages. We also would like to acknowledge the
following companies, institutes and individuals for permission to use the content and
xiv Preface
screenshots of their software in this book: © OpenStreetMap contributors, NASA
earth data, Google Earth Pro, fve.epicollect.net for the epicollect5 application, QGIS.
ORG, Mr. Adam Schneider of http://www.gpsvisualizer.com/elevation, Survey of India,
Census of India, Bhuvan-Indian Geo-Platform of Indian Space Research Organization.
We would also like to thank Mr. Ved Prakash Nayak, student of Master of Urban and
Regional Planning at SPA Bhopal, for contributing to the artwork of this book.
1 Introduction

1.1 Concept and defnition of GIS

During its early stages in the 1960s, a Geographic Information System, or GIS, was
merely a data processing software used in a small number of government agencies
and universities only. These early developments were partly sparked by the need for
resource and land management, partly also by the idea that mapping and map produc-
tion could be made more effcient with the help of computer-based automation tech-
niques. Today, GIS has become an important feld of academic study. It has become
part of the toolbox for many disciplines, not only academic or within societal man-
agement, but with the emerging smartphone technologies also an integrated part of
most people’s information infrastructure. Searching for the whereabouts of objects
and phenomena has become almost as available and common as searching for textual
knowledge about the same.
According to Lo and Yeung (2002), defning GIS is a complex task. Where some
people perceive it as a branch of information, others see it as a feld of academic study
by focusing on its cartographic and spatio-analytical abilities. According to Rhind
(1989), GIS is a combination of hardware and software systems, designed to cap-
ture, analyze and display the spatially referenced data to solve real-world problems.
The United States Geological Survey (USGS, 1997) defned GIS as computer-based
technology which can assemble, store, manipulate and display location data with geo-
graphic coordinates. In summary, GIS is a computer-assisted system that can manage
geographically referenced data and use them to solve spatial problems (Lo & Yeung,
2002).

1.2 Components of GIS

GIS engages several components in addition to those of data and technology, most
importantly its applications, the people using it, and the people affected by its use. The
‘data’ handled in GIS often refer to geographic data records on the locations and char-
acteristics of natural features or human activities that occur on or near Earth’s surface.
Primarily, there are two types of data in GIS representing the recorded features, namely
vector and raster. Vector data depict the real world by means of discrete points, lines
and polygons. Raster data depict the real world by means of grids of cells with spectral
or attribute values, similar to digital pictures (Lo & Yeung, 2002). More about vector
and raster data in GIS is explained in Chapter 4: Generating data in GIS. The ‘technol-
ogy’ component of GIS is comprised of hardware and software. The hardware includes

DOI: 10.4324/9781003056928-1
2 Introduction
equipment for acquisition, storage, analysis and display of geographic information; for
most practical purposes, this corresponds to computers with peripheral devices such
as scanners. On the software side, GIS was conventionally developed using a hybrid
approach. In such an approach, the graphical data engine handled the graphical data
and a commercial Data Base Management System (DBMS) took care of the associated
descriptive data (details about DBMS are given in Chapter 7: Attribute tables). The
connection between the graphical data engine and the DBMS was provided by the soft-
ware vendor in the form of a proprietary interface. The ‘application’ components of
GIS can be explained from the major areas of GIS application today, namely academic,
business, government, industry and military. The ‘people’ component of a GIS is com-
prised of GIS users classifed into three categories: viewers, general users and GIS spe-
cialists (Lo & Yeung, 2002). While ‘viewers’ browse a geographic database for referral
information, ‘users’ use GIS for providing decision-making services. On the other hand,
‘GIS specialists’ contribute in terms of management and development of the software.

