PROJECT REPORT

A report submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the Award of Degree of

BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
In
ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING
ON

Microgrid Based on Fuel Cell for Grid Connected Mode

Submitted to NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

KURUKSHETRA

SUBMITTED TO: SUBMITTED BY: ROLL No.

Dr. SHIVAM LAXMI MINA 12014001
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR PREM KUMAR SINGH 12014002
(FACULTY MENTOR) GOPAL SINGH 12014052
SACHIN 12014060
GAGANDEEP 12014063
ATLA LALITHA LAVANYA 12014083

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 CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that project work embodied in this report

entitled “MICRO-GRID BASED ON FUEL CELL FOR GRID
CONNECTED MODE” was carried out by studying at National
Institute of LAXMI MINA (12014001), PREM KUMAR SINGH
(12014002), GOPAL SINGH (12014052), SACHIN (12014060),
GAGANDEEP (12014063), ATLA LALITHA LAVANYA (12014083)
Technology Kurukshetra for partial fulfilment of BTech Degree
to be awarded by National Institute of Technology,
Kurukshetra. This project work has been carried out under my
guidance and supervision and it is up to my satisfaction.

Date: -
Place: - Kurukshetra
______________________________
Faculty Mentor
Dr. SHIVAM
Assistant Professor
Department of Electrical Engineering
NIT Kurukshetra

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 CANDIDATE’S DECLARATION

I hereby certify that the work which is being presented in this project
report titled “MICROGRID BASED ON FUEL CELL FOE GRID CONNECTED
MODE” submitted to “National Institute of Technology, Kurukshetra”, is
an authentic record of my own work carried out during my 8 th semester.
The work contained in this thesis has not been submitted to any other
university or institute

Student Signature: Student Name: Student Roll

No.:

LAXMI MINA 12014001

PREM KUMAR SINGH 12014002
GOPAL SINGH 12014052
SACHIN 12014060
GAGANDEEP 12014063
ATLA LALITHA LAVANYA 12014083

EXAMINERS EVALUATION
The project report has been evaluated by us.

Internal Examiner External Examiner

Signature:
Name:
Designation:
Date:

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The satiation and euphoria that accompany the successful

completion of the project would be incomplete without the
mention of the people who made it possible.

I am greatly thankful to Dr. Shivam (Assistant Professor) for his

guidance, without his constant guidance, support and
encouragement this project couldn’t have been accomplished.

I sincerely extend my deep felt regards for National Institute of

Technology Kurukshetra for providing me with eminent
environment and essential resources to complete my project.

Student Name: Student Roll No.:

LAXMI MINA 12014001
PREM KUMAR SINGH 12014002
GOPAL SINGH 12014052
SACHIN 12014060
GAGANDEEP 12014063
ATLA LALITHA LAVANYA 12014083

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 TABLE OF CONTENT

TOPICS PAGE NO.

CHAPTER 1 – MICRO-GRID 8-14
1.1 Introduction 8
1.2 Brief about Microgrid 9-14

CHAPTER 2: MICRO-GRID MODEL 15-48

2.1 ENERGY STORAGE 15-18
A) FUEL CELL 19-24
a. DEFINITION 19
b. TYPES OF FUEL CELLS 20
c. APPLICATIONS OF FUEL CELL 20-21
d. ADVANTAGES OF FUEL CELLS 21-22
e. MODELLING OF FUEL CELL 22-24

B) BATTERY 25-29
a. DEFINITION 25-26
b. TYPES OF BATTERIES 26
c. APPLICATIONS OF BATTERIES 27
d. ADVANTAGES OF BATTERIES 27
e. MODELLING OF BATTERY 27-29

2.2 CONTROLLER 30-36

A) PLL 30
ABOUT PLL 30
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FUNCTION OF PLL 30
CONCLUSION 30

B) CURRENT REGULATOR 31-33

a. INTRODUCTION TO CURRENT REGULATORS 31
b. FUNDAMENTALS OF CURRENT REGULATION 31
c. TYPES OF CURRENT REGULATORS 32
d. DESIGN METHODOLOGIES & CONTROL TECH. 32-33
e. APPLICATIONS OF CURRENT REGULATORS 33

C) VOLTAGE REGULATOR 34-36

a. INTRODUCTION TO VOLTAGE REGULATORS 34
b. FUNDAMENTALS OF VOLTAGE REGULATION 34
c. TYPES OF VOLTAGE REGULATORS 34
d. DESIGN METHODOLOGIES AND CONTROL TECH. 35
e. APPLICATIONS OF VOLTAGE REGULATORS 36

2.3 CONVERTER 37-45

A) DC/DC CONVERTER 37-40
B) DC/AC CONVERTER 41-42
C) AC/DC CONVERTER 43-45

2.4 FILTER DESIGN 46-48

CHAPTER 3: SIMULATION RESULT & ANALYSIS 49-52

 SIMULATION OF FUEL CELL 49

 SYSTEM PARAMETERS OF FUEL CELL 50

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  RESULTS OF FUEL CELL 51

 SIMULATION OF BATTERY 52

 SYSTEM PARAMETERS OF BATTERY 53

 RESULTS OF BATTERY 54

DISCUSSION 55

CONCLUSION 56

REFERENCE 57

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 Chapter 1: MICRO-GRID

1.1 Introduction
A microgrid is a localized group of electricity sources and loads that operates
connected to and synchronized with the traditional centralized grid but can also
operate autonomously, independently, or in a grid-connected mode. It can range
from a single facility to multiple buildings within a campus or community,
integrating various renewable energy sources, storage systems, and energy
management technologies. Microgrids offer numerous benefits, including
increased reliability, resilience, and flexibility in energy distribution. They can
continue to provide power during grid outages, essential for critical facilities like
hospitals, data centers, and military installations. Moreover, microgrids facilitate
the integration of renewable energy sources like solar and wind power, reducing
greenhouse gas emissions and reliance on fossil fuels.

These systems incorporate advanced control and monitoring technologies to

efficiently manage energy generation, consumption, and storage. By optimizing
energy use locally, microgrids can reduce transmission losses and alleviate stress
on the main grid during peak demand periods, contributing to overall grid
stability.
Furthermore, microgrids promote energy independence and security by enabling
communities to generate their power, reducing dependence on external energy
sources. This aspect is particularly beneficial in remote areas or regions prone to
natural disasters, where reliable electricity supply is crucial for safety and
economic activities.

The adoption of microgrids is growing globally, driven by factors such as

advancements in renewable energy technologies, declining costs of energy
storage systems, and increasing awareness of the importance of energy resilience
and sustainability. Governments, utilities, and industries are increasingly investing
in microgrid infrastructure to enhance energy security, mitigate climate change
impacts, and foster local economic development.

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1.2 Brief About Microgrid
a) Definition
A microgrid is a self-contained electrical network that allows you to generate your
own electricity on-site and use it when you need it most. A microgrid is thus a type
of distributed energy resource. You can operate microgrids while connected to the
utility grid or in disconnected “island” mode. When the grid goes down or
electricity prices peak, microgrids respond.

