Editors

Abdullahi Hussein and Afyare Elmi

This document should be cited as follows.

Author or authors of the paper/chapter. Heritage Institute for Policy Studies (HIPS). 2023. Title of the
chapter. Editors of conference proceeding (Edited by Abdullahi Hussein and Afyare Elmi). Reshaping
Somalia’s Education for Development. Mogadishu. Sept 23-24, 2023.

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Preface
Education is a cornerstone of state-building and a key indicator of human development. Countries
around the world spend a significant amount of their national budgets on education as an
investment for their country's future. The state of Somalia's education is a complex one. Despite
the right to education being enshrined in Somalia's Provisional Constitution, an estimated 70%
of school-aged Somali pupils do not have access to basic education. Yet, thanks to the efforts of
successive Somalia governments, international partners, and the dedication of local communities,
the country's education systems have witnessed slow but noticeable improvements. Recent years
saw the development of important educational policies, a modest increase in school enrollment
rates, the re-establishment of national exams, the adaptation of a curriculum framework,
and an emphasis on teacher development. Despite these positive steps, the country is facing
considerable educational challenges on multiple fronts that require the attention of policymakers,
educationalists, researchers, and international partners.

Preceded over the development of the Human Capital Mechanism for Somalia in 2020, the
Heritage Institute for Policy Studies (HIPS) and City University of Mogadishu convened
an inaugural Development Forum under the theme “Reshaping Somalia’s Education for
Development” in Mogadishu from 23 –25 September 2023. The forum provided the opportunity
for stakeholders to capture progress, identify current gaps and future challenges, and bring
solutions to the educational challenges the country is facing. The primary objective of the Forum
was to explore ways to reshape the education system in Somalia for development. The Reshaping
Somalia’s Education for Development forum brought together 400 participants which 70 people
came from five federal member states – representing government, civil society, and education
umbrellas. They were joined by senior federal government officials – deputy prime minister
of Somalia, federal state minister of education, culture, and higher education, some members
of parliamentary committees on education, as well as leaders of higher education institutions,
inspiring people with disabilities and youth groups and students. They gathered to discuss the
need to prioritize the development of Somalia’s education provision – improving governance,
financing and equitable access to quality education.

This collection of conference proceedings, entitled "Reshaping Somalia’s Education for

Development," features a careful selection of eight papers presented at the Forum. The publication
aims to delve into the diverse challenges and opportunities within Somalia's education sector,
providing an extensive analysis of the current educational landscape. Moreover, it brings together
insightful research and practical recommendations for researchers, educational practitioners, and
policymakers.

The sub-research areas covered in these conference proceedings encompass education finance,
gender equity in the teaching workforce, effective teaching strategies, the role of private
education providers, educational leadership, inclusive education, and quality assurance in higher
education. The chapters included in this proceeding encompass a wide range of themes critical to
understanding and enhancing the Somali education system. The policy papers presented at the
conference are authored by Somali experts, ensuring an authentic and well-informed perspective
on the issues under discussion.

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In his chapter titled “Exploring Critical Success Factors for Education Finance in Somalia’
Mohamed Ibrahim Nor focused on examining the complex dynamics of education finance in
the country and its impact on the performance of the educational system utilizing the Education
Finance Performance Index (EFPI). Dr Nor’s paper uses a multiple regression analysis to explore
the relationships among four key variables namely: Government Recognition and Commitment
(GRC), Financial Resource Management (FRM), Governance and Accountability (GA), and
Human Capital Development (HCD). The findings of Dr Nor’s paper stress the importance of
strong governmental commitment, efficient financial management, transparent governance, and
investment in education training, offering strategic policy recommendations to enhance Somalia’s
educational system.

In his chapter on "Recruiting Women Teachers in Higher Education," Mohammed Abdullahi Gure
explores the significant gender disparities that exist within the teaching profession. Gure identifies
various obstacles that women encounter, such as limited postgraduate opportunities, cultural
norms, and the challenges of balancing professional and family responsibilities. He stresses the
necessity of implementing systemic reforms, including the establishment of more accessible
postgraduate programs and the creation of a supportive work environment for women. Gure's
chapter also provides practical recommendations aimed at increasing the representation of women
in higher education.

Ali Abdijibar Mohamed's research on the "Impact of Instruction Styles on Academic Performance
in Secondary Schools in Bosaso District, Somalia" presents an empirical examination of how
different teaching approaches influence students' learning outcomes. Mohamed's findings
underscore the prevalence of teacher-centred approaches in the schools examined in the study.
Consequently, his research calls for teacher training programs that equip educators with a diverse
range of pedagogical tools to cater to the diverse needs of their students. Moreover, the paper
offers actionable recommendations for enhancing instructional quality.

In his chapter entitled "Somali Private School Owners' Perspective of the Role of the Federal
Government in Regulation and Private Schools," Abdishakur Tarah delves into the role played by
the private education sector in providing education. The chapter provides historical context on the
vital contributions of individuals and non-governmental sectors in reestablishing the education
system following the civil war in 1991. Tarah emphasizes the government's responsibility to
regulate education in the country and ensure the provision of free, quality education to all
children. The author explores private school owners' viewpoints on government attempts to
regulate the sector, using Anderson's model of accountability and the Islamic concept of 'hesab'
(account) as a theoretical framework. The chapter concludes with four policy recommendations
for various stakeholders.

Mohamed Ahmed Nur Sh. Ali's study "Revitalizing Education Leadership in Somalia: A
Comprehensive Model for Selecting, Appointing, and Training School Principals" addresses the
pressing need for effective educational leadership. Ali's research highlights the gap in leadership
training and emphasizes the impact that strong leadership can have on school performance and
student learning outcomes. The author advocates for the implementation of a comprehensive
leadership development program that will nurture the next generation of Somali educational
leaders. Ali concludes his article by providing concrete recommendations for enhancing leadership
capabilities.

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Mohamed Harun and Abdirahman Farah (Luunge) conducted collaborative research on the topic
of "State-Sponsored Education: How Somalia Can Accommodate Students with Special Needs and
Disabilities?" The study reveals that students with special educational needs (SEN) and individuals
with disabilities (PwDs) in Somalia face significant barriers to accessing formal education. The
paper highlights the inadequacies in special needs education services and puts forth four specific
recommendations, including the provision of funding for SEN provisions and teacher training.

In line with the theme of special educational needs, Shamsudin Abikar Nur's research paper,
"Special Needs Child Denied Education: A Case Study Examining a Nine-Year-Old's Battle to
Attend School," provides an in-depth analysis of a nine-year-old girl with acute special education
needs (SEN) and dwarfism. The case study sheds light on how the girl was denied educational
opportunities due to her special needs, with her being perceived as a burden. Dr. Nur took the
initiative to teach her basic English skills and drew important recommendations for educational
policymakers. Based on his first-hand experience, the author emphasizes the need for an effective
SEN policy and rigorous teaching practices to ensure equitable access to education for all children
in Somalia.

Lastly, Abdullahi Ali Mohamed, Ioannes Tang Yu Hoe, and Kamaludin Ahmed Sheikh have
authored a paper titled "Quality Assurance for Higher Education in Somalia: Lessons from
Malaysia." This research paper addresses the crucial issue of upholding and enhancing quality
standards in Somalia's higher education sector. Drawing from Malaysia's experience in developing
a quality assurance framework, the authors provide valuable insights and propose five policy
recommendations for the implementation of robust quality assurance measures.

In conclusion, this conference proceeding aims to provide a comprehensive understanding of the

Somali education system, recognizing the interrelated nature of various educational challenges.
The book touches upon topics such as gender disparities, instructional methodologies, school
leadership, special educational needs, and quality assurance in higher education. Each chapter
offers practical recommendations, and the implementation of these measures will play a significant
role in addressing critical issues within the country's education system.

We invite readers to actively engage with all the chapters presented in this conference proceeding.
By perusing the entire document as a unified whole or delving into individual chapters that
correspond to their interests, readers will be able to grasp the essence of Somali education.
Each chapter offers distinct and self-contained analyses and recommendations. However, when
considered collectively, they provide a comprehensive and nuanced framework for understanding
the complexities of Somali education. We hope that the insights and recommendations outlined
within these chapters will assist policymakers, educators, and stakeholders in implementing
tangible measures aimed at fostering a brighter educational future for Somalia.

Abdullahi Hussein, PhD

Afyare Elmi, PhD
Editors

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7 Conference Proceedings
 Abstract
This policy paper provides an overview of the challenges and opportunities in developing
quality assurance and accreditation systems in Somalia's higher education sector, drawing upon
lessons from Malaysia's experience. The rapid growth witnessed in Somalia's higher education
sector necessitates the establishment of effective governance to manage the increasing number
of students and ensure quality education. In this paper, a systematic literature-based approach
was used to evaluate Malaysia's quality assurance and accreditation practices, which can serve
as a potential model for Somalia. A review of the current state of Somali’s higher education
highlights the collapse and subsequent efforts to rebuild the sector, particularly through the
establishment of many privately owned higher education institutions. The challenges of quality
assurance in Somalia, such as the lack of trained staff and the need for a national quality
assurance system, are discussed. The study also examines Malaysia's policies and practices
regarding quality assurance and accreditation, as well as their perception, application, and
implementation in higher education institutions. The lessons learned from Malaysia can serve
as a springboard for Somalia to achieve international standards of quality education.

Key Words: higher education, quality assurance, accreditation

1.0 Introduction
The availability of higher education is crucial for a country's development, as it has been shown
to play a significant role in the reconstruction and reconciliation of societies emerging from
conflict (World Bank, 2005). In the case of Somalia, with the end of the transitional period
and the establishment of the Federal Government of Somalia (FGS) in 2012 and the country’s
progressive recovery from a 20-year civil conflict, rebuilding the education sector has been a
key step towards progress.

Despite the slow progress in setting up government institutions, Somalia has witnessed
remarkable growth in its higher education sector over the past decade. This growth challenges
the belief that social and economic progress cannot be achieved without a robust central
government, particularly in regions plagued by prolonged instability (HIPS, 2013). However,
expanding higher education poses challenges, as it requires effective governance to manage
the increasing number of students while considering the limited capacity of existing public
institutions.

Many public universities in Africa currently face the issue of accommodating significantly more
students than their facilities were originally designed for (Goolam, 2011). Projections indicate
that the global demand for higher education is expected to rise, with an estimated 263 million
students needing access to higher education by 2025, compared to just over 100 million in 2000
(Nazrul Islam Gazi et al., 2017).

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 Meeting this rising demand while ensuring and improving the quality of education is crucial.
Quality assurance and accreditation play vital roles in achieving excellence in higher education
(Ryan, 2015). Quality assurance involves assessing, monitoring, guaranteeing, maintaining, and
improving the quality of higher education systems, institutions, or programs, aiming to meet or
exceed established standards (Vlăsceanu and Pârlea, 2007). Accreditation, on the other hand,
is an independent evaluation process that certifies whether an institution or program meets
these quality standards. National or regional accreditation bodies, recognized as experts in the
field of education, typically carry out accreditation. Apart from ensuring quality, accreditation
offers additional benefits to institutions and students. It helps attract students and funding while
assuring employers that graduates are well-prepared for the workforce.

2.0 Methodology
This study employed a rigorous methodology to evaluate the development of quality assurance
and accreditation in Malaysia's higher education system. The methodology included a
comprehensive literature review of academic reports, conference papers, and journal articles,
ensuring diverse perspectives and up-to-date information. Official sources such as UNESCO's
report and the National Education Sector Strategic Plan (2022-26) of the Ministry of Education,
Culture, and Higher Education for Somalia were examined to gain insights into government
policies and strategies.

The study collected data on quality assurance and accreditation from reputable sources,
including accrediting bodies, quality assurance networks, and government publications. The
collected data underwent thorough analysis to identify key Malaysian higher education quality
assurance and accreditation practices that could serve as a potential model for Somalia's
development in ensuring quality higher education amid rapid growth in this sector.

3.0 Overview of Somali Higher Education

The provision of quality education and training to all Somalis is a constitutional right as the
nation begins the process of state-building and revitalizing its institutions (NSSP, 2022). Over
the past two decades, higher education in Somalia has almost completely collapsed, with the
only existing Somali National University (SNU) reduced to empty buildings and loss of most
of its archives and equipment (HIPS, 2013). Since then, efforts have been made to re-establish
higher education institutions. Civil societies and foreign organizations launched a series of
higher education initiatives in 1996 in response to the increased number of secondary school
graduates seeking further education (Cassanelli and Abdikadir, 2008). As Somalia's higher
education system re-emerged, many academic institutions at the tertiary level, mainly privately
owned universities, were established (Eno et al., 2015). Although these civil society-initiated
academic establishments are making tremendous contributions to the higher education sector,
the absence of an effective national quality assurance system, which is a key element necessary
for institutional accreditation and acceptance of credentials, could hamper the sector's future
growth and sustainability.

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 4.0 Challenges of Quality Assurance in
Somali Higher Education
In 2005, UNESCO created guidelines called "Quality Provision in Cross-Border Higher
Education." These guidelines recognize that quality varies among countries but encourage
the adoption of fundamental international benchmarks to identify educational excellence
(UNESCO, 2005). Quality assurance in higher education is a relatively new phenomenon in
Africa, with the main challenge being a lack of adequately trained professional staff in the
national quality assurance agencies (Goolam, 2011). Like most major African nations, Somalia's
higher education system is currently in transition. However, the federal government, under
the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Education, Culture, and Higher Education (MoECHE), is
responsible for providing quality education across the country.

According to Somalia's National Education Strategic Sector Plan (2022-2026), the country
has only one public university, Somalia National University (SNU), with the quality of higher
education suffering significantly due to most higher education institutions being private
(NSSP, 2022). To address the inconsistent and incohesive ministerial policies at the federal and
member-state levels, MoECHE established the National Commission for Higher Education
(NCHE) to ensure the quality of higher education. The ministry has recently started evaluating
and registering unaccredited universities. The commission assessed more than 118 universities
nationwide and found that infrastructure facilities, lecturers, and overall teaching and learning
programs have low-quality assurance (NSSP, 2022). The Education Sector Strategic Plan
defines six policy priorities, as shown in Figure 1, with a set of objectives to be achieved for
each priority and corresponding strategies to accomplish them by the end of the plan period
in 2026. These strategies will be implemented through appropriate programs by the relevant
departments.

Figure 1. Policy Priorities of the Education Sector

(Source: National Education Sector Strategic Plan, 2022-26, MoECHE)

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 5.0 Evolution of Higher Education and
Quality Assurance in Malaysia
Due to the limited number of public universities and higher education opportunities in
Malaysia during the early 1980s, numerous private higher education institutions were
established to meet the growing demand. To facilitate the growth of the private higher
education sector, the government passed the Private Higher Educational Institutions
Act in 1996. This act played a significant role in liberalizing the educational sector and
establishing a legal framework for various educational collaborations. It facilitated the
formation of twinning programs between public and private institutions, as well as
partnerships between local and foreign institutions. Moreover, the act facilitated the
establishment of private universities, branch campuses of foreign universities, and other
forms of private higher educational institutions. It also allowed for the upgrading of
existing colleges to universities.

Parliament passed four additional pieces of legislation closely associated with the
Private Higher Educational Institutions Act. These included the Education Act of
1996, the University and University Colleges (Amendment) Act of 1996, the National
Accreditation Board Act of 1996, and the National Council on Higher Education Act of
1996 (Sivalingam, 2007).

Following the implementation of these acts of parliament, six private universities and
three branch campuses of foreign universities were established to provide courses in
engineering, business studies, medicine, and multimedia. In addition to over one million
students enrolled in higher education institutions (HEI) in Malaysia in 2021, statistics
from the Ministry of Higher Education (2021) showed there were 97,236 international
students enrolled in HEIs in Malaysia while the number of Malaysians studying aboard
was 56,253.
Table 1: HEIs and student enrolment in Malaysia (Source: MOHE, 2021)

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 The expansion of the higher education sector in Malaysia has not been without its fair share
of drawbacks. Alongside its growth, there have been several negative aspects that deserve
attention. Some of the shortcomings include the existence of substandard programs, varying
quality standards, disregard or lack of awareness regarding national policies or local needs
among private higher education institutions, inadequate academic and administrative staff
quality; challenges related to qualifications equivalency and recognition; instances of fraudulent
qualifications; insufficient staff dedication; inadequate monitoring of program delivery; limited
comprehension of cultural differences; and a lack of proficiency in teaching multicultural
student populations (Bajunid, 2011).

To address these shortcomings, the Malaysian government established the National

Accreditation Board (LAN) in 1996 to address concerns about the quality of education in
private institutions of higher learning. LAN, along with the Private Education Department
in the Ministry of Higher Education, developed a series of guidelines that established the
standards for facilities, equipment, and teaching staff to ensure the provision of high-quality
education. LAN conducted regular inspections of private institutions of higher learning and
was responsible for accrediting the courses offered by these institutions. Private institutions
planning to recruit foreign students must have their courses accredited by LAN. Additionally,
LAN accreditation is beneficial for these institutions as it allows their students to apply for loans
from the National Higher Education Fund Corporation (Sivalingam, 2007).

Since the inception of the public universities in Malaysia, they have essentially been self-
regulating institutions that could decide on their own programs and develop their own quality
protocols with minimal intervention by the Ministry of Education. However, in 2002, a new
Quality Assurance Division (QAD) was established in the Ministry of Education with a specific
focus on quality assurance for public institutions of higher learning. After the establishment
of the Ministry of Higher Education in 2004, LAN and QAD were merged in 2007 into a new
entity named the Malaysian Qualifications Agency (MQA), with responsibility for both public
and private higher education institutions (Bajunid, 2011).

As a quality assurance body, the functions of MQA are:

• To implement the Malaysia Qualification Framework (MQF) as a reference point for

Malaysian qualifications.

• To develop standards and credits and all other relevant instruments as national references
for the conferment of awards with the cooperation of stakeholders;

• To quality assure higher education institutions and programs;

• To accredit courses that fulfill the set criteria and standards;

• To facilitate the recognition and articulation of qualifications; and

• To maintain the Malaysian Qualifications Register (MQR).

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 The MQF is the instrument that sets the national classifications of qualifications, levels of
learning achievements based on learning outcomes, and prescribed academic load at each
level and is associated with the title of a named qualification such as a Bachelor’s degree or a
Master’s degree. MQA acts as the guardian and custodian of MQF and is mandated to ensure
that all accredited higher education programs in Malaysia comply with the framework. Figure
1 shows the revised version of MQF, which focuses on restructuring and strengthening MQF
learning outcomes and integrating the skills, vocational, and technical sectors into technical
and vocational education and training (TVET). The higher education sector was renamed the
academic sector.

Figure 2: Overview of Malaysian Qualification Framework (MQF) levels.

(Source: MQA, 2017)
In addition to the MQF, the quality assurance evaluation process for program accreditation
under MQA (2019) is primarily guided by the following documents that are available on the
MQA’s webpage.

1. The Code of Practice for Institutional Audit (COPIA);

2. The Code of Practice for Programme Accreditation (COPPA);

3. The Code of Practice for Open and Distance Learning (COP-ODL);

4. Qualifications Standards;

5. Programme Standards; and

6. Guidelines to Good Practices (GGP).

Periodically, MQA will develop new program standards, qualification standards, and guidelines
for good practices, encompassing various disciplines and exemplary approaches. These
documents undergo periodic reviews to ensure that they remain relevant and up to date.

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 6.0 Program Accreditation in Practice
All the programs that are accredited under MQA are listed on the Malaysian Qualification
Register (MQR). The MQR serves as a valuable resource for students, parents, employers,
funding agencies, and other stakeholders by offering essential information about recognized
qualifications in Malaysia. It is the national reference point for qualifications within the country
and is also referenced on UNESCO's higher education portal. The MQR can be accessed
through www.mqa.gov.my/mqr. The accreditation process of the COPAA (MQA, 2019)
encompasses evaluation in seven distinct areas (consolidated from the previous nine areas).
Within each of these areas, specific quality standards and criteria are established. The level of
adherence to these seven areas of evaluation, along with their associated criteria and standards,
varies depending on the types and levels of assessment. They include:

1. Program development and delivery;

2. Assessment of student learning;

3. Student selection and support services;

4. Academic staff;

5. Educational resources;

6. Program management and

7. Program monitoring, review, and continual quality improvement.

Professional bodies such as the Engineering Accreditation Council (EAC)/Engineering

Technology Accreditation Council (ETAC) have their standards for accrediting professional
programs, which are in line with the MQF and its requirements. These standards define the
competencies expected of graduates, and the requirements set by HEI are similar to those of
COPPA.

The MQA Act 2007 includes provisions that require the MQA to collaborate and coordinate
with relevant professional bodies for accreditation through Joint Technical Committees (JTC).
These JTCs facilitate the harmonization of standards and quality assurance processes used
by professional bodies for program accreditation. All fully accredited professional programs
approved by the respective boards or councils are listed in the MQR. Figure 2 demonstrates the
compatibility between the EAC/ETAC standards and the MQF, as well as the alignment of their
accreditation criteria with COPPA.

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 Table 2: Mapping between COPPA and EAC/ETAC Accreditation Criteria
(Source: Malaysian AQRF Committee, 2019)

This approach ensures a culture of continual quality improvement (CQI) that is aligned with the
principles of outcome-based education (OBE), which is embedded in all engineering programs
accredited by EAC (2020).

