Themes in Indian History: Part - 1

Through Mindmaps

Shibul Verma

@thehistorystation
 Dive into the past like never before with our Class 12 History Mindmaps E-
Book. Unleash the power of visual learning as complex historical concepts
transform into easily digestible mind maps. Perfect for students seeking a
comprehensive and efficient study aid. Elevate your understanding, ace your
exams, and embark on a historical journey simplified for your success.
 Page of Content
Ch - 1 Bricks, Beads, and Bones
Ch - 2 Kings, Farmers and Towns
Ch - 3 Kinship, Caste and Class
Ch - 4 Thinkers, Beliefs and Buildings
 CHAPTER - 1
BRICKS, BEADS, AND BONES
The Harappan Civilisation
Dietary
remains of
Harappan
People
 Eat well,
archaeologists!

SUBSISTENCE STRATEGIES
PLANT & ANIMAL PRODUCTS
BONES OF WILD SPECIES GRAINS
Boar Wheat Chickpea
ANIMAL BONES FOUND
Deer Barley Sesame
Cattle Pig
Gharial Lentil
Buffalo Goat
Sheep

AGRICULTURAL TECHNOLOGIES
Bull IRRIGATION
Terracotta sculpture MIXED CROP PATTERN PLOUGH 1. Canals found in
indicates usage of Fields with furrows at right A terracotta model and a Shortughai
bull. angles show that two ploughed field at 2. Water Reservoir in
different crops were grown. Kalibangan suggest Dholavira.
plough use.

THE HISTORY STATION

Citadel
and the
Lower town
 MOHENJODARO PART - 1
PLANNED URBAN CENTRE
SETTLEMENT WAS DIVIDED GRID PATTERN
The settlement was divided into 2 sections: Roads and Streets were
1. Citadel - Smaller but higher, fortified, BRICKS laid in a Grid pattern,
built on mud-brick platforms. Bricks were of a Intersecting at right angle.
2. Lower Town - Larger but lower, standardized ratio.
fortified.
LAYING OUT DRAINS

DRAINAGE SYSTEM Every house needed at

The most distinctive feature Streets with drains were
least one wall facing the
of Harappan Cities was laid out first, then houses
street for waste water to
Planned Drainage System. were built along them.
flow into street drains.

THE HISTORY STATION

 MOHENJODARO PART - 2
DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE
COURTYARD WINDOWS
Many residential buildings There are no windows on
had a central courtyard the ground floor walls, and
STAIRCASES the main entrance does not
surrounded by rooms, likely
Some houses have
used for cooking and provide a direct view of the
remnants of staircases
weaving. interior or courtyard.
leading to a second
storey or the roof.
BATHROOMS WELLS
Each house had a brick- Many houses had wells
paved bathroom with accessible from outside,
drains connected to the possibly used by
street drains. passers-by.

THE HISTORY STATION

 MOHENJODARO PART - 3
THE CITADEL
It has the evidence of some structures that were probably used for special public purposes like -

WAREHOUSE GREAT BATH

Only lower brick portions 1. Scholars suggested that it was meant for a special
remain. meanwhile, the ritual bath
upper portion has decayed 2. A large rectangular tank in a courtyard surrounded by
long ago. corridors on all four sides.
3. water from the tank flowed into a huge drain.
4. The tank was made watertight with bricks and gypsum
mortar.
5. There are two flights of steps on the north and south
sides leading to the tank.

THE HISTORY STATION

 TRACKING SOCIAL DIFFERENCES
BURIALS
A way to find out about social and economic differences between people.

In Harappan civilisation the But overall, the Harappans

dead were generally laid in pits did not believe in burying
and sometimes the burial pit precious items with the
was lined with bricks. dead.

Some graves contain pottery Both men and women were

and ornaments, indicating buried with jewellery. Some
the belief that these could were also buried with
be in the afterlife. copper mirrors.

THE HISTORY STATION

 TRACKING SOCIAL DIFFERENCES
LOOKING FOR “LUXURIES”
Study of Artefacts - another strategy to identify social differences.

Archaeologists classify Utilitarian items are everyday DISTRIBUTION OF SUCH ARTEFACTS

artifacts into utilitarian objects made of ordinary 1. Rare, valuable objects are
and luxury categories. materials, found throughout typically concentrated in Harappa
the settlement. and Mohenjodaro, rather than
smaller settlements.
2. For example, miniature faience
Luxury objects were rare, made pots (used as perfume bottles) are
from costly, non-local materials, mostly found in Harappa and
and often involved complex Mohenjodaro.
technologies, such as small 3. Gold was precious too.
faience pots.

THE HISTORY STATION

Craft
production
 FINDING OUT ABOUT CRAFT PRODUCTION

CHANHUDARO TECHNIQUES NAGESHWAR & BALAKOT

1. A Tiny Settlement denoted 1. Specialized centers for making
to Craft Production. 1. Some beads were made from a
Shell objects.
2. Includes Bead making, paste of steatite powder.
2. Finished products from
Shell - Cutting, Seal making, 2. Specialized drills found at
Chanhudaro & Lothal were
etc. Chanhudaro, Lothal, Dholavira
taken to the large urban
3. Materials used to make centres such as Mohenjodaro &
beads - Harappa.
Carnelian, Jasper, Steatite
Metals - Copper, Bronze, Gold.
Shell, Faience, Terracotta.
Shapes - Cylindrical, Spherical

THE HISTORY STATION

 IDENTIFYING CENTRES OF PRODUCTION
IDENTIFICATION

To identify centres of Archaeologists use Raw Materials Like - These traces suggest that
craft production Raw Materials Tools, Unfinished objects, craft production also
Waste material occurred in large cities.

