THE SECOND CHIMURENGA

[12] Why did the nationalists in Zimbabwe resort to the armed struggle?
[12] Outline the main grievances of the African nationalists in Rhodesia after the Second
World War. Why did they resort to the armed struggle?
*Main grievances
They protested against
-the Land Apportionment Act [LAA] and Land Husbandry Act [LHA]. The blacks resented land
alienation through various acts like LAA and LHA.
-discrimination at work [Industrial Conciliation Act of 1934] and in public places [They wanted
equal job opportunities].
-the Pass system [1936 Native Registration Act]
-low wages and poor working conditions throughout the colonial period
-exclusion from the franchise
-lack of adequate education facilities. They resented education colour bar.
-exclusion from civil service [job colour bar] -lack of adequate health
facilities.
*Why did they resort to the armed struggle?
-Negotiations had failed to bring about change.
-Successive nationalist parties had been banned and leaders detained.
-The Smith regime was becoming more and more oppressive [Law and Order Maintenance Act].
-Ian Douglas Smith declared UDI [Unilateral Declaration of Independence] in 1965 and Britain
refused to use force.
-Sanctions imposed on Smith by the UNO [United Nations Organisation] were violated by
Portugal and South Africa and proved ineffective.
There was influence from ex-servicemen. The ex-servicemen from World War Two spread
doctrines of liberty [freedom], equality, justice as well as nationalism.
-Africans wanted majority rule as opposed to white minority rule. They resented the fact that
the white minority controlled resources and means of production.
[12] Why did Zimbabwe’s independence from white colonial rule take so long to achieve?
It took so long for Africans to attain independence because of various reasons
Weaknesses of the Africans
-There was lack of unity among African nationalists. Some even collaborated with the whites.
-There was need for time to politicise the masses.
-Erroneous analysis by the political parties of their situations.
-There was infighting by the political parties.
Strengths of the whites
-Smith had many ways of fighting.

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-The whites arrested political leaders
-The Rhodesian front used some dirty tactics.
-The Rhodesian government was given support by South Africa, Portugal and other countries.
-The whites were totally determined to hold on to their acquired wealth.
-For some settlers, Rhodesia [Zimbabwe] was their only home.
[12]Evaluate the role played by the Front line states in Zimbabwe’s liberation struggle
between 1965 and 1980.
Pupils need to assess the significance of the role played by Front line states compared with
other factors in the struggle for the liberation of Zimbabwe.
Role played by Front line states
-They provided rear bases for both ZANLA and ZIPRA forces.
Front line states included Mozambique, Botswana, Tanzania, Malawi, Zambia, Angola and
Lesotho.
-They provided training camps for guerilla recruits in Mozambique, Tanzania and Botswana.
This was because training was difficult in the country [Zimbabwe].
-They provided headquarters of the liberation movements [ZANU and ZAPU].
-They received refugees, for example, in Botswana.
-They organised meetings to solve problems pertaining to the movement.
-They offered educational facilities for Zimbabweans.
-They facilitated military, financial and material aid.
-They spoke in support of the nationalist movements at various organisations like UNO, OAU,
Non-Aligned Movement and Commonwealth.
-They demanded the unity of the two main liberation movements [ZANU and ZAPU]. In other
words, they facilitated the alliance of ZANU and ZAPU to form the Patriotic Front.
-They provided diplomatic and moral support.
-They pressured the Patriotic Front to sign the Ceasefire Agreement at Lancaster House
Conference.
-They provided equipment.
-They provided food.
-They provided medical supplies / facilities. Other
factors

