Manufacturing

Manufacturing is the creation or production of goods with the help

of equipment, labor, machines, tools, and chemical or biological
processing or formulation. It is the essence of the secondary sector
of the economy.[1] The term may refer to a range of human activity,
from handicraft to high-tech, but it is most commonly applied to
industrial design, in which raw materials from the primary sector are
transformed into finished goods on a large scale. Such goods may
be sold to other manufacturers for the production of other more
complex products (such as aircraft, household appliances, furniture, Manufacturing of an automobile by
Tesla
sports equipment or automobiles), or distributed via the tertiary
industry to end users and consumers (usually through wholesalers,
who in turn sell to retailers, who then sell them to individual customers).

Manufacturing engineering is the field of engineering that designs and optimizes the manufacturing
process, or the steps through which raw materials are transformed into a final product. The manufacturing
process begins with the product design, and materials specification. These materials are then modified
through manufacturing to become the desired product.

Contemporary manufacturing encompasses all intermediary stages involved in producing and integrating
components of a product. Some industries, such as semiconductor and steel manufacturers, use the term
fabrication instead.[2]

The manufacturing sector is closely connected with the engineering and industrial design industries.

Etymology
The Modern English word manufacture is likely derived from the Middle French manufacture ("process of
making") which itself originates from the Classical Latin manū ("hand") and Middle French facture
("making"). Alternatively, the English word may have been independently formed from the earlier English
manufacture ("made by human hands") and fracture.[3] Its earliest usage in the English language was
recorded in the mid-16th century to refer to the making of products by hand.[4][5]

History and development

Prehistory and ancient history

Human ancestors manufactured objects using stone and other tools long before the emergence of Homo
sapiens about 200,000 years ago.[6] The earliest methods of stone tool making, known as the Oldowan
"industry", date back to at least 2.3 million years ago,[7] with the earliest direct evidence of tool usage found
in Ethiopia within the Great Rift Valley, dating back to 2.5 million
years ago.[8] To manufacture a stone tool, a " core" of hard stone
with specific flaking properties (such as flint) was struck with a
hammerstone. This flaking produced sharp edges that could be used
as tools, primarily in the form of choppers or scrapers.[9] These
tools greatly aided the early humans in their hunter-gatherer lifestyle
to form other tools out of softer materials such as bone and
wood.[10] The Middle Paleolithic, approximately 300,000 years
ago, saw the introduction of the prepared-core technique, where Flint stone core for making blades in
multiple blades could be rapidly formed from a single core stone.[9] Negev, Israel, c. 40000 BP

Pressure flaking, in which a wood, bone, or antler punch could be

used to shape a stone very finely was developed during the Upper
Paleolithic, beginning approximately 40,000 years ago.[11] During
the Neolithic period, polished stone tools were manufactured from a
variety of hard rocks such as flint, jade, jadeite, and greenstone. The
polished axes were used alongside other stone tools including
projectiles, knives, and scrapers, as well as tools manufactured from
organic materials such as wood, bone, and antler.[12]

Copper smelting is believed to have originated when the technology

of pottery kiln allowed sufficiently high temperatures.[13] The
concentration of various elements such as arsenic increase with
depth in copper ore deposits and smelting of these ores yields A late Bronze Age sword or dagger
arsenical bronze, which can be sufficiently work-hardened to be blade now on display at the National
suitable for manufacturing tools. [13] Bronze is an alloy of copper Archaeological Museum in France
with tin; the latter of which being found in relatively few deposits
globally delayed true tin bronze becoming widespread. During the
Bronze Age, bronze was a major improvement over stone as a material for making tools, both because of its
mechanical properties like strength and ductility and because it could be cast in molds to make intricately
shaped objects. Bronze significantly advanced shipbuilding technology with better tools and bronze nails,
which replaced the old method of attaching boards of the hull with cord woven through drilled holes.[14]
The Iron Age is conventionally defined by the widespread manufacturing of weapons and tools using iron
and steel rather than bronze.[15] Iron smelting is more difficult than tin and copper smelting because smelted
iron requires hot-working and can be melted only in specially designed furnaces. The place and time for the
discovery of iron smelting is not known, partly because of the difficulty of distinguishing metal extracted
from nickel-containing ores from hot-worked meteoritic iron.[16]

During the growth of the ancient civilizations, many ancient technologies resulted from advances in
manufacturing. Several of the six classic simple machines were invented in Mesopotamia.[17]
Mesopotamians have been credited with the invention of the wheel. The wheel and axle mechanism first
appeared with the potter's wheel, invented in Mesopotamia (modern Iraq) during the 5th millennium
BC.[18] Egyptian paper made from papyrus, as well as pottery, were mass-produced and exported
throughout the Mediterranean basin. Early construction techniques used by the Ancient Egyptians made use
of bricks composed mainly of clay, sand, silt, and other minerals.[19]