STRATEGIES FOR PROCURING MATERIALS

A variety of materials were MEANS OF TRANSPORTATION
used for craft production,
some sourced locally and
many brought from outside. Bullock Riverine routes along Coastal
Carts Indus & Tributaries Routes

THE HISTORY STATION

Bullock carts
carrying raw
materials
 MATERIALS FROM THE SUBCONTINENT & BEYOND
WAYS OF PROCURING MATERIALS
ESTABLISH SETTLEMENTS AT: SEND EXPEDITIONS TO :
1. Nageshwar & Balakot - Shell 1. S. India - Gold
2. Shortughai, Afghanistan - Lapis Lazuli 2. Khetri Region (Rajasthan) - Copper
3. Lothal - Carnelian
4. S. Rajasthan, N. Gujarat - Steatite
5. Rajasthan - Metal

GANESHWAR JODHPURA CULTURE

Known for its Distinctive Unusual wealth of Inhabitants of this region
Non - Harappan Pottery Copper objects supplied Copper to the
Harappa - (A Possibility)
THE HISTORY STATION
Ships carrying
goods from
Harappa to
Mesopotamia
 CONTACT WITH DISTANT LANDS
OMAN MEANS OF TRANSPORTATION
Copper was imported MESOPOTAMIA 1. Contact with Oman &
from Oman in exchange Mesopotamian texts mention
Mesopotamia was by sea
for Harappan jars. contact with Meluha
2. Mesopotamian texts also refer
(Harappan Civilization).
Meluha as a land of seafarers.
I used to send 3. Depictions of Ships & boats on
love letters, seals.
though. PRODUCTS FROM MELUHA
1. Carnelian
2. Lapis Lazuli
3. Copper
4. Gold

THE HISTORY STATION

Harappan
Seals
 SEALS, SCRIPTS WEIGHTS
SEALS & SEALINGS
Used to facilitate Seals contain the name
Sealing also conveyed the
long distance trade. & title of the owner.
identity of the sender.

AN ENIGMATIC SCRIPT
Most inscriptions Objects on which
are short writing has been found.
1. Seals
Largest containing Script was written 2. Copper tools
26 signs. Scripts remain Script has too many from right to left. 3. Jars
undeciphered. signs - b/w 375 - 400 4. Jewellery
5. Ancient signboards

THE HISTORY STATION

Harappan
Weights
 WEIGHTS
Exchanges were regulated Metal scale-pans have
by a system of Weights. also been found.

Made of stone called Smaller weights used for

Chert & generally Cubical weighing Jewellery

Lower denominations of Higher denominations

weights were binary. followed decimal system

THE HISTORY STATION

Ancient Authority:
Priest king
 ANCIENT AUTHORITY
There are indications of Ancient authority for instance :

UNIFORMITY Labor was mobilized for

The settlement was
Uniformity of Harappan making bricks and
strategically planned near
Artefacts constructing massive walls.
sources of raw materials.
1. Pottery, Seals
2. Weights, Bricks

PALACES AND KINGS

Evidence of centre of power

A large building found The stone statue was labeled as the The ritual practices of the
at Mohenjodaro is Priest-King because archaeologists Harappan Civilization are not
labeled as a palace. were familiar with Mesopotamian well understood, and it's unclear
history and its priest-kings. if those who performed them
held political power.
THE HISTORY STATION
Flood: A Reason
behind the decline
of Harappan
Civilisation
 DEBATE AROUND RULERS
NO RULERS THEORY A SINGLE STATE THEORY
Some archaeologists believe the NO SINGLE RULER This Theory is most plausible
Harappan society had no rulers Other historians argue there were because of the evidence of:
and everyone had equal status. multiple rulers: Mohenjodaro had 1. planned settlement
one, Harappa another, and so on. 2. Similarity in artefacts
3. Standardized bricks

END OF THE CIVILIZATION

SITES ABANDONED REASONS
There is evidence that 1. Climatic Change
CRAFT DISAPPERED TECHNIQUES DETERIORATED
mature Harappan Distinctive artifacts like House construction 2. Deforestation
sites, like Cholistan, weights, seals, writing, long- techniques declined, and 3. Excessive floods
were abandoned. distance trade, and craft large public structures 4. Shifting/ drying up of
specialization also disappeared. were no longer needed. rivers
5. Overuse of landcape
THE HISTORY STATION
Excavation at
Harappa
 DISCOVERING THE HARAPPAN CIVILISATION
CUNNINGHAM’S CONFUSION
1. Cunningham - first director Cunningham placed a Harappan seal
general of ASI. Cunningham did not in the wrong time frame, as he
2. He used accounts from realize how old believed Indian history started with
Chinese Buddhist pilgrims Harappan artefacts the first cities in the Ganga Valley,
to locate early settlements. were. missing the significance of Harappa.

A NEW OLD CIVILIZATION

Seals were discovered S.N. Roy, in 'The Story of
at Harappa by Daya Indian Archaeology,' said
Ram Sahni. Rakhal Das Banerji In 1924, John Marshall Marshall's discovery made
found similar seals announced the discovery of a India 3,000 years older.
at Mohenjodaro. new civilization and named it
the Indus Valley Civilization.
THE HISTORY STATION
 NEW TECHNIQUES & QUESTIONS
In 1944, ASI Director General Indian archaeologists
R.E.M. Wheeler emphasized Due to the partition, began finding sites in India,
following the stratigraphy of major sites became part such as Kalibangan, Lothal,
mounds rather than digging of Pakistani territory. Rakhigarhi, and Dholavira.
uniformly.