FIGURE-1.2.1 MICRO-GRID

Microgrids are small-scale power grids that operate independently to generate

electricity for a localized area, such as a university campus, hospital complex,
military base or geographical region.

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A microgrid is a localized group of electricity sources and loads that operates
autonomously or in conjunction with the main power grid. It can generate,
distribute, and regulate the flow of electricity within a specific area, such as a
community, university campus, or military base. Microgrids can include various
energy sources like solar panels, wind turbines, batteries, and traditional
generators.

One of the primary advantages of microgrids is their ability to enhance energy

resilience and reliability. During power outages or emergencies, they can continue
to supply electricity to critical infrastructure, ensuring continuity of essential
services like hospitals, communication networks, and emergency response systems.

Moreover, microgrids offer opportunities for increased efficiency and integration

of renewable energy sources, which can lead to reduced greenhouse gas emissions
and environmental impact. They also enable better management of energy demand
and supply, facilitating the integration of electric vehicles, energy storage systems,
and smart grid technologies.

Overall, microgrids represent a decentralized approach to energy management that

promotes sustainability, resilience, and local control over energy resources,
contributing to a more robust and adaptable energy infrastructure.

b) Benefits of Microgrids:
 Keep your facility’s power on during grid outages
 Store electricity and sell it back to the grid during peak demand
 Integrate on-site renewables such as wind and solar

Early adopters of microgrids included hospitals, data centers, and other facilities
where reliability and resiliency are essential. Today, organizations of all kinds are
turning to microgrids and distributed energy resources for financial and
sustainability benefits.
We’ve worked with a diverse set of customers: from municipal governments and
military bases to nature preserves and vertical farms. Any organization seeking to
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gain control over energy costs, advance sustainability, and increase resiliency can
benefit from a microgrid.

Additionally, as infrastructure, industry, and buildings continue to become more

electrified, microgrids can help generate power for additional loads. For example,
increased power needs for EV chargers or electrification of heating.

c). Why Are Microgrids Important?

When it comes to electricity generation, microgrids offer potential solutions to
several challenges associated with a traditional power grid.
Microgrids may:

1.Improve resilience: Microgrids can reduce pressure on the primary electric grid
and provide backup power during outages caused by extreme weather or other
disruptions, ensuring a reliable power supply for critical loads. This capability is
particularly valuable in remote areas with limited access to the main grid or in
regions prone to power outages or natural disasters.

2.Increase efficiency: By managing local energy resources and loads, microgrids

can efficiently balance supply and demand, reduce transmission losses and enable
demand response, meaning they allow for adjustments to energy usage in
response to price signals. This can result in lower energy costs; for example,
Pittsburgh International Airport’s switch to a solar and natural gas microgrid led
to a reported USD 1 million in savings in its first year.2 And a California winery
built a microgrid around photovoltaic (PV) solar energy that reduced its monthly
energy bills from USD 15,000 to USD 1,000.3

3.Encourage modernization and sustainability: Microgrids enable the integration

of renewable energy sources into the power system, which can reduce overall
greenhouse gas emissions and contribute to clean energy goals

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d). Key Parts of A Microgrid
A variety of energy technologies connect to create a microgrid. Each consists of
several key components:

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e). Where Microgrid Can Be Useful?
When Hurricane Maria tore through Puerto Rico in 2017, causing the longest
power outage in U.S. history, a lot of press coverage soon after the storm focused
on the need to get electricity to hospitals and emergency responders. This turns
out to be an ideal use case for a microgrid.

The impact of losing electricity varies widely depending on who or what is losing
power. If an individual home loses electricity for a few hours, it might be a
nuisance, but it is far from life-threatening. However, a loss of electricity at a
hospital is absolutely a life-threatening scenario. Between a higher electric load

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and an often spread out geographical footprint, it makes sense to create an
interconnected network of solar panels and storage to continue to power these
types of buildings in the event of an outage. In a word: a microgrid.

There are a number of applications of microgrids, from powering emergency

response buildings to providing grid resiliency for communities with a large
population of people whose health would be put at risk by a prolonged power
outage. In fact, one of the major benefits of a microgrid is that it can extend
beyond a single house or building and create a tiny electricity-isolated island
within a community.

f). How Do Microgrids Work?

A microgrid co-locates electricity generation and consumption. Unlike the utility
grid, which generates electricity in a centralized power plant and then distributes
it along hundreds of miles of transmission lines, a microgrid generates electricity
on-site.

For electricity generation, microgrids typically use some combination of back-up

diesel generators and renewables such as solar panels. Microgrids can
incorporate battery systems to store electricity and deploy it during outages or
when grid demand spikes.

Intelligent software controls can automatically switch the facility between the
utility grid and the microgrid based on factors such as power reliability and cost
efficiency.

g. What Microgrid Services Are Available?

No matter where you’re at in your microgrid journey, Schneider Electric can help.
Our microgrid services span all stages, including:
1.Consulting to design your system and offer insight throughout the project
lifecycle
2.Modernization to upgrade existing equipment.
3.Startup and commissioning to inspect and test equipment, ensuring proper
setup and functionality

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4.Maintenance to keep systems running and ensure successful outcomes.
CHAPTER 2: MICRO-GRID MODEL

2.1 Energy Storage-

Energy storage is a critical component of modern society, enabling the
efficient use of renewable energy sources, stabilizing power grids, and
supporting a wide range of applications from portable electronics to
electric vehicles. In this comprehensive exploration, we'll delve into the
various forms of energy storage, their technologies, applications,
advantages, and challenges.

Introduction To Energy Storage

Energy storage is the process of capturing energy produced at one time

for use at a later time. It plays a vital role in balancing energy supply
and demand, improving grid stability, and facilitating the integration of
intermittent renewable energy sources like solar and wind into the
power grid.

Energy can be stored in various forms, including:

1.Chemical Energy Storage: This includes batteries and fuel cells, where
energy is stored in chemical bonds and converted into electrical energy
when needed.

2.Mechanical Energy Storage: Mechanical energy can be stored in

systems like flywheels, compressed air energy storage (CAES), and
pumped hydro storage (PHS), where energy is converted into kinetic or
potential energy and then back into electrical energy.

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3.Thermal Energy Storage: Thermal energy can be stored in the form of
sensible heat (temperature change), latent heat (phase change), or
thermochemical reactions. Common examples include molten salt
storage and ice-based storage systems.

4.Electrochemical Energy Storage: This includes various types of

batteries and supercapacitors, where energy is stored in the form of
chemical energy and converted into electrical energy when needed.

Battery Energy Storage Systems (Bess)

Batteries are one of the most common forms of energy storage, used in
everything from smartphones to electric vehicles to grid-scale
applications. Key battery technologies include:

1.Lithium-ion Batteries: Widely used in portable electronics and electric

vehicles due to their high energy density, efficiency, and relatively low
cost.

