CHAPTER I

FIRST AID MEASURES FOR SELECTED SITUATIONS

Several emergency situations that occur most often and some
details on the procedures and processes of first aiding are presented
below. It is very important that lectures on this part of the lesson
should be coupled with enough demonstrations and return demonstrations
by instructors and students respectively.
Characteristics of first aider:
1. Observant – notice all signs and symptoms of the illness
2. Resourceful – best use of things at hand
3. Gentle – not cause pain to the patient/victim
4. Tactful – not alarm the victim/patient
5. Sympathetic – should be comforting on the feelings and pain of
the victim/patient
6. Cheerful – should have a happy expression that inspires
confidence
Objectives of First Aid
1. To alleviate suffering
2. To prevent further injury, damage or danger
3. To prolong life
Importance of First Aid
1. To save life
2. To prevent permanent disability
3. To reduce prolonged hospitalization

1. Shock
Shock is a condition resulting from a depressed state of many vital
body functions. It can threaten life even though the injuries or
conditions that caused the depression may not otherwise be fatal. The
vital functions are depressed when there is a loss of a significant
amount of blood volume, a reduced blood flow, or an insufficient
supply of oxygen.

Causes of Shock
a. Significant loss of blood
b. Heart failure
c. Dehydration
d. Severe and painful blows to the body

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Signs and Symptoms of Shock
a. Sweaty but cool skin (cold and clammy)
b. Paleness of the skin
c. Restlessness or nervousness
d. Thirstiness and dry mouth
e. Fast and shallow breathing
f. Dilated pupils
g. Rapid pulse
h. Nausea or vomiting

First Aid Measures for Shock

a. Control bleeding
b. Replacement of fluids
c. Control the pain
d. Prevention from heat exposure
e. Loosen the clothing
f. Elevate the casualty's feet higher than the level of the heart
(Shock Position)
g. NPO (Nothing by mouth) to an unconscious patient
• Place the victim in shock position
• Keep the person warm and comfortable
• Turn the victim's head to one side if neck injury is not suspected

This photo
shows the three-step first aid management of shock

2. Drowning
Drowning is a type of asphyxia (inability to breathe)
related to either respiration of fluids or obstruction of the airway
caused by spasm of the larynx while the victim is in the water.

2
Drowning is a major cause of accidental death, occurring in swimming,
diving, and other water activities, usually in unsupervised water
areas. Drowning can also occur in the home pools, bathtubs, washtubs
and in shallow water.

First Aid Measures for Shock

a. Open the airway by tilting the head and lifting the chin.
b. Open the mouth and check for any obstructions.
c. If there are no obstructions, Look, Listen, and Feel for breathing
1. Look at the rise and fall of the chest.
2. Listen for breaths with your ear close to the nose and mouth
of the victim.
3. Feel with your cheek for air coming from the nose or mouth.
d. If the victim is breathing, place him or her in the
recovery position as shown in the photo above.
e. If the victim is not breathing, perform Cardiopulmonary
Resuscitation (CPR).

Recovery position
1. Bent arm gives stability
2. Supporting head
3. Head tilted well back
4. Bent leg props the body up and prevents the casualty rolling
forward

This photo shows the recovery position of nearly drowned victims

3. Wound is a break in the continuity of a tissue of the body, either

internal or external. Wounds are classified as open and closed. An
open wound is a break in the skin or in a mucous membrane. A closed
wound involves tissues without a break in the skin or a mucous
membrane.

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Types and Causes of Open Wounds

a. Abrasion wounds result from scraping the skin

and thereby damaging it. Bleeding in an abrasion
is usually limited to oozing of blood from
ruptured small veins and capillaries. However,
there is danger of contamination and infection in
abrasion wound because dirt and bacteria may
enter through the broken tissues.

b. Incised (Incision) wounds are cuts in body

tissues which are commonly caused by sharp-edged
objects such as knives, metal edges, broken
glass, or surgical blades.

c. Lacerated (Laceration) wounds are

jagged, irregular, or blunt breaks or
tears in the soft tissues. Bleeding may be
rapid or extensive. The destruction of
tissue is greater in lacerations than in
cuts.

d. Puncture wounds are produced by bullets

and sharp-pointed objects, such as pins,
nails, or needles. External bleeding is
usually minor, but the puncturing object
may penetrate deep into the body, damage
organs, and cause severe internal
bleeding.

e. Avulsion wounds involve the forcible

separation or tearing of tissue from the
victim's body. Avulsion are commonly
caused by animal bites and accidents
involving motor vehicles, heavy
machinery, guns, and explosives.

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First Aid for Open Wounds

a. Direct pressure. The first aider needs to

directly press his/her fingers or palm on the
wound with an adequate amount of force to
constrict the blood vessels and decrease
bleeding.
b. Elevation. The first aider may elevate the
injured part of the body above the heart.
This would allow gravity to act on the blood flow and prevent
bleeding.
c. Pressure on the supplying artery. The first aider may also directly
press the supplying artery that causes the excessive bleeding. This
will help avoid excessive loss
of blood.

d. Tourniquet. This is a device that functions to control the bleeding

from a vein or an artery. This can be done with the use of a rubber
tourniquet or a bandage
1. Place the tourniquet around the limb
between the wound and the heart. It should be
placed 2-4 inches above the injury site.
2. Do not cover the tourniquet; leave it
in full view.
3. Record the time of application.
4. Use padding in the application of
tourniquet to maintain intactness of the skin.
5. If the limb is missing, apply dressing to the stump.
6. Fluid replacement may be done by trained medical experts. This
may include giving of intravenous fluids like plasma volume expanders
or transfusing the whole blood.

e. Dressing, also called compressing, is an immediate protective cover

placed over a wound to assist in the control of hemorrhage, to absorb
blood and wound secretions, to prevent additional contaminations, and
to ease pain. Dressings to be used must be sterile.

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Uses of Dressing
1. To control bleeding
2. To cover wound and keep out dirt and bacteria which may cause
infection
3. To absorb excess fluid
4. To maintain temperature around the wound
5. To apply medication

Rules in Applying Dressing

1. Apply dressing directly over the wound.
2. Avoid contamination of the dressing.
3. Use the tail of a dressing as bandage whenever possible. 4. If the
dressing is secured by tying, place the knots where they are easy to
see. Never tie knots over the wound.
5. If dressing is applied, it should not be disturbed or replaced
unless hemorrhage recurs or dressing exposes the wound.

f. Bandaging is the skillful application of bandages of various kinds,

usually triangular or roller bandages. A bandage is a strip of woven
material used to hold a wound dressing or splint in place. It helps to
immobilize, support, or protect an injured part of the body.
Occasionally, large pieces of cloth are used as bandages, slings, and
binders. A bandage must be clean but it doesn't need to be sterile.

Dressing Vs. Bandage

Types and Causes of Closed Wounds

a. Petechiae are pinpoint- sized, red or

purple spots on the skin
resulting from small hemorrhages
of the capillaries (smallest blood

6
vessels) in the skin layer.

b. Contusions are injuries in which tiny blood vessels

beneath the skin are ruptured, but the skin itself is not broken.

c. Strain is an overstretching of
a muscle instead of an actual tearing.

d. Sprain is the partial or complete disruption in the continuity of a

muscular or ligamentous support of a joint.

First Aid for Closed Wounds

a. Cold Compress. Initially, an ice pack should be placed on the
injured area to reduce swelling and possible internal bleeding.
b. Immobilization. For sprains, refrain from moving or massaging the
joint to avoid further injury. Put bandage on the injured joint with a
splint to keep it immobilized.

4.
Fracture

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 Fracture is a break in the
continuity of the bone. Generally,
a fracture comes in two kinds: Open and Closed.
Signs and symptoms of fracture
1. Deformity.
2. Tenderness on the affected area.
3. Swelling.
4. Pain.
5. Presence of a protruding
bone (open fracture).
6. Inability to move the injured part.
7. Bleeding (open fracture).
8. Discoloration on the affected area.

First aid measures of fracture

1. Immobilize fracture by applying a splint
secured by a bandage.
2. Apply cold compress to reduce pain and
swelling. 3. Control bleeding and apply sterile
dressing to an open wound.
4. Apply the treatment for shock.
5. Give a pain reliever if pain is severe.
6. Avoid unnecessary holding of the injured part.
7. Place the patient on a stretch and secure the injured part enough
to keep it from moving while he is transported.
8. Bring the patient to the nearest medical facility as soon as
possible.

5. Burn
Burn occurs when a tissue is damaged as caused by excessive heat,
electricity, radioactivity, or chemicals that corrode the proteins in
the skin cells.

Degrees of Burn
a. 1st Degree involves only the epidermis; causes mild pain and
erythema (redness); no blisters; and skin functions remain intact.
b. 2nd Degree destroys the epidermis and part of the dermis; some skin

8
functions are lost. It causes redness, blister formation, edema and
severe pain.

c. 3rd Degree destroys the epidermis, dermis, and subcutaneous layer;

most skin functions are lost. This varies in appearance from marble-
white to mahogany to black. The burned area may be numb because the
pain sensory nerve endings located at the dermis are destroyed.

First Aid Treatment

a. Immerse or wash the area with cold water.

b. Do not break the blister in second degree burns.
c. Put banana leaves, foil or cellophane.
d. Apply burn ointment, such as petroleum jelly, if available.
e. In cases of third degree burns, take the burn victim to the nearest
medical facility as soon as possible.
f. Do not cover the burn with dressing made up of fibers that easily
break, such as cotton.

6. Heat Injury
Heat injury is an environmental injury when one is over
exposed to extreme heat or high temperature.

Types of Heat Injury

a. Heat Cramps happens when there is inadequate salt and electrolytes

in the body.
b. Heat Exhaustion is caused by a low amount of water in the body.
c. Heat Stroke is caused by failure of the body's cooling mechanism.

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First Aid Measures
a. Transfer the victim to a cool or shady area.
b. Loosen tight clothing.
c. Have the victim drink slowly at least one liter of water.
d. Apply cold compress or ice bath if available.
e. Elevate the victim's legs in a stroke position.
f. Monitor the victim until the symptoms lessen or disappear.
g. Seek a doctor's assistance if symptoms persist.
7. Poison
Poison refers to any solid, liquid or gas substance that tends to
impair health or cause death when introduced into the body or into the
skin surface.

Methods of Administration of Poison

a. Ingestion (by mouth)
b. Injection (skin or blood vessel)
c. Inhalation (breathed in)

First Aid Measure

a. Check for vital functioning (pulse and breathing) and administer
CPR if necessary.
b. If victim is convulsing, prevent further injury.
c. If poison is unknown, corrosive, or flammable, do not induce
vomiting nor activated charcoal.
d. If poison is known and not corrosive or flammable, induce vomiting
with Syrup of Ipecac followed by 4-5 glasses of water. Once the victim
has vomited, give
activated charcoal if available.
e. If the poison container is present but is unknown by the first
aider, immediately take the victim to the nearest medical facility,
show the container to the doctor, and allow the doctor to treat the
victim.

8. Snake Bites
Snake bites is an injury caused by a poisonous snake. Venom is a
poison injected into the victim's body through a bite of a snake.

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Types of Snakes
The two types of
snakes are generally
categorized as poisonous and
non-poisonous.

Characteristics of Poisonous
Snakes
a. Flat and almost triangular
or diamond-shaped head , b.
With fangs and poison sacks
c. Slit like pupils
d. With sensory pit
e. Fang mark on the bite site
f. Thick bodies
g. Color markings

Characteristics of Non-
poisonous Snakes
a. Oval-shaped head
b. No sensory pit
c. No fang mark on the bite site
d. Rounded pupils

Preventive Measures

a. Handle freshly killed venomous snakes only with a long tool or

stick. Snake can inflict fatal bites by reflex action even after
death.
b. Wear heavy boots and clothing for protection from snake bites
especially in a thick forest or grassy area.
c. Eliminate conditions under which snakes thrive: brush, piles of
trash, rocks or logs and dense undergrowth. Controlling their foods as
much as possible is also a good prevention.

First Aid Measures for Snake Bites

a. Identify the snake and determine if it is poisonous or
nonpoisonous.
b. Wash the area thoroughly with clean water.
c. Have the victim lie quietly and instruct him or her not to do any
unnecessary movements.