PROBLEMS OF PIECING TOGETHER THE PAST

SOURCES OF ANCIENT CIVILIZATION : PRINCIPLE OF CLASSIFICATION :
1. Harappan Script 1. In Terms of Material : Stone, Clay, Metal
2. Material evidence - such as pottery, tools, 2. In terms of Function : Tool or Ornaments
ornaments, and household objects helps 3. Place it was Found at : In-house or grave
archaeologists reconstruct Harappan life. 4. Indirect Evidence

THE HISTORY STATION

Great Bath
 PROBLEMS OF PIECING TOGETHER THE PAST
PROBLEMS OF INTERPRETATION

RELIGIOUS PRACTICES : RELIGIOUS BELIEFS - THROUGH SEALS :

1. Mother Goddess - Terracotta 1. Plant Motifs - Indicate nature worship
Figurines of Women 2. Unicorn - Mythical, Composite Creature.
2. Priest King - Statue of a man with 3. Proto Shiva - A figure seated in a yogic
one hand on the knee posture surrounded by animals.
3. Structures - Great Bath, Altars 4. Lingas - Conical Stone Objects.
(Found in Kalibangan, Lothal)

THE HISTORY STATION

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 Chapter - 2
KINGS, FARMERS AND TOWNS
Early States and Economics
James Princep-An
officer in the East
India Company
 Most momentous developments in Indian Epigraphy took place in the 1830s
James Princep

He deciphered Brahmi and This shifted investigations into

Kharoshthi, two ancient early Indian political history, as
scripts used in early He found that most of these European and Indian scholars
inscriptions and coins. inscriptions mentioned a king called used inscriptions and texts to
Piyadassi, meaning "pleasant to reconstruct the lineages of
i scored 200 in behold". Some inscriptions also major dynasties that ruled the
IQ Test!! referred to him as Asoka, one of the subcontinent.
famous rulers from Buddhist texts.

THE HISTORY STATION

 The 6th century BCE is often considered a major turning point in Early Indian history Reasons:

This era is associated Brahmanas composed

Growth of diverse Early Buddhist and Jaina texts
with early states, cities, Sanskrit texts called
systems of thought mention 16 states known as
the growing use of iron, Dharmasutras, which set
such as Buddhism Mahajanapadas, including Vajji,
and the development of norms for Kshatriya
and Jainism. Magadha, Koshala, Kuru, Panchala,
coinage. rulers. They were advised
Gandhara, and Avanti.
to collect taxes and
While most Mahajanapadas were ruled by
tribute from cultivators,
kings, Ganas and Sanghas were oligarchies
traders, and artisans, and
where power was shared by a number of men
called Rajas. Both Mahavira and Buddha raiding neighboring states
belonged to such Ganas. for wealth was
Each Mahajanapada had a fortified capital city considered legitimate.
that required armies, bureaucracies, and
resources to maintain.

THE HISTORY STATION

Magadha - during
it’s Hay Day
Between 6th and 4th centuries BCE, Magadha became the most powerful Mahajanapadas Reasons:

Agriculture Ambitious kings

Magadha was an Forests Buddhist and Jaina writers
agriculturally Elephants were an credited Magadha's power to
productive region. important component ambitious kings like Bimbisara,
of the army found in Ajatsattu, and Mahapadma
Iron Mines nearby forests. Nanda.
Iron Mines provided
resources for tools Rivers
and weapons. Ganga and its tributaries
provided a means of
cheap and convenient
Rajagaha - Initially, Rajagaha was the fortified
communication
capital of Magadha. Later, the capital
shifted to Pataliputra.

THE HISTORY STATION

 Sources
Archaeological finds Inscriptions
Includes Sculptors. 1. Inscriptions on Rocks and Pillars
- valuable sources
Literary Sources 2. Asoka was the first ruler to
1. Account of Megasthenes
inscribe his messages on rocks
(Greek Ambassador to the
and polished pillars.
court of Chandragupta)
3. He used the inscriptions to
2. Arthashastra - Composed
proclaim Dhamma - Dhamma
by Kautilya or Chanakya
included:
3. Buddhist, Jaina, Puranic and
Sanskrit Literature. Respect towards elders
Generosity towards Brahmanas
Treating slaves and servants
kindly
Respect for other’s traditions
and religions.
THE HISTORY STATION
Taxila - One of the
Provincial Centers
Five Major political centres Was there a Uniform
1. Capital - Pataliputra
2. Provincial Centres - Taxila, Ujjaini,
Administrative System?
1. This is unlikely, as the regions within the
Tosali, Suvarnagiri.
empire were too diverse.
3. Asokan inscriptions with the same
2. Administrative control was likely strongest in
content were found from the North
areas around the capital and provincial
West Frontier Provinces of
centers.
Pakistan to Andhra Pradesh, 3. Provincial centers like Taxila and Ujjain were
Orissa, and Uttarakhand, shows strategically chosen due to their location on
the extent of the Mauryan Empire. important long-distance trade routes.
4. Suvarnagiri - important for tapping the Gold
mines in Karnataka

THE HISTORY STATION

Dhamma
Mahamatas
Propogating
Dhamma
Dhamma Propogation was a way of
Consolidating The Empire.
 Communication was crucial for the Another method to maintain
empire's survival. Journeys from the
New notions of Kinship - Chiefs the empire was through
center to provinces could take weeks, and Kings in the South. propagating Dhamma.
requiring arrangements for food and 1. New kingdoms that emerged in the Special officers known as
protection for travelers. The army Deccan and South India, like the Cholas, Dhamma Mahamatas were
played a key role in ensuring these Cheras, and Pandyas, were stable and appointed to spread the
needs were met. prosperous. message of Dhamma.
2. Sources - Early Tamil Sangam texts
3. Many Chiefs and Kings like Satavahanas
and Shakas derived revenues from Long
Megasthenes mentions a committee
Distance Trade.
with 6 sub-committees:
1. Looked for navy
2. Managed transport and provisions
3. Responsible for foot soldiers
4. For Horses
5. Chariots
6. Elephants
THE HISTORY STATION
Kushanas - They
migrated from
Central Asia
 Son of God:
The Kushanas sought high
Many Kushana rulers adopted
status by associating
the title "Devaputra," meaning
themselves with diverse
"Son of God." They may have
deities.
been inspired by Chinese rulers
who called themselves Sons of
Sources: Historians believe that the Heaven.
The history of Kushana is colossal statues of Kushana
re-constructed from rulers found in Mathura and
inscriptions and textual Afghanistan suggest that the
traditions. Kushanas viewed themselves
as godlike.