2.Lead-acid Batteries: Commonly used in automotive applications and

backup power systems due to their low cost and reliability.
Flow Batteries: Utilize two electrolyte solutions separated by a
membrane, enabling scalable energy storage for grid applications.

3.Sodium-ion Batteries: Emerging as a potential alternative to lithium-

ion batteries, offering similar performance at potentially lower cost.

4.Solid-state Batteries: Promising technology that replaces the liquid or

gel electrolyte with a solid material, offering higher energy density,
safety, and longevity.

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Grid-Scale Energy Storage
Grid-scale energy storage systems play a crucial role in stabilizing
power grids, managing peak demand, and integrating renewable
energy sources. Pumped hydro storage (PHS) is the most established
form of grid-scale energy storage, where excess energy is used to pump
water uphill during periods of low demand and released through
turbines to generate electricity during peak demand.

Other grid-scale energy storage technologies include:

1.Compressed Air Energy Storage (CAES): Stores energy by compressing

air into underground reservoirs or caverns and releasing it to drive
turbines during peak demand.

2.Flywheel Energy Storage: Stores energy in the form of rotational

kinetic energy, utilizing high-speed rotating masses suspended in a
vacuum to minimize friction.

3.Thermal Energy Storage (TES): Stores energy in the form of heat,

typically using molten salt or other phase change materials to capture
and release heat energy.

APPLICATIONS OF ENERGY STORAGE

1.Grid Stabilization: Energy storage helps to balance supply and

demand on the power grid, reducing the need for expensive peaker
plants and improving overall grid reliability.

2.Renewable Energy Integration: Energy storage enables the efficient

integration of intermittent renewable energy sources like solar and
wind by storing excess energy when generation exceeds demand and
releasing it when demand is high.

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3.Electric Vehicles (EVs): Batteries are a critical component of electric
vehicles, providing the energy storage needed for propulsion and
enabling zero-emission transportation.

4.Residential and Commercial Energy Storage: Homeowners and

businesses use energy storage systems to reduce electricity costs,
provide backup power during outages, and participate in demand
response programs.

5.Remote Power Systems: Energy storage is essential for providing

reliable power in remote locations where access to the grid is limited or
nonexistent, such as off-grid communities, telecommunications towers,
and remote industrial sites.

6.Microgrids: Energy storage systems play a key role in microgrid

applications, allowing communities, campuses, and military bases to
operate independently or in conjunction with the main grid, enhancing
resilience and reliability.

ADVANTAGES OF ENERGY STORAGE

Energy storage offers numerous benefits across various applications:

1.Flexibility: Energy storage provides flexibility in managing energy

supply and demand, enabling more efficient utilization of resources and
reducing the need for costly infrastructure upgrades.

2.Grid Stability: By smoothing out fluctuations in renewable energy

generation and providing fast response times to grid disturbances,
energy storage enhances grid stability and reliability.

3.Emissions Reduction: Energy storage facilitates the integration of

renewable energy sources, reducing reliance on fossil fuels and helping
to mitigate greenhouse gas emissions.
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A) FUEL CELL

a). Definition
Fuel cells are electrochemical devices that convert chemical energy directly into
electrical energy through the reaction between a fuel and an oxidizing agent,
typically oxygen or air. They offer a promising alternative to traditional
combustion-based power generation methods due to their high efficiency, low
emissions, and versatility. This report provides an overview of fuel cells, their
types, applications, advantages, challenges, and future prospects.

FIGURE-3.1.1

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b). Types of Fuel Cells
1.Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell (PEMFC): PEMFCs operate at relatively
low temperatures (typically below 100°C) and use a solid polymer electrolyte
membrane. They are widely used in transportation applications like fuel cell
vehicles due to their fast startup times and high power density.

2.Solid Oxide Fuel Cell (SOFC): SOFCs operate at high temperatures (typically
between 600°C and 1000°C) and use a solid ceramic electrolyte. They are suitable
for stationary power generation applications due to their high efficiency and
ability to utilize a variety of fuels, including natural gas and biogas.

3.Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell (MCFC): MCFCs operate at temperatures around

650°C to 1000°C and use a molten carbonate electrolyte. They are primarily used
for stationary power generation applications, such as combined heat and power
(CHP) systems in industrial settings.

4.Alkaline Fuel Cell (AFC): AFCs use an alkaline electrolyte (usually potassium
hydroxide) and operate at relatively low temperatures. They have been used in
space missions and some niche applications but are less common compared to
other types of fuel cells.

5.Direct Methanol Fuel Cell (DMFC): DMFCs directly convert methanol into
electricity, eliminating the need for a separate fuel reformer. They are mainly
used in portable electronic devices and auxiliary power units.

c). Applications of Fuel Cells

1.Transportation: Fuel cell vehicles (FCVs) use hydrogen as a fuel to power electric
motors, offering zero-emission transportation with longer ranges and shorter
refueling times compared to battery electric vehicles.

2.Stationary Power Generation: Fuel cells can provide reliable and efficient onsite
power generation for residential, commercial, and industrial applications,
including backup power systems, microgrids, and distributed energy resources.
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3.Portable Power: Small fuel cells, such as DMFCs, are used to power portable
electronic devices like laptops, smartphones, and drones, providing extended
operating times compared to batteries.

4.Combined Heat and Power (CHP): Fuel cells can be integrated into CHP systems
to simultaneously generate electricity and useful heat, increasing overall energy
efficiency and reducing greenhouse gas emissions.

d). Advantages of Fuel Cells

1.High Efficiency: Fuel cells have higher efficiency compared to traditional
combustion-based power generation technologies, especially when combined
with CHP systems.

2.Low Emissions: Fuel cells produce minimal greenhouse gas emissions and
pollutants, particularly if hydrogen is produced from renewable sources or
through electrolysis using renewable electricity.

3.Versatility: Fuel cells can utilize a variety of fuels, including hydrogen, natural
gas, biogas, and methanol, offering flexibility in different applications and energy
sources.

A fuel cell is an electrochemical device that produces electricity without

combustion by combining hydrogen and oxygen to produce water and heat. A
fuel cell is a device that uses hydrogen (or hydrogen-rich fuel) and oxygen to
create electricity by an electrochemical process. A single fuel cell consists of an
electrolyte squeezed in between two thin electrodes (a porous anode and
cathode) Hydrogen, or a hydrogen-rich fuel, is fed to the anode where a catalyst
separates hydrogen's negatively charged electrons from positively charged ions
(protons) At the cathode, oxygen combines with electrons and, in some cases,
with species such as protons or water, resulting in water or hydroxide ions,
respectively The electrons from the anode side of the cell cannot pass through the
membrane to the positively charged cathode; they must travel around it via an
electrical circuit to reach the other side of the cell. This movement of electrons is
an electrical current. The amount of power produced by a fuel cell depends upon
several factors, such as fuel cell type,

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cell size, the temperature at which it operates, and the pressure at which the
gases are supplied to the cell. Fig.6 shows a generic fuel cell.