Medieval and early modern

The Middle Ages witnessed new inventions, innovations in the
ways of managing traditional means of production, and economic
growth. Papermaking, a 2nd-century Chinese technology, was
carried to the Middle East when a group of Chinese papermakers
were captured in the 8th century.[20] Papermaking technology was
spread to Europe by the Umayyad conquest of Hispania.[21] A
paper mill was established in Sicily in the 12th century. In Europe
the fiber to make pulp for making paper was obtained from linen
and cotton rags. Lynn Townsend White Jr. credited the spinning A stocking frame at Ruddington
wheel with increasing the supply of rags, which led to cheap paper, Framework Knitters' Museum in
which was a factor in the development of printing. [22] Due to the Ruddington, England
casting of cannon, the blast furnace came into widespread use in
France in the mid 15th century. The blast furnace had been used in
China since the 4th century BC.[13] The stocking frame, which was invented in 1598, increased a knitter's
number of knots per minute from 100 to 1000.[23]

First and Second Industrial Revolutions

The Industrial Revolution was the transition to new manufacturing
processes in Europe and the United States from 1760 to the
1830s.[24] This transition included going from hand production
methods to machines, new chemical manufacturing and iron
production processes, the increasing use of steam power and water
power, the development of machine tools and the rise of the
mechanized factory system. The Industrial Revolution also led to an
unprecedented rise in the rate of population growth. Textiles were An 1835 illustration of a Roberts
the dominant industry of the Industrial Revolution in terms of Loom weaving shed
employment, value of output and capital invested. The textile
industry was also the first to use modern production methods.[25]: 40
Rapid industrialization first began in Britain, starting with mechanized spinning in the 1780s,[26] with high
rates of growth in steam power and iron production occurring after 1800. Mechanized textile production
spread from Great Britain to continental Europe and the United States in the early 19th century, with
important centres of textiles, iron and coal emerging in Belgium and the United States and later textiles in
France.[25]

An economic recession occurred from the late 1830s to the early 1840s when the adoption of the Industrial
Revolution's early innovations, such as mechanized spinning and weaving, slowed down and their markets
matured. Innovations developed late in the period, such as the increasing adoption of locomotives,
steamboats and steamships, hot blast iron smelting and new technologies, such as the electrical telegraph,
were widely introduced in the 1840s and 1850s, were not powerful enough to drive high rates of growth.
Rapid economic growth began to occur after 1870, springing from a new group of innovations in what has
been called the Second Industrial Revolution. These innovations included new steel making processes,
mass-production, assembly lines, electrical grid systems, the large-scale manufacture of machine tools and
the use of increasingly advanced machinery in steam-powered factories.[25][27][28][29]
Building on improvements in vacuum pumps and materials research, incandescent light bulbs became
practical for general use in the late 1870s. This invention had a profound effect on the workplace because
factories could now have second and third shift workers.[30] Shoe production was mechanized during the
mid 19th century.[31] Mass production of sewing machines and agricultural machinery such as reapers
occurred in the mid to late 19th century.[32] The mass production of bicycles started in the 1880s.[32]
Steam-powered factories became widespread, although the conversion from water power to steam occurred
in England earlier than in the U.S.[33]

Modern manufacturing
Electrification of factories, which had begun gradually in the 1890s
after the introduction of the practical DC motor and the AC motor,
was fastest between 1900 and 1930. This was aided by the
establishment of electric utilities with central stations and the
lowering of electricity prices from 1914 to 1917.[34] Electric motors
allowed more flexibility in manufacturing and required less
maintenance than line shafts and belts. Many factories witnessed a
30% increase in output owing to the increasing shift to electric
motors. Electrification enabled modern mass production, and the
Bell Aircraft's assembly plant in
biggest impact of early mass production was in the manufacturing
Wheatfield, New York in 1944
of everyday items, such as at the Ball Brothers Glass Manufacturing
Company, which electrified its mason jar plant in Muncie, Indiana,
U.S. around 1900. The new automated process used glass blowing machines to replace 210 craftsman glass
blowers and helpers. A small electric truck was now used to handle 150 dozen bottles at a time whereas
previously used hand trucks could only carry 6 dozen bottles at a time. Electric mixers replaced men with
shovels handling sand and other ingredients that were fed into the glass furnace. An electric overhead crane
replaced 36 day laborers for moving heavy loads across the factory.[35]