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China, Russia and Cuba also assisted.
-The International Community assisted through the UNO.
-Internal factors like the role of peasants, guerillas and the youths also contributed.
[12] ‘A crucial external force for successful execution of the armed struggle’. How fair is this
comment on the role played by Front line states in the liberation of Zimbabwe?
Pupils need to examine the impact of the contribution of the Frontline states on the effort of
the liberation movements [ZANU and ZAPU].
Role of Frontline states
-provided bases
-equipment
-food
-diplomatic aid -moral
support
-helped in training
*However, candidates may raise the following challenges
-The assassination of Herbert Chitepo on the Zambian soil and imprisonment of several ZANLA
commanders which derailed the armed struggle.
-Zambia’s role in the détente exercise that resulted in a lull in the guerilla war and confusion
among the guerillas.
[12] Evaluate the role played women in the liberation of Zimbabwe.
Pupils need to evaluate the role played by women as well as the role of other factors in the
liberation of Zimbabwe.
*Role of women during the war of liberation -Women
gave moral support to the freedom fighters.
-They washed clothes for comrades.
-They were a source of information.
*Role of other factors [other people, countries and organisations]
-Mujibas were baggage carriers, recruits, information providers and familiarised tours on the
geography of the areas, collected blankets, collected sell outs for punishment, spied and
provided morale during pungwes.
-Workers provided money, transport, medicines, books, clothes and radios.
-Missionaries provided centres for recruitment, medicine and hiding places for guerillas. -
Foreign countries like USSR [Russia], Yugoslavia, Namibia, China and Czechoslovakia provided
weapons and training of cadres.
-Front line states and OAU played great roles in liberating Zimbabwe.
[12] ‘The role of religion in the liberation struggle of Zimbabwe has been underestimated’.
How accurate is this assertion?

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Pupils need to assess the role of religion during the war with a view to determine the accuracy
of the statement. Candidates are expected to consider both African Traditional Religion and
Christianity.
Role of African Traditional Religion
-It was a source of inspiration to the fighters who regarded themselves as the bones of
Nehanda.
Key traditional religious leaders joined the guerillas in Mozambique to provide spiritual and
ideological leadership.
-The support that the traditional religious leaders lended to the struggle resulted in the
peasants following suit since traditional religion was their religion.
-Traditional religious leaders freely criticised the political leaders hence checking their abuse of
power.
-Religious leaders carried the message from the ancestors in support of the struggle hence
guerillas believed they were protected by the ancestors in their fight.
-It instilled discipline among the guerillas who were required to observe rules of the ancestors
such as respect for life.
-Due to the traditional religious beliefs, guerillas treated their prisoners of war humanly and
lived at peace with wildlife.
-Spirit mediums gave warning against imminent enemy attacks.
-Spirit mediums co-operated with guerillas in recruitment and politicisation of the fighters by
giving them blessings.
Role of Christianity
-Provided material support for guerillas-medicines and clothes.
-Provided shelter and food at mission stations near the borders with Mozambique such as Mt
Selinda, Mutamba, St Augustines and Hartzel.
-Mission schools were recruitment grounds for the guerillas.
-Promoted the doctrine of equality of men which the guerillas were fighting for.
-Also offered other forms of humanitarian assistance
-Provided material and spiritual support to refugees through the participation in welfare
programmes among refugees in Botswana, Zambia and Mozambique.
-Sought assurance of Marxist liberation movements that there would be freedom of worship in
a new Zimbabwe.
[12] Discuss the view that peasants contributed more to the liberation of Zimbabwe than the
International Community.
[12] Discuss the view that without peasants’ involvement, the guerillas would not have won
the war of liberation.
[12] How far can it be argued that the peasants played the most critical role in the success of
the armed struggle in Zimbabwe?