Fig.6. Fuel cell

e). Modelling of Fuel Cell
In our design, we used the fuel cell stack model which implements a generic
model parameterized to represent the most popular types of fuel cell stacks fed
with hydrogen and air. This model is based on the equivalent circuit of a fuel cell
stack shown in Fig.7:

Fig.7. Fuel cell equivalent circuit

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This model represents a particular fuel cell stack operating at nominal conditions
of temperature and pressure. The parameters of the equivalent circuit can be
modified based on the polarization curve obtained from the manufacturer
datasheet. A diode is used to prevent the flow of negative current into the stack.

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Parameters of Fuel Cell:

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B) BATTERY

a). Definition
Batteries are electrochemical devices that store and release electrical energy
through reversible chemical reactions. They consist of one or more
electrochemical cells, each containing positive and negative electrodes (anodes
and cathodes) separated by an electrolyte. When a battery is charged, an external
voltage source drives electrons from the cathode to the anode, where they are
stored as chemical energy. During discharge, the stored chemical energy is
converted back into electrical energy as electrons flow from the anode to the
cathode through an external circuit, producing electric current.
Batteries are ubiquitous in modern society, powering a wide range of devices and
applications, including portable electronics, electric vehicles, grid-scale energy
storage systems, and backup power supplies. They offer several advantages,
including portability, rechargeability, and high energy density. Rechargeable
batteries can be reused multiple times, reducing waste and resource consumption
compared to single-use disposable batteries.

FIGURE-3.2.1 LITHIUM ION BATTERY

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Despite their benefits, batteries also face challenges and limitations, including
cost, energy density, resource availability, and environmental impact. Addressing
these challenges requires ongoing research and development efforts focused on
improving battery performance, reducing costs, enhancing safety, and developing
sustainable recycling solutions. Additionally, policy support, investment, and
collaboration across industry, academia, and government are crucial for
accelerating innovation and deployment of battery technologies to address
energy and environmental challenges.

Batteries play a vital role in powering modern society and enabling the transition
to cleaner, more sustainable energy systems. Continued advancements in battery
technology offer promising opportunities for achieving cleaner, more efficient,
and more reliable energy solutions in the future

b). Types of Batteries

1.Lithium-ion Batteries (Li-ion): Li-ion batteries are the most common type of
rechargeable batteries used in consumer electronics, electric vehicles (EVs), and
grid-scale energy storage systems. They offer high energy density, long cycle life,
and relatively low self-discharge rates.

2.Lead-acid Batteries: Lead-acid batteries are widely used in automotive starting,

lighting, and ignition (SLI) applications, as well as for backup power in
telecommunications and uninterruptible power supply (UPS) systems. They are
cost-effective but have lower energy density and shorter cycle life compared to Li-
ion batteries.

3.Nickel-based Batteries: Nickel-based batteries include nickel-cadmium (Ni-Cd)

and nickel-metal hydride (Ni-MH) batteries. They are used in portable electronics,
power tools, and hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs). Ni-Cd batteries have high
discharge rates and long cycle life but suffer from memory effect and
environmental concerns due to cadmium content.

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c). Applications of Batteries
1.Transportation: Batteries power electric vehicles (EVs), including passenger cars,
buses, trucks, and bicycles, reducing greenhouse gas emissions and dependence
on fossil fuels.

2.Portable Electronics: Batteries are used to power smartphones, laptops, tablets,

wearables, and other portable electronic devices, providing convenient and
mobile energy sources.

3.Renewable Energy Storage: Batteries are essential for storing excess energy
generated from renewable sources like solar and wind power, enabling smoother
integration into the grid and improving energy reliability.

4.Backup Power: Batteries provide backup power for critical infrastructure,

including telecommunications networks, data centers, hospitals, and emergency
response systems, ensuring uninterrupted operation during power outages.

d). Advantages of Batteries

1.Portability: Batteries are compact and portable, making them suitable for a wide
range of applications, from handheld devices to electric vehicles.

2.Rechargeability: Rechargeable batteries can be reused multiple times, reducing

waste and resource consumption compared to single-use disposable batteries.

3.Energy Storage: Batteries store energy efficiently and can deliver it on demand,
enabling flexible and responsive power delivery in various applications.

e). Modelling of Battery

Lithium-ion battery (LIB) is the most common type of batteries commercially used
these days and that is due to its features such as high energy density, lack of
memory effect, and high charge and discharge rate capabilities [15,16]. The
equivalent circuit of the battery is shown below in Fig.3:
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 Fig.3. Battery equivalent circuit

Specifications of Battery
Parameters:
1. Power rating = 10kVA
2. Grid voltage =400V
3. Dc Voltage =780
4. Switching frequency = 10KHz
5. Operating frequency =50Hz

Inverter Design:
1. IGBTs are used : 6
2. Inductor in filter: 9mH
3. Capacitor in filter: 5.968 micro farads

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3 phase source:
1. Vrms:400v
2. Operating frequency: 50hz
3. Source inductance: 0.0001e-9
4. Source resistance: 0.0001e-3
5. Configuration: Y

PLL design:
1.PI Controller:
a. P: 10
b. I : 10000
c. Constant block value: 2*pi

2.Current controller:
a. P: 10
b. I: 4000
c. Gain: 2*pi*50*11.7e-3

3.PWM:
a. Gain: 2/780

4.Grid side Inductor: 2.7mH

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2.2 CONTROLLER

A) PHASE LOCKED LOOP(PLL)

a). About PLL
A Phase-Locked Loop (PLL) is a critical control and synchronization mechanism in
microgrid systems, ensuring stable and synchronized operation between
distributed energy resources (DERs) and the main grid. In microgrids, where
multiple DERs like renewable energy sources, energy storage systems, and
conventional generators operate in parallel, PLLs play a crucial role in maintaining
grid stability, frequency regulation, and synchronization.

b). Function
The PLL monitors the frequency and phase of the grid voltage or current and
generates a reference signal that tracks these parameters. This reference signal is
used by control systems to synchronize the output of DERs with the grid, ensuring
that they operate in phase and at the same frequency. By synchronizing the DERs
with the grid, the PLL facilitates seamless power exchange, load sharing, and
islanding detection in microgrid systems.

PLLs in microgrids can be implemented using analog or digital techniques,

depending on the application requirements and system architecture. Digital PLLs
offer greater flexibility, accuracy, and adaptability to dynamic grid conditions,
making them well-suited for modern microgrid control systems.

c). Conclusion
Overall, PLLs play a crucial role in microgrid operation by ensuring stable
synchronization between DERs and the main grid, enabling reliable and efficient
power distribution in decentralized energy networks.