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d. Do not elevate the bitten extremity. Keep it at level with the
body.
e. Keep the victim comfortable and reassure him or her.
f. If the part bitten is an arm or leg, place a constricting
band about 1-2 finger breadths above and below the bite. If the bite
is on the hand or foot, place a single band above the flow of blood
near the skin but not tight enough to interfere with circulation.
g. If swelling extends beyond the band, move or place another bond
above the first one.
h. Never give the victim food, alcohol, stimulants, drugs, or tobacco.
i. Remove rings, watches or other jewelry from the affected area.
j. Bring the victim to the nearest medical facility as soon as
possible to administer anti-venom if necessary. When possible, bring
the snake that bit the victim.

Important Caution
For snake bites, do not attempt to cut or open the bite or suck
out the venom. The venom may enter any damaged or lacerated tissues in
your mouth and enter your circulation. The application of "Bato"
(Special rock) may be helpful to suck the venom, although medical
doctors disagree with this due to its possible harmful effects. Some
also say that the effect of that method is
only psychological and does not actually cure
the snake bite.

9. Dog Bites
Dog bites is an injury caused by a
dog. This type injury becomes fatal if the
dog that bit the victim is infected
with the rabies virus.

First Aid Measures for Dog Bites

a. Wipe the dog's saliva from the wound with a clean cloth. Do not be
in contact with the saliva because it may transmit the virus to you.
b. Wash the injury thoroughly with soap and clean water. c. Cover the
wound with a sterile dressing if available and do not put any
substance on the wound.
d. Transport the victim to the nearest medical facility as soon as
possible.
e. If the dog is caught, let a veterinarian (animal doctor) assess if
it has the rabies virus.

10. Allergic Reactions (Allergy)

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 Allergic reaction occurs when a person's immune system
reacts to normally harmless substances in the environment, known as
allergens).
Most Common Allergens

a. Insect stings
b. Certain food
c. Medications
d. Pollen, plants, or flowers
e. Dust and fibers

Signs and Symptoms of an Allergic Reaction

a. Hives (red, elevated, irregular-shaped

spots on the skin)
b. Itchiness
c. Nasal congestion
d. Rashes
e. Red, watery eyes (rhinitis)

First aid for an allergic reaction

a. Calm and reassure the person having the reaction, as anxiety can
make the symptoms worse.
b. Try to identify the allergen and have the person avoid further
contact with it.
c. If the allergic reaction is from a bee sting, scrape the sting off
the skin with something firm (such as a fingernail or plastic card).
Do not use tweezers since squeezing the stinger will release more
venom.
d. Apply cold compress to the rashes and/or hives and apply anti-itch
cream if available.
e. If rashes continue to develop, administer over-the- counter anti-
allergy medications such as diphenhydramine.
f. Observe the person for signs of anaphylactic shock.

11. Anaphylactic Shock (Anaphylaxis)

Anaphylactic shock is a sudden and severe allergic reaction that

occurs within minutes of exposure to the allergen. Immediate medical
attention is needed for this type of reaction because it can cause
death in less than half an hour if untreated.

Signs and Symptoms of Anaphylaxis

a. High-pitched breathing sounds (wheezing)
b. Chest tightness

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c. Cough or difficulty in breathing
d. Dizziness
e. Nausea or vomiting
f. Abdominal pain
g. Redness and swelling of the face
h. Hives and itchiness on different parts of the body
i. Unconsciousness

First Aid for Anaphylaxis

a. Seek medical attention immediately.
b. Calm and reassure the person having the reaction. c. Do not wait
for the reaction to worsen.
d. If the person has allergy medication on hand, help the person take
or inject the medication. Avoid oral medication if the person is
having difficulty in breathing.

12. Nose Bleeding (Epistaxis)

Nose bleeding is the relatively

common occurrence of hemorrhage from the nose,
usually noticed when the blood drains out through
the nostrils. There are two types: anterior (the
most common), and posterior (less common, more
likely to require medical attention).

Possible Causes of Nosebleeds

a. Infection
b. Trauma
c. Allergic rhinitis
d. Blood-thinning medications
e. Blood diseases such as hemophilia or anemia

First Aid for Nosebleeds

a. Pinch all the soft parts of the nose together between the thumb and
index finger, and press firmly against the bones of the face.
b. Lean forward slightly with the head tilted forward. Leaning back or
tilting the head back will cause the blood to flow into the throat and
can cause choking.
c. Hold the nose for at least five minutes. Repeat as necessary until
the nose has stopped bleeding.
d. Sit quietly, keeping the head higher than the level of the heart.
Do not lay flat or put your head between your legs.

14
e. Apply ice (wrapped in a towel) to nose and cheeks.

13. Hyperventilation
Hyperventilation is also known as over
breathing. It is breathing in excess of what
the body needs. The normal rate of breathing
is 16-20 breaths or cycles per minute. If the
respiration rate of a person is above that
range and the signs and symptoms are present,
the person may be suffering from
hyperventilation.

Signs and Symptoms of Hyperventilation

a. Chest pain or discomfort
b. Dizziness
c. Feeling of choking or suffocation
d. Anxiety
e. Fast breathing
f. Muscle spasm in the hands and/or feet g. Weakness
h. Palpitations or rapid pulse

First Aid for Hyperventilation

a. Remain calm. The first aider needs to calmly instruct the patient
to breathe deep, slowly, and normally. If the first aider panics, it
might cause more anxiety to the patient.
b. Instruct the patient to perform Deep Breathing Exercises (DBE) by
inhaling through the nose and slowly breathing out through the mouth
with pursed lips (like blowing a candle)
c. If the patient fails to follow the instructions, use a brown paper
bag to compensate the high amount of oxygen in the system. Cover the
patient's nose and mouth with the brown bag and allow him or her to
exhale and inhale inside the bag.
d. Position the patient sitting down with knees bent

15
towards the chest and with the head leaning forward and touching the
knees. This will promote circulation to the different parts of the
body.
e. If symptoms persist after several minutes, seek medical attention.
Use a brown paper bag if the patient is unable to follow instructions
for Deep Breathing Exercises

14. Choking (Airway

Obstruction)

Choking is the
blocking of the airway that
occurs when a foreign object
gets lodged in the
respiratory tract (throat or
windpipe). It may be partial
or complete.
To determine
whether the obstruction is,
partial or complete, ask the
patient if he or she is
choking. If he or she is
able to talk, then the
obstruction is only partial.
However, if the patient is
unable to talk, then the
obstruction is complete.

First aid for partial

obstruction
a. Calm the patient. Anxiety
may cause him or her to move
unnecessarily and it may
cause the foreign object to
move further into the
respiratory tract and cause
a complete obstruction.
b. Instruct the patient to forcefully cough out the foreign object. Do
not attempt to reach into the throat of the patient with your fingers
and swipe the foreign object. This may cause the object to be pushed
down into the windpipe.

c. If coughing is ineffective, assist the patient by delivering

16
several back blows between the shoulder blades with the heel of your
hand.
d. Observe for complete airway obstruction.

First aid for complete obstruction

a. Perform abdominal thrusts known as the Heimlich Maneuver, done in

the following manner:
1. Stand behind the person and wrap your arms around his or her
waist. Let the person lean slightly forward
2. Make a fist with one hand and grasp the fist with the other
hand.
3. Position the fist above the patient's belly button (navel).
4. Press hard into the abdomen with a quick, upward thrust
5. Repeat five times.
b. If the Heimlich Maneuver fails after 5 thrusts, apply five back
blows between the shoulder blades with the heel of your hand.
c. If the person is unconscious, call for medical help and perform CPR
to dislodge the obstruction..

15. Dizziness
Dizziness is a word that is used to describe two different
situations, such as:
a. Lightheadedness is a feeling that you are about to
lose consciousness or faint.
b. Vertigo is a feeling that you or your environment is
moving or spinning but there is no actual movement.

First Aid for Dizziness

a. Let the person sit or lie down. Lightheadedness is usually relieved

by lying down.
b. Avoid sudden changes in position.
c. Let the person drink fluids if there is no nausea or vomiting.
d. Call for medical assistance if dizziness is not relieved after
several minutes

16. Seizure
Seizure is the physical finding or change that occurs after an
episode of abnormal electrical activity in the brain. This term is
often used interchangeable with "Convulsions," which is described as
the rapid and uncontrollably shaking of the person's body, caused by

17
muscle contractions. There are different types of seizures. Some have
mild symptoms and no shaking symptoms.

Possible Signs and Symptoms of Seizures

a. Brief blackout followed by period of confusion b. Drooling or
frothing at the mouth
c. Abnormal eye movements
d. Loss of bowel or bladder control
e. Mood changes
f. Shaking of entire body or a part of the body
g. Sudden falling or loss of consciousness
h. Teeth clenching
i. Uncontrollable muscle spasms with twitching and jerking
j. Dizziness or weakness before the attack

First Aid for Seizures

a. When a seizure occurs, the main goal is to protect the person from
injury. Prevent the person from falling and lay the person down on a
safe area. Clear the area for objects that may cause injury.
b. Cushion or support the patient's head.
c. Loosen clothing, especially around the patient's neck. Remove
necklaces or sharp objects.
d. Turn the person on his or her sides to avoid airway obstruction.
e. Look for a medical bracelet since persons who experience seizures
usually have a medical condition such as epilepsy or brain injury.
f. Stay with the patient until the seizure episode is over. g. Seek
medical assistance if seizure persists. h. Do not restrain the patient
to avoid injury.
g. Seek medical assistance if seizure persists.
h. Do not restrain the patient to avoid injury.
i. Do not put anything inside the person's mouth.

CHAPTER II

FUNDAMENTALS OF BANDAGING

Rescuers and First aiders must be trained on bandaging techniques. The

most recommended type of bandage is the Triangular Bandage because it
can be used in many ways.

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Definition of Terms

1. Dressing is a sterile pad, a compressed material that is clean

directly apply to cover the wound.

2. Bandage is a strip of materials such as gauze used to protect,

immobilize, compress, or support a wound or injury body part.

3. Splint is a first aid device used for immobilization usually

made of wood.

4. Sling is a device used to support or immobilize an injured part

of the body

5. Triangular Bandage is a piece of cloth material that can be

utilized in an emergency, practically, it is the most readily
available since you can convert any clothing material into a
triangular bandage in the event of an emergency.

6. Roller/Elastic Bandage is a stretchable bandage used to create

localized pressure onto an injured part of the body. It may be
used to control bleeding or to immobilize the injured part.

7. Cravat is a basic first aid item that can be used as both a

bandage and a sling. It is also a folded triangular bandage.

Parts of a Triangular Bandage

1. Ends are the two end points of

the triangular bandage other than
the apex

2. Sides refer to the two sides

of the triangular bandage in
between the apex and the two
ends.

3. Apex refers to the opposite of base of a triangular bandage.

4. Base refers to the opposite of apex of a triangular bandage.

Phases of a Triangular Bandage

1. Open Phase. With a triangular bandage in open phase it can be

applied to the following parts or situations:

a. Head (topside)

19
b. Face; Back of the head

c. Chest; Back of the chest

d. Arm sling

e. Underarm sling

2. Cravat Phase. This includes narrow, semi-wide and wide cravat

phases of the triangular bandage depending on the affected body part
of the victim.

a. Forehead; eye

b. Ear, cheek, jaw

c. Shoulder, hip

d. Arm; leg . Elbow bent

f. Elbow straight

g. Knee bent

h. Knee straight

i. Palm pressure (vertical injury)

j.Palm bandage (horizontal injury)

k. Sprained ankle (shoe- on)

l. Sprained ankle (shoe-off)

m. Cravat sling

n. Male/Female organ bandage

To make Cravat

The dotted lines indicate

the width of the cravat
whether it is broad, semi
broad, or narrow.

20
Photographs of Bandaging Techniques

Arm Sling

Chest bandage

Open Palm/ Foot Bandage

Arm and legs

bandage

Forehead bandage

21
Ear, cheek, jaw bandage

Shoulder bandage

The photos show different kinds of bandage to tie splint, control bleeding
immobilize body
parts as a sling for arm
support.