Mass production was popularized in the late 1910s and 1920s by Henry Ford's Ford Motor Company,[36]
which introduced electric motors to the then-well-known technique of chain or sequential production. Ford
also bought or designed and built special purpose machine tools and fixtures such as multiple spindle drill
presses that could drill every hole on one side of an engine block in one operation and a multiple head
milling machine that could simultaneously machine 15 engine blocks held on a single fixture. All of these
machine tools were arranged systematically in the production flow and some had special carriages for
rolling heavy items into machining positions. Production of the Ford Model T used 32,000 machine
tools.[37]

Lean manufacturing, also known as just-in-time manufacturing, was developed in Japan in the 1930s. It is a
production method aimed primarily at reducing times within the production system as well as response
times from suppliers and to customers.[38][39] It was introduced in Australia in the 1950s by the British
Motor Corporation (Australia) at its Victoria Park plant in Sydney, from where the idea later migrated to
Toyota.[40] News spread to western countries from Japan in 1977 in two English-language articles: one
referred to the methodology as the "Ohno system", after Taiichi Ohno, who was instrumental in its
development within Toyota.[41] The other article, by Toyota authors in an international journal, provided
additional details.[42] Finally, those and other publicity were translated into implementations, beginning in
1980 and then quickly multiplying throughout the industry in the United States and other countries.[43]

Manufacturing strategy
According to a "traditional" view of manufacturing strategy, there are five key dimensions along which the
performance of manufacturing can be assessed: cost, quality, dependability, flexibility and innovation.[44]

In regard to manufacturing performance, Wickham Skinner, who has been called "the father of
manufacturing strategy",[45] adopted the concept of "focus",[46] with an implication that a business cannot
perform at the highest level along all five dimensions and must therefore select one or two competitive
priorities. This view led to the theory of "trade offs" in manufacturing strategy.[47] Similarly, Elizabeth Haas
wrote in 1987 about the delivery of value in manufacturing for customers in terms of "lower prices, greater
service responsiveness or higher quality".[48] The theory of "trade offs" has subsequently being debated
and questioned,[47] but Skinner wrote in 1992 that at that time "enthusiasm for the concepts of
'manufacturing strategy' [had] been higher", noting that in academic papers, executive courses and case
studies, levels of interest were "bursting out all over".[49]

Manufacturing writer Terry Hill has commented that manufacturing is often seen as a less "strategic"
business activity than functions such as marketing and finance, and that manufacturing managers have
"come late" to business strategy-making discussions, where, as a result, they make only a reactive
contribution.[50][51]

Industrial policy

Economics of manufacturing
Emerging technologies have offered new growth methods in advanced manufacturing employment
opportunities, for example in the Manufacturing Belt in the United States. Manufacturing provides
important material support for national infrastructure and also for national defense.

On the other hand, most manufacturing processes may involve significant social and environmental costs.
The clean-up costs of hazardous waste, for example, may outweigh the benefits of a product that creates it.
Hazardous materials may expose workers to health risks. These costs are now well known and there is
effort to address them by improving efficiency, reducing waste, using industrial symbiosis, and eliminating
harmful chemicals.

The negative costs of manufacturing can also be addressed legally. Developed countries regulate
manufacturing activity with labor laws and environmental laws. Across the globe, manufacturers can be
subject to regulations and pollution taxes to offset the environmental costs of manufacturing activities.
Labor unions and craft guilds have played a historic role in the negotiation of worker rights and wages.
Environment laws and labor protections that are available in developed nations may not be available in the
third world. Tort law and product liability impose additional costs on manufacturing. These are significant
dynamics in the ongoing process, occurring over the last few decades, of manufacture-based industries
relocating operations to "developing-world" economies where the costs of production are significantly
lower than in "developed-world" economies.[52]

Finance
From a financial perspective, the goal of the manufacturing industry is mainly to achieve cost benefits per
unit produced, which in turn leads to cost reductions in product prices for the market towards end
customers.[53] This relative cost reduction towards the market, is how manufacturing firms secure their
profit margins.[54]

Safety
Manufacturing has unique health and safety challenges and has been recognized by the National Institute
for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) as a priority industry sector in the National Occupational
Research Agenda (NORA) to identify and provide intervention strategies regarding occupational health and
safety issues.[55][56][57]

Manufacturing and investment

Surveys and analyses of trends and issues in manufacturing and
investment around the world focus on such things as:

The nature and sources of the considerable variations

that occur cross-nationally in levels of manufacturing and
wider industrial-economic growth;
Competitiveness; and
Attractiveness to foreign direct investors.
Capacity use in manufacturing in
In addition to general overviews, researchers have examined the Germany and the United States
features and factors affecting particular key aspects of
manufacturing development. They have compared production and
investment in a range of Western and non-Western countries and presented case studies of growth and
performance in important individual industries and market-economic sectors.[58][59]