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B) CURRENT REGULATOR
a). Introduction to Current Regulators:
Current regulation constitutes a fundamental aspect of electrical engineering,
encompassing techniques and devices aimed at controlling the flow of electric
current within a circuit or system. By maintaining a steady current level despite
variations in load or input conditions, current regulators ensure stable and
reliable operation of electronic devices, machinery, and power systems across
diverse applications.

b). Fundamentals of Current Regulation:

Basic Concepts of Current: Current, denoted by the symbol 'I' and measured in
amperes (A), represents the rate of flow of electric charge through a conductor.
Current regulation involves controlling the magnitude and direction of this flow to
meet specific requirements.

Ohm's Law: Ohm's Law serves as a cornerstone principle in current regulation,

stating that the current flowing through a conductor is directly proportional to the
voltage across it and inversely proportional to the resistance of the conductor.
This relationship is expressed mathematically as
𝐼 = V/R

Active and Passive Regulation: Current regulation can be achieved through both
passive and active means. Passive components such as resistors, inductors, and
capacitors can be employed to regulate current, while active devices such as
transistors, operational amplifiers, and integrated circuits (ICs) offer more
sophisticated control capabilities.

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c). Types of Current Regulators:
Linear Current Regulators: Linear regulators, also known as series regulators,
regulate current by dissipating excess voltage as heat. They are characterized by
simplicity, high accuracy, and low output noise, making them suitable for low to
moderate current applications.

Switching Current Regulators: Switching regulators, operating on the principle of

pulse-width modulation (PWM) or pulse-frequency modulation (PFM), regulate
current by rapidly switching power semiconductor devices on and off. They offer
high efficiency and are commonly used in high-current and battery-powered
applications.

Current-Limiting Circuits: Current limiters protect electronic components and

circuits from damage due to excessive current by limiting the maximum current
that can flow through a circuit. They are essential for preventing overloads, short
circuits, and thermal runaway conditions.
Programmable Current Sources: Programmable current sources allow the user to
set the desired output current electronically, offering flexibility and precision in
current regulation. They find applications in instrumentation, calibration, and
testing environments.

d). Design Methodologies & Control

Techniques:
Feedback Control Systems: Feedback control systems utilize sensors to measure
the output current and compare it with a reference value. Any deviation from the
desired current level triggers corrective actions to maintain stability and accuracy.
Proportional-Integral-Derivative (PID) Control: PID control algorithms adjust the
output current based on proportional, integral, and derivative terms, enabling
precise regulation and fast response to changes in load or input conditions.

32 | P a g e
Current Sensing Techniques: Current sensing methods such as shunt resistors,
Hall-effect sensors, and current transformers facilitate accurate measurement
and monitoring of the output current, providing feedback for closed-loop control
systems.

Ripple and Noise Reduction: Filtering techniques, such as capacitors, inductors,

and active filters, are employed to reduce ripple and noise in regulated current
waveforms, ensuring clean and stable power delivery to sensitive loads.

e). Applications of Current Regulators:

Power Supplies: Current regulators are integral components of power supplies,
ensuring stable and reliable power delivery to electronic devices,
telecommunications equipment, and industrial machinery.

Motor Control: In applications such as electric vehicles, robotics, and industrial

automation, current regulators control the speed, torque, and direction of electric
motors, optimizing performance and efficiency.

LED Lighting: LED drivers incorporate current regulation to maintain consistent

brightness, color accuracy, and energy efficiency in lighting systems for
residential, commercial, and automotive applications.

Battery Charging: Current regulation is essential in battery charging systems for

portable electronics, electric vehicles, renewable energy systems, and grid
storage applications, ensuring safe and efficient charging processes.

Welding and Plasma Cutting: Current regulation circuits play a crucial role in
welding machines and plasma cutters, controlling arc stability, penetration depth,
and heat generation during welding and cutting operations.

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C) VOLTAGE REGULATOR
a). Introduction to Voltage Regulators:
Voltage regulation, a cornerstone concept in electrical engineering, entails
controlling the output voltage of a power supply or electrical system to maintain a
stable and precise level, irrespective of variations in load, input voltage, or
environmental conditions. Voltage regulators play a pivotal role in ensuring the
reliable and efficient operation of electronic devices, machinery, and power
systems across diverse applications.

b). Fundamentals of Voltage Regulation:

Basic Concepts of Voltage: Voltage, denoted by the symbol 'V' and measured in
volts (V), represents the electric potential difference between two points in a
circuit. Voltage regulation involves controlling the magnitude and stability of this
potential difference to meet specific requirements.

Ohm's Law and Power Relationships: Ohm's Law governs the relationship
between voltage, current, and resistance in electrical circuits, expressed as
V=IR
V=IR. Additionally, the power dissipated in a circuit is given by
𝑃=VI
P=VI, highlighting the interplay between voltage, current, and power.

Load Regulation and Line Regulation: Voltage regulators are evaluated based on
their ability to maintain stable output voltage levels under varying load conditions
(load regulation) and input voltage fluctuations (line regulation), ensuring
consistent performance across a range of operating conditions.

c). Types of Voltage Regulators:

Linear Voltage Regulators: Linear regulators, also known as series regulators,
regulate voltage by dissipating excess power as heat, thereby providing a stable

34 | P a g e
output voltage. They are characterized by simplicity, low cost, and low output
noise, making them suitable for low-power and precision applications.

Switching Voltage Regulators: Switching regulators, operating on the principle of

pulse-width modulation (PWM) or pulse-frequency modulation (PFM), regulate
voltage by rapidly switching power semiconductor devices on and off. They offer
high efficiency and are commonly used in high-power and battery-powered
applications.
Zener Voltage Regulators: Zener diodes, when operated in the reverse breakdown
region, exhibit a stable voltage drop across them, making them suitable for
voltage regulation applications. Zener voltage regulators are simple and cost-
effective but offer limited current capability and precision.

Programmable Voltage References: Programmable voltage references allow the

user to set the desired output voltage electronically, offering flexibility and
precision in voltage regulation. They find applications in instrumentation,
calibration, and testing environments.

d). Design Methodologies and Control

Techniques:
Feedback Control Systems: Feedback control systems utilize sensors to measure
the output voltage and compare it with a reference value. Any deviation from the
desired voltage level triggers corrective actions to maintain stability and accuracy.
Proportional-Integral-Derivative (PID) Control: PID control algorithms adjust the
output voltage based on proportional, integral, and derivative terms, enabling
precise regulation and fast response to changes in load or input conditions.

Voltage Sensing Techniques: Voltage sensing methods such as voltage dividers,

resistive feedback networks, and voltage amplifiers facilitate accurate
measurement and monitoring of the output voltage, providing feedback for
closed-loop control systems.

Transient Response and Stability Analysis: Voltage regulators must exhibit fast
transient response and robust stability characteristics to maintain output voltage

35 | P a g e
e). Applications of Voltage Regulators:
1.Power Supplies: Voltage regulators are integral components of power supplies,
ensuring stable and reliable power delivery to electronic devices,
telecommunications equipment, and industrial machinery.