These are different dressing for bandaging.

Splinting with the

use of wood and other
improvised
splints

22
Improvised transaction splint

Transaction splint with the use of stretcher and triangular bandages.

CHAPTER III

INTRODUCTION TO ARTIFICIAL RESPIRATION AND CARDIOPULMONARY

RESUSCITATION

23
Introduction
This chapter provides basic information on artificial respiration
and cardiopulmonary
resuscitation used in first aid and rescue operations.
Definition of Terms
1. Artificial Respiration (AR) is a procedure to manually pump or
blow air into the
lungs of a person when his or her normal or natural breathing is
inadequate or has ceased.
2. Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation (CPR) emergency procedure done
to continue the circulation of oxygen and blood inside a person's body
when cardiac and
respiratory functioning has stopped. This is an effort to preserve
brain functioning by allowing oxygen to circulate from the lungs to
the brain arteries.
3. Defibrillator is a machine used parallel with CPR that
delivers a measured amount of electric shock to restore an appropriate
rhythm for the heart's natural pacemaker.
An Automated External Defibrillator (AED) needs to be handled by
trained rescuers only.
4. Ventilation is an action by the first aider in the
administration of CPR that allows air to enter the lungs of the
patient, either by mouth to mouth delivery or by an artificial airway
(endotracheal tube).
5. Compression is an action by the first aider in the
administration of CPR wherein the hands and arms are used to manually
pump the heart of the victim in a definite rhythm to continue the
circulation of blood from the lungs to the heart to the brain, when
cardiac functioning has stopped.
Method of Conducting AR and CPR
1. Survey the scene. In every rescue, safety is the primary
consideration.
2. Introduce yourself to the public. You may introduce yourself
this way: "I am (name of first aider), a trained first aider and
rescuer, may I help?"
3. Tap the shoulder of the victim three times to assess for
responsiveness.
You may say "Hey sir, hey sir, are you okay? Hey sir, hey sir,
are you okay? Hey sir, hey sir, are you okay?" If the victim responds
in any way. such as groaning or talking, check for injuries and place
in recovery position if there are none.
4. Ask for help and activate medical assistance or EMS (Emergency
Medical Services). If the victim is unresponsive, the rescuer shall
request a specific person to call for an ambulance or a vehicle for
transportation, while the rescuer is doing the preliminary survey. If

24
the rescuer does not know anyone in the area, then ask a person nearby
to activate EMS. The person may be identified by the color of the
shirt or by asking his or her name. Rescuers may be guided with the
letters DCAPBTLS in the preliminary survey:
D- Deformity
C-Contusion
A-Abrasion
P-Puncture
B-Burn
T-Tenderness
L-Laceration
S - Swelling
5. Check for vital functioning. If the victim unresponsive, check
for the pulse and breathing about 5 seconds. Apply Look-Listen-Feel to
breathing and check the radial or carotid pulse of the victim to
assess circulation as shown in the picture.
Use the index and middle finger to assess the Radial pulse flefty
or the Carotid Pulse (right).
(Note: The Carotid Pulse is the last out of the 10 pulse sites to be
felt after cardiac arrest).
6. If breathing in negative but the pulse of the victim positive,
perform Artificial
Respiration (AR) by following this procedure:
● Remove any foreign objects inside the mouth present such as
dentures or retainers. If there are fluids in the mouth, turn the
patient sideways drain the fluid with gravity.
● Open airway using the Head Tilt-Chin Lift Method f the Jaw-
Thrust Method (if there in suspected spinal injury).
The Jaw Thrust Maneuver is done is cases of suspected spinal
injury to avoid injury to the brain stem and spinal cord.
● Pinch the nostrils with the thumb and index finger then place
your mouth over the victim's mouth. Blow air into the victim's airway,
making sure that no air escapes as you blow into the mouth, then watch
for the rising of the chest. If the chest does not rise, then check
the airway for any obstruction. If the chest rises, continue with AR
until the victim breathes in his or her own, or until medical
assistance arrives.
7. If breathing and pulse are negative, apply Cardio Pulmonary
Resuscitation (CPR)
● Shock first. if the rescuer is trained in using
Defibrillator and the machine is available, deliver one shock
then proceed with CPR.
● Put the victim in his or her back onto a flat, hard
surface or a cardiac board (if available).

25
 ● Spell CAB (C-Circulation; A-Airway; B-Breathing) Apply 30
compressions by following this procedure.
● Kneel next to the person's neck and shoulders.
● Place the heel of the dominant hand on the center of the
victim's chest, between the nipples (if male) or between the
breasts (if female)
● Place the non dominant hand over the dominant hand.
Interlace the fingers but make sure force is delivered unto the
heel of the hand not on the fingers.
● Keep elbows straight and position shoulders directly above
the hands.
● Use the force from the shoulders and arms to push straight
down on the chest for at least 2inches in depth. Push hard at a
rate of 100 compressions per minute.
Chest compressions are performed between the nipples
● After 30 compressions, deliver 2 ventilations following the
procedure for Artificial Respirations.
● Thirty (30) compressions with 2 ventilations is 1 CYCLE.
Perform 5 cycles then reassess vital functioning.
● If vital functioning returns, place victim in recovery position
(if there is no suspected spinal injury) and wait for medical
assistance.
● If vital functioning is absent, perform another 5 cycles until
medical assistance arrives
● Do not stop until the 5 cycles are completed. If another
rescuer is present, he or she may substitute and continue the cycles
if the first rescuer is exhausted. If medical assistance arrives
before the 5 cycles are done, inform the medic on the number of cycles
you have performed so that he or she will allow you finish before they
will take over.

CHAPTER IV

WATER SAFETY AND SURVIVAL

Introduction

26
 This part involves safety and survival involving aquatic
environments. Water safety depends on several factors, such as the
individual's ability to swim well enough to care for one's self in
ordinary conditions, the ability to recognize and avoid hazardous
water conditions and practices, and the ability to use rescue skills
for dangerous situations (Bustria, 2011).
Definition of Terms
1. Swimming is a form of exercise that involves stokes and movements
that allow a person to move on or under the surface of the water.
2. Water Safety refers to the knowledge and ability of an individual
about normal aquatic situations and how to avoid or manage dangerous
situations.
3. Drowning simply means the suffocation in the water.
4. Wave is a surge traveling on the surface of the water from small
ripples to huge ocean waves, usually causedby the wind.
5. Current is the flowing movement of a large volume ofwater.
6. Hazard is something with a potential to cause harm.
HOW TO SWIM
Swimming may appear scary if you've never learned how to do it,
but it's possible to learn it. Here's how to get started.
Steps:
Getting Comfortable in the Water
1. Let go of your fear. A lot of people put off learning how to swim
because they're afraid of drowning. While drownings do occur, most of
them could have been prevented with a few simple safety measures.
Follow these guidelines whenever you're swimming, and your odds of
drowning will decrease dramatically:
a. Never swim alone. Always go swimming with at least one person
who is a trained swimmer, if not several other people.
b. Don't start out swimming in moving water. If you're learning
to swim in an ocean or river, you'll need to be more aware of the
motion of the water. If you must learn to swim this way, try to make
sure you're with someone who knows what he or she is doing, and be
sure to read the step about getting out of a riptide or a rushing
river.
c. Stay within a depth you can handle. When you're first learning
how to swim, don't venture into water that's too deep for you to stand
in. That way, if something goes amiss, you can simply stand up and
breathe.
d. Never swim during inclement weather conditions. Swimming in a
light rain shower should be fine, but if you see and hear a storm
approaching, get out of the water immediately. This rule is to be
followed regardless of how well you can swim.
e. Don't swim in water that's too cold. Moving your limbs to
paddle can become suddenly difficult if you're in frigid water.

27
2. Get Used to Floating. When you're in the water, hold on to the side
of the pool or a dock, and let your legs they should lift easily if
you let float out behind you them. Practice doing this on your stomach
and on your back, until you're comfortable letting half of your body
float. Try floating on your back or your stomach as soon as you're
ready. Stay in a shallow depth so that you can simply stand up if it's
not working out. It might feel weird to have water around your ears
while your nose and mouth are in the air, but you'll get used to it.
For extra stability, put out your arms at a right angle so that your
body is in a "T" shape.
3. Don't Panic. Always remember that you have a fallback if you're in
an unmanageable depth or you simply can't floating on your back. Don't
flail move your limbs around or start breathing quickly if you can't
swim; simply lie back as flat as you can, and let the water carry you
while you regain your composure.
4. Practice Exhaling Underwater. While you're still in a shallow
depth, take a deep breath and put your face underwater. Slowly exhale
out your nose until you're out of breath, then come back up. If you're
uncomfortable exhaling through your nose, you can hold it closed or
wear a nose plug and exhale through your mouth.
5. Wear Goggles (Optional). Wearing goggles can help you feel more
comfortable opening your eyes underwater, and might allow you to see
more clearly. Find a pair with spongy circles around the eyes and dip
them in the water, so that they'll stick to your skin. Tighten the
strap around the back of your head so that the fit snugly
Beginning Strokes and Treading Water
1. Practice Kicking your Legs. Whether you're floating your back or
still holding on to the side of the pool, you can practice kicking.
(To see how far each kick c propel you, practice it using a kickboard.
This allow you to focus on your kicking technique without t about
keeping your head above water.)worrying
a. Try a flutter kick. Point your toes out like a ballerina keep
your legs mostly straight, and alternate legs as you make small kicks.
You should feel the mostflexion in your ankles.
b. Try a whip kick. Keep your legs held tightly together from
your hips to your knees, and from your knees to your ankles. Bend your
knees so that your shins come up to about a 90-degree angle, then
quickly bring your shins apart and move them in a circular motion,
keeping your thighs together the whole time (That is, trace half a
circle with each leg, moving your right leg to the right and your left
leg to the left) Bring your shins back together at the bottom of the
circle, and lift them up again to restart the kick.
c. Try an eggbeater kick. This kick is commonly used to tread
water, and stay in a vertical position with your head and shoulders
above water. Start with your knees bent and your legs slightly wider

28
than hip- width apart. Then "pedal" each leg as you would on a bike,
only they'll go in opposite directions: while one leg pedals
"forward," the other leg should pedal "backward." This one takes some
practice to get used to, but it's handy for "resting" when your feet
can't touch bottom.
2. Learn How to do a Crawl. Crawls are great strokes to learn as a
beginner, and they'll move you pretty quickly. Here's how to do them:
a. Try a Backstroke First. Float flat on your back, and do a
flutter kick with your legs. With your arms, do the "crawl" motion,
lifting one arm straight into the air and keeping it straight as it
re-enters the water next to your head. Once it's underwater, bend it
to bring it back to a straight position next to your side, and repeat.
Alternate arms as you swim, and try to keep your fingers together and
your hands as flat as possible.
b. Try a Frontstroke (also known as a Freestyle or American
crawl). Floating on your stomach, do a flutter kick with your legs and
use your arms to "crawl" forward. Bring one arm out of the water so
that it's "reaching" forward, then bring it back down and use your
cupped hand to "push" the water behind you. Alternate arms. To
breathe, turn your head to one side under the arm that's currently
crawling, lifting enough for you to take a breath. Take a breath under
the same arm each time, so that you're breathing once every two
strokes.
3. Tread Water. Treading water can help you catch your breath and keep
your head up without actually swimming. Do the eggbeater kick listed
above, and use your hands to keep your balance by "sculling" - keep
your forearms flat on the surface of the water, and imagine they're
butter knives spreading on a piece of toast. Move one arm in a
clockwise circle, and the other arm in a counterclockwise circle.
4. Use Your Arms to Come up from the Bottom. If you're below water and
would like to come up, use your arms to propel yourself. Put them
straight.up above your head, and quickly bring them down to your
sides. This should push you up a few feet. Repeat until you break the
surface.
Learning Advanced Techniques
1. Try Some More Advanced Strokes. Once you're more comfortable in the
water, you can start learning new strokes that will move you more
quickly or with less energy. Try these:
BUTTERFLY STROKE

29
SIDE STROKE

BREAST STROKE

SWIMMING LAPS
a. Butterfly Stroke If you swim competitively it is important to know
how to swim butterfly properly and also quickly. Although this article
provides some informational guidance, it is important to get a swim
coach. Although it's possible to self-teach butterfly, acknowledgeable
swim instructor is valuable.

