50 " té ik Animal Benaviour C nanrer Syllabus Syllabus 2012-13 Chapter 3: Kinds of behavi Syllabus 2018-19 Be ur and its types _ KINDS OF BEHAVIORS de s divided into two main types, innate behaviour and learned behavioll (A) Innate Behaviour The collection of responses predetermined by the inheritance of speci cytoplasmic pathways (unicellular) in organisms is called innate beh: nisms have built-in-pathways. So a given stimulus produces the same res behaviour patterns develops and refines over many selected genet n of this behaviour depends on the survival of the species. Such beh higher centre of the nervous system. Therefore, it produces e nerve pathways within multicellular organisms. Types of innate behaviour (a) Orientation This type of behaviour concerns with the day to day movements of an Orientation has two types: (i). Kineses: It is a behaviour in which an organism changes the speed of movements which help them to survive in an environment. Fora 3» Kinds of Behaviors pchaviour enables the pillpugs to reach the moist area, Moist area is necessary for heir life. Taxes: The directed movement of an organism is called taxis. It may be positive taxis Or Negative taxis. b) Reflexes and instincts re extremely complex behaviour. It includes biological rhythms, territorial courtship mating, aggression, altruism social hierarchies and social gl = a Xs call Fig: Courtship display in birds B) Learning Behaviour change of behaviour by life experiences is called learning. Thorpe defines carning in following words: the process which manifests itself by adaptive changes dividual behaviour as a result of experience is called learning. Thorpe classified jour into six types bituation ditioning or conditioned reflex type 1. ~~ conditioning or conditioned reflex type II earning. t learning INNATE BEHAVIORS Note: Detail of Innate Beh: ur is already discuss in previous « ! ter LEARNING*- Learning refers to a relatively permanent change in behavior as a res. 9° ©perience. The phrase relatively permanent was added to an older definition Of ieactin.g, The older definition of learning was a change in behavior as a result of experiee ce.= Master Success Series Text Book of Animal Behaviour » diffi roblem, Sara The phrase relatively permanent was added ty wre aie nd {od a describes the problem as follows: Suppose a ra has just been fed. Mott ial hours. This rat is more likely to eat than wae ir the haus effort of hunger itself is not any learning, It is not leat ne By food, neo affects the rat’s behavior when it was pri ented wit ier thie: probed relatively permanent into the definition of learning eliminates this p Phenotypic Plasticity and Learning, . ; Our definition of learning also shows an interesting relationship bona phenotypic plasticity. A phenotype is defined as the observable ri onganism. The phenotypic plasticity is defined as the ability of an $ produce different phenotypes depending on environmental conditions. ‘or many invertebrates like bryozoan Membranipora membranacea live in colo living in such colonies, individuals lack spines. These spines are used as an defense in related species. These spines are simply not grown when a membranacea colony develops in the absence of predators. But individuals spines quickly when exposed to predatory cues. The resultant change, from spined is phenotypic plasticity. The phenotype of this bryozoan shifts as a environmental changes. Hence it is taken as plastic. We take learning relatively permanent change in behavior as a result of then becomes one type of phenotypic plasticity if we think of behavior as phenotype. Phenotypic plasticity is broader cate ‘ory under which learning is So all learning is a type of phenotypic plasticity. But not all phenotypic involves learning. MECHANISM OF LEARNING There are three commonly recognized types of experience that can lead to lee include single stimulus, stimulus-stimulus, and response reinforcer. Each of thes certain forms of learning. (a) Learning froma Single-Stimulus Experience It is simplest experience that can lead to learning® It involves a single stimulus a take almost any form. For example, we want to study learning simply place an arbitrary cue in a rat's cape i hrougho: day. ‘a pe many make the cue a bluecolored st . Soe — ick. It is an arbitrary cue levance before we began our experime 4 ee tur their ineads in the directior nt. Rats will often take note of such a di: n of the blue stick, The rats become more their heads in the direction of i borne ¢ f the blue stick. Thus become more — with ‘ime. Thus sensitization has Teena rats. On the tiation gis, tt!Y 0 ‘urn their head. ‘Then hablane Sensitization a ; ’ os ca detail in Habir nd habituation are two si i i ent '¢ two simple single-stimulus forms of64 <3» Kinds of Behaviors (ob) Learning from stimut s-stimulus experience In learning from stimulus-stimulus experience, a