1.3 Role of GIS in geo-spatial analysis (in the context of planning and
architecture)
Though the frst GIS attempts were developed in the late 1960s, it was not immedi-
ately popular in academia due to the high cost of hardware and the limited capabilities
of the software (Yeh, 1999). The earlier versions of GIS software focused on com-
puter mapping with only a few analysis tools (integration of cartography with GIS is
explained in Chapter 5). Installation of GIS software started to increase from the early
1980s when the costs of hardware, computer storage and peripherals started to fall
and the performance of hardware and software improved (Yeh, 1999).
Advances in vector-based GIS with improved data structures and related algorithms
have made GIS more affordable and workable (Worboys, 2004). Since GIS provides a
platform for collecting and organizing spatial data along with analyzing and manipu-
lating capabilities, it has been readily adopted by disciplines such as geography, geol-
ogy and planning.
Since the 1980s, GIS has been installed at different levels in urban and regional gov-
ernment departments in developed countries, notably in Europe and North America.
In developing countries, GIS started to gain popularity among urban planners in the
1990s (Yeh, 1999). Since then, planners have started to use various GIS tools for
management, visualization and analytics of spatial data to provide solutions to plan-
ning-related problems (Levine & Landis, 1989; Marble & Amundson, 1988; Webster
1993,). The many benefts of using GIS in planning include:

·· Improved mapping – better access to map data ultimately leads to improved map
accuracy. It can help to better maintain and manage map data.
·· It also makes data collection and manipulation at mass scale easy.
·· GIS has a tool to perform spatial as well as semantic queries. Planners can perform
combinations of such queries to obtain useful information, which in turn contrib-
utes to their systematic analytic thinking.
·· Because of fast and extensive access to types of geographical information, plan-
ners can explore a wider range of ‘what if’ scenarios.
·· GIS analysis techniques are now becoming routine in planning analysis as they
improve the analysis process. For example, urban planners can use GIS models to
 Introduction 3
forecast the extent and location of urban growth and to estimate the impacts of
planned actions.
·· Through GIS, better communication of plans and their impact on the public, and
between planners and politicians, is possible.

Most countries base their planning on legislation, specifying responsibilities and

organizing of, requirements for, and limits to, planning. Typically, planning operates
at different levels, ranging from overview to detail, linked to the geographical scope
of the plans as well as to the topics covered and the type of decisions administered by
the plan. In Table 1.1, we have tried to explain the conceptual relationship between
planning procedures, plan levels and the planner’s methods, and specifcally suggest
how GIS tools can be of use at each step. In our understanding GIS tools are applica-
ble at all levels of spatial or land-use planning, although they probably ft better into
the processes at an overview level, with less to contribute at the most detailed level,
where perhaps Computer-Supported Construction, Design and Visualization (CAD)
tools might have more to offer.
The use of GIS in architectural research and practice has started late compared to
in the planning discipline. GIS analysis has been incorporated into the design process
of visionary projects like the planned city of Masdar in Abu Dhabi (Zeiger, 2010).
The city is planned to be zero-carbon and zero-waste, as it is driven by solar and
renewable energy. According to Monsur and Islam (2014), GIS has the potential to
contribute to architectural research and practice, especially in the areas of urban
design, community planning and the site-selection processes. The benefts of using
GIS in architecture are:

Table 1.1 GIS tool applicability for different tasks at different levels and procedure steps of
planning processes

Urban planning, spatial Examples of planning tasks supported by GIS

planning, land use planning
– a synoptic rationalistic
framework

Problem description, problem Where is development needed? How much will the
identifcation, problem population grow, and where can we expect insuffcient
analysis housing, school capacity and water supply? Where do
traffc accidents occur often? How much capacity do the
sewage treatment plants need in the future? Where is
access to public transit low?
Identifcation of goals Mapping of stakeholders and interest. Mapping of goals
with a spatial extent. Mapping of legislative preconditions
and requirements.
Developing alternatives – Suitability analysis: what areas are feasible for protection?
fnding concrete solutions For development? For housing, retail or manufacturing?
What areas yield conficts and are not at all suitable?
Assessing alternatives, identify Mapping impacts – loss of land, loss of natural resources
and quantify impacts and values, visual consequences, pollution and noise.
Economic and social impacts.
Evaluation, comparison and Overlay analysis, multiple criteria evaluation; which
decision-making alternatives come closest to achieving the goals?
4 Introduction
·· By using GIS, architects can strengthen their analytical capability by linking mul-
tiple phenomena, thus viewing them through a ‘spatial lens.’ For example, an
architect can use GIS for combining information about layers of geology, soil
type, infrastructure and demography when planning a structure or selecting a site
(Moore, 2013). Also, site qualities such as views, daylight and shadow, can easily
be calculated and become part of the site assessment.
·· Architects use a variety of visualization tools, such as AutoCAD, Google Earth,
Adobe Illustrator and Google Sketchup to create dynamic and complex models
(Monsur & Islam, 2014). GIS can be used in conjunction with these software
applications.
·· GIS helps architects to make informed decisions. It enables architects to fnd ways
to make a building more effcient or to establish the very need for a building to be
constructed.
·· GIS techniques can be adopted in the pre- and post-design phases of an archi-
tectural project. For example, GIS behavioral mapping can help to predict users’
preferences in the preparation of a designed environment. It can provide a basis
which can guide/evaluate design decisions (Monsur & Islam, 2014).