Steps for Butterfly Stroke

1. Know your other swimming strokes first; Generally butterfly is
the last stroke to be introduced when training for competitive
swimming. It requires strength of body and endurance skills, which you

30
should have been building up before through other strokes before
attempting butterfly.

2. Get a Swim Coach. Although it's possible to self-teach

butterfly, a knowledgeable swim instructor is valuable.

3. Learn the Kick. The butterfly kick is the fundamental movement

of the butterfly. The legs will stay together in a "mermaid" or "body-
dolphin" kick in a fluid wavelike motion. It may be easiest to learn
this first wearing flippers, however a kickboard shouldn't be used as
this gives the body the wrong shape, and doesn't represent how the
body should be.

4. Learn sized kick when both your hands go into sense, but you
will make one medium- the water followed by a larger kick to liftyour
body up.

5. Now Your Arms into Action. When your head breaks the surface
proceed to moving the arms forward. Once you take your breath, tuck
your chin in so it touches above your chest. This will help your arms
lift a lot higher. You perform the arms by making a large circular
swooping motion, Your arms start at the back first and then brings
them together up out of the water, bringing them together directly in
front of you. When your hands reach the water surface once again,
continue making a keyhole-shaped motion with your hands.

6. Kick once underwater (a larger kick) before breathing and

extending arms out again.

7. Before you make the next arm stroke, complete a short kick.

8. In a competition, touch with two hands once you hit the wall,
and push off. Not doing a two hand touch will result in a
disqualification, so remember! Also, do an open turn. Touch with both
hands and lift one arm over your head and your other down through
simultaneously and make your body follow it. Then, both your arms will
meet and connect to push off the wall in a streamline position. This
is the fastest way to get off a wall.

B. Breast Stroke - The breaststroke can be a tricky stroke to master,

but once the steps are coordinated correctly it can be a very
leisurely way to swim.

Steps of Breast stroke

31
 a. Place yourself laterally in the water with y arms extended
straight in front of you and your legs at your back.

b. Push your arms apart so that they create a diagonal with your
body. Make sure your palms are facing out and your elbows are
straight.

c. Pull your elbows into the sides of your body, then bring your
hands together in front of your chest. Now simply push your hands
forward so they return to where they started. Do not make your arms go
wide open, but do not make a tiny circle either. Also, when both of
your hands get to your chest, shoot them out quickly side by side with
palms up.

d. While completing step 3, lift your head, neck, and upper chest
out of the water to breathe. Do not remove your hands from the water

e. Bending your knees, bring your feet towards your bottom. Make
a circular motion with your feet until they meet with your legs fully
extended once again. Complete this stepas fast as possible.

F. Glide but not too long. In competitions, DO NOT go over 1 or 2

seconds, as it will slow you down a lot.

g. Do not take 2 Strokes with 1 Breath. This WILL give you

automatic disqualification. If you want to take your breath every
other stroke, then you have to lift your head up and put it back down.
If you don't and just do 2 strokes without lifting up your head, you
will be disqualified, so make sure that you at least lift up your
head. Also, when you take a breath, do not look up. Instead, look down
at the water. With every stroke of your hands and arms, it will take
your head up automatically so don't move your head, as it will waste
your energy. When you are almost finished, touch the shore with both
hands at the same time, or else you will be disqualified.

c. Side Stroke. This is both a lifesaving stroke and lifetime used.

Sidestroke is a lifetime stroke as well. If you swim a rescue, the
scissors kick from sidestroke is being it efficiently, you can swim
for hours without too much fatigue. It can almost literally be used as
a recovery stroke if you swim it properly. On the other hand, swim it
poorly and it won't be much help.
Steps for a Sidestroke

1. Teach the Scissors Kick. You can start by teaching the kick on
the deck, then move to the pool wall. Teach the learning cues:

32
 "Heels up, Split, Squeeze, and Glide" (up, split, squeeze, and Make
sure to demonstrate the kick as well, and have your students recite
the cues as youglide).demonstrate When your student is ready to
progress to practicing the kick across the pool, use a kick board
or water barbell. Be sure to manipulate the legs through the proper
movement pattern.

2. Teach the Sidestroke Arms. Try using the old "Apple Tree"
analogy: "Pick an apple off the tree, put it in your other hand, drop
it in the basket." (repeat). Further explain the Sidestroke Arm Action
with these cues: "Pull, Push, and Glide," because it would be very
difficult to practice the arms without the legs while swimming. Teach
the timing next.

3. Teach the Timing of the Arms and Legs. In this step, put it
all together. Demonstrate the stroke first while having your students
use a choral responding technique. In other words, recite the timing
cues as they are demonstrated. The timing cues are: "Arms and Legs
Bend, Arms and Legs Straighten." Once the a general and have seen it
students have understanding of the new stroke-- get them back into the
water to start practicing it!

d. Swimming Laps - Swimming is an aerobic activity that works almost

every muscle in the body and provides cardiovascular exercise.
Learning to swim laps can help improve body strength and endurance. It
is an activity that nearly every age group and level of ability can
participate in, and swimming laps can be done indoors year round.
People who swim regularly have also reported mental benefits. It is
also safe, and injuries are rare due to its low impact nature. Keep in
shape by jumping in the pool.

1. Find a Place to Swim. A private pool backyard is not required.

Public pools at recreational or community centers, high- designated
lap swim or adult swim times. Pick a and health clubs. Many public in
the pool that is empty. Having a private lane reduce the chance of
becoming distracted by swimmers who are passing or splashing. If there
is busy, and sharing a lane is necessary, choolane with a swimmer who
appears to have swim laps at a similar pace.

2. Become Acclimated to the Water. Indoor pools & typically

heated and chlorinated. Splash some water onto arms, legs and face, or
jump into the pool bee doing swimming laps to eliminate shock to Get
comfortable with the environment.

33
 3. Begin Swimming, Using Controlled and Strokes. Lap swimming is
repetitive, and perfect the strokes will take practice and time. Begin
with stroke that feels comfortable and start swimming slowly. The
front crawl stroke is a stroke m swimmers start with. Place the body
face down in the water, and reach the left arm out in front, pulling
down into the water. Repeat with the right arm, a rotate the body from
side to side, bringing out of the water to breathe. Kick legs
continuously and breathe evenly. The backstroke is performed on the
back. Lift the left arm out of the water, over the head, and back into
the water, gliding it under the body. Repeat with the right arm. Kick
legs continuously.

4. Turn at the End of the Lane. When swimming the front crawl
stroke, touch the wall and push it off it to go to the other
direction, or perform a flip underwater and push off the wall. When
swimming the backstroke, turn after touching the wall.
5. Repeat Swimming laps back and forth, up and down the Pool. A lap is
considered 2 lengths of the pool. Continue swimming the same stroke or
use different strokes to swim laps. Keep a steady pace.

Try Diving. Dives can be a fun way to get into the water and
start a stroke. Start with a basic dive, and move on to more
complicated swan dive, back dive, and dive. Always make sure the water
is deep enough be 9 or 10 feet deep; if you're a tall person, make it
at before you dive. At a bare minimum, the water should least 11 or 12
feet.Being Prepared for Unlikely Situations

1. Know How to Get out of a Riptide. If you're swimming in the

ocean, you might get caught in a riptide. Knowing what to do can save
your life, so try to memorize these steps before you get into the
water.
a. Do not Panic. This is, by far, the most important step of all.
By flailing and panicking, you could actually keep yourself under the
water.
b. Swim Sideways. Do not try to swim directly to shore or
directly out further into the ocean. Instead, try to swim in a line
that's exactly parallel to the shoreline.
c. Swim in a stroke that Allows you to Breathe. Swim with the
strongest stroke you can do that also allows you plenty of room to
breathe. This might be a sidestroke, front crawl, or breaststroke.
d. Keep Swimming until you're out of the Riptide. You might have
to swim quite far before you're safely out of the riptide, but keep
going. You don't want to undo the good work you've done so far by
heading for shore at the wrong time.

34
 e. If Possible call out for Help. If you can, motion to the
lifeguard or yell "Help!" as soon as possible. However, don't do this
if it means sacrificing a breath or if you have to stop swimming -
it's better to keep yourself moving.

1. Know how to get out of a River Current. If you're Qcaught in a

river that's flowing too quickly or pushing you under, follow these
steps to get out:
a. Don't flail or panic. As with a riptide, panicking and
flailing your limbs can push you deeper into the water. Try to take
even breaths and remain calm.
b. Aim to swim diagonally toward the shoreline. Swimming toward
the shoreline at a 90-degree angle will force you to fight with the
current too much, and might cause you to become exhausted quickly.
Instead, plan to get to the shoreline at a diagonal angle that goes
with the current. B
c. Don't try to swim upstream. You'll spend too much energy for
not enough results. Only try to swim upstream if there's immediate
danger downstream, such as sharp rocks or a waterfall.

Basics of Swimming
1. Breathing is the process of taking air into the lungs and
pushing it out again. There are two types of breathing when swimming.
Surface Breathing is the normal kind of breathing where we inhale
through our nose and exhale through the nose or mouth. The second is
the swimmer inhales through the mouth and exhales: Reverse Breathing,
used in swimming whereby through the nose.
2. Floating. This refers to remaining at or above the also known
as the "dead man's float" where the normally or rest from swimming.
Survival Floating is surface of the water in order to continue
breathing or no leg movement, and staying afloat with natural swimmer
is lying face down on the water with minimal buoyancy.The swimmer
occasionally to breathe. should lift the head
3. Back Floating is lying face up on the water with minimal leg
and arm movement. Breathe naturally since the face above the water
surface.
4. Water Treading is where the swimmer is in the water with his
head above the water and the rest of his body is under. This is an
aspect of swimming that involves a swimmer staying in a vertical
position in the water while keeping his or her head above the surface.
This is basically any movement, such as kicks and hand movements that
allows the swimmer to remain afloat. The most common form of water
treading is generally referred to as the "egg beater," because the
circular movement of the legs resembles the motion of an egg beater.

35
 5. Water Safety. Since aquatic environments are not the natural
environments for people, safety precautions must be observed while
swimming:
a. Know about the area you are swimming in, especially if it
is in a natural setting such as a river, lake or sea. Know
whether there are hazards present such as currents or animals. Do
not swim if there are hazards present.
b. Do not swim alone. Always swim with a "buddy" or a
"group" preferably with someone who also knows about swimming and
water rescue.
c. Note the time and the temperature. If it is too hot or
too cold to swim, then do not attempt it.
d. Know your limits. If the currents or waves are too strong
even for a skilled swimmer, or if the water is too deep, do not
swim in that area.
e. Stay out of the water if you have any health problems.
It's better to be safe than sorry.
f. Perform diving only in appropriate depths to avoid
injury.
g. Do not attempt to rescue a near drowning person: you do
not know how to swim well. Call for help instead.

Hazards in the Aquatic Environment

For every type of environment, there are always relative hazards
for people. Since aquatic environment is not the natural environment
for humans, there are more hazards in environment than in others.
Even if one is already a trained swimmer, he or she may still
experience these dangers when the situation arises. Hazards may either
be personal such as cramps or panicking, or environmental such as
waves, currents and aquatic creatures.

Cramps
Cramps are sudden and involuntary contraction of a muscle
(usually affects muscles between two joints). Cramps are usually
caused by three things: dehydration or electrolyte loss, overexertion
of the muscle or and unnecessary tension.

Management of Cramps
1. Prevent muscle cramps by stretching the muscles to be used in
swimming, such as the arms and legs, before
going in the water.

2. Cramps may also be prevented by having a proper meal

and drink before swimming.

36
 3. When cramps occur while swimming, minimize the activity on the
affected muscle and get out of the water as soon as possible and
stretch the muscle until it relaxes.

4. If getting out of the water immediately is difficult, perform

survival floating and stretch the muscle until it relaxes, then
proceed to the task of getting out of the water.

5. If cramps persist, call for help. Continue performing survival

floating while waiting for rescue.

