GGSR

Lawrence Kohlberg is an American psychologist

WEEK 3
and educator known for his theory of moral
development.
Normative Ethics is a branch of moral philosophy that focusses on
prescribing how individuals ought to behave and what actions are morally
permissible, required, or forbidden.
Kohlberg’s stages of moral development build
upon the earlier work of Jean Piaget and
It is concerned with providing guidelines and principles for
evaluating the morality of human actions and character. expand on the cognitive aspects of moral
decision
The nature of normative ethics can be understood through several making.
key characteristics: 1. Prescriptive Nature
- it provides normative guidelines and recommendations for Jean Piaget is a psychologist who developed a theory of cognitive
moral behavior. It is concerned with what people should do or how development focussed on intellectual development of children.
they ought to act in various situations.

2. Objective Evaluation
- Normative ethics aims to establish objective standards for
KOHLBERG’S MODEL OF DEVELOPMENT
evaluating the moral quality of actions. It seeks to determine
whether actions are right or wrong, good or bad, based on a Level 1: Pre-conventional Morality
set of ethical principles or theories. Stage 1: Obedience and Punishment Orientation (Pre-Moral):
> Orientation: Children at this stage focus on avoiding punishment.
3. Ethical Theories > Moral Reasoning: They follow rules to avoid
- Normative ethics encompasses various ethical theories that
punishment and obedience is motivated by the threat of
propose different principles or criteria for determining what is
punishment.
morally right or wrong. Common ethical theories include
consequentialism, deontology, virtue ethics, and contractualism.
Stage 2: Individualism and Exchange (Instrumental
Purpose and Exchange): > Orientation: Individuals
>> Consequentialism: Focusses on the outcomes or
consider their own interests.
consequences of actions. The morality of an action is judged
> Moral Reasoning: They recognise that different
based on the overall good or bad consequences it produces.
individuals have different interests, and they make
decision based on reciprocity and equal exchange.
>>Deontology: Emphasises the inherent nature of actions and
adherence to moral rules or duties. Certain actions are considered
inherently right or wrong, regardless of their consequences.
Level 2: Conventional Morality
Stage3: Interpersonal Relationships (Good Boy-
>>Virtue Ethics: Centers on the development of virtuous character
Nice Girl Orientation): > Orientation: Individuals
traits. Morality is seen as residing in the cultivation of virtues like
seek permission from others.
honesty, courage, and compassion.
> Moral Reasoning: Conforming to social norms and
>>Contractualism: Examines the moral principles that rational expectations is sees as “good,” and decisions are made
individuals would agree upon in forming a social contract for to maintain positive relations.
cooperative living.
Stage 4: Maintaining Social Order (Law and Order Orientation)
4. Universal Principles. > Orientation: Maintaining the social order is important.
- Normative ethics seeks universal principles that can be applied > Moral Reasoning: Respect for authority and adherence to
consistently across different cultures, societies, and situations. societal rules become crucial. Upholding the law is seen as a
It aspires to establish a common ground for evaluating moral way to maintain social order.
actions.
Level 3: Post-conventional Morality
5. Reasoning and Justification:
- Normative ethics involves reasoning and justification for moral Stage 5: Social Contract and Individual Rights (Social
principles and rules. It aims to provide rational arguments for why certain Contract Orientation): > Orientation: Recognition of the
actions are morally right or wrong, helping individuals navigate ethical diversity of opinions and values.
dilemmas. > Moral Reasoning: Individuals at this stage recognise the
importance of social contracts, and decisions are made
6. Application to Real-Life Situations: based on what is fair and just, even if it goes against
- Normative ethics is not purely theoretical but is meant to established laws.
guide individuals in making ethical decisions in real-life situations. It
provides a framework fro moral decision making in various contexts. Stage 6: Universal Principles (Principled Conscience):
>Orientation: Development of an individual’s moral principles.
7. Conflict Resolution: GGSR
- Given that different ethical theories may lead to conflicting > Moral Reasoning: Individuals operate based on universal
conclusions in certain situations, normative ethics also addresses how ethical principles, such as justice, equality, and human rights.
to resolve such conflicts and prioritise principles when they come into They are willing to disobey laws that conflict with these
tension. principles.

The Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development Critiques and Considerations:

Lawrence Kohlberg is a psychologist who 1. Cultural Bias: Kohlberg’s theory has been criticised for potential
developed a theory of moral development that cultural bias, as it may not be universally applicable across
outlines stages through which individuals progress different cultural contexts.
as they develop their moral reasoning.
2. Gender Bias: Some argue that the stages were initially
developed based on male subjects, leading to potential
gender bias in the theory.
 3. Limited Emphasis on Action: Kohlberg’s theory focusses
on moral reasoning rather than moral action, which may
not fully capture the complexity of moral behaviour. WEEK 4

Jeremy Bentham was a British philosopher and

Niccolò Machiavelli (born May 3, 1469, jurist who is best known for developing the ethical
Florence [Italy]—died June 21, 1527, theory of utilitarianism. Utilitarianism is a
Florence) Italian Renaissance political consequentialist ethical theory that asserts that the moral worth of an
philosopher and statesman, secretary of action is determined solely by its consequences.
the Florentine republic, whose most famous
work, The Prince (Il According to Bentham, the principle of utility should
Principe), brought him a reputation as an guide individuals and societies in making decisions,
atheist and an immoral aiming to maximize overall happiness or pleasure
cynic. and minimize overall suffering or pain.

"Machiavellian principles" typically refers to the political philosophy

and tactics associated with Niccolò Machiavelli, particularly as Here are some key aspects of Bentham's utilitarianism:
outlined in his seminal work, "The Prince," written in the 16th century.
Machiavelli's ideas are often characterized by their pragmatism, 1. Principle of Utility: Bentham's utilitarianism is grounded in the
focus on power dynamics, and willingness to use any means principle of utility, which states that the right action is the one
necessary to achieve and maintain control. that produces the greatest happiness for the greatest number
of people. Utility, in this context, refers to the balance of
pleasure over pain.
Key Principles commonly associated with Machiavellianism:
1. Ends Justify the Means: Perhaps the most famous principle 2. Hedonistic Calculus: Bentham proposed a method called the
attributed to Machiavelli is the idea that achieving one's goals "hedonistic calculus" to measure the amount of pleasure and
is paramount, regardless of the methods used. He famously pain generated by different actions. He identified several
wrote, "It is better to be feared than loved, if you cannot be factors that should be considered in this calculus, including
both." intensity, duration, certainty, propinquity, fecundity, purity, and
extent.
2. Pragmatism over Morality: Machiavelli advised rulers to
prioritize practical considerations over moral principles. He 3. Quantitative Approach: Bentham's utilitarianism is often
argued that leaders should be willing to set aside notions of characterized by its quantitative approach to ethics. He
right and wrong in pursuit of their objectives. believed that pleasure and pain could be measured and
compared mathematically, allowing individuals to calculate
3. Political Realism: Machiavelli emphasized a realistic which action would produce the greatest overall utility.
understanding of politics, grounded in the acknowledgment of
human nature's flaws and the inherent competition for power. He 4. Universalism: Bentham argued that the principle of utility should
believed that effective rulers must be shrewd judges of character be applied universally, without favoritism or bias toward
and adept at manipulating circumstances to their advantage. particular individuals or groups. This universalistic approach
aims to promote the greatest good for all members of society.
4. Deception and Manipulation: Machiavelli recognized the
utility of deception and manipulation in politics. He advised 5. Legal and Political Theory: Bentham applied utilitarian
rulers to master the art of deceit when necessary, using principles to various areas of law and governance, advocating
propaganda, misinformation, and other tactics to control for social and legal reforms that would maximize utility. He
public opinion and undermine rivals. believed that laws and institutions should be designed to
promote the happiness and well-being of society as a whole.
5. Maintaining Power: Machiavelli stressed the importance of GGSR
maintaining power and stability in a ruler's domain. He argued
that rulers should prioritize strategies that secure their Immanuel Kant was a German philosopher who is widely regarded
authority and prevent internal discord or external threats. as one of the most influential figures in modern philosophy. His ethical
theory, often referred to as Kantian ethics or deontological ethics, is
6. Flexibility and Adaptability: Machiavelli emphasized the based on the idea that morality is grounded in rationality and the
importance of flexibility in political strategy, advising rulers to adapt concept of duty. Kant's ethical framework provides an alternative
their tactics to changing circumstances. He cautioned against rigid approach to ethics compared to consequentialist theories like
adherence to fixed principles that could become liabilities. utilitarianism.