When facilitating GIS courses in the felds of planning and architecture, we have
observed that students/practitioners of architecture and planning often fnd it diffcult
to relate to GIS analysis. This practical guidebook will help them to take informed
decisions.

1.4 History of GIS in an Indian context

In 1982, it was felt by the Government that India should adopt a comprehensive
approach to the management of natural resources such as land, water, forests, min-
eral resources, oceans, etc. In considering this need, the National Natural Resource
Management System (NNRMS) was established in 1984. Under the aegis of the
NNRMS, fve Regional Remote Sensing Service Centres were established and several
state and university centers were supported. But the real boost occurred in Indian
GIS after the successful launch of the Indian Remote Sensing (IRS) series of satel-
lites, starting with IRS-1A in 1988. The Department of Space is the leader in the
introduction and innovation of GIS in India. To consolidate the natural resource data
available from satellite images, the Department of Science and Technology (DST) of
the Government of India launched the Natural Resources Data Management System
(NRDMS) program. The multidisciplinary program aimed at promoting research and
development for solving the specifc problems of areas. During the twelfth Five Year
Plan (2012–2017), the national GIS program was launched. This program is intended
to provide critical support to the national government and empowers its citizens by
extending GIS to all levels of society. The DST was given responsibility for the main-
tenance and operation of national GIS, or NGIS. Since its initiation, it has been clear
that to make NGIS a success, implementation is required at state level. Several states
have taken GIS initiatives, with Gujarat and Karnataka in the forefront. Gujarat has
developed comprehensive statewide GIS data and has operationalized GIS services at
a grassroots level. Karnataka has multilayered statewide GIS data and a wide range
of GIS applications. GIS usage has been good in other states such as Andhra Pradesh,
Maharashtra, Rajasthan and Haryana (India-A-Vision-for-National-Gis, 2014).
 Introduction 5
Besides government agencies, many private-sector agencies have done reasonably
well in implementing GIS solutions and providing GIS services. The real boost in carto-
graphic activities in industry in India came with the introduction of computers. Systems
capable of digital mapping, image processing and GIS had multinational backing. The
bulk of jobs in the digital conversion of data came to India due to the advantages of
cheap labor and low overhead costs. Liberalization of the economy, and multinational
and Non-Resident Indian (NRI) investment has contributed to the growth in private-
sector GIS services. For example, ESRI (Environmental Systems Research Institute),
California, a top company providing GIS services, opened its branch in India in
1996, namely ESRI India Technologies Limited. In addition, Google, TomTom and
NorthSouth GIS are providing GIS services in India. Industry to industry and industry
to government collaborations have kept the industry growing (Nag et al., 2008).
The third major force is that of Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs). In
almost all major and medium-sized cities in India, several NGOs have emerged who
are active in GIS development, data gathering etc. For them, it is slightly easier to
obtain government jobs. For this reason, some industries have an NGO outft. Further,
there is a series of professional bodies that have been registered as NGOs, such as
the Indian National Cartographic Association (INCA), the Institute of Surveyors, the
Indian Society of Geomatics and the Indian Society of Remote Sensing. They hold
conferences, workshops and training courses every year for the promotion of GIS
activities.
In 2015, the Government of India launched the Atal Mission for Rejuvenation and
Urban Transformation (AMRUT), under which the formulation of GIS-based master/
development plans for 500 AMRUT cities was proposed. The major objectives of the
sub-scheme were:

·· To develop common digital geo-referenced base maps and land-use maps using
GIS.
·· To formulate master plans for 500 cities selected as AMRUT cities.