neutral stimulus later produces the same effect as produced by the natural stimulus. In Pavlov experiments, a previously neutral stimulus becomes a Conditioned stimulus, It is presented together with an unconditioned stimulus. The NeW stimulus produces the same effect (See detail in classical conditioning) (c) Learning from response reinforcer Reinforcement isa consequence applied that will strengthen an organism's future behavior. This strengthening effect may be measured as a higher frequency of behavior There are {Wo types of reinforcement. These are Positive reinforcement and negative reinforcement. a) Positive Reinforcers; A Positive reinforcer inc will be repeated. These are like food offered to In these experiments Positive b) Negative reinforcers: ‘ Neg: reases the probability that a behavior a hungry rat or a drink to a thirsty one, reinforcers were used, ‘ative reinforcer may increases the probability of a onse once it is removed. There may be some unpleasant or painful stimulus uring action of an animal. When this stimulus stops an animal is likely to repeat that action. For example, a rat will learn to push a bar to turn off a bright electric light for 60 seconds. Negative reinforcement is thus different from punishment. Punishment is an aversive stimulus that results in a decrease in a response, . il in Operant Learning) CONDITIONED BEHAVIORS © ted with a consequence. Two types of conditioning techniques are classical and conditioning. a of SSICAL CONDITIONING. 23 Pairing of an irrelevant stimulus with Kinds of Behaviors Order of Presentation] First, the order of presentation of US and CS Seal Conditioning is most effective when CS (such as atone) precedes US (suc! 25. o The CS serves as a signal that US will appear. It is a cue is of little value if it ocehts after the fact. The two-stimuli must occur fairly close together for making association between them ‘ Signals should be reliable?) A second characteristic arises from the fact that useful signals are reliable. They predict that a particular event or stimulus will follow. A al is useless if many events follow it. Therefore, for effective classical conditioning. the CS must precede the US more often than it does other stimuli. Extinction: Finally, after an association between a CS and US is formed, it can be lost again. If CS is no longer reliable and it is presented frequently without followed by US. then the subject stops responding to the tone. The loss of conditioned response is called extinetion. daptive Value of Clas raviov (1927) su; \dvantag ical Conditioning sted that learning through classical conditioning provide fitness es to wild animals. However, most studies of classical conditioning are used to jetermine rules under which it functions. These studies tried to characterize the process f conditioning like most effective interval between the conditioned and unconditioned iimuli and time of extinction. Relatively few studies gave potential value of classical jonditioning in the everyday life of an animal. It has three examples: la) Work of Karen Hollis on Blue Gourami K Hollis (1984, 1999) worked on territorial and reproductive behaviors in blue ouramis (Trichogaster trichopterus). \t is a fish. It lives in shallow pools and streams in Africa and Southeast Asia. ggressive Territorial behavior in Male Blue Gotrami male blue gourami defends its territory with an aggressive display. It swims rapidly »ward the intruding fish. It swims with all fins erect. If the intruder does not become ubmissive or retreat, battle starts. It can result in serious injury. The males bite each ther. They flip their tails to beat water against opponent’s sensitive lateral line organ. he lateral line is a row of receptors on the sides of fish, They detect movement and bration in the water, Dangerous fights start. Females rarely mate with a male without a erritory. Therefore, success is crucial for male gouramis. A male must learn signals that indicate the approach of a rival. He must learn visual, chemical, or mechanical cues. Then ¢ will be better prepared for battle and gain a competitive edge. Experiment 3 Hollis selected pairs of male fish with similar body size and aggression levels. He placed them on opposite sides of a divider in an aquarium, He gave a 10-second light (CS) before 15-second viewing of a rival (US) to one member of each pair. As a control, CS and US were also shown to other member of the pair. But their presentations were not paired. They occurred randomly Tespect to one another." Master Success Serres Text Book of Animal Behaviour 3. During the test trials, the light signal fish was removed It allowed them eae eara a which associate light with appearance © re They approached the territorial border with their fins tailbeats and bites than their competitors 4. This response may be mediated through hormones. ndrogens. presentation of