7. Divide and Conquer: Machiavelli advocated for strategies

that exploit divisions among opponents, weakening their Here are some key aspects of Kantian ethics:
collective strength and making them easier to defeat or 1. Categorical Imperative: Kant's central ethical principle is the
control. concept of the categorical imperative, which he formulates in
several ways. One formulation is: "Act only according to that
8. The Illusion of Virtue: Machiavelli recognized the value of maxim whereby you can at the same time will that it should
appearing virtuous and moral while privately pursuing become a universal law." This means that moral actions are
self-interested goals. He advised rulers to cultivate a public those that can be consistently willed as universal laws
image of integrity and benevolence, even if their actions were applicable to all rational beings.
motivated by self-interest.
2. Autonomy and Rationality: Kant emphasizes the importance of
autonomy and rationality in moral decision- making. He
argues that individuals have inherent worth and dignity as
rational agents and should be treated as ends in themselves,
rather than merely as means to an end.

3. Duty and Obligation: According to Kant, moral actions are those

that are performed out of a sense of duty, as determined by
 the categorical imperative. Moral duties are derived from or circumstances of birth. It aims to ensure that everyone has a fair
rational principles that apply universally, regardless of personal chance to pursue their life plans and aspirations.
desires or consequences.
4. The Priority of Liberty: Rawls assigns priority to the first principle of
justice (the principle of equal basic liberties) over the second principle
4. Universalizability: Kantian ethics emphasizes the (the difference principle). This means that restrictions on individual
universalizability of moral principles. Actions are morally liberties can only be justified if they are necessary to protect or preserve
permissible only if their maxims can be consistently applied those same liberties for others.
as universal laws without contradiction. This criterion helps
individuals evaluate the moral permissibility of their actions.

5. Respect for Persons: Kantian ethics requires individuals to Thomas Hobbes was a prominent English
respect the inherent dignity and autonomy of all rational philosopher best known for his political and moral
beings. This entails treating others with dignity, fairness, and philosophy, particularly expounded in his famous work
honesty, and refraining from using them merely as means to "Leviathan." While Hobbes is not typically associated
achieve personal ends. with legal positivism in the modern sense, his views
on law, authority, and political sovereignty do bear
some resemblance to certain aspects of legal
6. The Good Will: Kant identifies the good will as the highest moral positivism.
good, irrespective of the consequences of actions. A good will
is characterized by a commitment to moral duty and the
rational pursuit of moral principles, rather than mere inclination Here are some key elements of Hobbes' political and legal
or self-interest. philosophy that align with aspects of legal positivism:

1. Law as Sovereign Command: Hobbes famously argued that the

foundation of political authority lies in a social contract where individuals
surrender certain rights to a sovereign ruler or government in exchange
for security and order. In this framework, laws derive their legitimacy
from the authority of the sovereign, who has the power to enforce them.
This perspective resonates with legal positivism's emphasis on law as
John Rawls, an American philosopher, is best known for his work on the product of human will or authority rather than moral considerations.
political philosophy, particularly his theory of justice as fairness. In his
seminal work, "A Theory of Justice," Rawls presents a framework for 2. Artificial Person of the State: Hobbes conceptualized the state as
determining principles of justice that would govern an "artificial person" created by the social contract, with the sovereign
the basic structure of a just society. serving as the representative of this entity. From this perspective, laws
are the commands of this artificial person, binding on individuals by
virtue of their membership in the political community. This understanding
Key principles of justice according to John Rawls:
1. The Two Principles of Justice: Rawls proposes two principles of
GGSR
justice that he argues would be chosen by individuals in a hypothetical parallels legal positivism's focus on the role of human institutions in
"original position" behind a veil of ignorance. This veil prevents creating and enforcing legal norms.
individuals from knowing their own place in society, including their
sociaÍl 3. Absence of Natural Law: Hobbes famously rejected the existence of
natural law in the sense of moral principles or rights inherent in human
nature. Instead, he argued that moral and legal norms derive their
status, wealth, talents, or abilities. Under these conditions, Rawls authority from positive laws enacted by the sovereign. This rejection of
suggests that individuals would choose the following principles: natural law aligns with the positivist view that law is distinct from morality
and does not depend on moral considerations for its validity.
a. The First Principle of Justice (The Principle of Equal Basic
Liberties): This principle states that each person is to have an
equal right to the most extensive basic liberties compatible with DIVINE COMMAND THEORY
similar liberties for others. These basic liberties include political DIVINE COMMAND ETHICS, also known as divine command theory, is a
liberties (e.g., freedom of speech, assembly, and conscience) moral theory that posits that ethical principles or moral obligations are
and personal freedoms (e.g., freedom from arbitrary arrest, dependent on the commands or will of a divine being or deity. In other
freedom of religion). words, actions are morally right or wrong because they are commanded
or prohibited by God. This perspective asserts that morality is ultimately
b. The Second Principle of Justice (The Difference Principle): grounded in the nature and will of a higher power.
This principle concerns social and economic inequalities. It
states that social and economic inequalities are permissible Key aspects of divine command ethics include:
only if they benefit the least advantaged members of society. 1. Divine Authority: According to divine command theory, moral
In other words, inequalities in wealth, income, and social principles derive their authority from the commands or decrees
status are justified only if they improve the situation of the of a divine being, such as God. These commands are
least well-off individuals in society. considered the ultimate source of moral guidance and
authority, superseding human reasoning or societal norms.
2. The Original Position and the Veil of Ignorance: Rawls uses the 2. Objective Morality: Divine command theorists typically argue for
concept of the original position and the veil of ignorance as a thought an objective basis of morality, wherein moral truths exist
experiment to determine the principles of justice. In this hypothetical independently of human opinions or cultural conventions.
scenario, individuals are rational, self-interested, and unaware of their Morality is understood as being rooted in the nature and
personal characteristics. Rawls argues that behind the veil of ignorance, character of God, and the divine commands serve as the
individuals would choose principles of justice that are fair and impartial, objective standard by which moral judgments are made.
as they would not know which position they would occupy in society.
3. Obligation and Duty: Divine command ethics emphasizes the
3. Fair Equality of Opportunity: Rawls also emphasizes idea of moral obligation or duty to obey God's commands.
the importance of fair equality of opportunity as a fundamental aspect of Actions are deemed morally right or wrong based on whether
justice. This principle requires that social and economic opportunities be they conform to or violate divine commands. Thus, individuals
equally available to all individuals, regardless of their social background
 are obligated to act in accordance with God's will, regardless
of personal desires or consequences.

4. Interpretation and Revelation: One challenge within divine

command theory is the interpretation of divine commands.
Given that humans may differ in their understanding of CHAPTER 3: GOOD GOVERNANCE & CODE OF ETHICS
religious texts or revelations, there can be disagreements about
the content and interpretation of God's commands. Governance
Additionally, believers may differ in their views on how to - is the process of making and enforcing decisions within an
discern divine will, leading to diversity within religious organization or society. It encompasses decision- making,
communities. rule-setting, and enforcement mechanisms to guide the
functioning of an organization or society.
5. Critiques and Challenges: Divine command ethics has faced
various criticisms. Some critics argue that it can lead to moral Code of Ethics
relativism or arbitrariness, as moral principles become - A set of rules and principles designed to encourage ethical
contingent on the particular commands of a deity. Others conduct among a group of professionals
question the coherence of grounding morality solely in divine
commands, as it may not provide a satisfactory explanation for
Ethics and values play a crucial role in shaping the moral
why certain actions are deemed morally right or wrong.
dimensions of governance. Here's how they intersect:

Ethical egoism, as espoused by Ayn Rand, is a moral philosophy Ethics in Governance:

1. Integrity in Decision-Making: Ethical governance involves
that asserts individuals ought to act in their own rational self- interest
making decisions based on moral principles rather than
as their highest ethical duty. Ayn Rand, a Russian-American
personal interests or biases. Leaders and decision makers
should act with integrity and honesty, prioritizing the common
Here are the main tenets of Ayn Rand's ethical egoism:
1. Self-Interest as the Ultimate Moral Principle: Ethical egoism good over individual gain.
holds that individuals should pursue their own self- interest as GGSR
their primary moral obligation. According to 2. Transparency and Accountability: Ethical governance requires
transparency in decision-making processes and accountability
Rand, self-interest is not to be equated with selfishness or for actions taken. When decisions are made openly and
narrow self-centeredness but rather with rational self-interest, stakeholders have access to information, trust in governance
which involves pursuing one's long-term well being, happiness, institutions is enhanced.
and flourishing.
3. Fairness and Equity: Ethical governance emphasizes fairness
2. Rationality and Individualism: Rand emphasizes the and equity in the distribution of resources, opportunities, and
importance of reason as the primary means of survival and benefits. Policies and practices should be designed to
flourishing for individuals. She argues that individuals have minimize disparities and promote social justice.
the capacity for rational thought and should use it to guide their
actions in pursuit of their values and goals. 4. Respect for Human Rights: Ethical governance upholds the
principles of human rights, dignity, and equality. Policies and
Ethical egoism is grounded in the idea that individuals are actions should respect and protect the rights of all individuals,
ends in themselves and have the right to pursue their own regardless of their background or status.
happiness without sacrificing it for the sake of others.
5. Responsiveness to Stakeholders: Ethical governance
3. Virtue of Selfishness: Rand advocates for a virtue of involves listening to and addressing the needs and
selfishness, arguing that individuals should prioritize their concerns of stakeholders. Decision-makers should be
own rational self-interest over the interests of others. She responsive to the voices of citizens, communities, and other
rejects altruism, the idea that individuals have a moral affected parties.
obligation to sacrifice themselves for the sake of others, and
instead promotes the idea that self interest and the pursuit of
one's own values are morally virtuous. Values in Governance:
1. Public Service: Governance guided by values prioritizes public
service and the well being of society as a whole. Public officials
4. Non-Aggression Principle: While Rand advocates for the
pursuit of self-interest, she also emphasizes the importance and institutions are entrusted with serving the interests of the
of respecting the rights and autonomy of others. Ethical people they represent.
egoism, as Rand conceives it, does not entail exploiting or
2. Integrity: Values such as honesty, transparency, and
harming others for one's own gain. Instead, it involves
accountability are foundational to effective governance.
voluntary interactions and exchanges that respect the rights
Upholding integrity in all actions and decisions helps to build
of all parties involved.
trust and credibility in governance institutions.
5. Capitalism and Individual Rights: Rand's ethical egoism is
3. Justice and Equity: Governance driven by values seeks to
closely aligned with her advocacy for laissez-faire capitalism
achieve justice and equity in the distribution of resources
and individual rights. She argues that a social system based on
and opportunities. Policies should aim to reduce
individual rights, private property, and free markets is the most
inequalities and promote inclusive development.
conducive to human flourishing and the pursuit of self-interest.
In her view, capitalism provides individuals with the freedom to
4. Rule of Law: Values such as respect for the rule of law ensure
pursue their own goals and values without coercion or
that governance processes are conducted within a
interference from others.
framework of established norms and principles. Upholding
the rule of law safeguards against arbitrary exercise of
power and promotes stability and predictability.