7.0 Conclusion
Instability, weak institutions, insufficient resources, lack of investment, inadequate staffing,
and a shortage of educational materials significantly affect the quality of higher education in
Somalia. To address these challenges, both federal and state governments must devise plans and
introduce innovative solutions within the jurisdiction of the MoECHE. Taking Malaysia as a
model is particularly beneficial, given that many Somali graduates who have studied there are
now employed by the federal government and states and have made significant contributions
to the higher education sector. The implementation of the recommendations proposed in this
paper necessitates the unwavering commitment and cooperation of all stakeholders. Despite
the daunting obstacles, Somalia possesses the potential to transform these challenges into
opportunities, leading to the development of a thriving and productive higher education sector.

8.0 Recommendations
By reflecting on Malaysia's achievements, Somalia can gain valuable insights and lessons to
improve its educational landscape. We propose the following recommendations for enhancing
Somalia's higher education system based on Malaysia's successful experience in higher
education over the past three decades.

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 1. Quality assurance mechanisms: Implement quality assurance frameworks to ensure the
standardization of academic qualifications, the establishment of minimum academic standards,
and accreditation processes to enhance the credibility of higher education institutions.
MQA could serve as a model for Somalia to establish a similar accrediting body, the Somali
Qualification Agency (SQA). This would be an independent governing body overseeing the
accreditation process of higher education institutions and programs.

2. Staff development: Enhance the skills and expertise of faculty members through training
programs, workshops, and exchange programs with reputable universities. Malaysia's emphasis
on faculty development has contributed to a high number of PhD holders working in private
HEIs, which has contributed to its higher education success.

3. Infrastructure development: Invest in modern infrastructure, classrooms, laboratories, and

libraries. Create conducive learning environments for students. Malaysia has developed world-
class campuses, which allows HEIs to attract a large number of local and international students
and establish the country as a major higher education hub in the region.

4. Scholarships and student support: MoECHE should encourage and help look at international
scholarship programs to increase access to higher education for underprivileged students. It
should also develop student support services such as counselling, career guidance, and financial
aid to ensure student success and retention.

5. Research and innovation: Encourage research and innovation in higher education institutions
by applying for international and regional grants, as well as incentives for faculty staff for
publication.

References
1. Bajunid, I.A., (2011). Leadership in the reform of Malaysian universities: Analysing the
strategic role of the Malaysian Qualifications Agency. Journal of Higher Education Policy and
Management, 33(3), pp.253-265.

2. Cassanelli, Lee and Abdikadir, Farah Sheikh (2008). "Somalia: Education in Transition,"
Bildhaan: International Journal of Somali Studies: Vol. 7, Article 7.

3. EAC (2020). Engineering Programme Accreditation Standard 2020. Available at: www.eac.
org.my/v2/circulars-guidelines/ (Accessed: 14 May 2023).

4. Goolam Mohamedbhai, (2011). Higher Education in Africa: Facing the Challenges in the 21st
Century. International Higher Education – Number 63 Spring 2011, Pp 20-21.

5. HIPS, (2013). The State of Higher Education in Somalia: Privatization, rapid growth, and the
need for regulation. Published in 2013 by the Heritage Institute for Policy Studies, Amira Hotel
Road, KM5 Junction, Mogadishu, Somalia.

6. Malaysian AQRF Committee (2019). ASEAN Qualifications Reference Framework (AQRF)

Referencing Report, Malaysia, Available at: https://www2.mqa.gov.my/myaqrf/ (Accessed: 14
May 2023).

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 7. Mohamed A. Eno, Monica N. W. Mweseli and Omar A. Eno, (2015). The Revival of Higher
Education in Somalia: Prospects and Challenges. Journal of Somali Studies Volume 2, Numbers
1 & 2, 2015, Pp 9-45.

8. MOHE (2021). Statistics of Higher Education 2021, Available at: https://www.mohe.gov.my/

en/downloads/statistics (Accessed: 13 May 2023).

9. MQA (2017). Malaysian Qualifications Framework (MQF) 2nd Edition, Petaling Jaya,
Malaysia: Malaysian Qualifications Agency.

10. MQA (2019). Code of Practice for Programme Accreditation (COPPA) 2nd Edition,
Petaling Jaya, Malaysia: Malaysia Qualifications Agency.

11. Gazi Md. Nazrul Islam, Md. Isahaque Ali, & Md. Zohurul Islam. (2017). QUALITY
ASSURANCE AND ACCREDITATION MECHANISMS OF HIGHER EDUCATION
INSTITUTIONS: POLICY ISSUES AND CHALLENGES IN BANGLADESH. European
Journal of Education Studies, 3(5). https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.495792

12. Ryan, P. (2015). Quality assurance in higher education: A review of the literature. Higher
Learning Research Communications, 5(4). https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1132941.pdf

13. Sivalingam, G., (2007). Privatization of Higher Education in Malaysia. In Forum on public
policy online (Vol. 2007, No. 1, p. n1). Oxford Round Table. 406 West Florida Avenue, Urbana,
IL 61801.

14. UNESCO. (2005). Guidelines for Quality Provision in Cross-Border Education.

Paris: UNESCO Publishing, Available at: https://www.oecd.org/general/
unescooecdguidelinesforqualityprovisionincross.

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18 Conference Proceedings
 Abstract
The under-representation of women in the teaching profession in Somalia has received
relatively little attention. As a result, there is a lack of research focusing on the factors that
influence women's employment in higher education which is an obstacle for policymakers
and educational leaders looking to recruit more women. This study aimed to gain insights into
the factors that affect women’s recruitment into the teaching workforce of higher educational
institutions. The study used qualitative methods and purposive sampling to select lecturers
and administrators with knowledge about the human resource management practices of
higher educational institutions. To analyze the data collected, the study used thematic
analysis. The findings showed women were excluded from teaching positions due to their
lack of postgraduate degrees, cultural and social beliefs, and their inability to balance home
responsibilities and academic work. The target population for this study is all lecturers of higher
educational institutions in Somalia.

Keywords: Gender imbalance, teaching profession, higher educational institutions, Somalia

1. Introduction
A study conducted by UNESCO found "compelling evidence of a correlation between the
number of female teachers and girls’ enrolment in higher education, especially in sub-Saharan
Africa" (UNESCO, 2003). Ahmed (2014) suggested that having female lecturers and teachers
at all levels of educational institutions is an important strategy for promoting girls' education
in developing countries. "The presence of female teachers in schools in Somalia leads to
significantly higher enrollment and retention rates for girls" (Ahmed, 2014).

Despite the compelling evidence showing the importance of having female lecturers and
teachers, men dominate the teaching profession at all levels in many parts of the world
including Somalia. Women have fewer job opportunities, less access to resources and less
influence which has resulted in inequality (UNESCO, 2015). In Somalia, men represent more
than 80 percent of the total number of teachers and are particularly prevalent at higher levels of
education (Federal Government of Somalia, 2022).

However, this is contrary to Islamic teachings which dictate that men and women perform
duties equally and contribute to their societies and communities. For example, men and women
are equally required in the Quran to fast, give to charity, and perform other duties (Quran,
33:35).

The participants of the National Education Conference which was organized in 2023
encouraged the Ministry of Education to promote the recruitment of female teachers.
According to the Communique, "the conference suggests that the ministry increase the number
of female teachers in all levels of education" (Ministry of Education, Culture and Higher
Education, 2023).

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 It is important to conduct research that examines the factors that could be responsible for the
low representation of female lecturers and teachers in higher education institutions in Somalia.
Such studies are important to help educational leaders develop gender equality policies in
the administration, staffing, and recruitment of new teachers in higher education. However,
studies that use a gender lens in identifying the challenges that influence female employment
in teaching are rare and it is therefore unknown why the disparity between males and females
remains in the teaching profession.

The lack of studies and empirical data is an obstacle for policymakers and educational leaders
looking to recruit new teachers and improve human resource management practices in public
and private educational institutions in general. Therefore, this study investigated the factors that
prevent women from joining the teaching workforce.

The findings are significant and provide information regarding gender equality issues as well
as the challenges, needs, and interests of both male and female teachers. This information is
important for hiring managers to improve staffing procedures, empower women, expand their
job opportunities and eliminate gender disparity in all human endeavours in Somalia.

2. Theoretical framework
The low representation of women in the teaching profession of higher educational institutions
in Somalia was investigated using radical feminism as the theoretical framework, as this relates
to the variables of this study. The theory of radical feminism was developed in the 1960s in
Western countries by left-wing social movements (Cottais, n.d.). Radical feminists believe that
society is male-dominated and suggest the universality of women’s oppression irrespective of
class and culture. Radical feminists also suggest that the liberation of women is impossible and
that women have been historically disadvantaged in a social order shaped by men (Sultana,
2011).

There is no doubt that historically women have suffered oppression regardless of class and
culture. The Quran reports that men in some Arab tribes in the pre-Islamic era buried their
daughters alive. The Quran explains that these babies were killed because they were born
as baby girls (Quran 82: 8-9). The Quran abolished this barbaric practice and said that
Allah created males and females so that they could have offspring and continue to exist
(Quran 16: 59).

3. Context and setting of the study

The education system in Somalia has gone through multiple stages. In the pre-colonial era,
education was dispensed through informal systems. Mosques were used as schools where
Muslim scholars delivered lectures to groups of students. Students moved from one class to
another inside the mosque to learn different subjects from different scholars. In this stage, the
sheiks (religious teachers) were men and preference was given to male students to join these
classes (Mogadishu Centre for Research and Studies, 2014; Ali, 1998).

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 The first formal colonial schools were opened in 1907 to teach Somali children the Italian
language for colonization. The Italians trained students to become farmers and low-level
workers to minimize the use of Italians for these purposes. The British also established an
elementary education system to educate Somalis for administrative posts. The highest level
Somali students could achieve was grade seven.

The governments that ruled Somalia after independence until the collapse of the central
government in 1991 gave education a high priority. One famous saying by the former President
of Somalia, General Mohamed Siyad Barre was, “Kids are the flowers of the nation and the
leaders of the future” (Farah & Duale, 1973). Education was free and compulsory for children
during the last military government under Barre. As a result, there were great achievements
and improvements in education, particularly at the primary and secondary school levels, and
literacy levels rose.

Before the collapse of the central government, Somalia had only one higher education
institution owned by the government and no private universities. The Somali National
University was established in 1954 and produced the workforce needed in the country in
different fields. However, the university was closed when the civil war broke out and it was re-
opened in 2014.

The closure of the Somali National University resulted in the opening of more private
universities to respond to the needs of students seeking higher education (Cassanelli & Farah
Sheikh, 2007). However, these universities faced many challenges including the lack of capacity
of the teaching staff. As a result, much of the current workforce received a low-quality education
from these universities (The Heritage Institute for Policy Studies, 2013).

According to Mcintosh (2014), there is a strong link between the performance of the workforce
and the kind of education they have received. Low-quality education leads to low-quality
workforce performance (Mcintosh, 2014). Therefore, the qualifications and competence of
graduates from these private universities were affected by the low quality of education they had
received. “The main challenges that the Somali education sector faces concerns quality, gender
imbalances, low school enrolment, and low literacy rate.” (Mohamoud, 2013). The participants
of the National Education Conference organized in 2023 called for higher education institutions
to improve their quality and produce professionals who can respond to the needs of the country
(Ministry of Education, Culture and Higher Education, 2023).

Another challenge facing these private universities is the lack of capacity to conduct research.
A study conducted by the Heritage Institute for Policy Studies (2013) on the state of higher
education found that none of the investigated 44 universities had been involved in any research
activities. As a result, according to Sommers (2002), the only source of information for various
aspects of life in Somalia is reports by NGOs that are based on interviews with other NGOs and
UN agency leaders. Therefore, the National Education Conference argued that higher education
institutions should also focus on research and development (Ministry of Education, Culture and
Higher Education, 2023).

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 4. Methodology
To explore the factors affecting female recruitment into the teaching force of higher education
institutions in Somalia, a descriptive study was conducted, and data were collected using
focus group discussions to observe and interact with participants. The goal of this qualitative,
explorative study was an in-depth understanding which required that informants be selected
purposively (Bernard, 2006). Two separate focus group discussions were conducted to obtain
enough data and valid results. Research suggests that more than 80% of all themes will emerge
within two to three focus groups and each focus group should contain four to 10 participants
(Guest et al., 2017). Another reason for the two separate groups was to allow female lecturers
to share their opinions openly without the presence of male lecturers. Selection criteria were
based on participants' knowledge of higher educational institutions in Somalia, availability,
willingness to participate, and ability to express their opinions (Bernard, 2006). Participants
were selected from different states. As the researcher was unable to reach some participants due
to cost and time constraints, the two focus groups were conducted online.

This study used Braun and Clarke’s (2006) six steps of thematic analysis to analyze the
qualitative data. Thematic analysis is a straightforward form of qualitative analysis and a useful
tool for seeking to understand thoughts, experiences, or behaviours across a data set (Bruan &
Clarke, 2006). All participants of this study speak the Somali language as their mother tongue
and, therefore, the two focus groups were conducted in Somali to encourage informants to
speak openly and expand their views.

The data was transcribed, translated into English and checked against the original for accuracy.

5. Findings and discussion

Three themes emerged from the qualitative data: the lack of postgraduate degrees preventing
many women from working in higher education institutions; the cultural and social beliefs that
are barriers to gender balance in the teaching profession; and the inability of female lecturers to
balance home responsibilities and academic work.

Somali women lack the required qualifications

Higher educational institutions require professors who have specialized knowledge and
experience. However, there is a shortage of female lecturers who have the right qualifications.
Study participants indicated that there are institutions of higher education that are very keen
to hire female lecturers but are unable to find qualified women. According to one of the focus
group participants, "If you need women professors in some of the areas of specialization it is
difficult to get them because most of them don’t reach such levels."

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 Participants also indicated that lack of access to postgraduate programs is another reason
behind the shortage of qualified female lecturers. One male participant said:

“Local universities in Somalia do not offer post-graduate programs, except very few of them
that started recently but in limited fields. Traveling abroad for study is not easy for women
especially those married with children and if she works the situation will be more complex.”

Another barrier preventing women from attaining post-graduate degrees is marriage and
family responsibilities. One participant said: "90% of the girls marry immediately after finishing
their first bachelor’s degree, so they don’t go for master's and PhD which are prerequisites for
working in higher education."

These findings confirmed a study conducted by Tsephe and Potgieter (2022). They found that
"the number of women holding doctoral degrees on the African continent remains low across all
nationalities.” The findings of this study are also similar to one conducted by Rathgeber (2013)
which concluded that "to some extent, the concentration of women in the lower academic ranks
can be explained by the fact that they tend to take longer to complete their PhDs, spend less time
on research and often have fewer publications."

Social and cultural barriers to women’s recruitment

The data showed that culture and social beliefs are hindering gender balance in the teaching
profession. Traditionally and historically teaching was the profession of men. Teachers at early
learning centers before the arrival of the colonial powers in the 19th century were all male. One
female participant mentioned an old Somali proverb, “jaamacad naageed jiko ayaa u danbeysa"
which means regardless of how much a woman learns, her education will eventually end up in
the kitchen as a cook and will not make her useful to society in any way.

Another female participant explained how women can play many important roles when they
travel abroad and to a different culture which confirms the claims of the Somali culture being a
barrier to female recruitment.

"We all have relatives and friends who live in Western countries. Women living in these
Western countries can compete with men. They become teachers, taxi drivers, and bus
drivers, and they do everything. But here in Somalia, it is difficult to see female taxi drivers
or bus drivers due to low public perceptions about female ability.”

Another barrier is the understanding and interpretation of the Islamic teachings which
prohibits women from speaking in front of a male adult. One male participant said: "The
problem is that some educated women believe that the Shari'ah (Islamic) law is prohibiting
women from speaking in front of male adults. Such women cannot work in higher education as
lecturers since all classes will contain some male students."

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 These findings confirmed reports issued by the United Nations Population Fund Somalia
(2019) which concluded that women's social participation is low because "educated women
are perceived as competing with men, something the society shuns." Similarly, Gure (2023)
found patriarchal practices in recruiting teachers meant that men are always given preference
in the hiring process for primary and secondary school positions. Ahmed (2014) found that
low public perceptions of the ability of female teachers were a major factor that prevented many
educated women from entering the teaching profession.

Balancing home responsibilities and academic work

The data showed that both male and female lecturers face a greater workload than other
professions. However, female lecturers are also balancing extra home and family responsibilities
when compared to their male counterparts. One participant explained the difficulties women
face in balancing home life and academia.

"Female lecturers have to do a lot of things. Firstly, they need to prepare lectures and if
they are new to the profession, this will take long hours. They also need to give students
feedback for the assignments submitted, and they need to prepare and mark tests. All this
consumes a lot of time. Besides this, female teachers must play their traditional role of
household responsibilities which also needs a lot of time. As a result, women working in
higher education institutions experience fatigue and stress."

Most local universities are private institutions that are profit-oriented and do not allow teachers
with care responsibilities to reconcile the demands of family and academic-related work. A
participant said, "Most of the teaching staff of local universities are part-time lecturers and
payments are based on the hours that lecturers spent on teaching so no payment for maternity
leave and other necessary leave." Another participant said that private institutions prefer not to
hire female lecturers "Higher education institutions are private and profit-oriented, and do not
give women opportunities to teach in universities, believing that women can become ill and
need more leave than men."

Similar findings were found in previous studies. Gure (2023) examined barriers to female
recruitment in public schools in Somalia which showed that the dual role of women as mothers
and teachers is a barrier to entering the profession. Similarly, Akuamoah-Boateng (2020)
found that female staff at the University of Cape Coast were unable to balance work and family
responsibilities and the university was not providing any support with policies and programs.

6. Conclusion
This study aimed to investigate the factors responsible for the disparity in numbers between
male and female teachers at higher educational institutions in Somalia. The findings showed
that the lack of postgraduate degrees, cultural and social beliefs, and the inability of female
lecturers to balance home responsibilities and academic work were responsible for the
imbalance. However, there is a need for more research to investigate the barriers women face in
teaching at higher education institutions and how to eliminate them.

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 7. Policy recommendations
The findings of this study showed that the lack of postgraduate degrees is one of the factors that
prevented many women from working at higher education institutions in Somalia. This study
proposes the Ministry of Education encourage the establishment of high-quality postgraduate
programs in all necessary fields and specializations to respond to the growing demands and
to produce female professionals. This will enable married women with children and those
working to more easily pursue post-graduate studies.

The data also showed that cultural and social beliefs are barriers to gender balance in the
teaching profession at higher education institutions. Therefore, this study recommends that
the Ministry of Education facilitate public debates and discussions to eliminate all the negative
perceptions against women. Similarly, this study suggests that the media, especially state-owned
media, be used to educate the public about the important role of women in society.

The findings revealed that the inability of female lecturers to balance home responsibilities and
academic work is another barrier. This study recommends the government formulate work-
family-friendly conditions that allow female teachers to reconcile the demands of work and
family responsibilities. For instance, a daycare would be a better option for female teachers
than leaving a child with relatives or neighbors. Providing a room for breastfeeding mothers is
another helpful way to assist female teachers.

References
Ahmed, S. (2014). Female Teachers in Somalia: challenges and avenues for opportunities.
Retrieved from Researching, Analyzing & Documenting Gender Issues in Somalia. Female
Teachers in Somalia: challenges and avenues for opportunities | Researching, Analyzing &
Documenting Gender Issues in Somalia. (wordpress.com)

Akuamoah-Boateng. C. 2020. “Balancing work, family and personal life: Perspectives of female
staff at the College of Distance Education, University of Cape Coast, Ghana” International
Journal of Educational Administration and Policy Studies. Vol. 12 (1) 34-51.

Ali, A. (1998). Education In Somalia: History, Destruction and Calls for Reconstruction.
Comparative Education. .34 (3): 327-341.

Bernard, H., R. 2006. Research methods in Anthropology. Qualitative and quantitative

approaches. New York: Altamir.

Braun, V. & Clarke, V. 2006. “Using thematic analysis in psychology”. Qualitative Research in
Psychology. Vol. 3 (2): P. 77-101.

Cassanelli, L. & Farah Sheihk. (2007). Somalia: Education in Transition. Bildhaan: An

International Journal of Somali Studies. . 7. (7). Cottais. C. n.d. Radical Feminism. Available
at https://igg-geo.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/04/Technical-Sheet-Radical-feminism.pdf
Retrieved in February 2023.

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 Creswell, J. 2003. Research design quantitative, qualitative and mixed methods approaches.
Thousand Oaks. Sage publications.

Farah, D. & Duale, R. 1973.Mother and her tasks. Ministry of Heritage and Higher Education
of Somalia. Federal Government of Somalia. 2014. Federal Government of Somalia US-Africa
Submit. National statement-office of the president.

Guest, G., Namey, E., & McKenna, K. (2017). How Many Focus Groups Are Enough?
Building an Evidence Base for Nonprobability Sample Sizes. Field Methods, 29(1), 3–22.

Gure, M. (2023 March 13-17) Promoting and Recruiting Women into the Teaching Force in
Somalia [Paper presentation] The National Education Conference Mogadishu, Somalia.

Jackie. K. 2006. The Impact of Women Teachers on Girls’ Education - Advocacy Brief. Bangkok:
Bangkok: UNESCO.

McIntosh, J. 2014. Educating a quality workforce. American Society for Quality. Ministry of
Education, Culture and Higher Education. (2023 March 17). The Communiqué of the National
Education Conference. [Press release].

Mohamoud, O. 2013. Somali Parents and Parental Involvement in Compulsory Schools in Flan,
Sweden. (Master thesis). Uppsala University. Sweden. Mogadishu Centre for Research and
Studies, 2014. “Science workshops in Somalia”. http://mogadishucenter.com/?p=2822

Rathgeber, E. M. 2013. Gender Barriers Faced by African Women in Graduate Programmes

and Research in the Social Sciences. Partnership for African Social and Governance Research.