On June 26, 2009, Jeff Immelt, the CEO of General Electric, called for the United States to increase its
manufacturing base employment to 20% of the workforce, commenting that the U.S. has outsourced too
much in some areas and can no longer rely on the financial sector and consumer spending to drive
demand.[60] Further, while U.S. manufacturing performs well compared to the rest of the U.S. economy,
research shows that it performs poorly compared to manufacturing in other high-wage countries.[61] A total
of 3.2 million – one in six U.S. manufacturing jobs – have disappeared between 2000 and 2007.[62] In the
UK, EEF the manufacturers organisation has led calls for the UK economy to be rebalanced to rely less on
financial services and has actively promoted the manufacturing agenda.

Major manufacturing nations

According to the United Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO), China is the top
manufacturer worldwide by 2019 output, producing 28.7% of the total global manufacturing output,
followed by the United States of America, Japan, Germany, and India.[63][64]

UNIDO also publishes a Competitive Industrial Performance (CIP) Index, which measures the competitive
manufacturing ability of different nations. The CIP Index combines a nation's gross manufacturing output
with other factors like high-tech capability and the nation's impact on the world economy. Germany topped
the 2020 CIP Index, followed by China, South Korea, the United States, and Japan.[65][66]

List of countries by manufacturing output

These are the top 50 countries by total value of manufacturing output in U.S. dollars for its noted year
according to World Bank:[67]
Rank Country or region Millions of $US Year

World 16,182,038 2023

1 China 4,658,782 2023

2 United States 2,497,132 2021

3 Germany 844,926 2023

4 Japan 818,398 2022

5 India 455,767 2023

6 South Korea 416,389 2023

7 Mexico 360,728 2023

8 Italy 354,722 2023

9 France 294,465 2023

10 Brazil 289,791 2023

11 United Kingdom 284,063 2023

12 Indonesia 255,962 2023

13 Russia 251,577 2023

14 Turkey 215,038 2023

15 Ireland 186,525 2023

16 Spain 181,592 2023

17 Switzerland 160,232 2023

18 Saudi Arabia 157,876 2023

19 Canada 149,268 2020

20 Poland 131,712 2023

21 Netherlands 130,225 2023

22 Thailand 128,271 2023

23 Argentina 104,386 2023

24 Vietnam 102,628 2023

25 Bangladesh 97,727 2023

26 Australia 92,893 2023

27 Malaysia 92,117 2023

28 Singapore 88,498 2023

29 Iran 82,641 2022

30 Austria 80,816 2023

31 Sweden 77,456 2023

32 Belgium 75,079 2023

33 Philippines 70,896 2023

34 Czech Republic 70,732 2023

35 Egypt 59,642 2023

36 Venezuela 58,237 2014

37 Denmark 56,283 2023

38 Nigeria 55,742 2023

39 Puerto Rico 53,769 2023

40 Israel 49,658 2021

41 United Arab Emirates 49,317 2022

42 South Africa 48,809 2023

43 Romania 47,923 2023

44 Pakistan 45,936 2023

45 Finland 44,966 2023

46 Colombia 39,595 2023

47 Hungary 36,403 2023

48 Portugal 34,296 2023

49 Kazakhstan 32,148 2023

50 Chile 30,889 2023

See also
Business portal

Discrete manufacturing
Outline of manufacturing
Process manufacturing
3D printing

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Further reading
Kalpakjian, Serope; Steven Schmid (2005). Manufacturing, Engineering & Technology.
Prentice Hall. pp. 22–36, 951–988. ISBN 978-0-13-148965-3.

External links
"Manufactures" (https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_New_International_Encyclop%C3%A6di
a/Manufactures). New International Encyclopedia. 1905.
EEF, the manufacturers' organisation – industry group representing uk manufacturers (https://
 web.archive.org/web/20121223115538/http://www.eef.org.uk/default.htm)
Enabling the Digital Thread for Smart Manufacturing (https://www.nist.gov/el/msid/infotest/dig
ital-thread-manufacturing.cfm)
Evidences of Metal Manufacturing History (https://www.metalworkingsuppliers.com/mw/man
ufacturing-history/,)
Grant Thornton IBR 2008 Manufacturing industry focus (http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20160517
091852/http://www.internationalbusinessreport.com/files/ibr2008_manufacturing_lo.pdf)
How Everyday Things Are Made (https://web.archive.org/web/20181119095041/http://manuf
acturing.stanford.edu/): video presentations
Manufacturing Sector (https://www.cdc.gov/nora/councils/manuf/default.html) of the National
Occupational Research Agenda, US, 2018.

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