Exhaustion
Exhaustion occurs when the body's energy has run out and the
swimmer has lost the ability to move his or her body enough to
continue swimming. There are a lot of factors that may cause swimming
exhaustion, including lack of proper nutrition, stress, swimming
without conditioning the lungs and muscles. sleeplessness, and

Management of Exhaustion
1. If the swimmer is too tired to swim, he or she should simply
perform survival floating to recover some energy needed to swim back
to safety.
2. The swimmer should not panic since this will expend more
energy and he or she may lose consciousness. He or she should slowly
and steadily make his or her way back to safety.

Waves
Waves are ridges or swells on the surface of a body of water,
normally having a forward motion. They are unpredictable even in good
conditions, thus swimmers should take caution when entering water with
waves.

Management of Waves
1. The power of a wave is at its peak when it breaks in shallow water.
At this point, the water in front is sucked up into a wave form. The
swimmer should use this force and dive forward and under the wave. He
or she will simply rise up right behind the wave as it breaks.
2. Do not panic as this may lead to exhaustion and the waves will
overcome you.
3. Look for channels, which are the narrow and usually deeper areas
where waves aren't breaking, and where the incoming water has to
escape back out to sea. Do not swim against the channel.
4. Concentrate on breathing. Do not inhale huge amounts of air,
because you will find it harder to dive under the waves.

37
5. If these attempts fail, call for a needed help.

Marine Life
There are animals that consider water as their natural habitat. If a
person happens to disturb their natural habitat while swimming, they
will activate their defense mechanisms that may harm the swimmer. Sea
urchins, sting rays, and jellyfish each has its own defense mechanism
against possible dangers. The poisonous venom from a sea urchin or a
jellyfish, or the powerful electrical current from a sting ray, may
cause death for some persons. Sharks are a hazard if one swims in the
sea or ocean.

Management
1. Know the area. If there are sharks, sea urchins, jelly fish,
or sting rays, do not attempt to swim..
2. For a sea urchin sting, try to remove the spines with your
hand wrapped around a clean cloth. Neutralize the injury with vinegar
then soak in warm water. Monitor the area for a few days after the
injury. Seek medical help if the sting did not heal for the next few
days.
3. For jellyfish stings, the first things to do are not panic and
get out of the water immediately. Do not touch the affected area with
your hands. Wash the area with salt water to remove the remaining
tentacles. You may also scrape them off with an ID card. Deactivate
the stingers and the venom by applying vinegar, then baking soda
after. Ice may be applied to slow the circulation of the venom. Take
antihistamines in case of allergic reactions. Seek medical attention
if the victim is having trouble breathing or has other symptoms.
4. Seek medical attention immediately for sting rays of shark
attacks.
1. Assess the Situation.
a. Remain calm and plan the rescue.
b. Determine the position of the victim and note the safety
of that area for the rescuers. Do not attempt to rescue if the
area is dangerous even for skilled swimmers.
c. Call for assistance if available. If possible, the
rescuer should not attempt the rescue alone.
d. Call for medical experts in case the situation calls for
their aid.
e. Maintain crowd control. Non-swimmers should not attempt
to rescue the victim.
2. Follow the prescribed pattern of rescue: "Reach, Throw,
Row, Go."

Reach

38
Extend a long stable instrument that can be used to reach out to the
victim and pull him or her to safety. If he or she is within reach,
the rescuer may reach out with his or her hand and pull the victim to
safety, provided that the rescuer has a stable structure to anchor
himself or herself to Reach With a long stick, a scarf, clothes or
anything else. Crouch or lie down to avoid being pulled in.

Throw
If the victim is too far away to reach, the rescuer may throw a
Personal Floating Device (PFD) if available. If not, use anything that
will allow the victim to float or use another method of rescue.
A rope is best - you can then pull in the person. Otherwise throw
something that will float - a ball, a plastic bottle, a
lifebouy...this will keep the person afloat until help comes.

Row
If a boat (not necessarily a rowboat) is available, use that to
rescue the victim. It is done by extending the rowboat for the victim
to hold on. Use a boat if there is one nearby and if you can use it
safely. Do not try to pull the person on board in case they panic and
capsize the boat.

Go
This method could mean two things: go and swim towards the victim
with a floating device; or go and call for help. It is important to
note that a rescuer must be skilled in swimming before going to rescue
a drowning victim. If a rescuer is not a swimmer, a floating device
maybe used such as piece of wood, Styrofoam, aside from the
commercially available floaters.

Swimming Lessons
Common Swimming Lessons in the Philippines and other Countries
1. Parent and Infant is for ages 6-18 months. This class teaches
underwater acclimation while parents learn how to give their child a
positive experience in the water. Parent participation is required.
2. Parent and Toddler is for ages 18-36 months. Students continue
developing water acclimation and safety skills. Children will have fun
in the water while developing swimming readiness. Parent participation
is required.
3. Preschool I is for 3 to 5 year olds. This class will develop
comfort in the water, learn water entry, bubble blowing, floating,
kicking, underwater exploration and general water safety skills.
4. Preschool II Prerequisite: Able to completion requirements of
Preschool 1. This class is for 3 to 5 year olds who are very

39
comfortable in the demonstrate water will learn new skills such as
combined arm and leg action on front, treading with support and
general water safety skills.
5. Learn to Swim Levels 1-5. These classes are for children 6-15
years old. Children are and improve their level of skill. taught to
swim
6. Level 1 Introduction to Water Skills Must be age 6 be
comfortable away from parents. Objectives: To the first day of the
program in order to participate and support floating on front and
back, gliding, kicking, and alternating arm and leg action.
7. Level 2 -Fundamental Aquatic Skills Objectives:
Unsupported float, gliding, kicking on front and back without support,
combined arm action with kick on front and back, treading water
without support, personal safety and rescue skills.
8. Level 3 Stroke Development Objectives: Front crawl with
breathing to the side, coordinated back crawl, elementary backstroke,
scissor and dolphin kick, treading water skills, diving from the side
of the pool, and personal safety and rescue skills.
9. Level 4 -Stroke Improvement Objectives: Improve stroke
proficiency on front crawl, back crawl, butterfly, breast stroke,
elementary backstroke, sidestroke, surface diving, open turns, and
personal safety and rescue skills.
10. Level 5 Stroke Refinement Objectives: Refine front crawl,
back crawl, butterfly, breaststroke, elementary backstroke,
sidestroke, turns on front and back, long shallow dives and treading
water. Personal safety and rescue skills are also covered.
11. Level 6 - Swimming and Skill Proficiency Objectives: Refine
all strokes to increase efficiency, power, and smoothness over great
distances. Personal safety and rescue skills are also covered.
12. Beginning Adult Overcome fear of the water and learn basic
skills such as floating, gliding, kicking, rhythmic breathing, and
treading water.
13. Intermediate Adult Adults with no fear of water who possess
beginner swimming skills must be able to kick and breathe using a
kickboard for 25-yards without stopping. Students will learn front
crawl, back crawl,and develop comfort in deep water.

Floating in a Pool
Steps on How to Float in a Pool
1. Start in the shallow end of the pool.
2. Be with someone who can swim and who knows how to float already, as
he or she can help guide you and can get you out of difficulties if
you panic.
3. Slowly ease onto your back. Place your arms out to the side and
your legs straight out in front of you. You'll probably sink the first

40
tries but that's okay - you're in the shallow end. Keep trying. Try
the starfish float. Imagine yourself as a starfish and spread your
arms and legs out to make a star shape. This is a good float to try
and it soon becomes easier with practice.
4. Relax your muscles and point your toes.
5. Take a deep breath and relax.
6. Lift your head up or you will sink.
7. Try a front float.
8. Try a rescue float.
Tips in Floating
1. If not ready yet, let someone hold you..
2. Use a boogie board for starters.
Warning in Floating
To prevent the potential for drowning, always practice with someone.
Things You'll Need in Floating
1. Person that can swim
2. Swimsuit or swim shorts
3. Boogie board (optional)
4. Float pads (optional)
Swimming as a Requirement
1. Swimming for some schools is required for courses such as Bachelor
of Science in Criminology, Bachelor of Science in Hotel and Restaurant
Management, Bachelor of Science in Marine Engineering, and other
special courses that necessitates swimming due to the nature of the
job.
2. Swimming is also a part of screening process in the application for
Philippine National Police Special Action Force (PNP SAF). All
applicants are required to pass 15- 20 minutes free style floating and
30-45 meter free style swimming across a swimming pool.
3. Swimming is another requirement for trainees for Waterborne as part
of the Commando Training to become a SAF trooper.

CHAPTER V

EMERGENCY RESCUE TRANSFER

This part presents the emergency rescue techniques for different
situations in consideration of the injuries suffered by the victim.
The different methods of emergency rescue transfer are also discussed
in this chapter. Some pictures are provided for better understanding,
but demonstrations and return-demonstrations are imperative to
effectively learn the skills of emergency rescue transfer methods
Definition of Terms
1. Emergency Rescue is the rapid movement of victim/s from an unsafe
place to a safe place.

41
 2. Transfer refers to the moving of a victim from one place to
another after giving the first aid.
3. Dragging refers to the act of rescuer of cautiously pulling a
victim by the shoulders or feet on a smooth ground. This is
usually done if the rescuer is alone and is not strong enough to
carry the victim.

Indications for Emergency Rescue

1. Danger of fire or explosion

2. Danger of toxic gases or asphyxia due to lack of oxygen
3. Serious traffic hazards
4. Risk of drowning
5. Danger of electrocution
6. Danger of collapsing walls

Factors to be Considered in the Selection of Transfer Method

1. Nature and severity of the injury

2. Size and weight of the victim
3. Physical capabilities of the first aider
4. Number of personnel and equipment available
5. Nature of the evacuation route
6. Distance to be covered
7. Sex of the victim/s (last consideration)

Pointers to be Observed During Transfer

1. Victim’s airway must be kept open.

2. Prevent hemorrhage to avoid shock.
3. Victim should be safely maintained in the correct
position.
4. Regularly check the victim’s condition.
5. Supporting bandages and dressing should be effectively
applied.
6. The method of transfer is safe, comfortable and as speedy
as circumstances permit.
7. The patient’s body should be moved as one unit to avoid
injury at the joints and extremities.
8. The taller first aiders should stay at the head of the
victim.
9. First aiders must observe ergonomics in lifting and
moving the patient.

METHODS OF EMERGENCY RESCUE TRANSFER

42
A. One-man Carry Methods
1. Lover’s carry or Carry-in-arms is commonly used by any
person in carrying or transporting
another.

2. Fireman’s Carry is used when there is no injury at or there

is near the abdomen.

3. Pack Strap Carry is usually used to carry victim for a short

distance.

4. Piggy Back Carry is used to transport victims for longer

distances.

B. One-man Assist/Drag Methods

1. Assist to Walk is usually done to assist a person who cannot

walk by himself or herself due to injury or
illness.

43
2. Cloth Drag is used when cloth is available. The surface of
the ground should be smooth when
performing this drag to avoid
further injury to the victim.

3. Feet Drag is used when the

ground is smooth by fixing the hands and
dragging the victim by the feet.

4. Armpit/ Shoulder Drag is also used to drag a victim by the

armpits away from an unsafe
place.

5. Blanket Drag is used when the victim is lying on a blanket.

This is done by holding the ends of the
blanket and gently dragging the blanket
carrying the victim.

6. Fireman’s Drag is done in a building that

is burning and that the victims are
confirmed to be still inside. The
rescuer crawls at estimated one foot
on the floor and look for victims to
rescue. This is also used to avoid
smoke inhalation injuries while
rescuing during a fire.

7. Inclined Drag is used when

transporting a victim, especially
on stairways. Always remember to

44
 elevate the head of victim while walking to prevent him or her
from losing consciousness.

C. Two-man Assist/ Carry Methods

1. Four-hand Seat is used when the victim is conscious.

2. Hands as a Litter is applied when the victim is not

conscious.

3. Carry by Extremities is applied when injuries of victim are

at the body parts except the hands
and feet.

4. Assist to Walk with assistance is

applied when a person cannot walk alone,
especially for persons under the influence of liquor or drugs.