Qur’an 16: 59.

Qur’an 33:35.

Qur’an 81: 8-9.

Somali National University. (n.d). Somali National University History. SNU History –
Jaamacadda Ummadda Soomaaliyeed

Sultana. A. 2011. Patriarchy and Women’s Subordination: A Theoretical Analysis the Arts
Faculty Journal, July 2010-June 2011.

Tsephe, L. & Potgieter, C. 2022. ‘African female doctoral graduates account for success in
their doctoral journeys’, HTS Teologiese Studies/Theological Studies 78(1), a7911. https://doi.
org/10.4102/hts.v78i1.7911.

The Heritage Institute for Policy Studies. 2013. The State of Higher Education in Somalia:
Privatization, Rapid Growth and the Need for Regulation. Mogadishu, Somalia.

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 The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. 2015. A Guide for
Gender Equality in Teacher Education Policy and Practices Retrieved from The United Nations
Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/
pf0000231646

UNESCO. (2003) EFA Global Monitoring Report 2003/4. Gender and Education for All:
TheLeap to Equality. Paris: UNESCO.

United Nations Population Fund Somalia Gender Report. (2019). Gender Equity: Hit or Miss
in the Somali Population. Retrieved from United Nations Population Fund Somalia https://
somalia.unfpa.org/en/publications/gender-equity-hit-or-miss-somali-population

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28 Conference Proceedings
 Abstract
This research paper proposes a new model for selecting and training Somali school principals.
It draws upon successful models from developed countries and aims to address current
gaps in the existing system. The model emphasizes rigorous selection, ongoing professional
development, and access to the latest research and best practices. Its goal is to enhance
education quality by equipping principals with the skills and knowledge needed to drive
positive change in Somali schools.

Keywords: school principal, selection, training

1. Introduction
Education plays a pivotal role in the development and progress of any nation, serving as the
foundation for individual growth, societal advancement, and economic prosperity. In Somalia,
a country striving to rebuild and recover from decades of conflict and instability, the need for a
revitalized education system has never been more pressing. Central to this revitalization is the
critical role of educational leadership, specifically the selection, appointment, and training of
competent and visionary school principals. These individuals serve as the linchpin in fostering
a conducive learning environment, improving teaching quality, and driving positive change
within schools.

Recognizing the significance of effective education leadership, Somalia must develop a

comprehensive model that addresses the key challenges and intricacies of selecting, appointing,
and training school principals. Such a model should encompass rigorous selection processes to
identify individuals with the right competencies, skills, and values for educational leadership.

It should also emphasize the importance of providing targeted and continuous professional
development opportunities to enhance principals' capacity to lead and manage schools
effectively. Historically, Somalia had training centers before 1967, when four training centers for
preparing pre-service primary teachers were functioning in the country: TTC Hargeisa, TTC
Magistrale, TTC Takasus, and NTEC Afgoi. Some closed down and others transitioned into
universities.1

The model must consider Somalia's unique context, recognizing the diverse needs and
aspirations of its communities, along with the cultural, social, and economic factors shaping the
educational environment. Customizing selection, appointment, and training processes to suit
the specific needs of Somalia's education system would cultivate principals who are not only
proficient in pedagogy and administration but also attuned to the local context. They should be
dedicated to addressing educational disparities and fostering inclusivity in education.2

1. M El-Shibiny and United Nations Children’s Fund, “Teacher Training: Somalia - (Mission) 21 January 1962 - 31 December
1969,” FRANCE: (United Nations Children’s Fund, 1970), Https://Unesdoc.Unesco.Org/Ark:/48223/Pf0000000419), accessed
May 11, 2024,
2. Ellen Daniëls, Annie Hondeghem, Filip Dochy, “A Review on Leadership and Leadership Development in Educational
Settings” Educational Research Review, 27. (2019): 115.

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 This paper presents a comprehensive model for revitalizing education leadership in Somalia.
Drawing upon best practices and lessons learned from successful education systems globally, it
seeks to provide a roadmap for transforming the selection, appointment, and training of school
principals in the country. The model advocates for a holistic approach that integrates multiple
stakeholders, including government entities, educational institutions, civil society organizations,
and the local community, to ensure a sustainable and inclusive education leadership ecosystem.

The implementation of a comprehensive education leadership model in Somalia aims to

empower principals as change agents and catalysts for progress.3 By providing them with the
necessary knowledge, skills, and support, the model seeks to cultivate transformative leaders
who inspire excellence, foster innovation, and drive educational advancement.

This revitalization of education leadership is integral to rebuilding Somalia's education system,

ensuring a brighter future for its children and laying the groundwork for a prosperous nation.
Factors such as globalization, change, accountability, competition, and transparency highlight
the increasing expectations placed on school principals in terms of ethics. Schools must operate
efficiently, solve problems effectively, and sustain development through skilled management.
It underscores the importance of school members understanding and meeting the needs and
expectations of the local community, with well-trained administrators continually improving
themselves.4

2. Problem Statement
The education sector in Somalia faces significant challenges, and one critical area that requires
immediate attention is education leadership. The current practices for selecting, appointing, and
training school principals lack a comprehensive and effective model. This absence of a robust
system hinders the development of strong educational institutions and compromises the quality
of education provided to students. Therefore, there is an urgent need to address this problem
and implement a comprehensive model for selecting, appointing, and training school principals
in Somalia. The paper will answer the following questions:

1. What are the current criteria for selecting, and appointing principals in Somalia?
2. What are the criteria for selecting, and appointing principals in the proposed model?

Addressing these questions will shed light on the existing deficiencies and challenges within
the educational leadership system. By developing and implementing a comprehensive model
for selecting, appointing, and training school principals, the education sector could undergo
a much-needed revitalization, leading to improved educational outcomes for students and the
overall development of the educational system.

3. Figen Ereş, “Okul Yöneticilerinin Yetiştirilmesinde Mentorlük” Kafkas Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitü Dergisi, 1,3.
(2009): 153.
4. İdris Şahin, Fatma Kesik, Kadir Beycioğlu, “Chaotic Process in the Assignment of School Administrators and Its Effects,”
Elementary Education Online ,16,3. (2017):1010.

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 3. Methodology
The chosen research methodology for this study is document analysis (journal papers, policy
reports), a qualitative approach that involves a systematic examination and evaluation of both
printed and electronic materials including computer-based and Internet-transmitted content.5
The aim of this study is to analyze the training and selection processes of developed countries
as a sample, with the intention of adapting a suitable system that could be implemented in
Somalia.

4. Relevant Literature
Recruitment, selection, training, and retention of school administrators are crucial
for effective educational leadership, which drives improvements in student learning.
Conventional in-service training methods for administrators have been deemed insufficient
for meeting contemporary learning needs. There is a growing consensus about the necessity
of comprehensive leadership programs integrating theory and practice for administrator
preparation. The selection process for school principals varies globally, with methods ranging
from electoral systems to appointments by committees or school boards. Principals in
developed countries have multifaceted responsibilities, including staff management, policy
formulation, quality enhancement, performance assessment, resource provision, community
engagement, professional development, and fostering a positive school culture. They play
pivotal roles in facilitating professional growth, student success, school planning, leadership
demonstration, and stakeholder support.6

Youngs (2007) conducted a study on elementary principals in Connecticut, investigating their

behaviors and beliefs and their impact on the induction of new teachers. The study found that
principals who actively supported the instructional development of new teachers and involved
experienced teachers in the process contributed positively to the overall school culture. This
aligned with the concept of academic optimism, suggesting that principals who fostered a
supportive and collaborative environment significantly enhanced the effectiveness of their
schools.7

Johnson (2004) conducted a study focusing on the leadership styles, traits, skills, and functions
of 10 successful elementary school principals in a North Carolina school system. While not
specifically targeting novice principals, Johnson's findings emphasized the importance of novice
principals adapting their leadership styles to different situations.8

5. Glenn A. Bowen, “Document Analysis as a Qualitative Research Method,” Qualitative Research Journal, 9,2. (2009):21.
6. Antonio Bolivar, Juan Manuel Moreno, “Between Transaction and Transformation: The Role of School Principals as
Education Leaders in Spain,” Journal of Educational Change, 7,1. (2006):22.
7. Peter Youngs, “How Elementary Principals' Beliefs and Actions Influence New Teachers' Experiences,” Educational
Administration Quarterly, 43,1. (2007): 129.
8. Johnson, Wendy Noelle, “The Anatomy of The Elementary School Principal: An Investigation Often Elementary School
Principals as To Their Leadership Styles, Characteristics/ Traits, and Functions in One North Carolina School System,” (Degree
Doctor of Education, The University of North Carolina, 2004), 146.

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 In their paper "Coming on Board: problems facing novice principals in Iran," Kouhsari and
Bush (2020) discussed the challenges encountered by novice principals and proposed solutions
to address them. They included implementing school-based management, fostering the
development of novice principals, establishing effective partnerships with stakeholders, and
prioritizing education. The authors emphasized the importance of professional development
for novice principals to effectively translate theory into practice, as their leadership practices
significantly impact stakeholders' needs and expectations. Additionally, Kouhsari and Bush
advocated for mentoring and networking as valuable tools to help novice principals navigate the
challenges of principalship, enabling them to effectively balance change and stability, as well as
control and flexibility.9

5. Findings
The study discussed in this paper identified various training models recommended by scholars
for school principals. One training model, proposed by Cemaloğlu (2005), emphasizes that
school principals should receive training in management and supervision at the undergraduate
or graduate level. This training should incorporate simulations, case studies, problem-based
learning, clinical practice, group activities, leadership practices, involvement in decision-
making processes, and communication skills development. Additionally, principals are
encouraged to participate in national and local in-service training programs following their
appointment. They should also undergo professional examinations and possess teaching
experience or government administrative background, along with demonstrated achievements
and contributions in their field.10

Yirci (2009) proposed a structured mentoring model designed specifically for competent school
principals. The model emphasized the importance of conducting a thorough needs analysis to
identify the principal's professional development requirements, both in terms of current topics
and future plans. It suggested that principals should undergo a one-year training program in
collaboration with MONE-COHE (Ministry of National Education and the Council of Higher
Education). The School Principal Training Board should hold the responsibility of providing
training to new principals as well as organizing in-service training. The model also incorporated
a board of mentor principals, with monthly meetings and an apprenticeship process. Evaluation
is conducted through a written exam, and mentor principals provide guidance and advice. The
appointment criteria for this model included managing leadership skills, the ability to foster
relationships among individuals, a propensity for teamwork, conflict resolution skills, and the
capacity to effectively deal with people.11

Kesim (2009) proposed a distance education model aimed at training individuals in educational
administration. The model comprises several modules, including educational administration,
social sciences, administrative sciences, and educational sciences.

9. Masoumeh Kouhsari, Tony Bush, “Coming on Board: Problems Facing Novice Principals in Iran,” International Journal of
Leadership in Education, 26,3. (2020): 455.
10. Necati Cemaloğlu, “Türkiye De Okul Yöneticisi Yetiştirme Ve Istihdamı Varolan Durum, Gelecekteki Olası Gelişmeler Ve
Sorunlar.” Gazi Üniversitesi Gazi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 25,2. (2005): 260.
11. Ramazan Yirci, “Mentorluğun Eğitimde Kullanılması ve Okul Yöneticisi Yetiştirmede Yeni Bir Model Önerisi” (Yüksek
Lisans Tezi, Fırat Üniversitesi, 2009), 68.

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 These modules cover school management, communication, time management, leadership, and
research methods. The training process spans one year and requires participants to have at least
five years of teaching experience. Delivery methods include a combination of face-to-face and
e-learning, in collaboration with MONE-COHE. Practical application is facilitated through case
studies and e-portfolios, while assessment involves online midterm and final exams, including
both written and face-to-face components. The model emphasizes the development of IT
competence and a commitment to lifelong learning, with the goal of training participants to
possess a vision and guide teachers in their professional development journey.12

Aslan (2009) introduced a training and appointment model tailored for school principals
in Turkey, covering public administration, organizational innovation, resource utilization,
motivation skills, crisis and stress management, conflict resolution, communication, personnel
management, educational rules, and school administration. The National Education Academy
oversees the training process, which involves a two-year pre-service program, comprising one
year of theoretical training followed by a one-year internship. Participant selection includes a
written exam and progress reports, with a final appointment made by the ministry. Criteria for
principal appointment include holding an MA/PhD in educational sciences, completing the
pre-service program, achieving satisfactory scores in language and academic exams, having five
years of teaching experience, and possessing achievement certificates. Emphasizing practical
application, the model aims to bridge theory and practice in the role of school principals.13

Balyer and Gündüz (2011) introduced a pre-service and in-service training model for school
principals, covering various content areas such as school management, education process
management, conflict resolution, teamwork organization, communication skills development,
staff development, theoretical knowledge, research skills, portfolio preparation, school program
management, and school development. The training process is conducted in collaboration
with MONE-COHE and features a two-year initial training program for prospective school
principals. Additionally, there's a one-year mentor training program, excluding candidates with
an MA degree. Participant selection involves both written and oral exams, considering teaching
experience. The model aims to address theoretical and practical deficiencies in school principal
training, equipping them with the necessary skills and knowledge to effectively manage schools
and enhance the education system.14

Altın and Vatanartıran (2014) proposed a sustainable development model for training school
principals, covering school management, leadership, psychology, sociology, communication,
conflict management, protocol implementation, legislation, technology, ethics, and general
knowledge. The training process involves a one or two-year apprenticeship to gain practical
experience, alongside in-service training to enhance skills and knowledge. Participant selection
includes both written and oral exams designed to be objective and fair. Appointment criteria
require at least three years of teaching experience and an MA degree. Emphasizing sustainable
development in school management, the model aims to equip principals with the skills to lead
schools effectively and promote long-term growth and success.15

12. Eren Kesđm, “Okul Yöneticilerinin Uzaktan Eğitim Yoluyla Yetiştirilmeleri Için Eğitim Ihtiyaçlarına Dayalı Bir Program
Modeli Önerisi” (Degree Doctor of Education, Anadolu Üniversitesi, 2009), 120.
13. Nebihe Aslan, “Avrupa Birliği Ülkelerinde Ve Türkiye’de Okul Yöneticilerinin Yetiştirilme Ve Atanmalarının Karşılaştırılması
Ve Bir Model Önerisi” (Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Gaziantep Üniversitesi, 2009). 76.
14. Aydın Balyer, Yüksel Gündüz, “Değişik Ülkelerde Okul Müdürlerinin Yetiştirilmesi: Türk Eğitim Sistemi Için Bir Model
Önerisi”, Kuramsal Eğitimbilim Dergisi, 4,2. (2011).
15. Ferdi Altin, Sinem Vatanartiran, “Türkiye ’de Okul Yöneticisi Yetiştirme, Atama Ve Sürekli Geliştirme Model Önerisi,” Ahi
Evran Üniversitesi Kırşehir Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 15,2. (2014):10.

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 Sezer (2016) proposed a certificate program model which includes student learning, effective
teaching, instructional leadership, coaching, effective communication, human relations, school
development, strategic planning, team management, crisis management, conflict management,
problem-solving, organizational change, curriculum development, professional development,
and budgeting.16

The training process is conducted in collaboration with MONE-COHE and involves a

minimum of 240 hours of training, focusing on both theoretical knowledge and practical
application. The selection process involves a written exam and an interview. School principals
are appointed through an election process engaging the school community, including
teachers, parents, students, and officials. Appointment criteria include holding a BA degree,
possessing a school management certificate, having at least five years of teaching experience,
showcasing completed projects, exhibiting strong human relations and communication skills,
demonstrating leadership characteristics, and holding an MA or PhD degree in educational
administration. The model underscores the significance of certification for school principals
to ensure they meet standards of competence and expertise. It also stresses the importance of
an effective and sustainable election system involving the broader school community in the
appointment process.

When comparing the various models, it is evident that they all prioritize similar content areas
such as student learning, human relations, management skills, problem-solving, curriculum
development, organizational change and behavior, psychology, sociology, communication skills,
managing school programs, and professional development. These areas are crucial for effective
school leadership.

All the models agreed that school principals should undergo at least one year of training in
collaboration with the MOE-COHE. This training typically includes a combination of face-
to-face and e-learning methods. Case studies and e-portfolios are often utilized for practical
application, and assessments usually consist of midterm and final exams. Additionally, some
models emphasize the importance of training management and supervisorship for teachers
holding a BA or MA degree. Simulations, problem-based learning, clinical practice, group
activities, leadership practices, participation in decision-making processes, and communication
skills training are also common elements.17

After appointment as school principals, further training through national and local in-service
programs is often provided, allowing for a comparison of theory and practice. Mentors play
a crucial role in the training process, and principals may undergo written exams and oral
interviews conducted by a committee of the MOE-COHE to select the most suitable candidates
for the position.

One consistent criterion for school principals across the models is having a degree in education
and a master's degree in educational management. Other important characteristics include
managing leadership skills, building relationships, teamwork, conflict resolution abilities, and
the ability to effectively interact with others.18

16. Şenol Sezer, “School Administrators' Opinions on Frequently Changing Regulations Related to Appointments and
Relocation: A New Model Proposal. Educational Sciences,” Educational Sciences: Theory and Practice, 16,2, (2016):340.
17. Mirgul Enterieva, “Dünyada Ve Türkiye’de Okul Yöneticilerinin Seçimi Ile Eğitimi Ve Buna Bağlı Geliştirilebilir Politikalar,”
Uluslararası Liderlik Çalışmaları Dergisi: Kuram ve Uygulama, 5,3. (2022): 216.
18. Sezer, School Administrators' Opinions on Frequently Changing Regulations Related to Appointments and Relocation: A
New Model Proposal. Educational Sciences, 346.

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 6. Discussion
Combined Model
In Somalia, the education sector faces numerous challenges, and one critical area is education
leadership. The selection, appointment, and training of school principals are crucial factors
that significantly impact the quality of education provided to students. However, the current
practices in Somalia lack a comprehensive model for revitalizing education leadership. This
model aims to address the need for a systematic approach to selecting, appointing, and training
school principals to enhance the educational system in Somalia.

The education system encounters significant challenges in the selection and appointment of
school principals. One major issue is the inadequate selection process, lacking uniformity and
transparency. The absence of standardized criteria and procedures compromises educational
leadership quality, leading to inconsistencies across institutions. Additionally, the limited
availability of professional development opportunities for aspiring school principals hampers
their acquisition of essential skills, knowledge, and competencies required for effective
leadership and management. Insufficient investment in their professional growth may result in
difficulties meeting role demands and expectations.

Furthermore, the lack of clear appointment criteria for school principals creates opportunities
for nepotism, favoritism, and political interference. Merit-based appointments are vital to
ensure competent individuals are chosen, fostering a culture of excellence and fairness. Newly
appointed principals often lack support and mentoring, leaving them ill-equipped to handle role
complexities. The absence of guidance and mentorship undermines their ability to implement
effective strategies and drive positive change. Comprehensive support and mentoring initiatives
are crucial for new principals to succeed in their professional growth and leadership endeavors.

The new model, table 1, aims to establish a standardized selection process, define the content
of training, establish clear appointment criteria, and implement an evaluation process. In this
study, a combined model is proposed, incorporating elements from the previously mentioned
models.

The model for training school principals emphasizes the importance of comprehensive training
to equip them with the requisite skills and knowledge for effective school management.
Educational management and administration form core components of the program, ensuring
principals understand the operational aspects of schools. Organizational behavior is highlighted
to provide insights into human behavior within the school context. Communication skills
are deemed crucial for facilitating interactions with stakeholders. Financial management,
strategic planning, leadership, computer proficiency, problem-solving, time management,
administration, report writing, constructive criticism, and evaluation processes are also
emphasized to achieve educational excellence.

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 By incorporating these elements into the model, the aim is to create a comprehensive training
program that addresses the multifaceted responsibilities of school principals and equips them
with the necessary skills to effectively lead and manage educational institutions.

The model proposes appointment criteria for school principals, requiring candidates to hold
a bachelor's degree in education and a master's degree in education management. Emphasis
is placed on encouraging candidates to pursue a master's degree in education management
to enhance their knowledge and expertise in school administration. Candidates should also
have a minimum of five years of teaching experience and at least two years of experience as a
vice principal. Personal qualities such as presentability, communication skills, self-confidence,
and academic competence are considered important. These criteria aim to ensure that
school principals possess relevant educational backgrounds and qualifications, promoting
professionalism, expertise, and competence in educational management. Ultimately, this
contributes to the effective management of educational institutions.

The selection process in the proposed model focuses on establishing an accountable and
transparent system based on scientific and ethical standards. To avoid nepotism and favoritism,
an independent committee is responsible for conducting the selection process. This committee
ensures that the process is fair and unbiased. The process begins by advertising the position
through official channels for public schools or on school websites and social media platforms
for private schools.

The model suggests incorporating a written exam and oral or interview assessments as part
of the selection process. These measures are designed to evaluate candidates objectively and
assess their qualifications, skills, and competencies. In this model, the principal candidates
are required to pass a written exam to proceed to the next stage of the selection process. To
qualify for the oral exam, candidates must achieve a minimum score of 70% on the written
exam. This criterion ensures that candidates demonstrate a satisfactory level of knowledge and
understanding in the relevant areas of educational management and administration.

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 The purpose of the oral exam is to further assess the candidates' competencies, communication
skills, and their ability to articulate their thoughts and ideas effectively. It provides an
opportunity for candidates to showcase their qualifications, problem-solving abilities, and their
potential to lead and manage educational institutions.