THE HISTORY STATION

Samudragupta -
The most famous
of Gupta Emperors.
 By the 4th century, larger Prayaga Prashasti:
states like the Gupta Empire Composed in Sanskrit by
emerged. These states relied Harishena, The court poet
on Samantas who paid homage of Samudragupta.
and offered military support to Sources of Gupta Rulers:
rulers. Powerful Samantas 1. Literature
could also ascend to become 2. Coins
kings themselves. 3. Inscriptions Including
Prashastis - Composed
in praise of Kings.

THE HISTORY STATION

 Anthologies like Jatakas and
Panchatantra reveal what subjects
thought about their rulers.

Plough Irrigation
From the 6th century BCE, the Use of irrigation through
shift to plough agriculture spread Transplantation Hoe Agriculture wells, tanks, and canals.
in fertile alluvial river valleys like In some parts of the Ganga People in hilly tracts in
the Ganga and Kaveri. Iron-tipped valley, paddy production northeastern and central
dramatically increased with parts of the subcontinent
ploughshares were used to
the introduction of practice hoe agriculture.
cultivate the areas with high
transplantation.
rainfall.

THE HISTORY STATION

 There was growing differentiation Large landholders and These differences were
among people in agriculture. village headmen emerged based on unequal
Buddhist tradition mentions as powerful figures who access to land, labor,
landless agricultural laborers, small controlled other and new technology.
peasants, and large landholders. cultivators.

The term "Gahapati" in Early Tamil literature, the Sangam

Pali texts often referred texts, mentions different village
to both small peasants categories: large landowners
and large landholders. (Vellalas), ploughmen (Uzhavar),
and slaves (Adivasi).

THE HISTORY STATION

 Sources Most inscriptions were in Women granting Lands
Inscriptions on stones Sanskrit, although sometimes 1. According to Sanskrit legal texts, women
and copper plates part of the inscription was in a were not allowed independent access to
served as records of local language like Tamil or resources like land. However, inscriptions
transactions for rulers. Telugu. show that Prabhavati had access to land
which she granted.
2. Prabhavati Gupta, daughter of
The grants were Chandragupta, was married to the
generally made to Vakataka ruler.
religious institutions 3. This example suggests she was an
and to the Brahmanas. exceptional queen, or it hints that legal
texts were not uniformly implemented.

THE HISTORY STATION

 Land grants have been found Impact of Land Grants:
across the country with regional
variations in size, ranging from
small plots to vast stretches of Some historians believe that Others suggest that land grants
uncultivated land. land grants were a strategy indicated weakening political
used by ruling lineages to power, as kings were losing
expand agriculture into new control over their Samantas. So,
areas. They tried to win over them by
making grants of land.

THE HISTORY STATION

New Cities that
emerged in the
6th Century
 1. Many of these were the Capitals of Mahajanapadas.
2. All major towns were strategically located along
communication routes: Pataliputra on riverine
routes, Ujjaini on land routes, Puhar near the coast,
and Mathura as a bustling center of commerce,
culture, and politics.

Sometimes, guilds or Shrenis

Kinga and ruling elites Short Votive inscriptions They also describe the
are mentioned. These guilds
lived in fortified Cities. mention the name of the people who lived in towns:
likely procured raw materials,
donor and sometimes warriors, weavers, scribes,
regulated production, and
specify their occupation religious teachers,
marketed finished products.
as well. merchants, and kings.

THE HISTORY STATION

Trade during
Mauryan empire.
From the 6th century BCE, land A wide range of goods
and river routes extended to were traded, with spices,
Central Asia, North Africa, and especially pepper, being
West Asia. Rulers often sought in high demand in the
to control these routes by Roman Empire.
offering protection for a fee.

Those who traveled Successful merchants

these routes included were called Masattuvan
peddlers on foot, in Tamil and Setthis and
merchants, and Sattavahanas in
seafarers. Prakrit.

THE HISTORY STATION

Punch-Marked
Coins
 Exchanges were facilitated by the introduction of Coinage.

Punch-marked Coins Kushanas

Coins made of silver and
Symbol identification. They issued the largest hoards of
Efforts were made to identify
copper were among the gold coins, which were nearly
symbols on punched-marked coins,
earliest minted and used. They identical in weight to those issued by
suggesting they were issued by kings.
have been recovered from contemporary Roman emperors and
It's also possible that merchants,
excavations at numerous sites the Parthians. The widespread use of
bankers, and townspeople issued
throughout the subcontinent. gold indicates the enormous value of
some of these coins.
the transactions taking place.

Indo-Greeks
The first coins to bear
the names and images
of rulers were issued by
the Indo-Greeks.
THE HISTORY STATION
 Exchanges were facilitated by the introduction of Coinage.

Coins issued by From the 6th Century CE onwards - Finds of

Tribal Republics Gold coins declined. Does this indicate that
Archaeologists have there was some kind of an Economic Crisis?
excavated several copper 1. Some historians suggest that with the collapse
coins issued by the Yaudheyas Coins of Gupta Rulers: of the Western Roman Empire, long-distance
of Punjab and Haryana, Some of the most spectacular trade declined, impacting the prosperity of
indicating their interest and gold coins were issued by the states, communities, and regions that benefited
participation in economic Gupta rulers. The earliest from it.
exchanges. issues are notable for their 2. Others argue that new towns and trade
purity and facilitated long- networks began emerging around this time.
distance transactions. They also note that while fewer coins have been
found from that period, coins continue to be
mentioned in inscriptions and texts.
THE HISTORY STATION
 Technical Limitations Fundamental Problem:
1. Letters are faintly engraved, Not everything was recorded Inscriptions reflect the
making reconstructions uncertain. in inscriptions. Some perspectives of those who
2. Inscriptions may be damaged or economically and politically commissioned them.
letters missing. significant information for
3. Interpreting the exact meaning of today's understanding was
words in inscriptions can be absent.
challenging, as some may be
specific to particular places and
times.