5. Chair Carry is a method of carrying the victim by letting

him or her sit on a strong chair and
letting at least two individuals carry the
chair with the victim on it.

45
6. Fireman’s Carry with Assistance is used when there are a lot
of victims who need immediate transfer from an unsafe to a safe
place.

D. Three-man Carry Methods

1. Hammock Carry is used to carry a victim who cannot be

carried by a single rescuer because of
heavy weight, nature of injury, and
nature of terrain. This method of
transporting a victim is ideal for wide
alleys

2. Bearers Alongside is usually used in narrow alleys. The

rescuers carry the victim along one
side of the victim. The victim is
clipped against the chests of the
rescuers to avoid falling and further
injury.

E. Improvised Stretcher Using Two Poles

Materials:
1. Blanket
2. Empty sacks

46
 3. Shirts or coats
4. Triangular bandages

F. Four/six/eight-man Carry can be done when the weight of the

victim/patient cannot be carried by 1-3 persons. The procedure
is the same with three-man carry.
G. Blanket Carry is different from the stretcher and that it
uses a blanket with poles. This is done by proper insertion of
blanket under the victim, testing the blanket and lifting.
H. Commercial Stretcher is a ready-made stretcher designed
for the purpose of carrying a victim/patient.
I. Ambulance/Rescue Van. Most ambulances are designed with
stretchers inside that can be folded to serve as a bed
for patients/victims. Others may also be used as rescue
vehicles for the purpose of transferring victims.
Initial Triage and Tagging
Triage and tagging are done to prioritize victims in a mass
disaster such as plane crash, vehicular accident, earthquake,
massive landslide, flood, fire and other natural or man-made
disasters. It also refers to the method of sorting patients into
categories of priority for care and transport based on the
severity of injuries and medical emergencies.

The S.T.A.R.T. System refers to Simple Triage And Rapid

Treatment. It is one method of triage that has been proven to be
effective.
Tagging of Victims/Patients
1. Red Tag (1st priority). The victim has a life threatening or
serious injury that needs immediate first aid and rescue.
2. Yellow Tag (2nd Priority). The victim has a less threatening
injury and care can be delayed within one hour.
3. Green Flag (3rd Priority). The victim can walk on his/her own;
rescue/assistance of victim maybe delayed.
4. Black Tag (4th Priority). No care is required. The victim is dead
or close to death. All victims tagged with black shall be the
last priority during rescue operations.

Specific Body Injuries

1. Blows to the eye. This may include chemical burns, or trauma

due to foreign objects.
2. Nosebleeds
3. Knocked-out teeth
4. Impaled by objects
5. Amputations

47
 6. Sucking chest wound
7. Abdominal injuries. This may include protruding organs.

CHAPTER VI

ESSENTIAL OF FIELD CRAFT SURVIVAL

Introduction:
This topic on filed craft Survival aims to provide advance
knowledge to all students WHO Intend to enter the law enforcement
service and other fields of work. A basic knowledge about this topic
is necessary to anyone .
Field craft is the basic military skill to operate stealthily
and the methods used to do so differ during day or night and depending
on weather terrain. These skills include camouflage, land and water
navigation understanding the different between concealment from view
and cover from small arms fire, using the terrain and it`s features to
mask ground movement, obstacle crossing, selecting good firing
positions, lying up positions, camping positions, effective
observation, camouflage penetration, countersurveillance, detecting
enemy-fire directionality and range , survival, evasion, and escape
Techniques. Good fieldcraft is important especially for the

48
effectiveness and survival of infantry soldiers, snipers, especial
forces, reconnaissance sabotage teams. Efficient field craft is only
possible by spending time, effort, and attention to memories
battlefield details, infiltration and scape routes, construction and
employment of hiding positions, enemy force doctrines and equipment.

Components of Filed crafts

1. Survival Skills a techniques a person may use in a dangerous
situation ( e.g natural disasters ) to save themselves or
others. These techniques are meant to provide basic necessities
for human life, water , food, shelter, habitat, the ability to
think straight, to signal for help, to navigate safely, to avoid
unpleasant interactions with animals and plants, and cure any
present injuries. Moreover , survivals skills are often basic
ideas and abilities that ancient human used for thousands of
year. Hiking, backpacking, horseback riding, fishing, hunting
and many other outdoor activities all require basic wilderness
survival skills to handle an emergency situation. Bush craft and
primitive living are most often self-implemented, but require
many of the same skills.

Survival is the act of living into a new state of things, but

adapted to an environment as a result of natural selection.

2. Camouflage is the use of any combination of materials,

coloration of illumination for concealment, either by making of
animals or object hard to see ( crypsis ) , or by disguising
them as something else ( mimesis ) . Examples include the
leopard`s spotted coat, the battledress of a modern soldier, and
the leaf-mimic katydid`s wings. A third approach, motion dazzle,
confuses the observer with a conspicuous pattern, making the
object visible but momentarily harder to locate. The majority of
camouflage methods aim for crypsis, often through a general
resemblance to the background, high contrast disruptive
coloration, eliminating shadow, and countershading . In the open
ocean, where there is no background, the principal methods of
camouflage are transparency, silvering, and countershading, while
the ability to produce light is among other thins used for
counter-illumination on the undersides of a cephalopods such as
squid. Some animals, such as chameleons and octopuses, are
capable of actively changing their skin pattern and colors,
whether for camouflage or for signaling.

Military Camouflage was spurred by their increasing range

and accuracy o firearms in the 19 th century. In particular

49
 the placement of the inaccurate musket with the rifle made
personal concealment in battle a survival skill in the 20th
century, military camouflage developed rapidly, especially
during the first World war. On land, artists such as Andre
Mare designed camouflage schemes and observation posts
disguised as trees. At sea, warships and troops carriers
were painted in dazzle patterns that were highly visible,
but designed to confuse enemy gunners as to the target`s
speed, range and heading. During and after the Second
World War, a variety of camouflage schemes were used for
aircraft and for ground vehicles in different theatres of
war. The use of radar in the Cold War period largely made
camouflage for fixed-wing military aircraft obsolete.

Non- Military Use of Camouflage includes making cell

telephone towels less obtrusive an helping hunters to
approach wary game animals . Patters derived from military
camouflage are frequently used in fashion clothing,
exploiting their strong designs and sometimes their
symbolism. Camouflage theme recur in modern art, are both
figuratively and literally science fiction and works of
literature.

3. Navigation. Is the field of study that focuses on the process of

monitoring and controlling the movement of a craft or vehicle
from one place to another . The field of navigation includes
four general categories; land navigation, marine navigation ,
aeronautic navigation, an space navigation. It is also the term
of art used for the specialized knowledge as applied by
navigators to perform navigation tasks . All navigational
techniques i
involves locating the navigator`s position compared to known
locations or patterns.

Navigation, in a broader sense, can also refer to any

skills or study that involves the termination of position and
direction. In the sense, navigation includes orienting and
pedestrian navigation.
4. Cover and Concealment. In military combat , the concept of cover
refers to anything which is capable of physically protecting an
individual from enemy fire. This differentiates it from the
similar concept of concealment, in that an object or area of
concealment only affords the benefits of stealth, not actual
protection from small arms fire or artillery fragments. An

50
 example of “cover vs. concealment” would be sandbags vs. tall
grass.

5. Obstacle (also called a Barrier or a stumbling block ) is an

object, thing, action or situation that causes an obstruction.
These are different types of obstacles, and these can physical,
economic, biopsychosocial, cultural, political, technological or
even military.
6. Observation is an activity of a living being, such as a human,
which is necessary in order to receive knowledge of the world or
about the environment through the senses, which often later
involves the recording of data through the use of scientific
instruments. The term my also refer to any data collected during
this activity.
7. Counter surveillance refers to measures undertaken to prevent
surveillance may include electronic methods such as bug sweeping,
the process of detecting surveillance devices, including covert
listening devices and visual surveillance . More often than not
counter surveillance will employ a set of actions
( countermeasures) that, when followed, reduce the risk of
surveillance. Cas the latter does not necessarily aim to prevent
or reduce surveillance.

8. Escapology is the practice of escaping from restraints or other

traps. Escapologists (also classified as escape artists) escape
from handcuffs, straits jackets, cages, coffins, steel boxed,
barrels, bags, burning buildings, fish-tanks and other
perils, often in combination.

Situations that Necessitate Survival

1. Air Crashes
2. Crash landings
3. Ship wrecks
4. Lost patrols
5. Units cut-off from main body

Psychological Conditions to Overcome

1. Fear of the Unknown

2. Fear of Discomfort
3. Fear of people
4. Fear of own weaknesses

Deciding Factors for Survival

51
 1. Determination to leave
2. Ability to make nature work

Survival Rules on Edibility

1. Anything that swims, flies, creeps and crawls are edible.

2. All four-legged animals are edible.
3. Anything that birds and monkeys eat are edible,
4. All eggs are edible.
5. All larvae are edible
6. Almost all sea leaves are edible
7. All reptiles are edible
8. All crustaceans and mollusk are edible.
9. Most fish you can catch in an open sea or sight of land are good
to eat.
10. Eels are good to eat.
11. All snakes except sea snake are edible.
12. Cook Animals right after killing, if possible.
13. Frog, turtles , lizards, alligators and crocodiles are
edible. Toads are not edible
14. Always remove entails ( Intestines) and sex glands before
cooking.

Common Medical Plants

1. Avocado . Fresh leave are used in treating diarrhea, boil 30

minutes. Take a glass 3 times a day.
2. Ampalaya . Leaves are used as antiseptic for wounds and cure for
malaria. Boiled seeds or stems are used for stomach trouble and
reducing constipation.
3. Atis. Leaves , barks, and unripe fruits are good for diarrhea.
It may be use for sprain but wrapping its Leaves.
4. Balingbing. This is used from gonorrhea . rub and squeeze in
opening of penis. Rub around penis.
5. Banaba. Leaves and bark are boiled for kidney trouble. It
increases urine flow.T
6. Garlic. The bulb is a cure for high blood or inflammation of the
stomach due to peptic ulcer
7. Guava. Leaves are used as a cure for diarrhea and antiseptic for
wounds.
8. Cacao. Boiled fruits are for kidney trouble,
9. Chico. The backs cures diarrhea
10. Duhat. The bark when boiled is good for diabetes, hemorrhage
and anemia.
11. Granada. The fruit and bark are used to cure hemorrhage.

52
 12. Gumamela. The flowers are good for boils.
13. Squash. The seeds when boiled are good for eradicating
parasites.
14. Calamansi. These are good for colds
15. Camias. These are used as treatment for gonorrhea
16. Kawayan. Its roots, leaves and shoots are good for curing
kidney troubles.
17. Kaimito. The bark or fruit are for diarrhea.
18. Radish. This helps cure peptic ulcer.
19. Jackfruits. The milky sap helps cure wounds.

Hunting grounds for survival

1.Along sea coast between high and low watermark

2.Areas between beaches and coral reefs
3.Marshes and mud flats
4.Best time in is early morning or dusk.
5. In travel, keep alert for animals signs such as tracks, trample
underbrush or droppings.
6. On narrow trials , watch for game crossing.
7. In hallow trees, smoke out by fire at the base of the tree.

CHAPTER VII

BASICS OF ROPEMANSHIP

Introduction
Rope has several uses. Rope is one of the most important resources of
a rescue team. Ropes can be used for rigging and a seat harness during
rescue. Ropes can also be used for heavy duty slings for haulage and
lifting.

Types of Rope
1. Static Rope. This is designed for situations where there will
be two people on the same rope, such as a victim and a litter tender.
This is also ideal for rigging, rappelling, rescue, climbing, caving
and other applications where only one person is going to be on the
rope at any given time.
2. Personal Escape Rope. This has been one of the fastest growing
segments of the fire/rescue industry.

53
 3. Dynamic Climbing Rope. This has been designed for heavy duty
and military uses. It has one of the most abrasion-resistant sheaths
in the industry.
4. Low Stretch Polyester Rope. This rope is designed for
situations where a low elongation is desired, such as high lines or
lowering and extractions.
5. Utility Rope. This is an inexpensive rope, generally used for
pulling down trees, etc. It is not for life safety applications.
6. Water Rescue Rope. This is designed specifically for Watations
where a victim is in the water. All water situue rope floats for easy
visibility to the victim and is the perfect choice for throw bags,
buoy retrieval and ferrying lines.