By setting a minimum passing score for the written exam and establishing the requirement to
proceed to the oral exam, the model emphasizes the importance of both theoretical knowledge
and practical communication skills in the selection of school principals. This approach ensures
that candidates possess a well-rounded skill set and are capable of effectively addressing the
challenges and responsibilities associated with the position of school principal.

The training process in the proposed model includes various components to ensure
comprehensive development for school principals. For teachers aspiring to become principals,
there is a specific focus on training management and supervisorship, tailored to their BA or MA
qualifications. This training equips them with the necessary skills and knowledge to effectively
manage and supervise educational institutions.

The training incorporates diverse methodologies such as simulations, case studies, problem-
based learning, clinical practice, common group activities, leadership practices, and
participation in decision-making processes. These interactive approaches provide practical
experiences and opportunities for principals to apply their knowledge in real-world scenarios.
Additionally, communication skills are emphasized to enable effective interaction with
stakeholders.

After being appointed as principals, national and local in-service training programs are offered
to further enhance their skills and knowledge. The School Principal Training Board and Board
of Mentor Principals play crucial roles in providing guidance and support throughout the
training process. Mentors are assigned, and regular monthly meetings are held to foster a strong
mentorship relationship and facilitate learning. The study recommends establishing a board,
committee or center designed to train school principals.

The apprenticeship process is also integrated into the training, allowing principals to gain
practical experience in a virtual environment. This involves identifying and presenting
problems, finding solutions, and acquiring theoretical knowledge to address complex challenges
in school management.

Overall, the training program in this model emphasizes a balance between theoretical
knowledge and practical application, with a minimum of 288 hours dedicated to training
based on both theory and practice. Training continues for up to one year. The collaboration
between MONE-COHE ensures the cooperation and coordination necessary to implement this
comprehensive training program effectively.

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 7. Conclusion and Recommendations
This study has highlighted the importance of standardized selection processes, comprehensive
training programs, and clear appointment criteria for school principals. The models
discussed in this study have identified key areas of focus, such as educational management,
communication skills, organizational behavior, and professional development, which are crucial
for effective school leadership.

Based on the findings, it is recommended to establish a dedicated center for principal training.
This center would serve as a hub for developing and implementing standardized training
programs for aspiring and current school principals. The center would collaborate with relevant
educational authorities, such as the Ministry of Education, to ensure the training programs
align with national educational goals and standards.

The principal training center should provide diverse training approaches such as face-to-face
sessions, e-learning modules, simulations, case studies, and mentorship programs. Continuous
professional development opportunities, collaboration, and networking with experienced
educators should be prioritized. A transparent and merit-based selection process, including
written exams, oral interviews, and independent committees, is crucial to avoid nepotism.
Newly appointed principals should receive ongoing support and mentoring to navigate their
roles effectively, with mentorship programs and regular meetings enhancing their leadership
skills and professional growth.

The paper recommends establishing a dedicated department for principal training within the
structure of the Ministry of Education. This department would be tasked with the responsibility
of training prospective principals. Additionally, it suggests implementing a comprehensive
two-year training program for aspiring principals. Furthermore, the paper advocates for the
identification of clear criteria for the selection and appointment of principals.

References
Altin, Ferdi & Vatanartiran, Sinem. “ Türkiye’de Okul Yöneticisi Yetiştirme, Atama Ve Sürekli
Geliştirme Model Önerisi,” Ahi Evran Üniversitesi Kırşehir Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 15,2.
(2014):10.

Aslan, Nebihe. “Avrupa Birliği Ülkelerinde Ve Türkiye’de Okul Yöneticilerinin

Yetiştirilme Ve Atanmalarının Karşılaştırılması Ve Bir Model Önerisi.” Yüksek Lisans
Tezi, Gaziantep Üniversitesi, 2009. https://tez.yok.gov.tr/UlusalTezMerkezi/tezDetay.
jsp?id=FgZqO7g6JZmUpdQNu5Q0KQ&no=vsU7LBthDUML8_B1V2cTWQ

Balyer, Aydın. Gündüz, Yüksel. “Değişik ülkelerde okul müdürlerinin yetiştirilmesi: Türk eğitim
sistemi için bir model önerisi” Kuramsal Eğitimbilim Dergisi 4,2. (2011). http://hdl.handle.
net/11630/5396

Bolivar, Antonio. Moreno, Juan Manuel . “Between transaction and transformation: The role of
school principals as education leaders in Spain, 7,1. (2006): 22. DOI 10.1007/s10833-006-0010-7

Bowen, Glenn A. “Document Analysis as a Qualitative Research Method,” Qualitative Research

Journal, 9,2. (2009):21. DOI: 10.3316/QRJ0902027

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 Cemaloğlu, Necati. “Türkiye De Okul Yöneticisi Yetiştirme Ve Istihdamı Varolan Durum,
Gelecekteki Olası Gelişmeler Ve Sorunlar.” Gazi Üniversitesi Gazi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 25,2.
(2005): 260.

Daniëls, Ellen. Hondeghem, Annie. Dochy, Filip. “A review on leadership and leadership
development in educational settings,” Educational Research Review, 27. (2019): 115. DOI:
10.1016/j.edurev.2019.02.003

El-Shibiny, M. & United Nations Children’s Fund. Teacher training: Somalia - (mission) 21
January 1962 - 31 December 1969. In UNESCO (1826/BMS.RD/EDM, FR/TA/SOMALED
12). (1970). UNESCO. Retrieved May 8, 2023, from https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/
pf0000000419.

Enterieva, Mirgul. “Dünyada ve Türkiye’de okul yöneticilerinin seçimi ile eğitimi ve buna bağlı
geliştirilebilir politikalar,” Uluslararası Liderlik Çalışmaları Dergisi: Kuram ve Uygulama, 5,3.
(2022): 216. DOI: 10.52848/ijls.1121034

Ereş, Figen. “Okul yöneticilerinin yetiştirilmesinde mentorlük” Kafkas Üniversitesi Sosyal

Bilimler Enstitü Dergisi, 1,3. (2009): 153.

Kesđm, Eren. , “Okul Yöneticilerinin Uzaktan Eğitim Yoluyla Yetiştirilmeleri Için Eğitim
Ihtiyaçlarına Dayalı Bir Program Modeli Önerisi.” Degree Doctor of Education, Anadolu
Üniversitesi, 2009. https://hdl.handle.net/11421/3411

Kouhsari, Masoumeh. Bush, Tony. “Coming on board: Problems facing novice principals
in Iran,” International Journal of Leadership in Education, 26,3. (2020): 455. DOI:
10.1080/13603124.2020.1797179

Şahin, İdris. Kesik, Fatma. Beycioğlu, Kadir. “Chaotic Process in the Assignment of School
Administrators and Its Effects,” Elementary Education Online 16,3. (2017):1010. DOI: 10.17051/
ilkonline.2017.330238

Sezer, Şenol. “School Administrators' Opinions on Frequently Changing Regulations Related

To Appointments And Relocation: A New Model Proposal. Educational Sciences,” Educational
Sciences: Theory and Practice, 16,2, 340.

Wendy Noelle, Johnson. “The anatomy of the elementary school principal: An investigation
often elementary school principals as to their leadership styles, characteristics/ traits, and
functions in one North Carolina school system.” Degree Doctor of Education, The University of
North Carolina, 2004.

Yirci, Ramazan. “Mentorluğun Eğitimde Kullanılması ve Okul Yöneticisi Yetiştirmede

Yeni Bir Model Önerisi.” Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Fırat Üniversitesi, 2009. https://tez.yok.gov.tr/
UlusalTezMerkezi/tezDetay.jsp?id=gIJSQHNspf8tgS2cBNqyOA&no=S5SB4_H5fNXln7jxg1tbkg

Youngs, Peter. , “How elementary principals' beliefs and actions influence new teachers'
experiences,” Educational Administration Quarterly, 43,1. (2007): 129. https://doi.
org/10.1177/0013161X06293629

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40 Conference Proceedings
 Abstract
The emergence of private schools followed the state collapse during the 1991 civil war. The
whole education infrastructure was destroyed, leaving no alternative to private schools, which
became the most prominent providers of education in Somalia. Despite the government
restoring its role in the education sector, the position of private schools remains strong. Under
the country’s provisional federal constitution, the Federal Government of Somalia (FGS) has
the primary responsibility to provide free, quality education. To engage private providers in the
country, the FGS recently introduced a private school policy, but private school owners reported
a disconnect between the contents of the policy and the reality of operating schools.

This paper aims to capture private school owners’ perspectives on the role of the state in
regulating private education. Many governments have become increasingly interested in
the performance of all aspects of their education systems, and as a result of such interest,
the education profession has conformed to the requirements of regulatory or compliance
accountability systems. The paper adopts Anderson’s model of accountability in education,
which draws on compliance with regulations, adherence to professional norms, and results-
driven accountability. The paper also discusses the Islamic concept of 'hesab', the Arabic word
for 'account', which serves as the theoretical framework for this paper.

1. Introduction
This paper aims to capture private school owners’ perspectives on the role of the state in
regulating private education. Many governments have become increasingly interested in
the performance of all aspects of their education systems, and as a result of such interest,
the education profession has conformed to the requirements of regulatory or compliance
accountability systems. Anderson’s model of accountability in education draws on compliance
with regulations, adherence to professional norms, and result-driven accountability. The paper
discusses how participants’ views on accountability are influenced by the Islamic concept of
'hesab', the Arabic word for ‘account’.

In the absence of a broadly functioning government and a centrally regulated education system,
"non-state actors became the most prominent providers of education in Somalia."1 While a
considerable amount of research has been carried out on non-state education in many conflict-
and crisis-affected countries, few scholars have written on the role, types, and ownership of
non-state education providers in Somalia. It is certain that these providers "will continue to
operate successfully if communities and others sustain their support" (ibid).

In nearly every country’s educational history, the first formal educational opportunities
for children were provided by non-state schools, whether by religious organizations,
philanthropists, or private interests.2

1. World Bank. Study on Understanding the Role of Non-state Education Providers in Somalia. World Bank, 2018.
2. Steer, Liesbet, Julia Gillard, Emily Gustafsson-Wright, and Michael Latham. "Non-state actors in education in developing
countries: A framing paper for discussion." In Background paper, Annual Research Symposium of the Center for Universal
Education, Brookings Institution, March, pp. 5-6. 2015.

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 In the last 20 years, the share of primary enrolment in non-state schools in low-income
countries has doubled, from 11 percent to 22 percent. Baum et al. (2014)3 stated that non-state
providers account for a significant and growing proportion of enrolment. However, in many
cases, the data does not include unrecognized or unregistered non-state schools. Estimates of
provision rates based on existing official data therefore do not capture the full scope of non-
state engagement and are likely to underestimate the size of the sector.4

2. Literature Review
Somalia is facing complex and multidimensional challenges in the areas of curriculum, teacher
training, school infrastructure, lack of public education, unregulated private education,
school finance, and untrained educational professionals.5 Countries and education systems
vary significantly in how the government is involved and what role it plays. Culture, politics,
and history may affect the balance between centralization and decentralization as well as
government control.

The provisional constitution, which is still under consideration, demarcates the connections
between the central government and the Federal Member States (FMS), but there is ambiguity
in the precise roles and responsibilities of each level of government in the formulation and
implementation of policies, although Article 54 of the constitution stipulates the power-
sharing between the central government and the FMS. The article defines power sharing as
"the allocation of power and resources shall be negotiated and agreed upon by the FGS and the
FMS”6

While successive leaders of the FGS have made attempts to negotiate political agreements with
the member states, important issues related to the allocation of powers and resources remain
contested.7 Somalia’s education system lacks an agreed-upon legal framework to guide the
federal government vis-à-vis the sub-national roles and responsibilities. The Federal Member
States have established their own education ministries for overseeing planning and service
delivery and have formulated their own education sector strategic plans. The establishment
of these separate ministries of education in the sub-national entities springs from a need to
accommodate the country’s broader political system of power-sharing and to address associated
inequalities in the distribution of power and representation in decision-making.8

There are several perspectives—some against and some in favor—on the emergence of private
schools in developing countries. The driving factors behind the creation of these non-state
schools vary. In Somalia, education activists and campaigners for quality education for all argue
that the absence of state education is the core reason why a large number of private schools exist
in the country.

3. Baum, Donald, Laura Lewis, Oni Lusk-Stover, and Harry Patrinos. "What matters most for engaging the private sector in
education: A framework paper." (2014
4. Francis, Robert, Pauline Martin, and Nicholas Burnett R4D. "Affordable non-state schools in El Salvador." (2018), p. 6.
5. Hussein, Abdullahi Sh Adam. "Educational challenges in post-transitional Somalia." Somalia: The Heritage Institute for Policy
Studies (2015).
6. See the Constitution of the Federal Government of Somalia, available at https://www.parliament.gov.so/images/Downloads/
Dastuurka_ku_meelgaarka_SOM_03092012-1_2.pdf
7. Tarah, Abdishakur, and Krishan Sood. "Participatory Action Research: Challenges and Opportunities of Undertaking
Indigenous Approach in Examining School Leadership in a Conflict-Affected Zone." Indigenous Methodologies, Research and
Practices for Sustainable Development (2022): 413-428.
8. Ibid, p. 138

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 Despite attempts made by the federal government to restore education, "the role of the nonstate
providers in the delivery of education to the poor will stay as long as they have the support of
the community.9 This perception also exists elsewhere: "One perspective is whether the state
alone would be able to meet the primary school enrolment targets given the pressure placed on
public finances." 10

In discussing the rise of private schools in Somalia, stated that "their emergence followed the
state collapse, when all educational infrastructures were destroyed, leaving no alternative to
private schools.”11 In fact, everything, including security and the provision of law enforcement,
became private. According to Tooley and Longfield, "In many conflict-affected countries,
communities have stepped into the vacuum created by the failure of governments to give
support to education, and such efforts can deliver quick results for education and demonstrate
that the government is beginning to function."12 As there are no government instruments that
support private education in Somalia, it heavily relies on the support of its communities, and
"they are likely to continue to thrive, so long as they have community support."13

As part of the government’s policy, the Department for Private Education and Umbrella
Associations was created within the Ministry of Education to coordinate with private education
stakeholders and umbrella associations. "Although there is active engagement between the
Department and the private education sector, this engagement is not fully formalized or
regulated."14 As highlighted in the previous section, umbrella associations manage 64% of
existing private schools, and they are owned privately. The government has introduced a Private
Schools Policy (PSP). The policy "outlines the regulations for the establishment and operation of
private schools in the country."15 Even though private schooling plays an active role in Somalia,
a study on what regulatory mechanisms apply to it has yet to be carried out. Although this study
may not be considered a large-scale representative study, it may nevertheless be considered an
initial pilot study for future and wider research on these issues.

At the federal level, the education system in Somalia is managed by the Ministry of Education,
Culture, and Higher Education (MoECHE), which is responsible for the overall guidance and
administration of education in Somalia. Its mandate is to ensure that a viable education system
is in place and to promote quality education and training for all citizens to optimize individual
and national development.16 According to the World Bank report, "Somalia’s regional education
actors should work to agree on a national framework for setting an education policy that
provides for a federal role in establishing system-wide standards and norms."17

9. Abdinoor, Abdullahi Sheikh. "Constructing education in a stateless society: The case of Somalia." PhD diss.
, Ohio University, 2007.
10. Ashley, Laura Day, Claire Mcloughlin, Monazza Aslam, Jakob Engel, Joseph Wales, Shenila Rawal, Richard Batley, Geeta
Kingdon, Susan Nicolai, and Pauline Rose. "The role and impact of private schools in developing countries." Rigorous Literature
Review (2014), p. 5
11. Abdinoor, Abdullahi Sheikh. "Constructing education in a stateless society: The case of Somalia." PhD diss., Ohio University,
2007.
12. Tooley, James, and David Longfield. Education, war and peace: The surprising success of private schools in war-torn
countries: The surprising success of private schools in war-torn countries. London Publishing Partnership, 2017.
13. Abdinoor, Abdullahi Sheikh. "Constructing education in a stateless society: The case of Somalia." PhD diss., Ohio University,
2007
14. (World Bank, 2018, p. 21)
15. NESSP National Education Sector Strategic Plan 2022-2026, Ministry of Education, Culture and Higher Education,
Mogadishu.(2022), p. 25.
16. MoECHE Education Sector Strategic Plan, EESP 2018-2020. Mogadishu, Ministry of Education, Culture and Higher
Education, Federal Government of Somalia. (2017) p. 10.
17. World Bank, 2018, p. 137

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 The MoECHE is responsible for managing the education sector in the country. This
responsibility is outlined in the provisional constitution, and their work is guided by several
key policy documents, including the National Education Sector Strategic Plan, the National
Curriculum Framework, and the Quality Assurance Framework (MoECHE, ESSP, 2022-2026,
p. 25). The current National Education Sector Strategic Plan (2022-2026) is a government plan
that sets out the government’s view of the education sector's goals, objectives, and priorities
for a period of five years, including six key policy priorities: access, equity, and completion in
basic education; quality and relevance of education in basic and secondary education; access
to affordable, quality, and relevant TVET; access to quality higher education; governance and
system management; and utilization and integration of ICT in education.

Countries compete to position themselves at the top of their respective economies, and
governments are becoming increasingly interested in monitoring the performance of their
educational and skills provisions and systems. The education profession has conformed
to the requirements of regulatory or compliance accountability systems (usually based on
government statutes) and has also subscribed to professional norms established by associations
of educators.18 Anderson suggested three main types of accountability systems: compliance with
regulations; adherence to professional norms; and result-driven.19 Anderson further asserted
that "school accountability systems operate according to a set of principles and use a variety of
implementation strategies, with particular attention given to the political and technical aspects
of accountability.”20

Anderson’s types of accountabilities in education are discussed below.

Compliance with regulations is vital when it comes to meeting a set of standards introduced
by a mandated regulatory body. There are a range of regulations and standards that educational
institutions must adhere to, depending on the country’s governance and mandate. In the field
of education, there are a number of commonly used compliance measures, including legal
and educational standards, teacher certification and standards, health and safety for schools,
financial regulations, and accessibility. Countries may differ in the implementation and
monitoring of these regulations, and this all depends on how they are presented to the regulated
entities. "Many regulations are highly prescriptive in telling regulated entities and individuals
what to do and how to do it."21

Adherence to professional norms: being responsible for one's actions and decisions is an
integral part of professional conduct. Being accountable means professionals must take
responsibility for their work, admit their mistakes when they occur, and correct them
immediately to avoid their impact on others. Adherence to professional values is important
for maintaining ethical conduct and promoting trustworthiness in any professional setting.
Evans (2008) views professionalism as "the ideology that governs the work and standards of an
occupation that provides a service within a special set of institutions."22

18. Anderson, Jo Anne, and International Institute for Educational Planning. Accountability in education. Paris: International
Institute for Educational Planning, 2005.
19. ibid
20. Ibid
21. May, Peter J. "Regulatory regimes and accountability." Regulation & Governance 1, no. 1 (2007): 8-26., p. 9
22. Evans, Linda. "Professionalism, professionality and the development of education professionals." British journal of
educational studies 56, no. 1 (2008): 20-38.

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 Professionals set up professional standards bodies that provide an opportunity for peer
challenges that enable them to hold each other to account. Some are set up by governments,
such as the Office for Standards in Education (OFSTED) and the National Teaching Council in
the UK, as well as the National Council of Teachers in the United States.

Results-driven accountability focuses on learning outcomes and achievement and holds

educational institutions accountable for delivering them. Under this accountability, the
emphasis is placed on the results, which involves defining clear and measurable objectives and
establishing performance metrics and indicators. Such accountability is also measured through
exam-based assessment, whereby countries use exams to measure students’ ability to move
to the next level. Reviews of accountability programs throughout the world provide evidence
that accountability is an international issue. England has a national curriculum accompanied
by assessments and measures for rating schools, while some other countries use national
assessments to measure student and school progress and to make decisions about each.

For Somalis, as followers of Islam, "religion is a major influence on their lives".23 Religion
directly influences governance and daily life. National legislation and traditional customary
law are informed by Shari’a rulings. Therefore, such religious influence does have a significant
influence on individuals’ approaches to accountability, as individual believers are encouraged
to take personal responsibility for their actions and choices. To this end, the paper discusses the
Islamic concept of ‘hesab, the Arabic word for ‘account, in the next section.

The Islamic concept of accountability is derived from the Quran and is a powerful part of the
Islamic system of business, which means accountability in front of Allah (SWT), not only in
this world but also in the hereafter.24 Islamic teaching signifies the importance of accountability
both in individual and societal actions, and it is closely tied to the concept of responsibilities
and the idea that individuals will be answerable and transparent about their actions and be able
to justify them based on predetermined standards or expectations in this life and the afterlife.
Lewis states that "accounting in the broad sense is central to Islam since accountability to God
and the community for all activities is paramount to a Muslim's faith."25 The word hesab, which
means accountability, is repeated more than eight times in different verses in the Quran (Askary
and Clarke, 1997).