2.Microprocessor and Memory Systems: Voltage regulators provide precise and

stable supply voltages to microprocessors, memory modules, and integrated
circuits, ensuring reliable operation and preventing damage due to voltage
fluctuations.

3.Automotive Electronics: Voltage regulators regulate the supply voltage to

various automotive electronic systems, including engine control units (ECUs),
infotainment systems, and safety features, ensuring consistent performance and
reliability under harsh operating conditions.

4.Portable Electronics: Voltage regulators power mobile phones, tablets, laptops,

and other portable electronic devices, providing a stable supply voltage from
battery or external power sources to support reliable operation and optimize
battery life.

5.Industrial Automation and Control Systems: Voltage regulators regulate supply

voltages to sensors, actuators, controllers, and other components in industrial
automation and control systems, ensuring precise control and accurate
measurement in manufacturing and process control applications.

Voltage regulation stands as a cornerstone in the realm of electrical engineering,

facilitating stable, efficient, and reliable operation of electronic devices,
machinery, and power systems across a wide range of applications. By
understanding the principles, types, design methodologies, and challenges
associated with voltage regulation, engineers can develop robust and innovative
solutions to meet the evolving demands of modern technology. As technology
continues to advance, voltage regulators will play an increasingly pivotal role in
enabling new capabilities and applications, driving progress and innovation in
fields ranging from renewable energy and transportation to telecommunications
and consumer electronics.

36 | P a g e
2.3 CONVERTER
A) DC/DC CONVERTER
1. DEFINITATION
A DC/DC converter, also known as a voltage converter or voltage regulator. A
DC/DC converter is an electronic device that converts one level of direct current
(DC) voltage to another, typically for the purpose of stepping up (boosting),
stepping down (bucking), or inverting the voltage level. These converters are
essential components in numerous electronic systems where efficient and reliable
voltage conversion is required.

2. FUNCTIONALITY
DC/DC converters work by using semiconductor switches (such as transistors) to
control the flow of current through an inductor or transformer. By periodically
switching the input voltage on and off, these converters manipulate the energy
stored in the inductor or transformer to produce the desired output voltage.

3. TYPES OF DC/DC CONVERTERS

1.Buck Converter: A buck converter steps down the input voltage to a lower level
output voltage. It uses a transistor switch (usually a MOSFET) and an inductor to
regulate the output voltage. Buck converters are widely used in applications such
as battery charging, LED drivers, and voltage regulators.

2.Boost Converter: A boost converter increases the input voltage to a higher level
output voltage. It typically consists of a transistor switch, an inductor, and a
diode. Boost converters are commonly used in applications such as power
supplies for portable devices and energy harvesting systems.

3.Buck-Boost Converter: A buck-boost converter can both step up and step down
the input voltage to maintain a stable output voltage. It is useful in applications
where the input voltage may vary over a wide range, such as in battery-powered
devices.

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DC/DC converter (buck)

Several structures of bidirectional DC/DC converters and control strategies of

energy storage systems have been studied in [17,18]. Buck DC/DC converter is
used to step the power down and regulate it in a certain desired level. In this
system, the buck converter has been used to regulate and control the LIB power
and provide it to the load. DC/DC buck converter basically is a powerful tool that
is used to step down the higher voltage to a lower voltage. Buck converter
consists of LC low bass filter to regulate the source voltage and lowered down as
desired. The source will be connected to switch works using a duty cycle in order
to open and close in friction of second. It can be any type of switches but for more
efficiency, a MOSFET switch has been used. The reverse bias diode is used for
circuit protection, so the current would have a path to go through whenever the
MOSFET is open. Fig.9 shows a simple circuit for the buck converter.

Fig.9. Buck converters

The buck converter with ideal switching devices will be considered here which is
operating with the switching period of T and duty cycle D. The state equations
corresponding to the converter in continuous conduction mode (CCM) can be
easily understood by applying Kirchhoff's voltage law on the loop containing the
inductor and Kirchhoff's current law on the node with the capacitor branch
connected to it. When the ideal switch is ON, the dynamics of the inductor
current 𝑖𝐿(𝑡) and the capacitor voltage 𝑉𝑐(𝑡) are given by,

38 | P a g e
DC/DC converter (boost)

DC/DC Boost converter simply consists of inductor, capacitor, diode, and switch.
Circuit is connected as showing in Fig.10.

The IGBT switch works using high frequency duty cycle in order to open and close
in friction of second. The switch can be any kind of switches, but IGBT has been
used in order to increase the efficiency. Boost converter works as following: when
the switch is open, current flow through the circuit and charge the output
capacitor using input voltage. When the switch closed, current would flow
through the small, short circuit, and inductor will store the energy in form of
magnetic field, then when the switch opened again, this energy will add up with
source energy to charge the output using higher current. Since the MOSFET
switch open and close in friction of second, that would not affect the coil.

Fig.10. boost converters

The boost converter with a switching period of T and a duty cycle of D is given.
Again, assuming continuous conduction mode of operation, the state space
equations when the main switch is ON are shown by,

39 | P a g e
4. APPLICATIONS OF DC/DC CONVERTERS
1.Power Supplies: DC/DC converters are widely used in power supply circuits for
electronic devices, providing stable and regulated voltages required for proper
operation.

2.Battery Charging: DC/DC converters are used in battery charging systems to

regulate the charging voltage and current, ensuring safe and efficient charging of
batteries in various applications.

3.Renewable Energy Systems: DC/DC converters are essential components in

renewable energy systems such as solar inverters and wind turbine converters,
where they convert the DC voltage generated by solar panels or wind turbines
into AC voltage for grid connection or DC voltage for battery storage.

4.Electric Vehicles: DC/DC converters are used in electric vehicles (EVs) to convert
the high-voltage battery voltage to lower voltages required for auxiliary systems
such as lighting, heating, and cooling.

5. ADVANTAGES OF DC/DC CONVERTERS

1.Efficiency: DC/DC converters can achieve high efficiency in voltage conversion,
minimizing power losses and maximizing energy transfer.

2.Regulation: DC/DC converters provide precise regulation of output voltage and

current, ensuring stable and reliable operation of electronic devices.

3.Compact Size: DC/DC converters are available in compact and lightweight

designs, making them suitable for integration into space-constrained applications
such as portable electronics and automotive systems.

40 | P a g e
B) DC TO AC CONVERTER
1. DEFINITATION
DC to AC Converter (Inverter)
• DEFINITION: Converts DC to AC power by switching the DC input voltage (or
current) in a pre-determined sequence so as to generate AC voltage (or current)
output.
• TYPICAL APPLICATIONS:
– UPS, Industrial drives, Traction, HVDC

2. TYPES OF INVERTER
• Voltage Source Inverter (VSI)
• Current Source Inverter (CSI)

3.PWM TYPES
• Natural (sinusoidal) sampling (as shown on previous slide)– Problems with
analogue circuitry, e.g. Drift, sensitivity etc.

• Regular sampling
– simplified version of natural sampling that results in simple digital
implementation

• Optimised PWM
– PWM waveform are constructed based on certain performance criteria, e.g.
THD.