light caused increase In @! nr hormone increases many species © 5. The conditioned male -term benefit in =e i experience of winning increases chances of winning 4g jones Jin first battle but opponents. Thus, conditioned males not only win : lied winner effect. In contrast, fish that lose their first + battles. In one experiment, all fish that lost the first battle f both vertebrates and invertebrates show a aggressiveness in gains a long: winning. It is cal likely to lose later the second one. Many species 0! winner effect Male blue gouramis that successfully defend a territory are more likely to females. But excessive aggressiveness can harm mating success. A territorial He even attacks females. Ifa likely to attack all visitors to his territory. conditioned with a light signal to expect arrival of a female, he is less likely to when she appears. The conditioned males bit females fewer times “ nditioned males. These conditioned males also spent more time building - a a a aeressive to ae activities is paid ¢ 0% e success. Conditioned males spawned more quickl juced fry than did unconditioned males ‘ : a preg In nature, flashing lights are unlikely 7 2 ely cues. However, many nat ural si available for learning. For example, territorial invaders might = 2 scented by a territorial holder. The shape of a gravid belly indi willin sh ly indicates a willing ‘ Bit “ 6 Nest building o her = 8 250 o 8oR 888 BE a | Mean number of yours Moan lateney to spam (in tours) Condittoned — Unconditioned Fig. Male blue gourami fish learned, through classical conditioning, that a light signaled the i appearance of a receptive female. Conditioned -males had ‘greater reproductive success than unconditioned: mak Conditioned males (a) bit approaching females less frequently, (b) spent more time building nests, («) were quicker to spawn, and (d) produced mose young than did unconditioned males. (>) _Classical Conditioned Learning in Male field crickets Male field crickets (Gryilus bimaculatus) mate by transferring a sperm in a packet. This packet is called a spermatophore. Spermatophores are costly to produce. Hence males do not transfer larger spermatophores than necessary. However, some females mate more than once. Then sperm from different mates compete inside her body to fertilize her eggs. Thus, a male faces another male in a competition for a female’s attentions. He transfers a larger spermatophore to female. It transfers more Sperm to the female. It will increase his chances of fathering more offspring. Treatment 1 Fig: Field crickets leamed about spatial cues that signaled the presence of a competitor. on one side of a terrarium and either two or four Lego bricks. For males in Treatment 1, ‘always associated with the presence of a male competitor. For males in Treatment 2, the ‘eversed. After training, subjects were allowed to mate next to each arrangement of ‘ompetitors present. Males produced larger sperm packets in the environment associated58 Master Success Series Text Book of Animal Behaviour “ Experiments Males can learn to associate environmental cues with presence of male com experimental design is shown in Figure. 1. Males were placed in one side of a terrarium along with topographical cues are in the form of either two or four Lego bricks. The other sidé of is visible through a clear wall. It either held a potential competitor or was Each subject male had four opportunities to mate during training. For subject, a particular quantity of bricks (two or four) was always asso presence of a competitor. But the gther quantity of bricks never was. Thus, a chance to learn that a particular number of bricks. These bricks sij presence of a competitor. 3. After training, the males were allowed to mate next to each arrangement @ with no competitors present. Males produced larger spermatophores in e 4 with a competitor. : S (peppermint- and vanilla-scented oils from a cosmetics store) G s. The males are tested with scents. These scents were at the presence of a competitor. In this case, males again p ophores. ical Conditioned Learning in Feeding Behavior in Honeybee ‘ul model system of feeding behaviour is found in the honeybee. 