Main types of rope used in general rescue

1. Synthetic fiber rescue rope
2. Other synthetic fiber rope
3. Climbing tape
4. Natural fiber rope
5. Steel wire rope

Ropes
1. Synthetic fiber rescue rope 2. Other synthetic fiber rope
3. Climbing tape (tubular nylon tape)
4. Natural fiber rope
5. Steel wire rope

Slings
1. Steel wire rope
2. Superflex
3. Synthetic webbing
4. Polyester round slings
5. Polyester lain fiber rope
6. Chain rope

Personal Protective Equipment

1. Gloves
2. Eye Protection

Points for Inspection of a Synthetic Rope (check gloves for

contaminants prior to inspection)
1. Damage to filaments
2. Discoloration of filaments
3. Melting
4. White core filaments showing

54
5. Size uniformity
6. Abrasion
7. Stiffness
8. Elongation
9. Fusing of end
10. Contamination
11. Stiffened filaments
12. Changes in diameter

Main Requirements to Insure the Effectiveness of the Rope

1. Correct knots and fastenings
2. Correct size pulley sheaves
3. Use of clean running water
4. Use of storage racks
5. Clean storage area (or covering ropes outside)
6. Tag and report damaged ropes
7. Check whipping and heat fusing
8. Store away from sunlight
9. All ropes should be kept in a neutral environment

Uses of Climbing Tape

1. Suspension pulleys
2. Hinge
3. Harness
4. Slings
5. Attachments

Types and Uses of Non-rescue Fiber Ropes

1. Polyamide (Nylon)
2. Polyester (Terylene)
3. Polypropylene
4. Polyvinyl alcohol
5. Polyethylene
6. Polyaramid (Kevlar)

Packing and Storing

To demonstrate the packing and storing of various types of ropes,
chains and slings the trainee should typdertake exterior and twist
checks of natural fiber rope by checking the following:
1. Abrasions
2. Cuts
3. Soft spots
4. Decay or burns
5. Irregularities
6. Broken fibers

55
7. Powdering
8. Dry rot
9. Change in color
10. Odor

Areas of Inspection of Steel Wire Rope

1. Thimble and splice
2. Shape (wear gloves)
3. Don't run hands down the rope
4. Broken wires
5. Kinks
6. Tag and remove damaged ropes

Pack ropes for Storage and Transport

1. Coiling
2. Hanking
3. Chaining
4. Bagging

Common types of Slings

1. Steel wire rope single leg sling
2. Superflex high tensile plaited cable slings
3. Synthetic webbing slings
4. Polyester laid fiber rope slings
5. Chain slings

Inspection of a Range of Slings and Complete Inspection Records

1. Cleanliness
2. Measurement
3. Links
4. Components
5. Hooks
6. Tagging

Precautions to be Followed when Using Slings

1. Load check
2. Timber packing
3. Hooks moused
4. Angles
5. Hoisting safely 6. Keep slings off the ground
7. Avoidance of tip loading
8. Removal of twists
9. Reduction of shock loading by lifting/pulling slowly
10. Sling rating

56
When using Ropes, Remember the Following:
1. Always wear gloves to control loaded ropes or with steel wire
rope.
2. Make sure that gloves don't have contaminants (e.g. oil,
glass, brake fluid) on or in them, as they may damage the rope.
3. Static Nylon rescue rope as per AS should be clearly defined
as life rescue rope for rescue/suspension of persons.
4. Natural fiber rope still has an application in stabilizing and
securing loads.

Standard terms for rope and rope Management

1. Anchoring refers to a rope to a secured object.
2. Belaying is controlling a safety rope attached to personnel or
equipment as a backup in case primary system fails.
3. Bend is the act of tying a line to another line or to an
object.
4. Blight is a bend where the rope does not cross itself.
5. Breaking Force is the average ultimate breaking point of a
rope, expressed in kilograms (kg) or in kilo- Newtons (kN). This was
previously called the Breaking Strain or Mean Breaking Load.
6. Frapping is the binding together of a lashing between two
poles.
7. Hauling is the pulling of a rope.
8. Hitch is a closed loop of a rope. Tying the line to an object
by winding and crossing one turn so that one section of the rope bites
on the other without knotting the rope.
9. Kernmantel is a style of construction of synthetic fiber rope,
consisting of a core (kern) and a sheath (mantel).
10. Marrying is the twisting of the running end around the
standing part, in the same direction as the lay on the rope.
11. Mousing is the tying of a piece of cord or wire across the
jaws of a hook, to stop rope or sling from coming out of the hook.
12. Parceling is the wrapping of a section of rope to stop
chafing against an object.
13. Paying Out or Easing refers to the reduction of tension on a
rope so that it can pay out or slacken.
14. Reeving is threading a rope through pulley blocks.
15. Round Turn is one complete turn of a rope around a spar or
another rope.
16. Running End is the free, or working end, of a rope.
17. Safe Working Load is the maximum working load which should be
applied to a rope.
18. Standing Part is the part of the rope which can carry the
load or which is static.

57
 19. Whipping is the binding of the end of a rope with twine to
stop unlaying or fraying.

Synthetic Fiber Rescue Ropes

In compliance with Standards, rescue ropes are made of polyamide
(Nylon or Perlon) and are multifilament (continuous filament).

Construction
Synthetic fiber rescue ropes are of kern mantel construction. The name
comes from two German words:
1. Kern core
2. Mantel- sheath
Kern mantel construction consists of a kern, or core, of filaments
designed to carry the greater part of the load and is protected by a
mantel or sheath.

Characteristics of a Synthetic Fiber

1. Have a minimum diameter of 11mm
2. Be of static kernmantel construction
3. Have a minimum rated strength of 3000kg
4. Be 100% polyamide (nylon)
5. Be spin resistant
6. Be abrasion resistant
7. Have good handling and knotting properties
8. Have maximum 3% elongation at 80kg load
9. Have maximum 10% elongation at 375kg load
10. Have maximum 20% elongation at 3000kg load
11. Have contrasting core and sheath colors
12. Contain a core identification tape
Note: Only synthetic fiber rope should be used for life line rescue.
Ropes used in rescue system should be of the same type to stop unequal
rope stretch and load reactions.

Inspecting synthetic rope

You should inspect the rope before, during and after each operation.
Always inspect the rope by carefully looking at it and feeling it. If
a synthetic rope is used properly and cared for it can be safely used
for a long time.

Checking the Rope

Inspect the rope in 300mm lengths and look for the following signs:
1. Damage to the filaments. Look for any excessive wear, cuts, tears,
abrasion.
2. Discoloration of the filaments. Any changes may mean chemical
contamination.

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3. Melting. A smooth areas may mean damages by heat fusion or chemical
reaction.
4. White filaments. Core filaments may show through if the sheath has
been damaged
5. Size uniformity. Change in shape and diameter may mean damage by
mechanical impacts or over-stressing
6. Abrasion. In severe cases this may mean the breaking of sheath
bundle and weakness in some parts of the rope.
7. Stiffness. A bight of a rope should have the same radius around the
bend. Any differences may mean damage to the core of the rope. Some
signs of this are hardening of the fibers or soft spots in the rope.
8. Elongation. Cross section of rope appears reduced if the rope is
over-stretched.
9. Fusing of end. Open end should be heat fused to stop fraying
10. Contamination. No dirt, oil or other materials should
be present.
11. Stiffened filaments. There shall be no possible overloading or
contamination
12. Changes in diameter. A decrease may mean damage to the core, while
an increase may be due to severe twisting of the core or core
filaments protruding through the sheath. Bulges, may mean internal
damage to fibers

Advantages of Synthetic Fiber Rescue Ropes

1. It is very strong and flexible.
2. It is easy to knot and handle.
3. It does not spin or twist easily.
4. It has very high melting point.
5. It resists normal abrasion

Disadvantages of Synthetic Fiber Rescue Ropes

1. It does not absorb shock loads.
2: It is easily damaged by acids and contaminants.
3. It may lose up to 15% of its strength when wet.

Breaking force and safe working load

All manufactured ropes are tested to a breaking force (FB), which
should be clearly displayed on the end plates of the rope drum or on
an attached rope identification label. The table below lists the safe
working loads (SWL) for the most commonly used synthetic fiber rescue
ropes.

Maintenance of Rope
Do's of Maintaining Rope
1. Always use correct knots and fastenings of ropes. Sharp

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bends or knots can damage the rope.
2. Use correct size sheaves in pulleys. Use cordage pulleys for
cordage and steel wire rope pulleys for steel wire rope.
3. Clean ropes with clear clean running water.
4. Store all ropes under cover and off the ground, preferably on
storage racks.
5. Keep storage area free of rodents and other vermin, and
contaminating materials such as acid, alkali, solvents, etc.
6. Cover ropes that are temporarily store in open areas.
7. Tag and report damaged rope.
8. Inspect the quality of whipping on laid rope and heat fusing
on synthetic ropes.
9. Ensure that synthetic and natural fiber ropes are not left in
the sunlight for a prolonged period.

Don’t’s of Maintaining Rope

1. Cut a rope unless you have to. If you do cut it, the end
should be whipped (if laid rope) straight away to stop fraying. As a
temporary measure, a figure 8 (for splice) can be tied near the end of
the rope or adhesive tape used. Steel wire rope can be temporarily
whipped with wire.
2. Leave knots permanently tied in the rope as this reduces
strength by seriously damaging the fibers.
3. Drag ropes over rough or sharp surfaces.
4. Shock load and/or overload ropes or slings.
5. Step on the rope as this will damage the rope by leaving grit
and dirt on the fibers.
6. Load a rope over a sharp edge. If you have to, pad the edge to
protect the rope.
7. Dry ropes in front of a heat source. Hang them and allow them
to dry in a shaded area with air circulation.

Climbing Tape
Climbing tape is most commonly made from polyamide. There are two
types of climbing tape: flat and tubular.
Although both tapes look flat, the tubular tape, if viewed in a
cross section, forms a hollow tube. Standard tubular tape is the
stronger and more flexible of the two.
Tubular tape, or webbing, is one of the most versatile materials
available. This tape is ideal for anchorage and attachment purposes
and is used in the form of tied or commercially sewn tape slings.

Uses of Climbing Tape

1. Suspension of pulleys from derricks
2. The "hinge" in a ladder hinge

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3. Anchorage tasks such as anchorage of a lowering device
4. Improvised harnesses
5. Casualty slings
6. Other attachments
Under certain circumstances, tape wears more rapidly than rope, and it
has no sheath for protection. Therefore, you must pay extra attention
to wear or friction areas. If you are unsure if a tape is safe,
discard it.

Size
Climbing tape is sized by flat width, with 25mm and 50mm being the
commonly used. Smaller sizes may be 50rd for some very specialized
techniques, but are not suitable or safe for general rescue work. Tape
is normally tied off into slings with circumference of 1200mm,
referred to as "single" and "double" slings.

Strength
The tape has rated breaking strain between 1250 and 3000 kg. For
rescue operations, only tape with a minimum rated strength of 1500kg
should be used.
When tape is tied or sewn into a sling, its theoretical strength is
twice that of the tape used. However, its actual strength is
approximately 2/3 of the doubled material rated strength.
Team equipment should include variety of different sized slings so
that the most suitable can be used to minimize knotting (which reduces
the strength of the sling).
Large slings can be made by joining one or more tapes with screw gate
karabiner, or, preferably, by untying the slings and joining them into
a large sling with tape knots.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Climbing Tape

Advantages
1. It is very strong and flexible.
2. It is not easily damaged when used on a knot.
3. It has a smooth anchor or attachment.
4. It is usable for a wide range of tasks.

Disadvantages
1. It is relatively susceptible to abrasions.
2. It can only be safely joined by a tape
3. It does not absorb shock loading.
Note: Tape should never be sewn into slings except by a proper factory
machine (not a standard heavy duty sewing machine). The only safe knot
for joining tape is the tape knot (or overhand bend).

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Care and Maintenance
Climbing tape must be inspected, cared for, and recorded in the same
way as synthetic fiber rescue rope.