The Holy Qur’an states

َ ُ‫ٱَهَّلل ََخ ِِبي ۢ �ُۢر ِِب ََما ََت ۡۡع ََمُل‬

‫وَن‬ َ � َ‫َۚهَّلل ِإَِّن‬
� ۚ � ‫س َّمَا ََقَّدَ ََم ۡۡت ِل ََِغ ۖ�ٖۖد ََوٱَّتَ ُقُو ْْا ٱ‬ٞ ُ ‫ٱَهَّلل ََو ۡۡل ََت‬
ٞ ‫نُظ ۡۡر ََن ۡۡف‬ َ ‫ََي �ٰٓـَٓأ َ ُُّي ََها ٱَّلَِذ‬
َ � ‫ِيَن ََءا ََم ُُنو ْْا ٱَّتَ ُقُو ْْا‬
"O you who believe! Be careful of (your duty to) Allah, and let every soul consider what it has
sent on for the morrow, and be careful of (your duty to) Allah; surely Allah is aware of what you
do."26

23. Andrzejewski, Bogumil W. "Islamic literature of Somalia." Hans Wolff Memorial Lecture. (1983).
24. Mordhah, Najwa. "Self-Accountabiliy: The Link Between Self-Accountability and Accountability in Islam." International
Journal of Humanities and Social Science 2, no. 5 (2012): 240-245.
25. Lewis, Mervyn K. "†œAccountability and Islam. †Paper presented at the 4th International Conference on Accounting
and Finance in Transition." Adelaide, Australia (2006).
26. Surah: Al-Hashar, 59; Versa: 18

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 Self-accountability is the main emphasis of hesab. There are various contexts that Hesab
highlights, including social accountability, which focuses on the responsibilities of individuals
and organizations towards society. The regulatory mechanisms that regulate education generally
monitor the statutory compliance and management adequacy of schools or other educational
settings. Governments issue regulatory guidelines and suggest best practices within these
agreed-upon principles. Regulated entities are expected to report their compliance status to an
external regulatory body. By doing so, they can protect the rights and well-being of students,
maintain quality education, and avoid legal consequences. Staying informed about evolving
educational practices and regulations allows institutions to provide students with a supportive
and enriching learning environment, preparing them for success in their academic and
professional lives.

3. Methodology
The qualitative approach was chosen to conduct this study as it was the appropriate method
to conduct research when an issue or a problem needs to be explored.27 The paper used semi-
structured interviews as they allowed the exploration of a series of specific questions or issues.
This helped the paper probe and ask follow-up questions. Ten participants took part in the
study, and all were owners of private schools, including those from foundations, individuals
who own schools that are not part of any foundation, and those who were the most interesting.

The paper reduced the entire study to a single, overarching central question and several sub-
questions. Drafting this central question took considerable work because of its breadth. To
reach the overarching central question, the paper took Creswell’s advice to state the broadest
question to address the research problem and addressed the following main question: What role
should the federal government play in regulating private schools in Somalia?

Participants were presented with a set of questions about their views, and there were two main
questions with a set of sub-questions that were incorporated into the main question.

4. Findings
The paper has generated a number of key points, and these were taken for the discussion
along with the key points presented in the introduction and the literature review section of
the paper. Participants were asked to respond to some structured interview questions based
on Anderson’s accountability model: compliance with regulation, adherence to professional
norms, and results-driven accountability. In addition to Anderson's model of accountability in
education, the paper also sought to examine how participants’ personal and professional values
of accountability are influenced by the Islamic concept of hesab.

27. Creswell, John W., and Cheryl N. Poth. Qualitative inquiry and research design: Choosing among five approaches. Sage
publications, 2016.

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 The paper used thematic analysis to present and discuss the views of participants. The key
themes were accountability through compliance with regulations, adherence to professional
norms, and hesab.

Key points that emerged from interviews included:

• The vast majority of schools participants managed were part of foundations.

• All participants were involved in education before the Civil War.

• The average number of schools in each foundation was four.

• Participants’ schools are located mainly in the Benadir region.

• The age range was between 45 and 69.

• 10 percent of participants were female.

In responding to the first question regarding the role of the FGS in delivering education at the
country level and the role of the FGS in accountability in education, participants agreed that the
FGS has the constitutional mandate to be responsible for ensuring that Somalia has a workable
and quality education system for all its citizens.

The second question sought participants’ understanding of accountability in education and

variations existed in their responses. Below are some perspectives commonly expressed by the
participants:

Accountability in education is about:

• Doing the right thing

• Delivering what you promised

• Self-accounting and professionalism

• Doing what you promised to others

• Monitoring your work

• Measuring a set of goals

• Compliance and meeting the expected standard or principle at the individual level

• A pathway to achieve something

• Checking your work

• Monitoring or adherence to a rule or an agreed framework at the school level

Although all respondents defined what accountability means to them, participants 3, 5, 7, and
10 provided extended answers.

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 Participant 3
"Accountability is about self-counting and holding a value-based professionalism. Maintaining
a high standard of professionalism is key to accountability in education. Teachers must hold
themselves to account when teaching students to the standard expected. Leaders must provide
leadership, support, and challenges in making sure standards are met at all levels within schools."

Participant 5

"Accountability is about monitoring your work and holding yourself to account first before I hold
others in our schools to account. For example, if I am the leader of an organization that delivers
education, I must ensure there is a monitoring system that holds me and others to account."

Participant 7
"Accountability starts at the individual level through the adherence to a set of rules, standards,
principles, and policies. For example, school owners and leaders are accountable for the academic
progress and achievement of their students.”

Participant 10
"Accountability is about monitoring adherence to what has been agreed upon, including what
teachers are teaching, what students are learning, and the quality of the curriculum instructions.
At the school level, school staff are responsible for developing and implementing the relevant
curriculum in line with the national curriculum framework."

The majority of the participants indicated that FGS is the entity that delivers accountability at
the country level. Some participants (1, 3, 6, and 8) were very specific with their answers.

Participant 1
"The government is ours, and it has the responsibility to provide good quality education for all,
regardless of who provides it. It has the responsibility to oversee the development, design, and
delivery of a unified national curriculum.”

Participant 3
"The government is responsible for setting health and safety standards for schools."

Participant 6

"The government must also be responsible for ensuring teachers are trained and supervised. It is
also responsible for providing free education for all, including those attending non-state providers,
and this requires collaboration between the state and private education providers."

Participant 8
"The government has the right to regulate education, but it must have the capacity to deliver
education in every region and work with local governments, including the power to implement its
policies. This will minimize the different curriculums that are being delivered in some parts of the
country despite the government's introduction of a national curriculum."

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 Participants also discussed how their professional and personal views are influenced by the
Islamic concept of hesab.

All participants considered hesab to have personal and professional value and said it was an
integral part of what they do or practice.

Participant 1

"We must hold ourselves to account at all times for not only achieving organizational or individual
goals in this world but for life hereafter.”

A significant number of participants (9) said that regulation is the key mechanism that the
government uses to hold education providers to account, including those from the private
sector.

In sharing their views about the challenges of regulating private schools in the country, a
number of challenges were highlighted, including:

• Conflicts between those responsible for education in the FGS and FMS

• Lack of recognition of the role played by private providers

• Disparities of accountability and authority in the regions

• Poor policy implementation

• Weak enforcement of regulations

• Lack of support for private schools

• Poor governance

• Lack of expertise in government departments

• Lack of specialist officers in policy formulation within the MoECHE

• Lack of government consultation with the wider private education providers

5. Discussion
All participants stated that the FGS has a role in the delivery of education as mandated by the
provisional constitution. Some of the participants were very specific with their responses and
provided some detailed assertions, including that being accountable means delivering what was
promised to others, self-accounting and professionalism, monitoring your work, measuring a
set of goals, compliance, and meeting the expected standard or principles at the individual and
organizational levels.

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 6. Conclusion
Participants’ views matched those of Anderson’s model of accountability in education, including
compliance with regulation, adherence to professional values, and being results-driven.
Participants were explicit with their views on regulating private education in the country as a
means of accountability, including providing guidance to schools about health and safety and
ensuring schools are safe for children. They also stated that teachers and educational leaders
must maintain a high level of professionalism and adhere to standards expected in teaching
and delivering good-quality instruction. They also believed schools are responsible for the
educational progress students make, and they must hold each other to account. In addition,
participants considered hesab to have personal and professional value and said it was an integral
part of what they do or practice in fulfilling their responsibilities.

7. Policy recommendations
• The FGS must recognize the role of private education providers in the country. Such
recognition will create an atmosphere of collaboration between the government and the
private sector in education to address the challenges faced by the education sector. The FGS
may take a public-private dialogue approach to create such an atmosphere.

• The FGS must build the capacity of its own frontline staff, who are responsible for working
with private education, school management systems, and teaching standards. Such an
approach will enable the private providers to build trust with the government and see it as a
national entity with competency.

• The FGS and FMS ministries of education must work together to provide a nationwide
framework for private school engagement. This approach will enable the government to
address the issues of access to and equity in education in the country.

• To establish effective quality assurance mechanisms and monitoring and strengthen

accountability, the FGS must consult and collaborate with private education providers in an
equal position. This approach of collaboration and consultation will enable both parties to
agree on easily accessible training and guidance on accountability in education.

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51 Conference Proceedings
 Abstract
Existing data reveal that people with disabilities (PwDs) and children with special educational
needs (SEN) in Somalia have no meaningful access to formal education (Starck, 2016)
and (MOECHE, 2022). Based on that grim reality, this paper explores the best and most
feasible approach to establish, for the first time in Somalia's known history, a state-sponsored
educational system, be it inclusive or exclusive, to cater to the needs of a large segment of
Somali society. Traditionally, the only learning choice for people with disability was the qur'anic
madrasas, which were only for boys. Multiple underlying factors stand behind this ugly reality,
including, but not limited to, attitudinal, environmental, and institutional barriers. After the
state collapsed in 1991, some NGOs and individuals made commendable efforts to establish
schools for the sensory impaired, but that is far from being adequate. Based on the interviews
and observations made, we argue that the feasibility of initiating an inclusive education system
when the country has no existing exclusive one is immensely difficult, if not impossible. Instead,
we suggest a more realistic mixed approach, which primarily begins with a more segregated or
exclusive system, followed by a cautiously designed and incrementally implemented exclusive
one in the long run. Such a pioneering state intervention will generate attitudes, actions,
and even counteractions, ultimately strengthening efforts to advance a broader rights-based
approach to disability in Somalia. This paper relies on data gathered through key informant
interviews, personal comparative observations made in Mogadishu and Kampala, examination
of existing data, as well as media monitoring.

Keywords: inclusive, exclusive, education, Somalia, state, disability, and rights.

1. Introduction
Due to the prolonged conflict, Somalia is known to have one of the highest numbers of people
living with disability on the continent. (Rohwerder, 2018) and (Shikuku and Omar 2017).
Besides violence, other key disability causal factors include, with no particular order, medical
conditions, including preventable diseases, accidents, and miscellaneous factors. Based on that,
Maina (2016) went to the extent that at least one member of the average Somali household
lives with a form of disability; this means that the prevalence of disability in Somalia is higher
than the 15% global benchmark in every nation. This large segment of Somali society faces
deprivation, discrimination, and degrading living conditions. The epicentre of that disaster
is centred on the lack of access to education and training, which sustains a vicious cycle of
poverty.

On the other hand, financing, designing, and delivering educational programs tailored for
people with various forms of disability is not a simple business. It is a costly and technically
complicated venture that requires concrete national policy and resources. According to
UNESCO, this is factor number one, of course, among many others, which leads to the
exclusion of children and adults with disability in the developing world (Sugiharto, 2008) and
(Wanjohi, 2019).

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 Nevertheless, a positive global trend toward disability has been building up in recent
decades. All major international commitments, of which Somalia is part, require states to
shoulder responsibility to provide education, employment, and protection from all forms of
discrimination to their citizens who live with disability. Articles 7 and 24 of the UN Convention
on the Rights of People with Disability, which Somalia became a party in 2019, and Article
4 of the SDG demand governments to "Ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and
promote lifelong learning opportunities for all."

Despite all those commitments, all primary and secondary data show that Somalia never had
a formal education system intended for people with disability, and well-designed state-led
intervention is needed here to remedy this serious shortcoming. The obsolete charitable-based
model of disability is dominant in the country, and the popular culture is only familiar with
that. The rights of people with disability, be it educational, employment, or protection, are not
culturally recognized. As part of that broader challenge, the right to education is absent from
the equation. This paper proposes an inclusion strategy that recognizes the right to education
for people with a disability regardless of the type of disability. In the meantime, it advocates for
a realistic approach that can be implemented in phases based on the availability of resources
and other necessary mechanisms.

2. Review of Literature
As McManis (2020) accurately defined, inclusive education is when all learners, regardless of
their abilities, disabilities, ethnic background, or socioeconomic status, are provided with equal
educational opportunities and resources in the same classroom of their neighbourhood school
and among the appropriate age group. According to Bui et al., 2010, and Gut and Alquraini,
2012), to enable children with diverse needs in such a classroom environment, specialized
support and instructions tailored to the needs of the individual student must be provided so
they can meet the necessary curricular requirements.

All available evidence shows that students with disability have better and improved academic
achievement in such inclusive learning environments, as opposed to segregated settings
(McManis, 2020). Having said that, one must beware of the fact that the cost of delivering this
form of education in the appropriate settings, where every student with a disability or special
needs can get a place and the necessary support in the school of their choice, is considerably
high. According to Holms et al. (2015). the cost of educating a student with some form of
disability or with special needs in an inclusive classroom is three times higher than their peers
without disability or special needs. Lack of adequate resources, therefore, as cited by Wanjohi
(2019), makes inclusive education in the developing world remain, as he put it, "in the realm of
theory and far from practice."

Wanjohi (2019) was reflecting on the situation in Kenya, and he stated numerous challenges,
including teachers lacking the necessary training having no access to resources, and classrooms
often being overpopulated. This causes parents not to bring their children to mainstream
schools in the first place or to withdraw them sooner rather than later.

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 They think their child cannot benefit from such an environment, and other students will
ridicule them, which makes them opt for specialized or segregated schools. Without any doubt,
inclusive education has immense benefits, but delivering it in a developing world is extremely
challenging, as all the available data show. The situation is far more acute in a war-torn country
like Somalia. Therefore, policymakers and all stakeholders must think about alternative options.

3. Methodology and Paper Structure

The data informing this paper was collected between 2019 and 2023 through various forms,
including key in-depth interviews, participant observations, exploration of existing secondary
data, and monitoring of media outlets. While participant observations relied on personal
attendance in high-level technical meetings, mainly in Kampala and Mogadishu, in-depth
interviews have been conducted with leading disability activists and school leaders in Somalia
as individuals and groups, both online and offline. Structurally, the remaining parts of this
paper will be laid out as follows – in the first section, we will present the current state of affairs
regarding formal education and people with disability in Somalia. In the second section, we
will shed light on the nature of existing challenges in the face of formal education for PWDS-
SEN. Lastly, in the third section, we will propose a realistic 'Mixed approach' state-sponsored
educational system, which aims to recognize and respond to the needs of the largest minority
group in Somalia – PWDs and children with SEN – whose rates are alarmingly growing by the
day. Finally, this paper will present practical recommendations to help policymakers and people
with technical expertise in the education sector.

Section 1: The Current Status

In Somalia, the educational system has been significantly impacted by decades of civil war and
conflict. This has led to the widespread destruction of schools, a shortage of qualified teachers,
and limited access to educational resources. Only 42% of primary school-aged children
(MOEHC 2018) get access to school. An extremely small number of children with disabilities,
especially those with hearing and visual impairment, have access to segregated education,
mainly in Mogadishu. Most of those children with disability attend special schools funded and
run by NGOs, individuals, or the business community. While ordinary or mainstream schools,
whether private or public schools, accommodate some children with less challenging disabilities
like wheelchair users.

Throughout the country, as we were told during data collection, around eighteen schools
accommodate the educational needs of children with hearing impairment, again mainly placed
in or around Mogadishu. There are also around six special schools throughout the country
that cater to the educational needs of children and adults with visual impairment. None of
those are government-run, while two small schools, one in Mogadishu and another in Garowe,
accommodate children with autistic needs.

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 Those special schools, as they are known locally, face enormous and multi-dimensional
challenges. All those schools, as their leaders informed this paper, cover Somalia's national
curriculum without any adaptation of the syllabus; that means they have no sign language,
braille codes, or the other necessary tools to aid teachers in delivering the current curriculum.
The majority of teachers in those schools and their staff have never undertaken the general
teacher training course or a specific one to support children with disability or special needs.
In addition, salaries for those teachers are critically inadequate and do not receive any other
allowance or incentives. This means that they are more likely to leave at the first better
opportunity elsewhere. Furthermore, those teachers are not employed formally in a competitive
setting; they have been informally hand-picked by the administrators of those schools based on
various factors. Many of them do not hold professional certificates and qualifications.

Except for the state-owned Hawlwadaag secondary school, which partly accommodates
two schools, one for children with visual impairment and another for children with hearing
impairment, those special schools do not receive direct support from the Ministry of Education,
whether in kind or teaching training, supervision or quality control. Those schools survive with
the meagre backing from some local/international NGOs, individual well-wishers, or privately-
owned commercial companies who want to show some sort of social responsibility. In addition,
many children are forced to drop out of school due to multiple factors, including poverty, child
labour, early marriage, and, worst of all, cultural beliefs that education is not necessary for girls
or children with disability.

On the other hand, school leaders expressed grave concerns about examinations. Disabled
students sitting for national exams do not get basic support in line with their own needs. This
includes things like written material to be made fully accessible, including charts and diagrams,
accessible examination rooms to be prepared, exam readers to be trained, be prepared in time,
and other reasonable adjustments to be applied. Moreover, another serious weakness raised by
leaders of existing schools in Mogadishu was how exams are prepared by the local authorities.
To re-produce examination papers in an alternative format, Banadir Administration cooperates
with Al-nur School, one of the specialized schools for blind people in Mogadishu, and regularly
uses their composer machine (specialized braille printer), then brail format papers are taken to
other schools.

That practice does not only harm the integrity of national exam papers, as staff members from
one of the private schools get access to those sensitive papers well before students take them, it
also serves as clear evidence of how far state authorities, both central and local, are unprepared
in their dealings with the needs of people with disability. Furthermore, due to various factors,
fewer number out of the already small figure of disabled students who graduated from
secondary manage to get their way to university. Similar challenges exist at the higher education
level – universities do not have any ideas or resources to support a visually impaired student.
They do not have, for example, appropriate scanning machines to convert printed text to
electronically accessible format material for screen reading programs used by blind people.
They neither have the equipment nor trained staff to do the job. Moreover, there is no national
law or state policy requiring those academic institutions, both at the basic or the higher level, to
accommodate the needs of those students.

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 To put it in a nutshell, in Somalia, there is no semblance of inclusive education – even school
leaders and education officers do not have the slightest clue about the concept. Instead,
there are extremely limited and otherwise struggling sectors of segregated private schools.
Recommendations will come under the way forward section below, but in brief, those schools
need, among many other things, formal and closer relations with the Ministry of Education.
Financial and technical support need to be made available for them, and their effort needs to be
coordinated. This will pave the way for the currently low student intake to increase dramatically
and the performance of those schools to be placed under closer scrutiny. Better cooperation
between the authorities and those private schools can, in the long run, be a prelude to inclusive
education.

Section 2 – The Barriers

In general, the existence of institutional weaknesses in Somalia's social, cultural, and economic
factors stand as a formidable barrier in the face of any form of meaningful education system.
Each of those factors is severe enough in its own way, yet the institutional/policy shortcoming
is the most critical. For instance, at the policy level, there is very little that has been designed
to enable children with special needs to get access to state-run schools. Special Educational
Needs and Inclusive Education policies are the only two that exist in that area. Although very
ambitious, they are not locally contextualized. Perhaps, as the case is in many other state
departments, such policies have been developed by external advisers who have no clue about
local challenges in the financial and/or technical capabilities of the Ministry. Therefore, those
policies have not been implemented.

At the administrative level, the Ministry of Education does not have a full-fletched department
to deal with special education. Also, there is no budget heading allocated for the designing,
formulation, and implementation of meaningful state interventions in the special education
sector, and the National Curriculum does not take into account the needs of those people. With
that reality in mind, there cannot be any wonder about why children and adults with a disability
have no access to any form of state-sponsored education. Realization of this shortcoming at the
institutional level and any subsequent remedial action will have a huge ripple effect on many
other challenges, including social and cultural factors.

On the other hand, a combination of poverty and cultural factors is another gigantic obstacle.
A large percentage of the population lives below the poverty line, making it difficult for many
families to afford the cost of education for their children. This forces many parents to prioritize
a non-disabled child over the other (Amnesty International, 2015; Rohwerder, 2019). Local
school leaders in Mogadishu expressed their day-to-day experience with parents who prefer
their disabled child go to school but cannot afford small transport costs and, therefore, keep
them at home. What makes things worse is low public awareness of the basic right to education
for children with a disability like any other child, and there are other underlying cultural
nuances.

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 Largely, people in general view people living with disabilities as a burden on society who only
need help. Based on that, many families are reluctant or may discourage their children from
going to school as they cannot envisage a point to do so at all. That pessimism towards children
with a disability grows bigger when it comes to girls - they face double-burden because of
gender and disability. Our interviewees have been unanimous in their view that a government
policy and national laws would only be the best way to tackle such obstacles.

Furthermore, there is a big misconception about inclusive education and what it is all about.
This is a challenge on its own, as many local NGOs, disability activists, and even education
officers have little or no understanding of the inclusivity of education and how it has to be
managed. For instance, the Hawlwadaag secondary school building, which houses several
schools, including one for deaf students, another for blind students, and a third one, an
ordinary secondary school for none-disabled children, each operating disjointedly from others
is known as an inclusive public school by many, including education officers. The harder work
for policymakers, education experts, and teachers is to move understanding of the nation from
that abysmal level to the correct understanding of inclusivity, where each child with a disability
or a form of special needs is enabled to get education service that suits their own need, at the
nearest school to their neighbourhood.