2 lot to leam. Flowers bloom and fade. Hence the best. places to w shapes. Hence bees must access each flower shape differently. A bee must leant color, shape, pattern, texture and odor of flowers. a3 Experiment Bees can be rapidly conditioned to respond to odor. Carefully controlled odor presented to bees. These odors are held in tubes. When the anteninae of a bee with a sucrose solution (the US), the bee extends its proboscis to lick it (the UR). is presented just before the sucrose solution is presented. Then the bee rapidly association between the odor (the CS) and the sucrose. It begins to extend its the odor alone (the CR). This easy-to-use protocol has enabled researe numerous hypotheses about learning. These hypotheses include how bees one stimulus to others, a OPERANT CONDITIONING 7 7 The trial and error learning is called opéract Work of Thorndike Operant learning was first studied by Thorndike. He invented a puzzle box. a door. That door could be opened with a latch on the inside. Thomdike a cat in the box with a bow! of food outside the box. The cat leapt around to get ‘The cat accidentally hit the lever im the correct way. The door opened. The cat _.59 3> Kinds of Behaviors 1 eat. Thorndike then put back the eat in the box again, After many trials, a eat beewme faster to release the latch. This type of learning is called operant conditioning animal operates on the environment to produce consequences, I is alse called trial-and-error learning, Fig: Puzzle box of Thorndike Work of B.F. Skinner B. F. Skinner later invented Skinner box. It is an apparatus easier to use than Thorndike’s puzzle box. It is still used today. A hungry animal is placed in the Skinner Here it must learn to use a mechanism (like pressing a lever or pecking a key) to get 1 reward. Data collection (number of bar or key presses) is automated and very Speaker “a Food cup Fig: Skinner boxMaster Success Series Text Book of Animal Behaviour Reinforcer A stimulus for animal (like a bit of food) that changes probability to behavior is called a reinforcer. It has two types: avis © Positive Reinforcers: A positive reinforcer increases the probability that a beh Will be repeated. These are like food offered to a hungry rat or a drink to a In these experiments positive reinforcers were used.- ‘ d) Negative i lustatcesss Negative reinforcer may increases the ea Fesponse once it is removed. There may be some unpleasant or painful during action of an animal, When this stimulus stops an animal is likely to rep action. For example, a rat will leam to push a bar to turn off a bright electrie li 60 seconds. Negative reinforcement is thus different from punishment. Pui an aversive stimulus that results in a decrease in a response. ‘Cause-and-effect relationship es In operant conditioning like classical conditioning, timing of events is critical. animal spontaneously performs a behavior, reinforcement must follow closely. cause-and-effect relationship develops between performance of the act and the d of reinforcer. When reinforcement is withheld, the response rate will gradually d becomes extinguished, just like strength of conditioned reflex decreases. Shaping Operant conditioning can be used to teach animals to perform novel and comp Hollywood animal trainers rely on a method called shap g. It is a gradual way a sculptor molds a lump of clay, At first, the trainer reinforces any desired act. B requires better and better performances to get a reward. For example, a trainer dolphin to jump from water through a hoop. It is first rewarded on approaching When it learns to approach, it i rewarded only when it swims through the trainer raises the hoop on successive trials until it is clear of the water. The t dolphin a fish only when it makes the leap, : Shaping works on people and other animals, techniques of shaping may be useful in her marriane i i a arriage. She quietly beg techniques to train her husband not to throw laundry on the fleas Shad th ie: change some of his other annoying habits. She suececsfllt shaped her husband Reinforcement Schedules . : : The frequency with which rewards are offered is ca i f is called reinf real life, reward seldom comes afier Every act. Instead, reward is imate regular). For example, a honeybee will find nectar rewards in a : not visited by another bee. Partial reinforcem, reinforced to reinforced response or time pi Rewards are not given in particular pattern. E: on: A writer, Amy Sutherland fo<3> Kinds of Behaviors different forms of keinforcement schedules! i Ther a juows reinforcement schedule: In a continuous reinforcement schedule, each occurrence of the behavior is rewarded. It is best rewarded during the initial training to establish and shape a response. : Fixed ratio reinforcement schedule: In a fixed ratio schedule, animal must respond fo a sel number of times before reinforcement is given. The individual in this schedule has control over how quickly it will be rewarded. Therefore, it results in very high response rates. The faster it responds, the sooner it completes the number of responses required to receive the reward. A fixed ratio reinforcement schedule is similar to piecework in factories. Here employee gets paid when a certain number of items are completed. Employers like the system because of very high production rate it generates Variable ratio reinforcement schedule: In a variable ratio schedule, the number of responses required for reinforcement varies randomly. This also generates very high response rates. Here individual is rewarded for fast responses. The variability means that