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[12] ‘The peasants played the most crucial role in the success of the armed struggle’. Do you
agree?
Pupils need to examine the role played by peasants as well as other factors in the liberation
struggle. Role of peasants
-The peasants included men and women, the boys [Mujibhas] and girls [Chimbwidos]. Their
roles included the following.
-There was a general failure of the initial phases of the liberation struggle prior to peasant
involvement [1966-72]. There was need to change tactics by incorporating peasants into the
armed struggle as realised by Herbert Chitepo of ZANU and Chikerema of ZAPU.
-The Mujibhas [young men] and Chimbwidos [young women] provided morale and information
on enemy movements.
Mujibhas and Chimbwidos alsocarried supplies from one base to another and they were
messengers.
-Peasants cooked and offered food, new recruits and all necessary logistics.
-Peasants organised pungwes.
-Peasants acted as the sea in which the fish swam. They provided essential cover as according
to Mao Tse Tung, “the masses were the water and the guerillas were the fish”.
-Peasants provided shelter to the guerillas.
-Peasants acted as spies for guerillas.
-Peasants sabotaged infrastructure.
Role of other factors
a] The International community
-Frontline states, Eastern Bloc [Communist Bloc] provided arms and training, Western countries
and OAU all contributed
-The humanitarian organisations of the UNO also played their part
-China, USSR, Mozambique, Malawi, Tanzania, Zambia and Lesotho are to be credited for
provision of bases for training, weapons, educational support, food, moral support and other
humanitarian considerations.
b] The war could however, not have been won without the guerillas who fought on the battle
front and politicised the masses.
[12] Assess the view that external influence was vital in the attainment of Zimbabwe’s
independence.
-Pupils need to examine the role of external influence in the effort to gain majority rule in
Zimbabwe as well as the role of other factors.
Role of external influence
-The Frontline states
-The OAU/AU [liberation committee gave guns and pushed for PF unity].
-The Eastern Bloc

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-The Western countries
-The Commonwealth
-The UNO
-USA and Britain put pressure on Rhodesia to give independence.
Internal factors
-The liberation movements [ZANU and ZAPU].
-The urban workers
-The peasants
-The guerillas
[12]How effective was the resort to ‘dirty war’ tactics by the Rhodesian army in fighting
against the guerillas?
Pupils need to assess the impact of the use of unorthodox way of fighting by the Rhodesian
security forces during the war.
-Effects of the activities of the Selous Scouts.
-Effects of chemical warfare.
-Effects of food and water poisoning. -Effects
of keeps [protected villages].
Effects of the bombing of refugee camps in neighbouring countries [Tembwe, Nyadzonyaand
Chimoio-Mozambique and freedom camp-Zambia].
*Pupils must also highlight counter measures by the guerillas.
[12] ‘External pressure rather than the effects of the liberation war forced Ian Smith and the
leaders of the liberation movements to the negotiating table’. How valid is this statement/
Pupils need to examine the reasons which brought Zimbabwe’s liberation war to an end.
Role of external pressure
-Pressure on Smith was also coming from the United Nations Organisation.
-South Africa was threatening to cut off both military and other forms of assistance to Ian
Smith.
-The liberation movements were also facing pressure from OAU and the Frontline states.
Role of the effects of the liberation war
*On the other hand, the effects of the war in the country also contributed to bringing the war
to an end.
-Insecurity of both blacks and whites had reached unacceptable levels.
-Economic disruption was destroying the economy.
-The death toll for both combatants and civilians was rising.
-Both sides were suffering from war weariness.
-The costs of conducting the war were now unbearable for Ian Douglas Smith.

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[12]How effective were the strategies used by Ian Douglas Smith to thwart the liberation
struggle in Zimbabwe?
Pupils need to examine the different ways used by Smith to weaken the efforts of nationalists in
their quest to attain independence through the barrel of the gun.
-Banning of political parties
-Detention without trial of nationalist leaders
-Conscription of blacks into their army to boost the numbers -Driving
the Africans into protected villages.
-Cross border aerial bombardment, for example, in Mozambique-Chimoio [1977], 900 refugees
mainly children and women were killed, in Zambia-Victory farm [1978], 330 refugees including
200 girls were killed.
-Sowing the seeds of division by assassinating prominent nationalists like Herbert Chitepo
[ZANU-PF] and Jason Ziyapapa Moyo [PF-ZAPU].
-Indiscriminate killing of civilians especially in rural areas
-The Internal Settlement with moderate nationalists -The
scorched earth policy.

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