THE HISTORY STATION

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 Special Offer: 20% OFF on Themes Part 2 and Part 3!

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 Chapter - 3
KINSHIP, CASTE AND CLASS
Early Societies
 The Ideal of Patriliny
The Mahabharata tells a story of conflict Under Patriliny sons could
between two groups of cousins, the claim the resources of their
Kauravas and Pandavas, from the Kuru fathers when they died.
lineage, over land and power, A Lineage
dominating one of the Janapadas

The Mahabharata story strengthened After the Pandavas won the

the ancient concept of patrilineal battle, patrilineal succession
succession, which existed before the was established.
epic was composed.

THE HISTORY STATION

 Variations in the Practice of Patriliny
Sometimes, Women such as
Sometimes, there Sometimes, brothers Sometimes, Other kinsmen
Prabhavati Gupta exercised
were no sons succeeded one another. claimed the throne
power - An exceptional case.

Rules of Marriage - 1
Sons ensured the continuity Kanyadan, the act of giving
of the patrilineage, while a daughter in marriage,
daughters had no inheritance became a significant
rights to resources. Young girls and women of religious duty for fathers.
Marrying daughters
higher status were carefully
i had to outside the family kinship
regulated to ensure they
break up with group was desirable and
Ramu!!! married at the right time
known as exogamy.
and to the right person.

THE HISTORY STATION

 Rules of Marriage - 2
Love
The rise of new towns led marriage? Brahmanas claimed universal
Dream on!
people to question old validity for their beliefs,
beliefs and practices. but due to regional diversity
and poor communication,
their influence was limited.

To address this, Brahmanas The Dharmasutras and

created social behavior Dharmashastras recognized
codes for themselves and eight types of marriage,
the general public. These codes were later considering four as good and
compiled into Sanskrit texts condemning the rest, which
called Dharmasutras, were practiced by those
Dharmashastras, and rejecting Brahmanical norms.
Manusmriti.

THE HISTORY STATION

 The Gotra of women
Brahmans categorized Were these rules
people into Gotras named 2 Rules : commonly followed?
after Vedic seers, where
1. Women were expected to 1. Many wives of the Satvahanas
those in the same gotra
change their gotra from their retained their father's gotra
were seen as descendants
father's to their husband's names instead of adopting
of that seer.
upon marriage. their husband's.
2. Members of the same gotra 2. Some of these women
could not marry. belonged to the same gotra,
going against the idea of
exogamy and following
endogamy instead.

THE HISTORY STATION

 Important?
who gave birth
to you Dude!!

Were Mothers Important?

Satavahana rulers were identified by But, Succession to the throne
names derived from their mothers, was mostly patrilineal.
suggesting the importance of women
in their lineage.

Social Differences
Within and beyond the framework of Caste

The term "caste" refers The ideal order was Brahmanas were Positions within the Shudras were at
to a system of prescribed in the ranked first order were the Bottom
hierarchically ordered Dharmasutras and (divinely ordained). determined by birth.
social categories. Dharmashastras.

THE HISTORY STATION

 The Right Occupation:
Vaishyas were assigned only one
Dharmasutras and
occupation:
Dharmashastras specified
occupations for the four Serving 3 higher varnas
varna categories. Vaishyas were supposed to :
Engage in Agriculture,
Pastoralism and trade. 3 strategies to enforcing
these norms :
Brahmanas were supposed to : Kshatriyas were supposed to :
1. To claim that varna origin was
1. Study and teach Vedas 1. Engage in Warfare of divine order.
2. Perform Sacrifices and get 2. Protect people and 2. Kings were advised to enforce
sacrifices performed administer justice these norms in their empire.
3. Give and receive gifts 3. Study Vedas 3. Brahmanas tried to convince
4. Get sacrifices performed people that their status was
5. Make gifts based on birth.

THE HISTORY STATION

 Non - Kshatriya Kings - 1
According to Shatras only Kshatriyas Could be kings. But, There were
several ruling Lineage which probably had a different origin.
Rule
breakers!
Mauryas Satavahanas
Buddhist texts suggest they
Gautami-Putra-Satakarni
were Kshatriyas, while
claimed to be a distinguished
Brahmanical texts describe
Brahmana who challenged
them as of low origin.
Shakas Kshatriya pride. He prohibited
They came from Central Asia Shungas, Kanvas intermarriage among the four
and were seen as outsiders by They were Brahmanas varnas but formed a marital
Brahmanas. However, the alliance with Rudradaman's
rebuilding of Sudarshana Lake kin.
by Rudradaman, indicates their
familiarity with Sanskritic
traditions.
THE HISTORY STATION
 Non - Kshatriya Kings - 2
Integration within the framework of caste
was often a complicated process. Example:

Satavahanas claimed to be They practiced endogamy

Brahmanas, but according instead of exogamy as
to Brahmanas, kings should recommended in Brahmanical
have been Kshatriyas. texts.
They claimed to uphold the varna
order but entered into marriage
alliances with people excluded
from the system.

THE HISTORY STATION

 Jatis and Social Mobility
Student: how many jatis were there?
In Brahmanical theory, Jatis with shared professions
social categories like Jatis were sometimes organized
were also based on birth, into Shrenis or guilds.
similar to varna.

Nature of Shrenis or Guilds

The number of Varnas 1. Membership was based on a
was fixed at 4, but there shared Craft specialization
When Brahmanical authorities
was no limit on the 2. Apart from sharing a common
encountered new groups like
number of Jatis. profession, members also pooled
forest dwellers and goldsmiths
their wealth to construct a
who didn't fit into the four varna
splendid temple in honor of the
categories, they classified them
Sun god.
into Jatis.