Section 3 – The Way Forward

Considering our observations on Somalia's tenuous post-conflict status, and particularly
about the results of close examinations we made on Uganda's decades-old experience to create
inclusive education, we can rule out that the Federal Government of Somalia is not able to
consider delivering truly inclusive education in this stage. Numerous factors on the ground,
including shortage of resources, lack of trained teachers, and lack of the necessary equipment/
tools, just a few to mention, are not allowing for that to happen either now or in the near future.
In Uganda, we will draw them as an example due to multiple common factors, including their
proximity to Somalia, their recent history of having a long civil conflict, their socioeconomic
similarity, etc.

Uganda started its own overall disability rights approach, including accessibility of education,
back in the mid-1960s. Notable progress has been made on many fronts, but achievements in
education were overrated, according to reporting made by external NGOs who operate in the
sector. Back in early 2020, we had the opportunity to visit that country and study their progress
as well as their regress. We had ample information and first-hand experience from senior
officers at the Ministry of Education. We had a long group discussion with Minister Rosemary
Nansubuga, Minister of State for primary education, and her team.

Along with Minister Rosemary, other senior officers representing key MoE departments,
like the Special Needs Units for integral planning, Director of Education Standards, National
Curriculum Development Centre, Examination Board, and Vocational and Training
Department have participated in that group discussion. Indeed, they made some progress
in their push for 'inclusive education,' accessibility of educational and examination material,
and provision of financial grants to encourage students living with disability to continue their
education and progress to higher education. However, despite those efforts, they presented
alarming statistics that indicated sharp school dropping among students with disability in their
early years of secondary level.

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 Further challenges included, but were not limited to, the socially constructed stigma around
children with special needs and disability in general; negative attitude against persons with
disability; parents refusing to enrol their children with severe forms of disability; serious
shortage of funding which prevents special educational needs material and expertise from being
made available for everyone and in all schools. Despite all the flowery talk about achievements
in inclusive education, officials clearly stated that they extensively operate segregated forms
of education throughout the country, along with limited inclusive education in some areas or
some schools. This has been made necessary by various factors, including shortage of resources,
shortage of expertise, and the impact of severe poverty among families who have children with
disability.

In the case of Somalia, considering all the socioeconomic facts and factors on the ground, the
best option under the current situation will be a similar one to that of Uganda - a dual approach
(mixture of segregated education and inclusive education system) to be operated together.
In the first phase, the Ministry of Education must design a pilot project which will provide
considerable support for existing schools and initiate a government-run scheme across the
country. That scheme will give priority to the establishment of what we call a 'Major Education
Centre,' one in each of the five most populated cities in Somalia. Mogadishu can probably have
two of those. Each of those MECs will contain or house four mini-schools for children with
challenging disability - one for the visually impaired, another for the hearing impaired, one for
children with special needs, and the fourth to be an employment-oriented vocational training
unit for adults with a disability beyond their schooling age.

In doing so, the government and its supporting development partners will be able to mobilize
their limited financial/technical resources and concentrate on those five centres instead
of attempting to provide disability-related support to every school across the country as
inclusive education requires. On the other hand, children with less challenging disabilities,
wheelchair users, etc, can be sign-posted to mainstream schools, and the first phase of inclusive
education will be initiated there. Also, children who complete their primary education in the
aforementioned centres can, at some point, be allowed to transfer to local schools of their choice
if the school has trained teachers approved by the Ministry of Education. Furthermore, those
centres can provide practical training and experience for teachers.

4. Conclusion
As stated earlier, Somalia has no history of ever providing a formal education to PWDs and
SEN, but that can no longer be the case. Due to decades of conflict, rates of people with
disability, the particularly younger generation in their working age and children, are alarmingly
high, and failing to provide education and training for such a large part of society means they
will remain dependent on others in their entire life, instead of being dignified and productive
citizens.

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 Recognizing and correcting this shortcoming constitutes a win-win solution for the state,
for people living with disability, and for parents and carers alike. As explained in this paper,
this initiative will be the first of its kind, and it will have a far-reaching impact on a very large
number of people, young and adults, across the country. It will be as big as the 1970s Somalia's
commendable campaign against illiteracy, and if designed and presented properly, this program
will attract significant international support, both financially and technically, as Somalia is a
party to the UN Treaty on the Rights of People with disability.

5. Recommendations
To help the MoE give effect to the proposal outlined above, we conclude this paper with the
following key set of recommendations:

1. A concrete political will must be shown at the highest level. Without that, nothing will
change - individual/NGO-based efforts will never go that far and will not substitute the
state. That policy decision must be followed by realistic development of the appropriate
policies, considering the local context and the capacity of the state.

2. Administratively, special education requires a full-fledged department at the MoE with a

clear mandate to design, develop, and deliver this massive state program. At present, the
MoE has a small SEN unit that lacks all the necessary human and financial resources. It is
surely not fit for this purpose and must be upgraded.

3. Increase Funding for special needs and disability-related Education initiatives. The state
must allocate a percentage of the national educational budget for the design, development,
and delivery of a formal dual-approach education scheme. This will be a practical testament
to the government's commitment, which is likely to compel external actors to stand behind
this state-led program. That will let the MoE department deliver its mandate and be able
to procure and deliver the necessary equipment, tools, and programs to aid teachers and
students in meeting their requirements under the National Curriculum.

4. Provide disability-friendly teacher training. The MoE must develop teacher training
programs to equip all teachers with the skills and knowledge needed to teach students with
diverse needs. Existing introductory teacher training courses will have an extra component
designed to equip teachers, by default, with the skills to recognize students with a less
obvious disability, be it physical or cognitive, and refer them to the appropriate institutions.
This means all current and future schoolteachers/principals under the MoE payroll will be
required to take those training and pass competency tests.

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 References
Amnesty International (AI). (2015). Somali: Prioritise protection for people with disabilities.
AI, available on: https://www.amnesty.org/download/Documents/AFR5211662015ENGLISH.
PDFhttps://www.amnesty.org/download/Documents/AFR5211662015ENGLISH.PDF.
(Accessed on: Feb 15th, 2023).

CEVSI & Handicap International (HI). (2012). Children with disabilities in Somaliland: A
knowledge, attitudes, and practices household survey. https://data2.unhcr.org/en/documents/
download/52624. (Accessed on: Jan 30th, 2023).

McManis, L. (2020). Inclusive Education: Definition, Examples, and Classroom Strategies.

Published by The Resilient Educator: https://resilienteducator.com/classroom-resources/
inclusive-education/. (Accessed on: Feb 2nd, 2023)

Maina, L. (no date). Enhancing access to education and training for persons with disabilities in
Somalia and Somaliland. Published by the African Educational Trust, available at: https://www.
eenet.org.uk/enabling-education-review/enabling-education-review-5/eer-5/5-14/.

Rohwerder, B. (2018). Disability in Somalia. Institute of Development Studies (IDS), available

at: https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/5a744dbded915d0e8bf188ec/Disability_in_
Somalia.pdf. (Accessed on Feb 1st, 2023).

Shikuku, G., & Omar, F. (2017). Assessment Report on Special Needs Education In Kismayo –
Jubaland. Published by The Lutheran World Federation, available on: http://applications.emro.
who.int/dsaf/EMROPUB_2010_EN_736.pdf

Starck, J. (2016). Somalian families' views on disabled children and Finnish health care services.
Published by: Laurea University of Applied Sciences, available on: https://www.theseus.fi/
bitstream/handle/10024/120307/Starck_Jenny.pdf?sequence=121. (Accessed on: Feb 10th,
2023).

Sugiharto, S. (2008). Challenges in implementing inclusive education. Available online at http://

www.thejakartapost.com/news/2008/06/07/challenges-implementing-inclusive-education.html.
(Accessed on Feb 3rd, 2023)

United Nations Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (UNCRPD, 2006).
Convention on the rights of persons with disabilities and optional protocol. UN, available on:
http://www.un.org/disabilities/documents/convention/convoptprot-e.pdfhttp://www.un.org/
disabilities/documents/convention/convoptprot-e.pdf. (Accessed on numerous occasions)

Wanjohi, A. (2019). Challenges Facing Inclusive Education in Developing Countries. Published

by Schools Net Kenya: https://www.schoolsnetkenya.com/challenges-facing-inclusive-
education-in-developing-countries/ (Accessed on: Feb 2nd, 2023)

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61 Conference Proceedings
 Abstract
This study examines a nine-year-old girl’s battle to access education in and outside of Somalia.
Born in one of the Gulf countries with no legal resident permit, the young girl suffers from
acute special educational needs (SEN) and dwarfism. The author volunteered to teach her
basic English skills at her mother’s request. She learned the English alphabet and phonics as a
stepping-stone to reading. Lessons were planned and delivered to the subject for three months.
Dairy journal entries and structured interviews with her mother were employed as methods
of data collection. The subject was later relocated to a city in Somalia where schools were not
willing to accept her due to the burden of teaching. Data from the dairy entry shows that
structured routine teaching, repetition, and constant praise elevated the subject’s self-esteem
whilst action used during input when teaching (rather than acoustic) enabled quick retrieval
from memory. Recommendations for the Somali government included introducing an effective
SEN policy coupled with rigorous teacher training to ensure all Somali children have the right
to education.

Keywords: Somali, special educational needs policy, memory, teacher training, English

1. Introduction
Working at Bristol primary schools in the United Kingdom, the observation I made which was
shared by Somali parents before the emergence of the Somali supplementary schools in Bristol,
was that education in Somalia was better than in England. I believed that this assertion was
to some extent fair as educating a child in their home country using their mother tongue as a
medium of instruction was associated with many advantages (UNESCO,1953).

From the above assertion, the importance of learning in the home country is evident. Also,
an effective education policy and the role of teachers cannot be overlooked when it comes to
teaching students, particularly those with special educational needs and /or those who are
disabled (SEN[D]). These students need particular attention during their journey of learning.

In Somalia, the post-conflict era saw the reanimation of the Ministry of Education which
enthusiastically pushed an inclusive education policy for all Somali citizens. However, the
provision for students with cognitive and /or physical disabilities is unclear. This paper focuses
on the following research questions:

1) To what extent do the primary schools in Somalia implement the Ministry of Education’s
special educational needs policy?

2) To what extent can the children with physical disabilities access primary schools?

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 The research questions were addressed through a case study of a Somali girl, Amal
(pseudonym), and focused on policies of the Ministry of Education of the Federal Government
of Somalia: Special Educational Needs Disability and Inclusive Education policy (2018); the
teacher policy (2021); the Education Law (2017) and the private school policy. These policies
were selected as they are hoped to provide answers to the research questions.

The term special educational needs and disability, SEN(D) is defined as “a child or young
person has SEN if they have a learning difficulty or disability which calls for special educational
provision to be made for him or her” (DfE, 2015, p.15). “The ministry” refers to the federal
government’s Education Ministry. “The mother” is the mother of the subject. “The country” is
the country in which Amal was born (made anonymous to protect the subject and her mother’s
identity). “The author” is the researcher who compiled this paper.

2. The Case Study

Amal was born in the country. Both her parents are of Somali origin. The mother lives and
works in the country whereas her father lives in Scandinavia. Her parents divorced when Amal
was two years old. Although the mother completed her 36 weeks of pregnancy, there were
complications during the labor due to a lack of oxygen. Amal spent six days in an incubator and
suffers from achondroplasia – a genetic condition that mostly results in dwarfism.

Amal has a sense of humor and appears to be keen in interacting with family members in the
Somali language and also mastering mobile telephone technology, apps and games. However,
she suffers from speech and language difficulties making it hard to understand what she is
saying. She spends most of her time with her grandmother at home while her mother is at work.
She did not attend school in the country as she lacked possession of a residence permit. The
author met Amal for the first time when he was visiting the country. He volunteered to teach
her and sought advice from her mother as to what Amal should be taught. The mother chose
English, and the author planned teaching sessions after he returned to the UK.

3. Literature Review
Literature on the characteristics of dwarfism, special educational needs, teacher training
practices and the international and national (Somali) legal frameworks on the rights of children
to education will be explored, respectively.

3.1 Dwarfism
Pauli (2019) reviewed the care needs of those suffering from achondroplasia and the restricted
evidence that was available regarding care. Pauli characterized achondroplasia as the most
common of skeletal dysplasia where the outcome is a marked short stature (dwarfism). He
further argued that while the physical aspects of dwarfism have been known for more than 50
years, the medical issues have been less well explored. Pauli recommended the need for clinical
investigation of the historical interventions and their impact on achondroplasia.

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 Similarly, a study by Ireland, et al. (2011) aimed to determine the age range and developmental
sequence of the acquisition of gross motor skills, fine motor skills, feeding ability, and
communication milestones for a cohort of Australian children with achondroplasia. The study
found that children with achondroplasia experienced delays in the development of gross motor
skills, early communication, fine motor skills, and feeding skills.

While the above studies have not identified cognitive issues related to children with
achondroplasia, Brinkmann, Schlitt and Spranger (1993) detected signs of minor cerebral
dysfunction and discussed the possibilities of how that could be prevented. They concluded that
verbal comprehension was significantly impaired in children with achondroplasia and related it
to frequent middle ear infections which may result in hearing loss.

3.2 Special Educational Needs

Understanding the message being relayed is important when an individual is trying to learn.
This means understanding the coded messages or how to use them when reading and also
understanding concepts.

This may refer to identifying what the coded messages and concepts involve because according
to Engel and Schutt (2014) understanding concepts is a mental image that sums up similar
observations, feelings, or ideas. Consequently, how to conceptualize a concept may be a
daunting task. This is because conceptualizing means to match terms while concepts may have
different meanings with diverse ways to measure them (Chambliss and Schutt, 2019). Similarly,
Lane, Carter, and Bourke (2019, citing Gregory and Lewin, 2015), noted that there are various
stages relating to conceptualization when learning such as recognizing, defining, classifying,
analyzing, and applying concepts.

The above definitions are helpful as conceptualization is a practice that is pervasive in teaching
and learning. It may also be inherent in terms of SEND to avoid a) confusion over what is
meant by a term and b) internalizing incorrect information. The English education authority
conceptualized SEND as a child or young person having a learning difficulty or disability that
“calls for special educational provision to be made for him or her” (DfE, 2015, p. 15). However,
the Somali Ministry of Education defined the disability as the inability to perform an activity
(MOE, (2018, p.6).

Hodkinson (2019, ix) emphasized the existence of contesting views on how to define SEND
because of conceptualizing differences regarding disability and impairment. Assessing SEND
children accurately is important because mislabeling could prevent them from reaching their
academic potential (Baseggio, 2018).

3.3 Teacher training

Kurniawatia, et al. (2017) investigated the effects of an in-service teacher training program on
regular primary school teachers’ attitudes and knowledge about SEND and teaching strategies.
A study involving 67 teachers (33 in an experimental group and 34 in a control group) from
11 public primary schools was conducted. It found that the training program had significant
effects on the most dependent variables: attitude; knowledge about SEND; and knowledge about
teaching strategies.

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 3.4 National and International Legislation
In Somalia, there is a recognition that education is a right for every citizen. According to the
Art.30 of the Somali federal government constitution, “basic education is the right for every
citizen.” (MoECHE, 2021, p. i) Likewise, the UNCRC (1989) extended the right to achievement
and equal opportunity: “Article 28 1. States Parties recognize the right of the child to education,
and with a view to achieving this right progressively and on the basis of equal opportunity.”

In 1994, more than 300 participants representing 92 governments and 25 international

organizations met in Salamanca, Spain to further the objective of education for all by
considering the fundamental policy shifts required to promote inclusive education. The
purpose of the meeting was to inform policy and guide action by governments, international
organizations, national aid agencies, non-governmental organizations and other bodies in
implementing the Salamanca Statement on Principles, Policy, and Practice in Special Needs
Education. Bullet point 4 under Section 2 clearly discourages practices that exclude SEND
children from participating in learning activities in classrooms. It said: “Those with special
educational needs must have access to regular schools which should accommodate them within
a child-centred pedagogy capable of meeting these needs” (Salamanca, 1994, p. viii).

4. Methodology
To provide answers for the research questions, it was sought out a way that delineated a
systematic way (Novikov and Novikov, 2013; Tuck and McKenzie, 2015; Devi, 2017; Mishra and
Alok, (2017) to collect data.

4.1 Primary data

4.1.1 Semi-structured interviews

A semi-structured interview with the mother was divided into three parts: questions regarding
the early life of Amal; the mother’s perception of the sessions; Amal’s access to education
which was conducted after Amal was relocated to Somalia. A tape recorder was used for
each interview which lasted around 10 minutes and were conducted in the Somali language
(Sargeant and Harcourt, 2012). The six questions asked can be found in Appendix A. Two
questions were asked before the study, two after the study and two when Amal was relocated to
Somalia.

4.1.2 Intervention sessions

Forty lessons were delivered weekly except Thursdays from June to August 2022. At the
beginning of the sessions, an assessment of Amal’s knowledge of the English alphabet was
conducted to determine the start point (Stevenson, 2018). Visual, auditory, and kinetic learning
strategies were used as a teaching approach. A lesson plan can be found in Appendix B.

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 4.1.3 Reflective diary

A reflective diary was kept throughout the study in order to record contemporaneous events
(Alaszewski, 2006).

4.2 Secondary data

The secondary data used for this study were:

• Ministry of Education, Culture and Higher Education’s policies on SEN and inclusive
education, 2018, Sections 3.13.1;

• Teacher Education and Capacity and 3.13.3 Priority Actions of chapter 3), teacher training
(Section 2.3 Teacher Training of chapter 2) and education policy (MoECHE, 2021;

• Chapter 8: Special Education Needs Art. 46 to Art 49);

• Private schools (MoECHE, 2020; Chapter 2: 2.1 to 2.14); and

• Education Policy MoE (2017).

These policies were selected as they complement each other and paint a picture of how SEND
and inclusive education practices are managed.

4.3 Data Analysis for the Primary and Secondary Data

The semi-structured interviews with the mother were translated into English. An inductive
coding approach for the interviews was used. As noted by Bernard (2000), this allowed the
researcher’s understanding to emerge from a close study of the transcript. Also, thematic
analysis was employed and for that adhered to Braun and Clarke (2006).

5. Findings
5.1 primary
5.1.1 Interview with Amal’s mother

“She speaks with lisp, and it is difficult to understand what she is trying to say. Also, there seems
to be an issue with her memory. If you tell her the letter, she forgets it easily even if you repeat
it.”

The author shared this observation in his reflective diary: “I asked her to recount what was
learned previously but she could not recall the letters e,f,g. I am really concerned about her
comprehension. Furthermore, I suspect that there is speech and language therapy needed as her
utterances are incomprehensible.”

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 Amal also lacked any social life while living in the country: “She always stays at home with her
grandmother. She doesn’t go outside. There are no friends she can play with. All day, she spends
the time on her mobile phone.” However, this isolation did not last long when she was relocated
to Somalia: “She really adapted the life [in Somalia] quickly… there are lots of her cousins who
are keen to play with her. They have a lot of fun together.”

Although Amal found happiness, she was less lucky in going to a local school which said the
premises were not designed to accommodate Amal’s needs and that teachers were not trained
to teach SEND children: “Her aunt, the aunt’s husband and I visited the school (private) where
her cousins attend. However, the school senior management notified us that they were unable
to admit her due to her physical status, children may trample over her unwittingly, and her
cognitive needs.”

Amal’s aunt was determined to enable her to learn either formally or informally: “Her aunt
suggested hiring a private tutor to come and teach her at home.”

5.1.2 Intervention sessions

It was found that when Amal tried to identify letter sounds, she found remembering the actions
easier than recalling the letter sounds. The graph below shows her letter identification. The blue
colour is remembering the action and the orange is recalling the action related to the letter
sounds.

Fig.1 Identification of alphabet letters by action and sound

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 5.2 Analyzing the secondary data
Chapter 3 of the Ministry’s SEND policy, reads:

“Most teachers in Somalia do have the knowledge and skills of teaching and managing children
with special needs” (MoE, 2018, p.25).

The use of the word ‘most’ signals that teachers are not required to be equipped with the skills
of identifying, assessing, and teaching SEND children. However, in the SEND policy, inclusive
education is defined as: “An approach in which learners with disabilities and special needs,
regardless of age and disability, are provided with appropriate education within regular schools
(MoE, 2018, p.6).

Although the term disability is defined as: “The lack or restriction of ability to perform an
activity in the manner within the range considered normal in the cultural context of the human
being.” (MoE, 2018, p.6). It remains ambiguous as to what special needs means, though the
ministry has priority measures to: “Conduct teacher training courses for all teachers to teach
children who have special educational needs and disabilities.” (MoE, 2018, p.25).

This ambiguity may create barriers for schools to implement the policy effectively. Similarly, the
ministry’s teacher policy explained the rigorous training that teachers should undertake to meet
the needs of students regardless of their physical or cognitive ability. “In order for the primary/
junior or secondary teacher to be awarded with teaching certificates, they should pass the
teacher training exam.” (MoECHE, 2021, p.6., original text in the Somali language, translated by
the author)

The ministry’s education policy instructs teachers to: “Meet the needs of students with special
needs. They should be provided education based on their needs and potential, and they should
be encouraged to reach a level of independence.” (MoE, 2017, p.14, original text in the Somali
language, translated by the author).