Precautions in Operations
1. Many rescuers carry spare slings around their necks when on a
task. This is dangerous. Slings should be carried on the harness, or
diagonally around the neck and under one arm.
2. Knots must be regularly checked for signs of over strain or
loosening, and properly retied or cut when necessary, with a minimum
tail of 100mm.
3. All tapes must be regularly and carefully inspected for signs
of damage or an abrasion. When a damage is suspected or there is
serious abrasion, the tape must not be used. When a sling has been
used to carry a very heavy load, it may be seriously damaged but the
damage may not be easy to see. These slings must be destroyed.
4. Tape should be treated with the same care as that of a rope.
It should be protected from abrasion, contamination, friction heat and
shock loading. Likewise, it must be inspected before, during and after
every use.
5. All other safety requirements that apply to synthetic rope
also apply to a tape.
Note: Home-sewn slings are totally unsafe and have no place in the
rescue environment.

Other Synthetic Fiber Ropes

While not complying with Standard for static life rescue lines,
ropes made from a range of other fibers may have some operational
applications. When used, such ropes should be tagged to identify safe
working and breaking force.

Materials and Construction

Non-rescue synthetic fiber ropes are most commonly used in braid or
laid construction and may be made from:
1. Polyamide (Nylon)
2. Polyester (Terylene)
3. Polypropylene
4. Polyvinyl alcohol
5. Polyethylene
6. Polyaramid (Kevlar)

Rated strength and safe working load

If you cannot positively identify the rated breaking force (and
thereby SWL) of a non-rescue synthetic fiber rope, treat it as if it

62
is a natural fiber rope and square the diameter to determine the
working SWL.

Care and Maintenance, Storage and Handling

Natural Fiber Ropes

Manila and sisal are the two most commonly used materials in the
manufacture of natural fiber ropes. New sisal fibers are white in
color while manila is light brown. Both manila and sisal fibers are
similar in weight and they both can carry similar working loads. In
recent years however, manila has been preferred to sisal because:
1. Manila fiber is softer while sisal is harsher and therefore it
makes a rope stiffer.
2. Manila absorbs less moisture than a sisal.
3. Manila does not deteriorate as quickly as a sisal.

Construction
Most natural fiber ropes are made by twisting a number of fibers into
yarns. The yarns are then twisted to make strands (generally three)
which are laid together to make the finished rope. The number of
fibers in the yarns determines the size of the rope.
This rope is called plain or hawser laid rope. These types of ropes
are commonly available.
Note: Natural fiber ropes are utility or salvage ropes. If used
for rescue, it should have a minimum of 16mm.

Inspection of Natural Fiber Rope

Check exterior for:
1. Broken fibers abrasions and cuts
2. Soft spots a sure sign of wear
3. Decay or burns heat or chemical
4. Any other deformation or irregularity

Check Interior for:

1. Broken fibers, dry rot or mildew
2. Powdering
indicating internal damage
overloading
3. Change in color, and odor indicating mildew or rot
Note: A damaged rope should be labeled and placed apart from good
ropes until it can be examined by a responsible person. Regular
inspection is necessary.

Steel Wire Rope

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 Steel wire rope has many rescue applications including heavy
haulage, lifting and structural demolition. The most commonly used
steel wire ropes are those fitted to vehicle and hand operated
winches.

Construction
Steel wire rope consists of a number of strands with a fiber core.
Each strand consists of a number of steel wires and with a fiber core.
During manufacture, wires and strands are either coated with lubricant
to prevent corrosion and friction in the rope, or they are galvanized.

Precautions in Operations
As a general rule, the smallest diameter around which an SWR should be
bent, should be approximately 10 times the diameter of the rope.
Anything less may damage the rope.

Inspection of a Steel Wire

1. Check the thimble and splice. The splicing cannot be seen as
it is covered by the wire binding or serving, but if the binding is
loose or shows signs of bulging, it is likely that the splice is
starting to come undone.
2. Work along the rope, a hands breadth at a time, checking that
it is reasonably round. For example, it has not been flattened in use
or suffered distortion which causes the wires to open and weaken the
rope.
3. Look for broken wires. A broken wire must be checked
immediately, as it can lead to serious accidents and will certainly
cause damage to other wires.
4. Look for kinka which weaken the rope. A kink is beat seen when
the rope is lying slack on the ground. Damaged rope should be labeled
and placed apart from good ropes until it can be examined by a
responsible person. Regular inspection for the presence of corrosion
is necessary.

Storage
Wire ropes should be stored under cover in a clean dry place and
no part of the rope should touch the ground.
Most common forms of packaging ropes for storage and transportation

1. Coiling. Ropes of up to 50mm can be rapidly coiled and

finished off with a frapping turns. It should be noted that coiling
will severely kink a rope and that hanking is preferred to coiling at
all times.
2. Hanking is effective for ropes up to 50mm and is quite
effective with doubled ropes. Follow this procedure in hanking. First,

64
grasp the rope about 2m from one end and at full arm span distance.
Second, form bights in the rope and lay them on alternate sides of
your hand. Continue until 4m from the other end. Third, frap the next
2m around the bundle of rope just beneath your hand working up towards
your hand. Fourth, with the remaining 2m, push a bight through the
hole where your hand was (between the frapping and the doubled rope
bight). Fifth, invert it over the top of the hank and pull tight.

The following steps are an alternative method for hanking a rope:

a. Half or quarter a length of rope.
b. Hold the (1/2-1/4) loop in your left hand, pass the rope
around your neck and over your right shoulder.
c. Straighten your left arm and turn your left hand palm
down with the loop still in place.
d. Take the running end in your right hand, pass
diagonally across your body and around your left
hand (from left to right or from outside to inside).
e. Pass the rope straight up around your neck and down on
the diagonal around your hand.
f. Continue back up on the straight around your neck and
down on the diagonal until near the end of the rope.
g. Remove your left hand and lean forward.
h. Lift coiled loops around your neck.
i. With the running end wrap around the both loops, feed
back through the eye of the rope.
3. Chaining is ideal for making up long lengths of rope. It is
easier for storage and transport. The rope is divided into four. This
method does not twist the rope, and the rope is quick to undo. This
method is useful when washing ropes in a washing machine.
4. Bagging is the preferred method of storage and carriage for
all ropes and particularly for long length ropes. In this technique,
the rope is simply stuffed meter into a backpack or special rope sack.
This is particularly suited to long lengths and when taken out of the
storage, the rope does not twist or knot. Both ends should be kept at
the top of the sack or bag. Both rope ends should be tied loosely with
figure of 8 knots. This way the rope end can be anchored for safety
before the rope can be used.

Slings
Most modern slings are of the single leg type, with a hook at one
end and a ring at the other, or an eye at either end. In all reputable
brands, the SWL is clearly marked on an information tag which will
also show safe usage and
Standards compliance. Always read these information before undertaking
any slinging

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.
Types of Slings
1. Steel wire rope single leg sling with swaged eyes at each end or
with a hook at one end and a ring or eye at the other.
2. Super flex high tensile plaited cable slings.
3. Synthetic webbing slings of single leg or round sling
design
4. Polyester round slings with fiber core and braided sheath.
5. Polyester laid fiber rope slings.
6. Chain slings of various grades.

Inspection of Slings
Rescue slings must be inspected regularly and after each use.
Inspection records must be properly kept and maintained. When a sling
is damaged, it must immediately be retired or disposed of.

Inspection Procedure
1. Clean the sling prior to inspection. Dirt may hide damage.
2. Measure each leg of the sling assembly to make sure that the
length corresponds with the length stamped on the sling ID tag. An
increase in length of more than 3% indicates possible overload damage
to a sling.
3. Check each link of a chain sling for excessive wear, twisted
or bent links, cuts, nicks, or gouges, and stretched links. If wear
exceeds 15% of the original diameter of the link, the chain should be
retired. A 5% stretch on any link should be the maximum allowable.
4. Inspect the master links, couplers, load pins, Insickles,
swaging and thimbled eyes for wear or damage. If wear on any of these
components exceeded 15% of the original materials, retire the sling.
5. Check all stitching or splicing for signs of overload or
damage.
6. If hooks have been stretched out more than 15% of their
original opening width, or twisted more than 10 degrees from normal,
they should be retired.
7. Attach a "danger-do not use" tag to any sling to be retired or
repaired immediately.

Precautions in Operations
When using slings certain general rules and precautions should be
followed to ensure safety. These include the following:
1. The size and material, and therefore SWL of the sling must be
based on the weight and shape of the load.
2. Timber packing must be put between the sling and the edges of
the load to prevent the sling coming into contact with sharp edges.

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 3. Hooks must be moused, preferably with factory fitted automatic
mouses.
4. Wire ropes or chain slings must not be bent around too sharp
an angle. Packing may be necessary to prevent this.
5. Be careful when hoisting, and particularly avoid shock lifting
or snatching loads.
6. Do not drag slings along the floor or ground. Timber locks
should always be placed to receive a lowered load as this allows the
sling to be removed easily. Never pull sling from under a load.
7. If the number of legs in the sling assembly is increased, the
SWL is only increased when all legs are in the vertical position.
8. When rigging with tow leg slings, or rigging tow slings from
anchor points to support a load, the angle formed by the legs must not
be more than 120 degrees and should preferably be less than 90
degrees. The greater the angle, the higher the lading on each leg.
9. Slings must never be shortened by knotting, as this will cause
excessive bending stresses and may result in damage or failure
10. Avoid tip loading of hooks. Open hooks are designed to
support the load in the bowl of the hook. Be sure the hook engages
freely at the lifting or pulling point so that the weight or force
acts along the designated line of force in the bowl of the hook.
11. Always remove twists from slings before preparing to pull or
lift.

Reasons for the Breakage of Sling

1. The sling is too light for the force applied.
2. There is sudden application of a load which, except for the
shock of sudden application, the sling would normally be able to
handle.
3. Always lift or pull slowly to reduce shock loading. Use slings
of the correct type, size and rating.

Flexible Steel Wire Rope Slings

Flexible steel wire rope slings are designed with eyes or loops
at each end with a metal plate inserted by the manufacturer conforming
to shape of each eyelet. The sling calculations of SWL for steel wire
rope still apply, as do the general precautions previously detailed.

Using Steel Wire Rope Slings Safely

The method of slinging any given object will vary according to
circumstances but certain general rules and precautions must still be
observed to ensure safe operation.
1. Make sure the size and SWL of the sling can carry the load.
2. Insert timber packaging between the sling and the edges of the
load to prevent the sling coming into contact with sharp objects.

67
 3. Do not shock load the sling. Use gradual application of
resistance as anything greater may damage the sling.
4. Ensure that there is no twist in the sling and the load is
taken in the bowl of the hook.
5. Do not attempt to shorten slings by tying knots in them.

Chain Slings
Chain slings are the single link type (mostly used for rescue
purposes) with a hook at one end and ring or eye at the other. On all
reputable brands, the safe working load is stamped on a tag connected
to the ring end of the chain. Refer to this tag before any slinging
operation.

Inspection of Chain Slings

Rescue chain slings must be inspected regularly and after each
operational use. Chain slings found to be defective must be
immediately withdrawn from service and the record of inspections must
be properly maintained.
Recommended procedures for performing an inspection
1. Clean the sling prior to inspection. Dirty chains will hide
defects that may be obvious or a clean chain
2. Each leg of the sling assembly should be measured to make sure
that the length corresponds with the length stamped on the sling ID
tag. An increase in length of more than 3% indicates possible overload
damaged to the chain.

Check each chain link for:

1. Excessive wear
2. Twisted or bent links
3. Cuts, nicks or gouges
4. Stretched links

If wear exceeds 15% of the original diameter of the link, the chain
should be removed from service. A 5% stretch on any link should be the
maximum allowable.
1. Inspect the master links, couplers and load pins for wear or
damage. If wear on any of these components exceeds 15% of the original
materials, remove the sling from service
2. If hooks have been stretched out more than 15% of their
original opening width, or twisted more than 10 degrees from plane,
they should be removed from service.
3. Attach a danger-do not use tag to any sling taken out of
service, and repair or destroy the sling as soon as possible.

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69