THE HISTORY STATION

 Beyond the 4 Varnas : Integration
Some populations, like Another group viewed with People who spoke non-
forest dwellers, were often suspicion was nomadic Sanskritic languages were
described as odd, pastoralists, who didn't fit easily sometimes labeled as
uncivilized, or animal-like. into the settled agriculturist Malechchas and looked down
framework. upon.

Beyond the 4 Varnas : Subordination & Conflict

Brahmanas classified certain Some activities, like handling They were placed at the very
social categories as corpses and dead animals, were bottom of the hierarchy. Their
untouchable, and those who considered polluting. Those who touch and even seeing them
considered themselves pure performed these tasks were was regarded as polluting.
avoided taking food from them. designated as Chandalas.

THE HISTORY STATION

 Duties of the Chandalas
According to Manusmriti :

Another Chinese pilgrim,

1. They had to live outside the
Xuan Zang, observed that
village.
executioners and
2. Use discarded utensils
scavengers were forced to
3. wear clothes of the dead and
live outside the city.
ornaments of Iron.
4. Could not walk in villages and Chinese Buddhist Monk Fa
cities at night Xian wrote that untouchables
5. They had to dispose of the had to sound a clapper in the
bodies of those who had no streets so people could avoid
relatives. seeing them.

THE HISTORY STATION

 Beyond Birth : Resources and Status
Gendered access to property
According to the Manusmriti, Social differences between
after the death of parents, the Manusmriti warned women men and women were
paternal estate is supposed to against keeping family intensified due to unequal
be divided among sons only. property or their own access to resources.
Women were not entitled to a valuables without their
share of those resources. husband's permission.

Women were allowed to keep Epigraphic and Textual Evidence

gifts received at marriage suggests that while upper-class
(Stridhana), which could be women may have had access to
inherited by their children, resources. But, Land, cattle, and
and their husbands had no Money were generally controlled
claim to it. by men.

THE HISTORY STATION

 Varna and Access to Property
According to Brahmanical texts, another criterion for
regulating access to wealth was Varna
If Brahmanical rules on Buddhists acknowledged social
varna and occupation were differences but did not see them
followed, the wealthiest as natural or fixed. They also
individuals would have been rejected the idea that status
Brahmanas and Kshatriyas. should be determined by birth.

In reality, kings were often During the same period,

depicted as wealthy, and priests other traditions criticized
were also shown to be rich. the varna order. Early
However, there were occasional Buddhism was among the
depictions of poor Brahmanas. most notable critics.

THE HISTORY STATION

 An Alternative Social Scenario:
Sharing Wealth
There were situations where Poems in the Tamil Sangam
generous men were compilations often highlighted
respected, while those who social and economic relationships,
accumulated wealth for showing that those who controlled
themselves were disliked. In ancient Tamilakam, resources were also expected to
which consisted of several share them.
chiefdoms, the chiefs were
patrons of bards and
poets who praised them.

THE HISTORY STATION

 Handling Texts : Historians
and the Mahabharata
Language Date & the Place of
They examine whether texts Authors the Composition
were written in Prakrit, Pali They also investigate the They also try to
or tamil (Language used by authors who influenced determine the likely
ordinary people) the text with their ideas date and place of
and perspectives. composition.

Kinds of Texts Audience

Were these mantras They also try to find out
chanted by ritual specialists about the intended
or stories that people could audience. as authors tailor
have read or heard? their work to meet their
audience's interests.

THE HISTORY STATION

 Language and Content
Language Classification of Content
The Sanskrit used in
the Mahabharata is
simpler than that of Narrative : Didactic :
the Vedas, and the This section This section contains
Prashastis. contains stories a prescription for
social norms.
*However, this division is not strict, as didactic
sections include stories and the narrative often
conveys a social message.*

THE HISTORY STATION

 Authors and Dates
Who wrote the text?

Sutas Vyasa
The original story was likely Between 200 BCE and 200 CE, as
composed by Sutas, charioteer-bards the worship of Vishnu grew,
who accompanied Kshatriya warriors Krishna became identified with
to battlefields and composed poems Vishnu in the Mahabharata text.
celebrating their victories. These Brahmana During this time, large didactic
compositions were primarily Brahmanas took over the sections were added, This
circulated orally. story and began writing it enormous composition is
down. attributed a sage named vyasa.

THE HISTORY STATION

 In Search of Convergence

Hastinapur Polyandry
Hastinapur in Meerut may be Present-day historians
coincidental, but its location in suggest that polyandry may
the upper Ganga Doab, where have once been common
the Kuru kingdom was situated, among ruling elites.
suggests it could have been the
capital mentioned in the text.

Some historians note that while polyandry Others suggest that

may have seemed unusual or undesirable a shortage of women
from the Brahmanical perspective, it was during wartime led
and is common in the Himalayan region. to polyandry.

THE HISTORY STATION

 Dynamic Text

The Growth of Mahabharata did not stop

with the Sanskrit version.

The epic was written in various languages

through ongoing dialogue between people,
communities, and writers.

THE HISTORY STATION

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 Chapter - 4
THINKERS, BELIEFS AND BUILDINGS
Cultural Developments
Shahjehan
Begum, and her
successor
Sultan Jehan
Begum
 A Glimpse of Sanchi
Preservation of Sanchi Stupa
Rulers of Bhopal, Shahjehan Sanchi is a successful
Begum, and her successor example of the ASI's
Sultan Jehan Begum funded restoration and preservation
the preservation of the of a key archaeological site.
ancient site and museum.

The Background: Sacrifices and Debates.