The main advantages of GIS-based master plans are:

·· Accurate and faster ways of formulating master plans.

·· Sharing of data with line departments, enabling databases to be updated in almost
real time.
·· Transparent monitoring and implementation of urban development projects.
·· Support for an online building plan approval system for transparency and faster
delivery of services.

Since base maps, urban land-use, administrative boundaries, along with non-spatial
data such as socio-economic attributes, are important datasets for the formulation of
master plans, the inputs will be high resolution geo-referenced/ortho-rectifed satel-
lite data. Since remote sensing images will play a major role in the preparation of
master plans, the Ministry of Urban Development formed a committee with members
from the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) to maintain the standard of
input image. The committee also recommended the size, shape and scale at which the
geo-spatial features should be mapped (Formulation of GIS Based Master Plans for
AMRUT Cities, 2016).
6 Introduction
1.5 Need for the book
Since the declaration to formulateGIS-based master/development plans for 500
AMRUT cities, knowledge of GIS has become mandatory for architects and planners
in India. As of yet, there is no applied textbook that can teach GIS to architects and
planners using open source GIS software from the Indian/Southeast Asian perspective.
Architects and planners from these parts of the world often fnd it diffcult to relate to
the available practical guidebooks in GIS as the data and context used by the authors
are foreign. Also, independent planning and architecture professionals get discouraged
from using GIS due to the high price of the proprietary GIS software. This book will,
for the frst time, provide step-by-step guidance in learning open source GIS, using
data relevant to the Southeast Asian and Indian contexts. It is hoped that after com-
pleting this book, readers will:

·· Have acquired basic knowledge of open source GIS tools.

·· Be able to prepare base maps using open source GIS.
·· Have learned the functions of geoprocessing tools.
·· Be able to perform geo-spatial analysis using a combination of geoprocessing
tools.
·· Be able to apply results of geo-spatial analysis in pre- and post-design phases of
their projects.