there are no detectable patterns of reinforcement. Therefore, subject is unable to find immediately when reinforcement has stopped. Thus, response persists even if the reward is withheld for a while. This is exactly the behavior that casino owners want to encourage in their customers. Hence-machines are programmed with a variable ratio chedule. HABITUATION 447 — The decline in response to a harmless, repeated stimulus is called habituation. Habituation can also be defined as the waning of a response after repeated presentation of a stimulus. Learning is a new skill or a new association. However, in habituation, the animal learns not to respond to a particular stimulus because stimulus is harmless. A bird must learg not to fly away every time the wind moves the leaves. Once habituation occurs, its effects are long_Jasting. Habituation: occurs everywhere. It occurs from unicellular protozoans to humans. It is the simplest form of learning. * Example: Study of habituation is clamworm A classic mple of characteristics of habituation is the clamworm, Nereis pelagica. This marine polychaete lives in underwater tube-shaped burrows. It constructs this burrow out of mud. It filters tiny bits of food from the water, When it feeds, it partially comes out from its tube. However, it withdraws quickly back into the safety of the tube when it senses sudden stimuli like shadow. This shadow signals the approach of a Predator Clark kept clamworms in shallow pans of water in the laboratory. |. When he passed a shadow over them, they withdrew into their tubes. The second time he presented the ae aa fewer worms responded. The third presentation gets even fewer withdrawals. Later reseed reat in a continued decline in responses. The clamworms had habituated. The effects of habituation lasted for several hours. 462 Master Success Series Text Book of Anim al Behaviour Shadow shadow Mechanical shock 100 (Group A) 80 60 ‘0 We § 2 ; / eae 4 50 60 & 9) 20. «90 e Trals é 3 Shadow oe Rest 2 100 Ci (Group B) g 80 [ 60 L = Interval of 40 minutes | 20 0 Tr adapted to the stimulus. this. 2. It also does not decline Tesponse to prodding 3. The clamworms had le Specific habitation occu A characteristic of habit ati Fig: Habituation of the withdrawal res} Reason of decline to response 1. The clamworms’ decline 10 als due to muscle fatigue. The habituated worms still arned 10 stop responding to the rs only to specific stimulus ion is specific to predator like hawk flying overhead. (1961) tested wheth | used models of various s| er habituation ponse to a shadow by the clam’ can develop specifi 10 Trials in responsiveness was not because sense_ory Rather sensory adaptation occurs much more qu shadow. It is habit icity of these re;63 <3> Kinds of Behaviors ‘uation erves energy Habituation 1 itis important for a clamworm to w However, there re ithdraw to safety of its burrow on seeing shadow of a 'S @ repeated shadow that is not followed by an attack. It is cqused by something’ harmless. It may be due to patch of moving algae. These algae repeatedly blocking the sun as it undulate with the waves. In this case. responding to the shadow oy jon Re clamworm loses. opportunities to feed. Unnecessary sponses also Wasteenergy, Habituat;, i aha es a envitbaaetee Muation focuses attention and energy on important 2 Habitation linked to Habitat Habituation occurs in near habitat of the spec! a) One spe dator prec every sj For example, cies Cliasmagnathus is patches of gras Pecies. But it may vary in its details due to different - We consider two closely related species of crabs. S a semiterrestrial crab. It lives on the mudflats between along coast of South America. b) The other species is Pachygrapsusinhabits. It lives on rocky intertidal zone. Crabs of both species run when a shadow passes overhead, But both habituate to repeated presentation of shadows. However, habituation lasts much longer in Chasmagnathus, This is due to wind=blown grass of the habitat of Chasmagnathus, These grasses cast many harmless moving shadows. But shadows on the bare rocks of the habitat of — Pachygrapsusare may signal the arrival of a predator. z / 3. Habituation due to interaction within species (neighbor species) Habituation may also geeur due to interactions within species. For example, animals that defend territories encounter their neighbors again and again. Over time, many species reduce their aggressive toward their familiar neighbors. There is no noes dp ight day: afier day over a settled boundary. However, they sill, at ick unfamiliar ‘intruders. This phenomenon can be demonstrated in species with acoustic°communication. It is done by playing back recorded calls. A number of bird species and bullfrogs respond aggressively to a play- back of a -stranger’s call. But they do not respond to a familiar call. hypothesis is that it occurs due to habituation. Hence frogs stop