Mid-First millennium BCE is Often regarded as a turning point in World history - Because:

It was the rise of thinkers like

They tried to understand the New kingdoms and cities
Zarathustra in Iran, Kong Zi in
mysteries of existence and the emerged, transforming
China, Socrates, Plato, and
relationship between Human social and economic life.
Aristotle in Greece, and Mahavira,
Beings and the Cosmic Order.
Buddha in India.
THE HISTORY STATION
 The Sacrificial Tradition
Pre-Existing Traditions.

The Early Vedic Rigveda Chiefs and kings performed

contains hymns praising deities elaborate sacrifices like
like Agni, Indra, and Soma, often Rajasuya and Ashvamedha,
chanted during sacrifices. relying on Brahmana priests
to conduct the rituals.
Initially, sacrifices were
performed collectively. Later,
household heads performed
them for family well-being.

THE HISTORY STATION

Vardhaman
Mahavira - 24th
Tirthankara
 Beyond Worldly Pleasures:
The Message of Mahavira.
According to Jaina tradition, More rules,
Mahavira was preceded by anyone?
Five Vows
Jaina monks and nuns took
23 Tirthankaras - Those who
five vows: non-violence,
guide men and women
truth, celibacy, non-stealing,
across the river of existence.
Teachings of the Jaina and non-possessiveness.

Animated Ahimsa Cycle of Birth

The key idea in Jainism Non-injury to all living Jaina teachings state that karma
is that everything, beings is central to shapes the cycle of rebirth. To
including stones, rocks, Jainism, emphasizing the break free, one must practice
and water, has life. principle of Ahimsa. asceticism, penance, and renounce
the world, making monastic life
essential for salvation.
THE HISTORY STATION
 Spread of Jainism

Jainism spread across India, The earliest stone sculptures

with Jaina scholars producing from Jaina devotees have
literature in Prakrit, Sanskrit, been found at various sites
and Tamil. across the subcontinent.

THE HISTORY STATION

Gautam Buddha
 The Buddha and the Quest
How do we know about the
for Enlightenment
Nibbana
Buddha’s Teachings ?
Buddha emphasized
1. Buddhist Texts Teachings of the Buddha
individual action and
2. Hagiographies
righteousness to escape
3. Stories found in the
rebirth and attain Nibbana.
Sutta Pitaka

Transient & Soulless world Sorrow is Intrinsic

The world is transient and Sorrow is intrinsic to life.
constantly changing, with Following a balanced path
nothing permanent or between penance and
eternal. indulgence helps rise above
worldly pleasures.

THE HISTORY STATION

 Followers of the Buddha
Sangha Followers of the Buddha Internal Functioning
Monks who taught of the Sangha
Dhamma lived simply It was based on Gana
with only the essentials, Sanghas, where decisions
relying on alms, and
Theris
Many women in the Sangha were made by discussion or
were called Bhikkunis. vote if consensus failed.
became Dhamma teachers
and attained the respected
status of Theris, signifying
Women liberation. Varied Followers
Initially, only men could join Buddha’s followers came
the sangha, but later from diverse social groups,
women were admitted after including kings, wealthy
Ananda convinced Buddha. men, gahapatis, workers,
Mahapajapati Gotami was slaves, and craftsmen, all
the first woman ordained as regarded as equal.
a Bhikkuni."
THE HISTORY STATION
 Buddhism grew rapidly
Reasons behind its growth:

Buddhism emphasized conduct The emphasis on Metta (fellow

and values over claims of feeling) and Karuna (compassion)
superiority based on birth. attracted men and women to
Buddhist teachings.

THE HISTORY STATION

Sanchi Stupa
 Stupas
Chaityas 1. Where he was born - Lumbini
Sites with small shrines were called 2. Where he attained Enlightenment - Bodhgaya
Chaityas. Buddhist literature mentions 3. Where he gave his First Sermon - Sarnath
various chaityas and places linked to 4. Where he attained Nibbana - Kusinagara
the Buddha’s life.

Why were Stupas built?

Buddha's relics, such By the 2nd century,
as bodily remains or Stupas like those at
objects, were buried in Stupas may have pre- According to a Buddhist Bharhut, Sanchi, and
a mound called a Buddhist origins but became text - Ashokavadan, Asoka Sarnath were built.
Stupa. associated with Buddhism, distributed Buddha’s relics
housing sacred relics and to towns and built Stupas
becoming an emblem of the over them.
Buddha and Buddhism.
THE HISTORY STATION
 How were Stupas built?

Through Donations Donations were made by:

Inscriptions on Stupa railings 1. Kings
and pillars record donations 2. Guilds
for their construction and 3. Women
decoration. 4. Bhikkhus and Bhikkhunis

The Structure of the Stupa

Anda
The Stupa began as a
Railing
A railing surrounded
simple semi-circular Harmika Yashti, Chhatri
mound called Anda and Above the Anda was a A mast called Yashti rose the mound, separating
evolved into a more Harmika, representing from the Harmika, often the sacred space from
compact structure over the abode of the gods. topped with a Chhatri or the secular world.
time. umbrella.

THE HISTORY STATION

 The Structure of the Stupa - 2

Early stupas at Sanchi and Later, Stupas were adorned

Bharhut were plain, except for with intricate carvings and
the richly carved stone railings sculptures, like at Amaravati
and gateways at the four and Shah-ji-ki-Dheri in
cardinal points (East, West, Peshawar, Pakistan.
North, South).
Worshippers entered through
eastern gateways and walked
clockwise around the mound,
following the Sun’s path in the sky.

THE HISTORY STATION

 Discovering Stupas: Fate of
Amaravati and Sanchi.
In 1854, Walter Elliot, the Why did Sanchi survive
commissioner of Guntur, while Amaravati did not?
visited Amaravati and Amaravati was discovered
By the 1850s, some slabs from
collected several sculpture before scholars understood
Amaravati were moved to
panels. the importance of preserving
various locations, including
the Asiatic Society of Bengal valuable finds.
in Calcutta, the India Office in
Madras, and London.
He found remains of the western Archaeologist H.H. Cole
gateway and concluded that believed museums should
Amaravati was one of the have plaster-cast copies
largest and most splendid of sculptures, while the
Buddhist stupas ever built. originals should stay at
their found locations.