Furthermore, although the ministry’s vision is to: “Establish a quality modern education system
for Somali citizens that offers equal opportunities and promotes respect for human rights and
observes Islamic Principles” (MoECHE, 2020, p,7). This has never materialized on the ground
since: “schools cannot accommodate diverse needs of the students such as vulnerable and
marginalized students” (MoECHE, 2020, p,16)

6. Discussion
6.1 Discussion of findings from the primary data
6.1.1 Interview with Amal’s mother

Amal’s mother emphasized the difficulty that she has speaking due to her lisp. This is in line
with the findings of Brinkmann, Schlitt and Spranger (1993) that communication for children
who suffer from achondroplasia is significantly impaired, possibly because of frequent middle
ear infections that may result in hearing loss.

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 Amal spent most of the time at home in the country in which she was born and wasn’t enrolled
in school in Somalia. This is a breach of Amal’s right to education according to Articles 12 and
28 of the United Nations Convention on the Rights of a Child (1989); the Salamanca (1994)
Framework; and Article 30 of the Somali federal government constitution. Amal’s plight can
only be blamed on the lack of enforcement of education policies in both the country in which
she was born and in Somalia.

6.2 Discussion of Findings From the Secondary Data

The ministry has attempted to provide a national policy for SEND and inclusive education with
the aim of educating all Somali students regardless of their physical and/or cognitive abilities.
The SEND policy, together with the teacher’s policy, the general education law and the private
school policy, contains 131 pages. These efforts need to be appreciated given the circumstances
in which they were introduced. However, the SEND and inclusive education and the private
school policies are both written in English language. Schools, with their busy schedule, may not
have the time and capacity to familiarize themselves with their contents.

Moreover, the term “special education needs and disability’ has created confusion and
needs to be clearly (Baseggio, 2018; Engel and Schutt, 2014; Chambliss and Schutt, 2019;
Hodkinson,2019; Lane, Carter, and Bourke, 2019). It is important that the policy is fully
clarified and specific guidelines are provided for schools.

The ministry envisioned training courses which equip teachers to teach all types of students
and introduced exams that teachers need to pass prior to starting their teaching journey. This
conforms with Kurniawatia, et al.’s (2017) study in Indonesia which found that the teacher
training program had significant effects on a teacher’s attitude, their knowledge about SEND
and their overall knowledge about teaching strategies.

In answer to research question 1 – to what extent do the primary schools in Somalia implement
the Ministry of Education’s special educational needs policy? – Amal’s experience showed that
there is a gap between the contents of the ministry’s SEND policy and how it is implemented
in schools. The school exhibited shortcomings in assessing Amal’s academic level and
then devising strategies for teaching. So, it can be concluded that the SEND policy was not
implemented at this specific primary school.

In answer to research question 2 – to what extent can children with physical disabilities access
primary schools in Somalia? – it was found that the school premises in the case of Amal were
not designed in such a way to accommodate physically disabled children and therefore the
policy could not be implemented by the school. Thus, it appears to be safe to argue that children
with physical disabilities could not access these specific primary schools.

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 7. Conclusion
This paper presented a case study of how the Somali Ministry of Education’s SEND policy was
implemented in one school. Amal was denied her right to education in the Gulf country where
she was born and also in Somalia when she relocated there with her family. The paper examined
the Education Ministry’s SEND policy along with related education policies to understand the
guidelines, process, and implementation of the policy. In the case of Amal, it was found that
there was a gap between the policy content and how it was translated in schools.

8. Policy recommendations
• The Ministry of Education should introduce a protocol where SEND is conceptualized, and
the expectations of schools and teachers are clearly explained.

• The Ministry of Education should introduce teacher standards in a clear and succinct way
and teacher training should embrace theory and practice that involves diversity and builds a
sense of belonging.

• The Ministry of Education should introduce a safeguarding policy in schools to keep

students safe.

• The Ministry of Education should introduce a policy regarding health and safety and
students should be equipped to follow the policy should emergencies arise.

• There should be a systematic evaluation of the progress of students with special educational
needs.

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Appendices
Appendix A
Semi-structured interview questions
1. How do you describe Amal’s early life?
2. How do you describe Amal’s daily activity?
3. What do you think about the English sessions Amal attended?
4. What challenges do you think Amal faces when learning?
5. How can you describe Amal’s daily activity in Somalia?
6. Do you have a plan for Amal’s future education?

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 Appendix B
Lesson plan for the intervention

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74 Conference Proceedings
 Abstract
The study explored the impact of teachers’ instruction styles on students’ academic performance
in secondary schools in Bosaso district. The objectives were: to establish the instruction
styles used; to determine students’ perceptions of different instruction styles; to find out
the relationship between instruction styles and academic performance; and to establish the
influence of teachers’ choice of instruction style. The study comprised 154 students, 13 form
four teachers, and five head teachers from both public and private secondary schools. It
adopted a mixed methods approach, combining both qualitative and quantitative research.
Questionnaires and interview schedules were the main means of collecting data. The study
established that the teacher-centred instruction styles were predominant and that students’
perceptions of these methods were largely negative. Instruction styles significantly influenced
students’ academic performance and several factors ranging from time allocation to available
resources influenced teacher’s choice of instruction styles. The study recommended that
teachers shift from over-dependence on teacher-centered instruction styles, and consider
learner interests and needs.
Key words: instruction styles, academic performance, teacher centered, learner centered

1. Introduction
All stakeholders in the education sector in Somalia are committed to improving academic
performance. However, numerous factors affect students' academic achievement, the most
significant of which is the teachers' instruction style. Parent supervision, competent peers, a
conducive environment, and more effective instruction methods also have a significant impact
on academic performance (Khan et al., 2020). However, without effective teaching methods
improvement on academic performance is almost next to impossible. Inadequate academic
performance implies that learners are unable to effectively perform the tasks in which they
were trained in (Nja, Umali, Asuquo, & Orim, 2019). Thus, an effective assessment of learning
outcomes necessitates a careful examination of teaching styles. Ziegler (2016) observes that
learners engage in a variety of subjects, and each subject requires the teacher to select a suitable
instruction style. Soltani and Motamedi (2014) defined a teaching style as a collection of
principles, pedagogies, and management strategies that teachers employ during classroom
instruction. When a teacher uses the appropriate instruction method, students not only gain
motivation to learn, but also see an increase in their academic achievement. According to
Apaydin (2018), the motivation and demotivation of students to learn and achieve academically
is contingent upon the teacher's instruction style. Teachers should also utilize technology to
enhance instruction and boost students' academic achievements.

2. Methodology
The study was descriptive in nature and used a mixed methods approach. It comprised 154
students, 13 form four teachers and five head teachers, totaling to 172 respondents, from
Bosaso district in Puntland. The researcher used questionnaires and interviews for teachers and
students respectively and carried out face-to-face structured and non-structured interviews
with head teachers. The quantitative data analysis was conducted using descriptive statistics and
findings presented using mean, medium, mode and standard deviations. Qualitative data was
analyzed thematically.

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 3. Literature Review
Instruction styles are decisions made by teachers during the teaching-learning process,
planning, delivery of material, and assessment (Kovaevi & Akbarov, 2016). Teachers view
teaching as a time-consuming task and therefore tend to concentrate on their teaching approach
(Etinkaya and Eskici, 2018). Teachers employ a variety of instruction styles depending on the
class and number of students (Glenn, 2016). The most prevalent instruction styles include
teacher-centered and learner-centered (McCaskey and Crowder, 2015). Ahmethan (2016)
posit that the most critical component of the teaching-learning environment is the teacher's
instruction style.

Teacher-centered instruction style is characterized by the teacher dominating the teaching-

learning process rather than the student. Dupin-Bryant (2004) explained that this style is
formal, controlled, and autocratic as the instructor dictates what and how students learn. The
teacher serves as the primary source of knowledge while the student takes a passive role in the
teaching and learning process (Ross, 2017). The traditional method of instruction (lecture) is
extremely popular. This method places a premium on syllabus coverage and assesses students'
ability to memorize. As a result, it disregards students' learning styles and preferences.

Many teachers encourage learners to be active and outlive the traditional method of
lecturing ((Jared, 2016).Meguid & Collins 2017), Abbas & Hussain (2018), Hettiarachchi &
Wickramasinghe (2017). Grasha's instruction models (1996) propose a five-tiered model
of instruction that includes: the expert teacher style; the formal authority teacher style; the
personal teacher model style; the facilitator teacher style; and the delegator teacher style. The
researcher observes that an expert and authority instruction style is influenced by the classical
educational philosophy, whereas modern educational philosophy is influenced by the personal
teacher instruction style. Teaching philosophies serve as the foundation for the application of
instruction styles regardless of the subject area (Beyhan, 2018).

Many teachers still practice the old styles due to a lack of in-service training or workshops.
These have contributed to students making assumptions about what to expect from the teacher
after the lesson. (Razak et al. (2017) maintain that the expert style is the most prevalent teaching
method, which is largely manifested in the classical lecture method of instruction. According
to Butcher et al. (2014) and Singh and Garg (2015) teacher-centered styles include traditional,
didactic, and skill-based strategies. These strategies make teaching and learning more
productive as compared to the lecturing style

Student-centered approaches entail the use of tangible materials related to particular subjects.
Student-centered approaches focus on enabling students to use authentic tools associated with
the subject being taught to participate in problem-solving (Tondeur, van Braak, Ertmer, &
Ottenbreit- Leftwich, 2017). This enables the learner to work on their own after the lesson is
over.

Learner-centered instruction style places the student at the center of the learning process
(Jayalaxmi, 2015). Learner-centered instruction encourages students to participate actively and
interact with their classmates (Chen and Chang, 2014) which creates a harmonious type of
learning. This style can lead to a lack of discipline when the students reach a particular age and
when both genders share common study rooms.

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 Grasha's (2002) described this as a facilitator and delegator style of instruction and thus learner-
centered. Meguid et al. (2017) observed that these methods ensured that learners were actively
involved throughout the entire session. This teacher facilitation enabled learners to discover and
relate new knowledge to prior knowledge.

Students Preference on Learner-Centered Teaching

Owing to the fact that teachers are trained in using different methods, learners can acquire
skills that enable them to reach their full potential. Mpho (2018) explains that students are
more engaged in learning activities that allow for peer interaction and active participation in
the teaching-learning process. Emaliana (2017) observe that learners demonstrated a favorable
attitude toward learner-centered approaches such as group work. Molungo (2013) asserted
that group work enhanced learning by involving students in class activities. This is consistent
with Lee, Linh, and Thatong (2017) who found that students preferred active methods of
teaching and learning such as discussions, question-answer sessions, and group work because
they perceived these active learners centered methods as providing them with additional
opportunities for activity, project completion, and learning.

Instruction Styles and Academic Performance

Academic performance is influenced by instruction strategies. Havik and Westergård (2019)
assert that maximizing learning outcomes requires the teacher to employ instruction styles that
engage students. Academic performance is a vital tool as it determines the quality of graduates
that can help a country like Somalia transform its economy from one level to the next digit.

The academic performance of students is dependent on the instruction styles used by the
teacher. Churcher, Asiedu, & Boniface (2016) assert that academic performance in secondary
schools in Ghana is largely determined by instruction styles and these have helped Ghana to
realize her potential in development. Teachers must be proficient in the use of strategies that
enable them to overcome the instruction challenges they face daily (Fitzgerald, 2015). Mobeley
and Fisher (2014) observe that teachers are expected to incorporate a variety of kinetic activities
for instance dancing into the method of instruction to improve students' understanding
of difficult concepts. In the long run, students acquire practical knowledge through these
visualized strategies (Grace Fayombo, 2015 and Alkooheji & AlHattami, 2018).

Teachers and Instruction Style

Teachers are faced with a myriad of problems as to which method or style to use in teaching.
This has been contributed by the entering method of learners. On the other hand, Learners take
time to learn the approach of different teachers during the teaching-learning process. Christian
(2018) points out that a variety of factors influence the teacher's method of instruction
including the types of learners; the subject matter; the time allocated per lesson; the availability
of school equipment and facilities; the number of students; and the classroom environment.
Teachers also consider a variety of other factors affecting students' learning including age; level;
understanding potential and whether they are slow or fast learners. If the proportion of slow
learners in a class is greater than that of fast learners, the teacher is compelled to use a method
that makes it easier for the slow learners. The balance between the choice of teaching style and
the judgment of the teacher is very crucial during and after the teaching-learning function.

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 4. Study Findings

Table 1 Student views on teaching styles in Bosaso district

Discussions
Table 1 shows that the standard deviation ranges from 0.8 to 1.18 which is a bit high for the
study in Bosaso's secondary schools. Study findings indicate a high SD that teachers do not
seek the opinions of students before making any decisions or rules. This disagrees with Lee,
Linh, and Thatong (2017) that students prefer action-based learning. Table 1 also shows a high
deviation from the mean in all items given to students which is an indication of weak lesson
preparation and teaching style. This is in line with Christian (2018) that several underlying
factors affect the teaching-learning process which could be corrected to make the process more
productive.

The researcher also found several underlying factors in students’ perception of teachers’
instruction styles and results are presented in Table 2.s’

Table 2 Students perceptions of their teachers’ instruction styles

Discussions
Tables 2 shows a standard deviation ranging from 0.794 to SD of 1.273 indicating that the
majority of students have positive perceptions of the instructional methods used by their
teachers. This was indicated by the fair distribution of SD from the mean in all the responses
received. It shows that the use of teaching strategies that keep students active and engaged
during lessons is provided in secondary schools in Bosaso District.

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 This is in line with Lee, Linh, and Thatong (2017) that interactive learning strategies are
preferred by students during teaching. Table 2 shows a standard deviation of 0.990 on time for
practice which indicates that students can acquire practical skills that improve their knowledge.
This is in line with Alkooheji & AlHattami (2018) that this method helps students to visualize
the learnt concepts. These findings were in accordance with data obtained from interviews
with head teachers. Table 2 also shows a good perception that teachers give understandable
instructions during teaching. These results can be used to generalize on the impact of teacher’s
instructional strategies in secondary schools in Bosaso district in Somalia. However other
factors should be considered among the students, teachers and parents who can be attributed
to the performance in the examinations at the end of the secondary school cycle in Bosaso
District.

The study also examined the relationship between teaching styles and the academic
performance of form four students. The findings are presented in Table 3.

Table 3 Relationship between instruction styles and academic performance of form four
students

Discussions
Table 3 shows that teaching methods have a significant capacity to influence the academic
achievement of their students, either positively or negatively. Academic performance can either
be improved or diminished depending on the pedagogical approaches used. These findings were
in accordance with data obtained from interviews with head teachers and in agreement with
Christian (2018) who found that factors determining the style of teaching were dependent on
the types of learners in class.

The researcher also investigated the factors influencing the instructional style adopted by
teachers, with the results presented in Table 4.

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 Table 4: Factors influencing instruction style

Discussions
Table 4 shows good distribution of data around the mean with findings ranging from SD
of 0.739 to 1.62. This study’s findings are in agreement with Christian (2018) in that several
factors play a vital role in shaping the teaching-learning environment. The availability of school
facilities has the greatest impact on the instructional approach chosen by the teacher implying
that schools have been receiving support from the government to improve the quality of
teaching to their student in schools in Bosaso district. The interests of learners and the learning
styles they prefer appear to play a limited role in deciding what teaching approach to adopt.
Table 4 shows a mean of 1.58 and SD of 0.739 on the influence of the school management on the
choices of teaching styles. These findings are in agreement with Havik and Westergård (2019)
in that performance is a contribution of well-chosen styles of teaching and the willingness of
students to learn.

5. Conclusion
The study concludes that Instructional strategies that put the focus on the instructor are used
more frequently by teachers in most of the secondary schools. Even though the majority
of school administrators and students have expressed a preference for learner-centered
instructional styles, these methods continue to be used in the majority of classrooms. The
findings also revealed the methods of teaching employed by teachers at secondary schools in
Bosaso District in Somalia.

In conclusion, the research has shown that a number of elements, such as the availability of
instructional resources, the level of experience that instructors have, and the dynamics of the
school leadership, are important in determining the instructional methods that teachers choose
to employ in their classrooms.

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 6. Recommendations For Policy And
Practice
• Teachers should consider the interests and requirements of students in secondary schools in
Bosaso District.

• The Ministry of Education should provide in-service training to all teachers in secondary
schools in Bosaso District

• School management should ensure technology is used in instruction across all subjects.

• Parents should be advised to encourage their children to study hard and improve their
performance in school.

References
Abbas, Qaisar, and Shafqat Hussain. "Comparative study of teaching styles of various school
groups at secondary level in District Chiniot of Punjab." Asian Journal of Education and Social
Studies 2, no. 3 (2018): 1-8.

Abdel Meguid, Eiman, and Matthew Collins. "Students’ perceptions of lecturing approaches:
traditional versus interactive teaching." Advances in medical education and practice (2017):
229-241.

Ahmethan, Nurtug Bariseri. "Correlation between Teaching Styles of Candidate Music Teachers
and Mentor Music Teachers." Educational Research and Reviews 11, no. 13 (2016): 1228-1235.

Ali, Nayab, Asad Ullah, Abdul Majid Khan, Yunas Khan, Sajid Ali, Aisha Khan, Bakhtawar et al.
"Academic performance of children in relation to gender, parenting styles, and socioeconomic
status: What attributes are important." Plos one 18, no. 11 (2023): e0286823.

Apaydin, Beyza Balamir, and Selin Cenberci. "Correlation between Thinking Styles and
Teaching Styles of Prospective Mathematics Teachers." World Journal of Education 8, no. 4
(2018): 36-46.

Dupin-Bryant, Pamela A. "Variables related to interactive television teaching style: In search

of learner-centered teaching styles." International Journal of Instructional Technology and
Distance Learning 1, no. 4 (2004): 3-14.

Eskici, Menekşe, and Seher Çetinkaya. "Analysis of teaching styles of teachers regarding various
variables." Bartın University Journal of Faculty of Education 8, no. 1 (2019): 138-160.

Glenn, Jared RL. The ideal educator: Investigating teaching culture and teaching styles through
teacher self-efficacy and social acceptance. Utah State University, 2016.

Glenn, Jared RL. The ideal educator: Investigating teaching culture and teaching styles through
teacher self-efficacy and social acceptance. Utah State University, 2016.

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 Kovačević, Ervin, and Azamat Akbarov. "The elusiveness of learner-centred teaching."
Interdisciplinary Description of Complex Systems: INDECS 14, no. 2 (2016): 212-222.

McCaskey, Stephen J., and Cindy L. Crowder. "Reflection on one’s own teaching style and
learning strategy can affect the CTE classroom." CTE Journal 3, no. 1 (2015): 2-12.

Nja, Cecilia Obi, Cornelius-Ukpepi Beneddtte Umali, Edoho Emmanuel Asuquo, and Richard
Ekonesi Orim. "The Influence of Learning Styles on Academic Performance among Science
Education Undergraduates at the University of Calabar." Educational Research and Reviews 14,
no. 17 (2019): 618-624.

Ross, Lydia, and Eugene Judson. "Gender-Based Differences in Engineering Faculty Members’
View and Use of Student-Centered Learning Strategies." International Journal of Gender,
Science and Technology 9, no. 3 (2017): 204-220.

Taghizadeh, Hadi, Amanoll Soltani, Hamdolla Manzari, and Zahra Zaynodiny. "Structural
model of executive functions in predicting the performance of students with learning
disabilities learning." Educational researches 15, no. 64 (2020): 27-52.

Wickramasinghe, Samanthi, and Sunesh Hettiarachchi. "RELATIONSHIP

AMONG STUDENTS’LEARNING STYLES, ASSESSMENT METHODS AND
STUDENTS’PERFORMANCES." (2016).

Ziegler, Esther, and Elsbeth Stern. "Consistent advantages of contrasted comparisons: Algebra
learning under direct instruction." Learning and Instruction 41 (2016): 41-51.

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83 Conference Proceedings
 Abstract
This study examines the complex dynamics of education finance in Somalia and its impact on
the performance of the educational system through an analytical lens, utilizing the Education
Finance Performance Index (EFPI). Over the past decade, despite notable efforts to enhance
educational access, Somalia continues to grapple with the lowest gross enrollment rate and the
highest out-of-school child ratio in the region. The research employed a multiple regression
analysis to explore the relationships among four key variables: Government Recognition and
Commitment (GRC), Financial Resource Management (FRM), Governance and Accountability
(GA), and Human Capital Development (HCD). Findings indicated that these factors
significantly contributed to the variability in EFPI scores, with GRC being particularly pivotal,
suggesting that governmental dedication plays a central role in creating an environment that
supports educational excellence. Additionally, FRM and GA were observed to have substantial
impacts, emphasizing the necessity for efficient resource allocation and transparent governance.
HCD further highlighted the importance of investing in the training and motivation of
educators. The results advocated for strategic policies that prioritize robust government
commitment, adept financial management, clear governance, and human capital investment.
These recommendations aimed to guide educational policymakers and practitioners in refining
educational finance practices to boost overall system performance in Somalia.

Keywords: Education finance, Somalia, education access, Education Finance Performance

Index (EFPI), government commitment

1. Introduction
Effective management of education finance plays a pivotal role in ensuring equitable access to
education (Bush, 2008). Education finance refers to the various financial and non-monetary
resources allocated to support educational endeavours (Murray et al., 1998). Despite significant
strides in expanding access to education in Somalia, low gross enrollment rates and high out-
of-school child ratios highlight the urgent need for optimally allocated, spent, and accountable
education funds. To ensure every Somali child has access to quality education, it is imperative
to establish a transparent and efficient education finance system that strategically channels
necessary resources.