• Harmonic elimination/minimisation PWM

– PWM waveforms are constructed to eliminate some undesirable harmonics
from the output waveform spectra.
• Space-vector modulation (SVM)
– A simple technique based on volt-second that is normally used with three-phase
inverter motor drive

41 | P a g e
4. OPERATING PRINCIPLES:
• Working principles of diodes, thyristors, transistors in rectification
• Control methods for switch-mode power supplies (PWM, PFM)
• Efficiency and power factor considerations

5. PERFORMANCE PARAMETERS:
• Ripple voltage and current
• Output voltage regulation
• Efficiency calculations
• Transient response

6. APPLICATIONS:
• Consumer electronics
• Industrial power supplies
• Renewable energy systems (solar, wind)
• Electric vehicle chargers
• Future Trends and Developments:
• Wide-bandgap semiconductor devices (SiC, GaN)
• Digital control techniques
• Integration with energy storage systems

C) AC TO DC CONVERTER
1. Definition
An AC to DC converter, a fundamental component in modern electrical systems,
facilitates the transformation of alternating current (AC) into direct current (DC).
This conversion is imperative as many electronic devices and power systems
operate on DC power. The converter rectifies the incoming AC waveform,
ensuring a consistent flow of current in one direction. Various types of AC to DC
converters exist, ranging from simple diode-based rectifiers to sophisticated
switch-mode power supplies employing advanced semiconductor devices. These
converters play a crucial role in providing stable and regulated DC voltage for a

42 | P a g e
multitude of applications, spanning from consumer electronics to industrial
machinery and renewable energy systems. Through efficient conversion
mechanisms and careful design considerations, AC to DC converters contribute to
the reliability, efficiency, and versatility of modern electrical infrastructure,
powering our interconnected world.

AC to DC Converters are one of the most important elements in power

electronics. This is because there are a lot of real-life applications that are based
on these conversions. The electrical circuits that transform alternating current
(AC) input into direct current (DC) output are known as AC-DC converters. They
are used in power electronic applications where the power input a 50 Hz or 60 Hz
sine-wave AC voltage that requires power conversion for a DC output.

The process of conversion of AC current to dc current is known as rectification.

The rectifier converts the AC supply into the DC supply at the load end
connection. Similarly, transformers are normally used to adjust the AC source to
reduce the voltage level to have a better operation range for DC supply.

2. Types of AC-DC Converters:

1.Single-phase rectifiers (half-wave, full-wave, bridge rectifiers)
2.Three-phase rectifiers
3.Voltage multipliers
4.Switch-mode power supplies (buck, boost, buck-boost converters)
5.Thyristor-based converters (SCR, TRIAC)

3.Concept of Alternating Current (AC) & Direct Current (DC)

Alternating Current
In alternating current, the current changes direction and flows forward and
backward. The current whose direction changes periodically is called an alternating
current (AC). It has non-zero frequency. It is produced by AC generator, dynamo,
etc.

Direct Current
In direct current, the current doesn’t change its magnitude and polarity. If the
current always flows in the same direction in a conductor then it is called direct
current. It has zero frequency. It is produced by cells, battery, DC generator etc.
43 | P a g e
Half Wave Rectifier
During each positive half cycle of the sine wave, the diode is forward biased as
the anode is positive so the current flows through the diode. The diode is in
reverse biased during the negative
6 | P a g e half cycle which blocks the current flow. This way all positive
half cycle waveforms are made unidirectional. Using a capacitor parallel to
the load the amount of ripple voltage can be reduced and a steady current is
produced.

Full Wave Rectification

The full wave rectification uses both positive and negative half cycles of the sine
wave. In case of full wave rectification, two diodes are used of which one
conducts during the positive half cycle and the other conducts during the
negative half cycle. The important point is that the current through the load
flows in the same direction thus the output is unidirectional. Turning on a diode
depends on the polarity of the cathode voltage and turning it off depends on the
device current. Three terminal devices such as Thyristor, BJT and MOSFET etc.
can be used to
control the output voltage. The conversion of AC-DC will take place when input is
an AC supply and the output is a DC load for example battery charging, DC
motor, electrolysis, electromagnets etc. In designing a rectifier, two important
parameters must be specified: the current handling capability and the Peak
Inverse Voltage (PIV) the diode must withstand without breakdown. PIV is
specified by the manufacturer [8]

5. Applications
The AC to DC Converters are used in almost all electronics and electrical devices.
They are used as power supply circuits for Household applications like vacuum
cleaners, washing machines, refrigerators, electric rice cookers. For daily life,
usable products like computers, televisions, cell phone chargers, etc AC-to-DC
Converters play a very important role.

Most of the electronics sensors and modules only operate on DC supply and hence
they use AC to DC Converters. They are also used in medical equipment, factory
automation, building automation, process control systems, signage displays &
telecommunication.

44 | P a g e
2.4 FILTER DESIGN
Filters in microgrids are essential components that ensure the stability, reliability,
and efficiency of power distribution within these decentralized energy systems. In
this brief overview, we'll explore the types of filters commonly used in microgrids,
their functions, and their significance in maintaining power quality and grid
stability.

1.Importance of Filters in Microgrids

Filters play a critical role in microgrid systems by addressing several challenges
related to power quality, grid stability, and compatibility between different DERs.
Some of the key functions of filters in microgrids include:

1.Harmonic Mitigation: Filters are used to suppress harmonic distortion caused by

nonlinear loads, such as power electronics converters, which can degrade power
quality and interfere with sensitive equipment.

2.Voltage Regulation: Filters help maintain stable voltage levels within the
microgrid by smoothing out voltage fluctuations and reducing voltage harmonics,
ensuring reliable operation of connected loads.

3.Frequency Regulation: Filters can assist in regulating the frequency of the

microgrid by filtering out unwanted frequency components and mitigating
frequency deviations caused by changes in generation or load.

4.Islanding Detection: Filters play a role in detecting islanding events, where a

section of the microgrid becomes electrically isolated from the main grid but
continues to operate autonomously. Proper islanding detection is essential for
ensuring the safety of utility workers and preventing damage to equipment.

5.Interconnection Standards Compliance: Filters help microgrids comply with

interconnection standards and regulations by ensuring that the power injected into
the main grid meets specified requirements for voltage, frequency, and harmonic
distortion.

2.Types of Filters Used in Microgrids

45 | P a g e
Filters used in microgrids can be classified into several categories based on their
functions, operating principles, and implementation:
1.Active Filters: Active filters use power electronics devices, such as insulated gate
bipolar transistors (IGBTs), to dynamically compensate for harmonic distortion
and reactive power in real-time. They offer fast response times and adaptive
control capabilities but require additional power electronics hardware and control
algorithms.

2.Passive Filters: Passive filters use passive components, such as resistors,

capacitors, and inductors, to attenuate specific frequency components in the
electrical signals. They are simple, reliable, and cost-effective but may have
limited bandwidth and efficiency.