THE HISTORY STATION

 Sculpture: Stories in Stone
Vessantara Jataka
The sculpture depicts a rural scene This is a tale of a generous prince
with thatched huts and trees, who gave away all his possessions
identified by art historians as a to a Brahmana and then lived in
scene from the Vessantara Jataka. the forest with his family.

Symbols of Worship
Wheel
Art historians studied Symbols Represent the 1st
Buddha's hagiographies sermon of the
Many early sculptors
to understand Buddhist Empty Seat Buddha, delivered
sculpture. depicted the Buddha’s
Signify the at Sarnath.
presence through symbols
Buddha’s Stupa
rather than showing him in
meditation. Represent the
human form.
Mahaparinibbana
THE HISTORY STATION
Shalabhanjika
 Popular Traditions - 1
Sculptures that were not directly inspired by Buddhist Ideas:

Shalabhanjika Depictions of animals

A beautiful woman swinging from the At Sanchi, animal carvings include
edge of the gateway holding on to a elephants, horses, monkeys, and
tree is known as Shalabhanjika in cattle, reflecting the Jataka tales.
Sanskrit. These animals likely created lively
scenes to engage viewers.

According to a belief, this woman's The Shalabhanjika motif indicates

touch caused trees to flower and that many individuals who adopted
bear fruit, likely seen as an Buddhism enriched it with their Pre- Animals often symbolized
auspicious symbol and added to Buddhist and Non-Buddhist beliefs, human attributes; for instance,
Stupa decoration. practices, and ideas. elephants represented strength
and wisdom.

THE HISTORY STATION

 Popular Traditions - 2
Sculptures that were not directly inspired by Buddhist Ideas:

Maya and Gajalakshmi James Fergusson

A motif shows a woman surrounded Considered Sanchi to be a center of
by lotuses and elephants, seemingly tree and serpent worship. He was not
performing an Abhisheka or familiar with Buddhist Literature and
consecration. Some historians identify arrived at this Conclusion by studying
her as Maya. only the images on their own.

The figure is sometimes identified as Maya, the Serpent

Buddha’s mother, and sometimes as This motif, found on several
Gajalakshmi, the goddess of good fortune pillars, appears to come from
associated with elephants. Devotees identified popular traditions.
these figures with both Maya and Gajalakshmi.

THE HISTORY STATION

 New Religious Traditions
The Development of Mahayana Buddhism

Early Buddhist teachings Mahayana, meaning "Great

emphasize self-effort in achieving Vehicle," introduced a new way
Nibbana. The Buddha, as a human, of thinking. Followers referred to
attained enlightenment and the older tradition as Hinayana,
Nibbana through his own efforts. Bodhisattvas were seen as or the "Lower Vehicle."
compassionate beings who
accumulated merit to help others,
not for their own enlightenment.
Worship of Buddha and Bodhisattva
images became integral to this
tradition.

THE HISTORY STATION

 The Growth of Puranic Hinduism
1. Vaishnavism - Vishnu was Shiva was symbolized by
worshipped as the principal deity. the Linga, though he was
2. Shaivism - Shiva was regarded as sometimes also depicted
the Chief God. in human form.

In such worship, the bond Different avatars were

between the devotees and popular in various regions,
the god was visualized as and identifying local deities as
love and devotion or bhakti. Cults developed around the deity's forms of Vishnu helped unify
various avatars or incarnations. Ten the religious tradition.
avatars were recognized forms. These
incarnations were believed to appear
to save the world from disorder or
destruction caused by evil forces.

THE HISTORY STATION

Temple Building
in India
 Building Temples
Early temples were small square This tradition evolved and
rooms called Garbhagriha, with a reached its peak in the 8th
single doorway for worshippers century with the carving of
to enter and offer worship to the the entire Kailasnatha
deity's image. temple.

The tradition of constructing

Over time, a tall structure artificial caves dates back to
called the Shikhara was added ancient times. Asoka ordered
over the central shrine of some of the earliest ones in the
temples. Temple walls were 3rd century BCE for renouncers
often adorned with sculptures. of the Ajivika Sect.

Later temples became more Early temples were unique

elaborate, featuring assembly as some were carved out of
halls, large walls, gateways, large rocks as artificial
and facilities for water supply. caves.

THE HISTORY STATION

 Gappling with the Unfamiliar
Early scholars tried to understand Because these images resembled
unfamiliar images by comparing them Greek statues closely, they were
to sculptures they knew, like those These images were regarded as prime examples of
from Ancient Greece. They discovered discovered in cities like Taxila Early Indian art. Scholars then used
that images of the Buddha and and Peshawar in the a method called devising
bodhisattvas were influenced by northwest, where Indo-Greek yardsticks from familiar objects to
Greek models. rulers had founded kingdoms understand the unfamiliar.
in the 2nd century BCE.

If Text and Image do not Match

Sculpture along a huge rock surface in Mahabalipuram

Some art historians interpret this as Others interpret it as a scene from the
the descent of the river Ganga from Mahabharata, where Arjuna performs
heaven. penance on a riverbank to obtain divine
weapons, focusing on the central figure
THE HISTORY STATION of an ascetic.
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 Themes in Indian history part - 2
In Part 2 of the book you will study about....

our different The great empire our society

foreigners like
faiths like Alvars of south India - during the
Ibn Battuta who
and Nayanars Vijayanagar Mughals
visited our land

THE HISTORY STATION

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next 7 days.

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3. Enter the coupon code HISTORY20 at checkout.
4. Enjoy your 20% discount!