responding aggressively toa call when they hear it repeatedly. es Bee and Gerhardt (2001) created a new neighbor bullfrog by synthesizing anew call. played it back from a previously unoccupied territory. Initially, this new voice gets response. The male bullfrogs called back and charged at the speaker. After re prese: = thane iveness declined. This decline carried over between nights. entations, their aggressivenes: ian e calls. Thus it is relatively permanent Was specific to particular characteristics of the calls. Specific to a stimulusy COMPLEX BEHAVIOUR PATTERNS LATENT LEARNING Latent learning is the association of indi reward. Sometimes animals learn without ‘an animal can leam important characterist ferent stimuli or situations wit y obvious immediate reward. For ics of its environment during—V—_—O~-— —-dlUCO—™ wviour ries Text Book of ‘Animal Beha’ Master Suctess Se’ ¢ is not put to ir explorations. Then he use this information later ‘The knowlede ‘hat fel use. Bat it may be later lifesaving. Several studies have shown terrain improves survival ts food. ind accidentally gel in the same maze Example 1 It wanders through it al as wandering, it did . Suppose we put a rat in a maze \eams something from its first experience. If we put the rat may directly reach the food. That means when the rat something without even the incentive oF any reward. Example 2 Pairs of white-footed mice (Peromyscus I seech owl (Otus asio). One of the pair previously hai jays. The other mouse had no experience In y two of captured mice ht one of the mice. Onl: th the room. It suggests that their knowledge 0 leucopus) were released into a room id opportunity to explore the the room. On 13 of 17 i were from the group f the environment hel ne predator. | | | Alterative | L_nestat | | 10m | 10cm 10cm Old nest | (destroyed) Fig: The \ Ean 5 ig: The experimental design for a study of latent learning in ants ven ants gather i . aa eee pebeesion for later use. Temnothorax albi sf ener aaer aics be: se nests are damaged, they have t bic ants build nests’ larentbagan on a range of criteria: floor area, nl to a new area. ery ee rea: ates A eee Whether ants keep track ps ee must find a new home very is evaluation takes quite content with nest can using options even before hey need oe i sity jo dealgn lahorni ade of cardboard sandwiched ie need to move. ie A ce ee how in fi ween glass slides. become familiar with it. Next, near the ants current nest tea Reset ‘same quality, Alternative #2, a researchers introduced sec week. Hence forced them to move. . They then immediately destroyed cre ~ of : peAunds of Bahaveors {in the first experiment, ants’ initial nest was of high quality. But both Alternatives #1 and #2 were of low quality, Of 30 colonies tested, only two chose Altemative #1, 23 chose Alternative #2, and S were split in their chowe. They colonize both nests. Thus, ants discarded a familiar, but low “quality, alternative in favor of an identical nest, Here ants ignore a familiar but unattractive option in favor of exploring for a better one. They settle for something that is also unattractive. The experiment was repeated. But this time with both alternatives of same high quality Rests as old nests. Here, ants had no preference. 23 of 24 colonies were split between the choices. It suggests that they assess site quality when they explore. They can use this information later at an appropriate time INSIGHT LEARNING The use of cognitive or mental roblems is called insight learnin; Processes fo associate experiences for solving &. Or a complex form of learning that requires the s for developing an adaptive behaviour is called ht learning. Insight learning is an extreme case of behavioural modif application of insight or Teasoning to a novel situation. An ion, It involves the an use its behaviour to. solve a problem. He has no Previous experience about it. Thus it used reasoning for solving this problem. During reasoning in humans, a person thinks about an external situation in his imagination. He manipulates his concepts to produce a solution. This solution can be applied to those situations, Such insight or reasoning is also found in. * other primates. This is the highest form of learning. Examples animal 1. Welfgang Kohler (1887-1967) performed experiments on chimpanzees, He trained the chimpanzee to use tools for obtaining food rewards. One chimpanzee was given some bamboo poles. These poles can be joined to make a longer pole. Some bananas were hung from the ceiling. The chimpanzee formed the longer pole. It used the pole to knock the bananas. The bananas fall on the floor of cage. The animal used insight learning to get the bananas. , : ; 3 2. Jane van Lawick-Goodall observed chimpanzees in the wild environment. They were using tools to perform different tasks. For example, they use crumpled leaves as a sponge for drinking water. ty i