1.6 Structure of the book

In pursuit of the above goals, the book adopts a structure that begins by looking at
why open source GIS is particularly useful for geo-spatial analysis including the felds
of planning and architecture. Each chapter is divided into two parts: the frst part
discusses the concept of a particular GIS task and its requirements in terms of data
and method, while the second part contains a tutorial on that task. Through using
this book, the reader will not only acquire knowledge of GIS tools and techniques but
will also be able to use them in real-world projects. To provide an overview for the
chapters that follow, this introductory chapter has offered some conceptual directions
on GIS, open source GIS and the role of GIS in geo-spatial analysis including felds of
planning and architecture. It has also explained how knowledge of GIS has become
essential for architects and planners in India and describe the way open source GIS
can help them.
Chapter 2 elaborates the concept of open source software with special emphasis
on GIS. Instead of relying on proprietary, specialized software, more GIS functions
are now implemented within open-source software and hardware. The history and
functionality of Open Source GIS, or OSGIS, are discussed in the context of India.
The chapter introduces Quantum GIS or QGIS – a popular example of OSGIS. The
benefts of QGIS are also discussed. The tutorial part includes an installation guide for
QGIS and introduces readers to a QGIS interface with a description and small tasks.
Chapter 3 introduces the techniques of spatial referencing of GIS data. Geo-
referencing is one of the spatial referencing techniques through which earth coor-
dinates are attached to the GIS data. The advantage of geo-referencing is that any
measurement taken on the data will be true to real-world measurements. The frst
part of the chapter deals with the concepts of coordinate systems and map projections
 Introduction 7
along with datums in GIS. The tutorial part provides step-by-step instructions for per-
forming geo-referencing in QGIS.
Chapter 4 introduces the reader to two GIS data types – raster and vector and
their properties. It discusses editing and topology in GIS. Digitization is one of the
techniques for creating data in GIS. The tutorial provides step-by-step instruction in
digitizing in QGIS using geometric shapes like points, lines and polygons. It also dis-
cusses the topology tools to use in order to avoid topology errors while digitizing
features and provides steps to take to change the style and colour of digitized features.
The tutorial concludes with instructions on digitizing directly on open source dynamic
maps like Google Earth/Bhuvan within QGIS. This chapter provides a solution to the
problem of pixellation that often occurs when digitizing is done on a scanned map.
Chapter 5 begins with the history of map-making, or cartography, in the context of
both India and the world. The frst part discusses the broad classifcation of maps and
the role of topographical maps as general-purpose maps. It also introduces readers to
the basic elements of maps. Traditionally, architects and planners generate base maps
in Computer-Aided Design (CAD) software. The chapter elaborates the advantages of
using GIS over CAD to make maps. It introduced the concept of Web Map Services
(WMS) and crowd-sourced maps such as OpenStreetMap (OSM). The tutorial part
of the chapter provides instructions for downloading OSM data to make maps and to
connect to WMS. Detailed instructions are provided on composing a printable map
including basic map elements.
Chapter 6 begins with the concept of special purpose, or thematic, maps. It explains
how both quantitative and qualitative data can be represented through thematic maps.
The tutorial part explains the technique of generating thematic maps with different
symbols to represent both qualitative and quantitative data with the theoretical back-
ground of each technique. The application of thematic maps is also discussed using
an urban design example in which instruction is also provided in collecting feld data
compatible with a GIS platform using an open source application.
Chapter 7 extends the idea of a Database Management System (DBMS) for GIS
software. Nearly every GIS system uses an underlying DBMS to store its data in the
form of attribute tables. The frst part of the chapter explains the types and functions
of attribute tables and the concept of cardinality between tables. In the second part,
the reader is introduced to the interface between attribute tables. Tutorials are pro-
vided on confguring columns and different functions such as query building, joining
and relating, summarizing, editing and calculating new felds that can be performed
on attribute tables.
Chapter 8 discusses different techniques for representing terrain in a GIS data
model. A Digital Elevation Model, or DEM, is the most popular elevation data model
used in GIS. The chapter explains the concepts and techniques for analyzing DEM.
Besides DEM, the chapter also talks about vector data models for elevation known as
Triangulated Irregular Networks (TIN). In the teaching section, techniques for ana-
lyzing DEM, such as extracting topographic attributes and terrain visualization, are
discussed, with corresponding tutorials. Instructions are provided for downloading
ASTER GDEM which is free worldwide. Step-by-step instructions are also provided
to generate high resolution DEM for small-sized sites using open source resources. The
application of terrain analysis is explained with an urban design example.
Chapter 9 begins with a brief history of geo-spatial analysis in GIS. The chapter
introduces tools and techniques of geo-spatial analysis, such as geoprocessing tools
8 Introduction
and map overlay techniques. It elaborates the function of each of the geoprocessing
tools available in QGIS, with corresponding tutorials. Step-by-step instructions for
performing map overlay analysis is also provided with a planning example.
Chapters 10 and 11 focus on GIS for transport considerations in planning. Chapter
10 begins with an understanding of data in the transport system. It explains the con-
cept of the network model and the data required for network modeling. The teaching
tutorial explains the technique for downloading open source data for network analy-
sis. Step-by-step instructions are provided for various kinds of network analysis, such
as optimal route calculation, or identifying the shortest and the fastest path between
two points. The tutorial also provides instructions for creating a service area map, or
an isochrone map, and further explains utilization of isochrone polygons for answer-
ing planning-related questions.
While the shortest- and fastest-route functions fnd the optimal routes between sin-
gle point pairs, the Origin–Destination (OD) cost matrix can set a lot of start-and-end
points and let the system calculate the path between all possible combinations of these.
Chapter 11 explains applications of OD cost matrices such as optimal localization of a
public service or function and closest-facility analyses. The tutorial part provides step-
by-step instructions for performing a localization analysis, using an example of locat-
ing a fre station from where the population within a certain boundary can be reached
in minimum time. Closest-facility analysis is explained in the context of location of
hospitals providing an ambulance service within a municipal boundary. The tutorial
also provides instructions for aggregating the results of these analyses and spatially
representing them.
With the structure mentioned above, this textbook will defnitely help anyone
with an interest in applying geo-spatial analysis in their projects by making better
maps and conducting sound analyses. Each individual chapter of this book can be
read as a stand-alone piece and the practical guidance provided in each chapter will
help the reader to master GIS technique. Since the book does not require specialist
knowledge of data analysis, GIS or spatial analysis, it will be relevant to planners
and architects.

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