3.Hybrid Filters: Hybrid filters combine elements of both active and passive
filtering techniques to achieve optimal performance and efficiency. They leverage
the advantages of active control with the simplicity and reliability of passive
components.

4.Synchronous Condensers: Synchronous condensers are rotating machines that

can be used as dynamic reactive power compensators in microgrids. They provide
voltage support and inertia, helping to stabilize the grid during transient events.

5.Droop Control: Droop control is a decentralized control strategy used in

microgrids to regulate frequency and voltage by adjusting the output power of
DERs based on deviations from nominal values. While not traditional filters, droop
control methods effectively manage grid stability in microgrids.
Applications of Filters in Microgrids

3.Filters are deployed across various components and

subsystems within microgrids to address specific power quality
issues and ensure reliable operation:
1.Grid-Connected Inverters: Filters are integrated into grid-connected inverters
used in renewable energy systems, such as solar photovoltaic (PV) and wind
turbines, to mitigate harmonic distortion and ensure compliance with grid codes
and standards.

46 | P a g e
2.Energy Storage Systems (ESS): Filters are employed in energy storage systems,
such as batteries and supercapacitors, to regulate voltage and current, minimize
ripple, and enhance the efficiency and reliability of energy storage and discharge
operations.

3.Interconnection Points: Filters are installed at interconnection points between

microgrids and the main grid to reduce the impact of harmonics, voltage
fluctuations, and reactive power exchange on both systems, ensuring smooth and
stable operation during grid-connected mode.

4.Load Centers: Filters may be installed at load centers within microgrids to

mitigate harmonic distortion and voltage fluctuations caused by nonlinear loads,
such as variable frequency drives (VFDs), LED lighting, and power electronics
converters.

47 | P a g e
 CHAPTER 3: SIMULATION RESULT & ANALYSIS
(a)Simulation of FUEL CELL

48 | P a g e
 FIGURE - 4

SYSTEM PARAMETERS:
(a) FUEL CELL
S.NO. PARAMETERS VALUE
1. FUEL CELL TYPE PEMFC
a. Vdc 45V
b. Power rating 6KW
c. No. of cells 65
2. Inverter design
a. IGBTS are used 6
b. Inductor in filters 500mH
c. Capacitor in filters 100 μF
3. 3phase source
a. V rms 415V
b. Operating freq. 50Hz
c. Source Inductance 0.001e-9
d. Source Resistance 0.001e-3
e. Configuration Y
4. Controller
a. PI Controller
i. P 5
ii. I 5000
b. PID Controller
i. P 1
ii. I 1
iii. D 0

49 | P a g e
Result of Fuel Cell

50 | P a g e
 Figure: 5

(b)Simulation of BATTERY
Figure:6

51 | P a g e
SYSTEM PARAMETERS:

(b) BATTERY
S.NO. PARAMETERS VALUE
1. BATTERY TYPE Li-ion
a. Vdc 780V
b. Power rating 10KVA
c. Grid voltage 400V
d. Switching freq. 10KHz
e. Operating freq. 50Hz
2. Inverter design
a. IGBTS are used 6
b. Inductor in filter 9mH
c. Capacitor in filter 5.968μF
3. 3phase source
a. V rms 400V
b. Operating freq. 50Hz
c. Source Inductance 0.0001e-9
d. Source Resistance 0.0001e-3
e. Configuration Y
PLL design
a. PLL design
i. P 10
ii. I 10000
iii. Constant block value 2*pi
b. Current controller
i. P 10
ii. I 4000
iii. Gain 2*pi*50*11.7e-3
c. PWM
i. Gain 2/780

52 | P a g e
d. Grid side Inductor 2.7mH

RESULT OF BATTERY
53 | P a g e
 Figure:7

DISCUSSION:
Fuel cell-based microgrids offer reliable, efficient, and environmentally friendly
power generation in grid-connected mode.

1.Reliable Power Generation: Fuel cells provide continuous and stable power
generation, independent of weather conditions or time of day, ensuring reliable
electricity supply to critical loads.

2.Low Emissions: Fuel cells produce electricity through electrochemical reactions,

emitting only water vapor and heat as byproducts, thus reducing carbon emissions
and promoting cleaner air quality.

3.Scalability: Fuel cell-based microgrids can be scaled up or down to meet varying

demand requirements, making them suitable for a wide range of applications from
residential neighborhoods to industrial complexes.

4.Integration with Renewable Energy: By using renewable hydrogen produced

from sources like solar or wind energy, fuel cell-based microgrids can be part of a
fully sustainable energy system, further reducing dependence on fossil fuels.

5.Challenges: Despite their advantages, challenges such as cost, hydrogen

infrastructure development, and system integration need to be addressed to enable
widespread adoption of fuel cell-based microgrids.

Overall, fuel cell-based microgrids offer a promising solution for grid-connected

applications, combining reliability, efficiency, and environmental sustainability to
support the transition towards a more resilient and sustainable energy future.

54 | P a g e
CONCLUSION:
In conclusion, implementing a microgrid based on fuel cells for grid-connected
mode offers several significant advantages. First and foremost, fuel cells provide a
clean and efficient source of power generation, reducing carbon emissions and
environmental impact compared to traditional fossil fuel-based generators.
Additionally, fuel cells offer high reliability and low maintenance requirements,
enhancing the overall resilience of the grid.

Furthermore, a microgrid based on fuel cells can increase energy independence by

utilizing locally available resources, such as hydrogen or natural gas. This can
reduce reliance on centralized power plants and long-distance transmission lines,
mitigating the risks associated with grid disruptions and voltage fluctuations.

Moreover, the flexibility of microgrid operation allows for better integration of

renewable energy sources, such as solar and wind power, by balancing supply and
demand in real-time. This improves overall grid stability and efficiency while
promoting the transition to a more sustainable energy mix.

Overall, deploying a microgrid based on fuel cells in grid-connected mode presents

a promising solution for enhancing energy security, reducing environmental
impact, and fostering the integration of renewable energy resources into the
existing power infrastructure. However, careful planning, investment, and
regulatory support are crucial to realizing the full potential of this technology and
maximizing its benefits for both utilities and consumers

REFERENCES:

55 | P a g e
[1]. www.sciencedirect.com › science › article
[2]. en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microgrid
[3]. www.britannica.com › technology › fuel-cell
[4]. www.explainthatstuff.com › batteries
[5]. www.electrical4u.com › battery-working-principle
[6]. how2electronics.com › dc-to-dc-converters-design
[7]. www.elprocus.com › dc-to-ac-converter-circuit
[8]. www.electricity-magnetism.org › ac-dc-converters
[9]. apmonitor.com › Main › Proportional Integral Controller
[10]. www.electrical4u.com › types-of-controllers
[11]. circuitdigest.com › tutorial › current-regulators
[12]. www.digikey.com › 2020 › what-is-a-voltage-regulator

56 | P a g e