In an increasingly interconnected and diverse world, the concept of universal access to

education transcends mere academic pursuit to become a cornerstone of societal progress
and equality (Swargiary & Roy, 2023). It encapsulates the fundamental belief that individuals,
irrespective of their social class, race, gender, sexuality, ethnic background, or physical and
mental abilities, deserve an equitable chance to harness the transformative power of education
(Capsada-Munsech, 2019). This principle emphasizes the critical need to dismantle systemic
barriers that obstruct educational opportunities, highlighting how the collective strength and
potential of society are unleashed when everyone is empowered through learning. As the global
community addresses the complexities of modern challenges, including economic disparities
and cultural divides, policymakers, economists, and social service providers in the education
sector are bound by a common commitment to ensure that no one is left behind on the path to
knowledge, enlightenment, and personal growth (Ryan, 2012).

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 Across the globe, countless children are deprived of education due to various barriers, notably
poverty, which stands as a pervasive obstacle, particularly in places like Somalia where
approximately 70% of the population lives below the international poverty line (O’Connor,
2021). Here, the daily struggle for survival and the immediate needs for food, shelter, and
healthcare take precedence over education, stifling young aspirations and perpetuating a cycle
of disadvantage that is incredibly difficult to break (Harper et al., 2003).

Within the specific context of Somalia, where poverty is a formidable and persistent foe,
the impact on education is profound and far-reaching (Al-Ahmadi & Zampaglione, 2022;
Chaudhry & Ouda, 2021). As household resources are stretched merely to secure basic
sustenance, paying tuition fees becomes an unattainable dream for most families, leading
to educational opportunities, which should be every child's birthright, being sacrificed due
to overwhelming financial strain. The grim reality of economic fragility, conflict, political
instability, and natural disasters casts a long shadow over the educational prospects of children,
depriving them of learning opportunities and, in regions affected by prolonged conflicts such
as those described by Assefa et al. (2023), schools are often reduced to ruins, erasing access to
education for generations.

In the face of adversity, children encounter numerous barriers that distance them from
education, such as treacherous journeys between villages and towns, which deter many
households and leave vulnerable groups like girls and children with special needs without access
to formal schooling, thereby perpetuating a cycle of limited opportunities and exacerbating
existing inequalities (Gerbaka et al., 2021). The struggle for education in Somalia highlights the
resilience of families forced to choose between risking their children’s safety or depriving them
of learning opportunities, necessitating a comprehensive approach that includes rebuilding
infrastructure and addressing societal issues to ensure every child can thrive educationally
(Karawita, 2019).

In significant urban centers such as Mogadishu and Baidoa, the prospect of education remains
elusive for even the most privileged children due to a convergence of factors including
inadequate educational resources, substandard infrastructure, and a shortage of qualified
educators, which collectively compromise the educational experience, thereby stifling the
potential of young learners and perpetuating a cycle of disadvantage that diminishes their
capacity to fully engage in their studies and contribute effectively to their communities.

Tragically, the struggle to access quality education is exacerbated by the harsh realities of daily
life, with some children starting their educational journeys burdened by hunger, illness, or
exhaustion from household duties, which undermines their ability to participate in and benefit
from lessons, ultimately jeopardizing their academic success and overall well-being—a stark
reminder of the harsh trade-offs faced by many students and the urgent need for comprehensive
support systems that address both educational and broader socio-economic challenges
(Dryden-Peterson, 2015). Additionally, the global digital divide deepens these inequities, as
approximately 70% of school-aged children worldwide lack internet access at home. In Somalia
the situation is even more critical as only 8.7% of households have internet access, highlighting
the imperative for concerted efforts to bridge this gap and ensure a more equitable educational
landscape for all (Oyedemi, 2012).

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 The ramifications of inadequate access to quality education extend far beyond the classroom,
significantly undermining future employment opportunities and economic mobility as young
individuals transition into adulthood without the necessary skills and knowledge. Lack of
access to education also correlates with poorer health outcomes and increased vulnerability to
detrimental health consequences, thereby perpetuating a cycle of disadvantage that diminishes
their capacity to participate in decisions shaping their lives and communities, ultimately
stunting their ability to contribute meaningfully to societal development (Branson & Zuze,
2012; Anderson, 2023; Cadenas et al., 2023; Walker & Unterhalter, 2007).

Despite commendable efforts to improve access to education over the past decade, the
challenges in Somalia persist, and the statistics reveal the gravity of the situation. With the
region's lowest gross enrollment rate (GER), Somalia's education landscape is marked by glaring
disparities (Osman & Abebe, 2023). The meagre 14.3% GER for lower primary education,
which only accommodates 170,594 out of 1,196,188 children, paints a sobering picture of the
uphill battle that lies ahead. The story remains strikingly similar for upper primary education,
where the GER stands at 14.4%, failing to reach most eligible students. A mere 14.3% of
secondary school-age children have access to education, leaving nearly 900,000 teenagers
without the opportunity for further learning. These disheartening numbers underscore the
urgent need for comprehensive and targeted interventions to break the cycle of exclusion and
pave the way for a more inclusive and equitable education system that empowers the youth to
shape a brighter trajectory for themselves and their nation.

Table 1: Somali School Enrollment Statistics

Source: FGS Ministry of Education

Table 2: Region’s Gross Enrollment Ratio

Source: World Bank

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 Table 3: Scenario Analysis

Source: FGS Ministry of Education

Table 4: Region’s Out-of-School Children Analysis

Source: World Bank

Despite commendable efforts, Somalia's education financing falls short, with minimal
government allocation compared to regional averages. A significant concern is the public
perception of education's value, impacting resource allocation. Historical data highlights
a decline in education expenditure relative to GDP, emphasizing the need for renewed
investment.

Somalia's unique focus on tertiary education is apparent, with around 24% of the education
budget allocated to institutions like the Somali National University. This strategic investment
aims to nurture expertise and innovation, contributing to a skilled workforce. Per-student
expenditure further highlights Somalia's dedication, allocating $2,280 per tertiary student, well
above neighbouring countries like Rwanda and Kenya. This commitment extends to secondary
education, where Somalia's expenditure per student surpasses the regional average, contributing
to a comprehensive educational journey. Notably, Somalia prioritizes primary education,
allocating approximately 60% of its GDP per capita, far exceeding the regional average. This
emphasis underscores the significance of building a strong foundation for future development
and global competitiveness, promoting inclusive and equitable access to quality primary
education.

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 Table 5: Government Expenditure on Education (% of government expenditure)

Source: World Bank

Table 6: Government Expenditure on Education (% of GDP)

Source: World Bank

Table 7: Expenditure on Tertiary Education (% of Education Expenditure)

Source: World Bank

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 Table 8: Government Expenditure Per Student (Tertiary)

Source: World Bank

Table 9: Government Expenditure Per Student (Secondary)

Source: World Bank

Table 10: Government Expenditure Per Student (Primary)

Source: World Bank

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 In an increasingly interconnected and diverse global landscape, the concept of universal access
to education stands as a cornerstone of societal progress and equality. It embodies the belief that
every individual, regardless of his or her background, deserves an equitable chance to harness
the transformative power of education. However, despite the recognition of its significance,
numerous barriers persist, hindering the realization of this vision in the context of Somalia,
where economic fragility, conflict, political instability, and natural disasters have collectively
contributed to a challenging educational landscape. As a result, a substantial portion of the
population, particularly children, lack access to quality education, perpetuating cycles of
disadvantage.

2. Methods and Materials

Research Design, Data Source, and Sampling
This study employed a quantitative research design to investigate the determinants influencing
education finance performance within Somalia's education system, focusing on the interactions
between the Education Finance Performance Index (EFPI) and various independent
variables such as government recognition, financial resource management, governance, and
accountability. Utilizing multiple regression analysis, this research explores both direct and
indirect effects to reveal the complex relationships and causal links shaping EFPI.

Data for the study was collected through a survey conducted in July 2023, which gathered
responses from a diverse cohort of participants across different sectors, positions, and
educational backgrounds within Somalia. A purposeful or stratified sampling strategy was
adopted to ensure a comprehensive representation of the educational landscape, enhancing
the validity and depth of the data set. This approach facilitated a detailed examination of the
multifaceted dimensions of education finance, aiming to contribute significantly to discussions
on educational policies and management in Somalia.

Construct development
This study built robust constructs to ensure the integrity of analyses and interpretations,
focusing on interrelated variables: the Education Finance Performance Index (EFPI),
Government Recognition and Commitment (GRC), Financial Resource Management (FRM),
Governance and Accountability (GA), and Human Capital Development (HCD). Through
rigorous formulation and psychometric validation, the study offers a strong framework
for understanding the educational system's dynamics and the impact of these constructs
on educational excellence. EFPI, a key construct, measures academic achievement and
holistic student development, enhancing our understanding of educational effectiveness.
The development of EFPI and other constructs is detailed in subsequent sections to ensure
conceptual clarity and empirical rigour.

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 Table 11: Construct Development

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 Multiple Regression Analysis
Multiple regression was used in this study to examine the relationship between independent
and dependent variables. Through the analysis of different predictors, it is possible to gain
a deeper understanding of nuances and patterns. In this approach, the specific impacts of
individuals are quantified while confounding factors are considered, revealing hidden causal
relationships and patterns. For a deeper understanding of the intricate relationship between
EFPI and multiple independent and control variables, a thorough analysis of multiple regression
was conducted. The regression model is presented below:

EFPI = β0 + β1(GRC) + β2(FRM) + β3(GA) + β4(HCD) + β5(Education) + β6(Sector) +

β7(Position) + ε

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 3. Results of the Study
Descriptive Analysis
Summary Statistics
The analysis of the collected data provided meaningful insights into the demographic
composition of the participant cohort. The mean age was 34.52 years, with a notable standard
deviation of 8.22, indicating diverse age distributions and considerable age heterogeneity.
Gender distribution showed a predominantly male presence (mean gender value 1.00) with
moderate variability (standard deviation 0.34), revealing some female participants. While
skewed towards males, female participation is evident. The most common qualification is
4.00 (master’s degree), with a diverse range (standard deviation 0.63), emphasizing varied
educational attainments.

Examining participant sectors, the mode sector was 2.00 (private sector), while a standard
deviation of 0.96 indicated diverse sectoral representation. Despite being a dominant sector,
variability highlighted participants from various sectors. Participant positions or status had
an average of around 3.00 (senior level), with significant variability (standard deviation 1.33),
reflecting diverse occupational or social strata. Regionally, participants mainly came from
Benadir (mean value 6.00), yet a standard deviation of 1.30 underscored geographical diversity,
suggesting participants from regions beyond Benadir. In essence, the analysis showcased a
participant cohort with diverse ages, male-biased gender representation, varied qualifications
and sectors, wide-ranging positions, and inclusive regional origins.
Table 12: Summary Statistics

The provided descriptive statistics offered insights into the distributional characteristics of the
investigated variables. For the variable EFPI, its mean score of 3.71 and standard deviation
of 0.87 indicated a relatively narrow dispersion around the mean. Negative skewness of -1.15
suggested a departure from normality with a longer tail towards lower scores, while positive
kurtosis of 1.30 hinted at potential outliers on both extremes of the distribution. Similarly,
variable GRC had a mean of 2.97 and a larger standard deviation of 1.14, indicating a wider
scattering of scores. A slightly leftward skewness (-0.14) suggested a minor accumulation of
lower GRC scores, while negative kurtosis (-1.13) implied a flatter distribution with possible
outliers.

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 For variable FRM, the mean score was 3.55 with a standard deviation of 0.95. A negative
skewness of -0.85 pointed to a left-skewed distribution with low FRM scores, and positive
kurtosis (0.25) indicated some deviation from a normal distribution with slightly accentuated
peakedness and tails. Variable GA had a mean of 3.59 and a standard deviation of 0.99, with
negative skewness (-0.67) indicating a tendency towards lower scores, while negative kurtosis
(-0.30) suggested less peakedness and thinner tails, implying a more uniform distribution with
fewer extreme values. Variable HCD, with a mean score of 3.68 and a standard deviation of
1.10, displayed a negative skewness of -0.91, showing an asymmetric distribution with a tail of
lower scores. Positive kurtosis (0.29) indicated a moderate deviation from normality in terms of
peakedness and tails, suggesting the presence of outliers.
Table 13: Summary Statistics

Reliability Analysis (for Predictor Variables)

In my study, I employed Cronbach's Alpha for reliability testing, a well-established
psychometric measure crucial for ensuring the internal consistency and reliability of scales
containing multiple items often found in survey instruments. Cronbach's Alpha served as
a standard method to assess the dependability of such scales by quantifying the extent of
internal coherence among their constituent items. This application contributed significantly
to the validation process by offering insights into measurement robustness and the collective
capture of the underlying construct's essence. Illustrating the significance of Cronbach's
Alpha in psychometric assessment, our evaluation of the 15-item education finance scale
exemplified its utility. This assessment aimed to establish the interconnectedness and consistent
measurement of the education finance domain. The reported Cronbach's Alpha coefficient
of .909 demonstrated a notably high level of internal consistency within the scale. This
coefficient reflected strong agreement and coherence among the diverse items, suggesting
their cohesive functioning as a measurement tool. Consequently, this robust internal reliability
coefficient enhanced the instrument's credibility and dependability in examining the complex
dimensions of education finance, thereby reinforcing the integrity of subsequent analyses and
interpretations.

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 Table 14: Reliability Statistics

Regression Analysis
The present study employed an encompassing Multiple Regression Analysis with the
primary objective of investigating the overall impact of a number of explanatory variables on
education finance performance. These variables encompassed multifaceted dimensions such as
Government Recognition and Commitment (GRC), Financial Resource Management (FRM),
Governance and Accountability (GA), and Human Capital Development (HCD). Additionally,
the analysis incorporated three control variables: education, sector, and position. This analytical
approach aimed to unravel the complex interrelationships between these variables and their
association with EFPI.

Multiple regression analysis helped to figure out the significance of the variables in explaining
differences in the EFPI as a whole. The results showed that the combination of predictors and
control variables helped explain a lot of the EFPI score variation. The relatively high coefficient
of determination (R-squared) of 0.699 demonstrated that the variables under study could
account for about 70% of the variation in EFPI scores.

Examining the regression coefficients (B) yielded valuable insights into the individual influence
of each predictor on EFPI while accounting for the effects of other variables. Notably, GRC
exhibited robust statistical significance as a predictor, with a positive coefficient (B = 0.195, p
< .01), highlighting the pivotal role of government commitment in fostering education finance
performance. FRM was also identified as a consequential determinant, indicating a plausible
positive connection between effective financial resource allocation and enhanced learning
outcomes. GA played a pivotal role, emphasizing the importance of governance structures
and accountability mechanisms in fostering an environment conducive to superior education
finance performance.

Moreover, the study underscored the significant influence of HCD on EFPI, highlighting the
importance of investing in human capital to improve education finance performance. The
impact of control variables also proved noteworthy, with education and sector displaying
positive influences and position showing a relatively modest negative effect. Overall, the analysis
shed light on the complex dynamics of education finance and its multifaceted influence on the
education system in the context of Somalia.

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 Table 15: Reliability Statistics

Discussion
This study embarked on an extensive exploration of the complex relationships between multiple
explanatory variables and their collective impact on the EFP. By employing multiple regression
analysis, the research aimed to comprehensively examine the roles of GRC, FRM, GA and
HCD, as well as control variables including education, sector, and position, within the context
of educational system performance. The principal objective was to uncover the statistical
significance of these factors in explaining variations in EFPI.

The utilization of multiple regression revealed compelling results, underscoring the substantial
contribution of the amalgamation of predictors and control variables to the explanation of
EFPI score variance. The model exhibited a robust coefficient of determination (R-squared)
of 0.699, indicating that approximately 70% of the observed variability in EFPI scores could
be attributed to the considered variables. This finding highlighted the potency of the studied
variables in unveiling the complex fabric of education finance performance. GRC emerged as a
significant positive predictor of EFPI, emphasizing the pivotal role of governmental dedication
in cultivating an environment conducive to enhancing educational outcomes. This observation
suggested that policy initiatives aimed at strengthening government commitment hold the
potential to yield tangible enhancements in educational system performance, accentuating the
centrality of GRC in shaping the financial aspects of educational institutions.

FRM demonstrated a discernible positive influence on EFPI, highlighting the importance of

effective financial resource allocation for improved educational outcomes. A well-executed
strategy for managing financial resources can contribute to optimized learning environments,
enhanced resources for educators, and enriched educational experiences for students.

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 This underscored the significance of refining financial management practices to enhance overall
educational finance performance. GA emerged as a critical determinants of EFPI, emphasizing
the need for well-structured governance frameworks and mechanisms of accountability in
fostering educational excellence. Similarly, HCD highlighted a noteworthy positive effect,
underlining the importance of investing in a proficient and motivated teaching workforce.
Both GA and HCD underscored the need for policy interventions that prioritize transparency,
accountability, and human resource development to enhance education finance performance.

The findings highlighted the pivotal role of government commitment, effective financial
resource management, governance, accountability, and human capital development in shaping
educational finance practices and ultimately enhancing educational outcomes.

4. Study Recommendationsy
These recommendations emphasize the need to prioritize government commitment, enhance
financial management, establish effective governance mechanisms, invest in human capital
development, and tailor strategies to sector-specific dynamics. By implementing these
recommendations, stakeholders can collectively contribute to the enhancement of educational
finance practices and the overall effectiveness of educational institutions.
1. Strengthen Government Commitment to Education Finance

Given the significant positive influence of GRC on the EFPI, policymakers should prioritize
fostering a supportive and engaged governmental stance towards education. Strategic initiatives
that reinforce government commitment to educational development can yield substantive
enhancements in educational system performance. To achieve this, governments should allocate
adequate resources, formulate policies that prioritize education, and engage in long-term
planning to ensure sustained support for educational institutions.
2. Enhance Financial Resource Management Practices

Recognizing the noteworthy impact of FRM on EFPI, educational institutions should focus on
refining their financial resource management practices. Implementing efficient fiscal planning
and allocation strategies can lead to optimized learning environments, better infrastructure for
educators, and enriched educational experiences for students. Enhancing financial transparency,
accountability, and the strategic utilization of resources can contribute significantly to
improving educational finance performance.
3. Foster Effective Governance and Accountability Mechanisms

Given the pronounced positive association between GA and EFPI, educational entities should
prioritize the establishment and maintenance of strong governance frameworks. Clear lines
of authority, transparent decision-making processes, and effective oversight mechanisms
are pivotal in shaping the financial dynamics and overall efficacy of educational institutions.
Strengthening governance practices that promote openness, responsibility, and ethical conduct
can contribute to improved financial performance and educational outcomes.

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 4. Invest in Human Capital Development

The substantial positive effect of HCD on EFPI underscored the importance of investing in the
professional development and skill enhancement of educators. Educational institutions should
allocate resources for ongoing training, support, and continuous improvement initiatives for
teachers. A proficient and motivated teaching workforce can significantly enhance classroom
instruction, promote innovative pedagogical techniques, and ultimately contribute to the
advancement of the education system.
5. Tailor Strategies to Sector-Specific Dynamics

Considering the varied impacts of the Sector on EFPI, policymakers should adopt tailored
strategies that recognize sector-specific dynamics and contextual factors. Different educational
sectors may inherently exhibit unique strengths and challenges. Therefore, designing sector-
specific policies, resource allocations, and interventions can optimize financial outcomes and
overall education finance performance.

5. Conclusion
This study explored the multidimensional landscape of education finance, unravelling the
intricate interplay of various factors that collectively shape the EFPI. Through the application of
multiple regression analysis, the study illuminated the significant contributions of government
recognition and commitment, financial resource management, governance and accountability,
and human capital development, as well as control variables like education, sector, and position,
in driving variations in EFPI scores.

The findings underscored the pivotal role of government commitment in fostering an

environment conducive to educational excellence, the potential benefits of refined financial
resource management practices, and the crucial significance of well-structured governance
frameworks and mechanisms.

Moreover, the study highlighted the compelling impact of investing in human capital
development and tailoring strategies to sector-specific dynamics. As educational stakeholders
and policymakers navigate the complex landscape of education finance, these insights provide a
roadmap for informed decision-making, strategic interventions, and policies aimed at fostering
improved education finance performance and, by extension, advancing the overall quality and
effectiveness of educational institutions.

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 References
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 Conclusion
In conclusion, the above proceeding resulted from the conference that the Heritage Institute
for Policy Studies (HIPS) and the City University organized in Mogadishu under the theme
of “Reshaping Somalia’s Education for Development” in 2023. The forum provided the
opportunity for researchers, stakeholders and policymakers to discuss the state of Somalia’s
education. The primary objective of the Forum was to explore ways to reshape the education
system in Somalia for development. The forum brought together more than 400 participants
from federal member states, the federal government, civil society, education umbrellas and the
private sector.

Researchers presented fifteen policy papers at the conference. In the proceeding, eight of
the fifteen papers were selected for publication. We believe that the papers presented at the
conference proceeding have advanced our understanding of the Somali education system.
The proceeding examined topics such as education finance, gender disparities, instructional
methodologies, school leadership, special educational needs, and quality assurance in higher
education. Each chapter offers practical recommendations, and the implementation of these
measures will play a significant role in addressing critical issues within the country's education
system.

We invite readers to actively engage with all the chapters presented in this conference
proceeding. By perusing the entire document as a unified whole or delving into individual
chapters that correspond to their interests, the papers in this proceeding are useful for education
stakeholders. Each chapter offers distinct and self-contained analyses and recommendations.
We hope that the insights and recommendations outlined within these papers will assist
policymakers, educators, and stakeholders in implementing tangible measures aimed at
fostering a brighter educational future for Somalia.

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