5. Ethical Leadership: Governance values emphasize the

importance of ethical leadership, characterized by integrity,
empathy, and a commitment to serving the public good.
 WEEK 7
Ethics and Values
- provide the moral foundation for governance, guiding decision- Situational influences on ethical behaviour
making processes and shaping the behavior of leaders and - refer to the external factors and circumstances that can impact
institutions. individuals' ethical decision-making and behaviour in specific
situations. These influences can shape how individuals
- When governance is guided by ethical principles and values, perceive ethical dilemmas, the choices they make, and their
it is more likely to promote justice, fairness, and the actions.
common good, fostering trust and legitimacy among
citizens. Here are several situational factors that can influence ethical
behavior:
- Individual influences on ethical behavior are diverse and can be
shaped by a combination of personal characteristics, social 1. Time Pressure: When individuals face time constraints or deadlines,
factors, cultural norms, and situational contexts. they may feel pressure to make quick decisions, potentially
leading them to overlook ethical considerations or take shortcuts
to save time.
Here are some key factors that influence ethical behaviour at the
individual level: 1. Personal Values and Beliefs: Individuals' ethical
2. Resource Constraints: Limited resources, such as budgetary
behavior is often influenced by their personal values, beliefs, and
constraints or insufficient manpower, can create ethical dilemmas
principles. These values may be shaped by upbringing, education,
where individuals may be tempted to compromise ethical
religious or philosophical beliefs, and life experiences. For example,
standards to achieve desired outcomes or meet organizational
someone who values honesty highly is more likely to behave ethically
goals.
in situations where honesty is required.
3. Ambiguity and Uncertainty: Situations characterized by ambiguity
2. Moral Development: Moral development theory suggests that
or uncertainty can make it challenging for individuals to discern the
individuals go through different stages of moral reasoning
ethical course of action. In such cases, individuals may rely on
and understanding as they mature. Factors such as cognitive
heuristics or default to familiar patterns of behavior rather than
development, socialization, and exposure to diverse
carefully considering ethical implications.
perspectives can influence how individuals perceive ethical
issues and make moral judgments.
4. Organizational Culture: The culture and climate within an
organization can exert significant influence on ethical behavior. A
3. Psychological Factors: Psychological traits and characteristics,
culture that prioritizes integrity, transparency, and ethical decision-
such as empathy, conscientiousness, moral identity, and
making is more likely to promote ethical behavior among
ethical sensitivity, can influence individuals' inclination to
employees, while a toxic or unethical culture may normalize
engage in ethical behavior. For instance, individuals with high
unethical conduct.
levels of empathy may be more likely to consider the impact of
their actions on others and act in ways that minimize harm.
5. Leadership Behavior: The behavior and actions of leaders within an
organization can set the tone for ethical behavior among
4. Ethical Leadership: Leaders and role models within
employees. Ethical leaders who demonstrate integrity, fairness,
organizations and communities can significantly influence the
and accountability are more likely to inspire ethical conduct among
ethical behavior of individuals. Ethical leaders who
their followers, whereas unethical leadership may undermine
demonstrate integrity, fairness, and accountability set a positive
ethical norms and encourage misconduct.
example and inspire others to follow suit. Conversely, unethical
behavior by leaders can undermine ethical norms and
6. Peer Pressure: Social influences from peers and coworkers can
encourage misconduct among followers.
affect individuals' ethical behavior. Employees may conform to the
ethical standards and behaviors of their social groups, especially if
5. Social Norms and Peer Influence: Social norms and peer
they perceive pressure to fit in or fear social rejection or ostracism.
pressure play a significant role in shaping individual behavior,
including ethical conduct. People often conform to the ethical
7. Incentive Structures: Organizational incentive structures, such as
standards and expectations of their social groups, seeking
performance targets, bonuses, or rewards, can influence
acceptance and approval from peers. This influence can either
individuals' ethical decision-making. When incentives are tied to
reinforce ethical behavior or lead individuals to compromise
specific outcomes or metrics without sufficient regard for ethical
their values to fit in with the group.
considerations, individuals may prioritize achieving goals over
ethical behavior.
6. Organizational Culture and Climate: The culture and climate
within organizations can impact employees' ethical behavior.
8. Legal and Regulatory Framework: The legal and regulatory
Organizations that prioritize ethics, promote transparency, and
environment in which individuals operate can shape their ethical
provide clear guidelines for ethical conduct are more likely to
behavior by defining permissible actions and setting standards for
foster a culture of integrity and ethical decision-making.
conduct. Compliance with legal requirements may influence
Conversely, a toxic or unethical organizational culture can
individuals' perceptions of what is ethically acceptable, although
create pressures that lead individuals to engage in unethical
legal compliance does not always align with ethical behavior.
behavior.
9. Perceived Consequences: Individuals' perceptions of the potential
7. Situational Factors: Ethical behavior can also be influenced by
consequences of their actions can influence their ethical
the specific circumstances or context in which individuals find
decision-making. Factors such as perceived risks, benefits, and
themselves. Factors such as time pressure, resource
likelihood of detection may affect individuals willingness to engage
constraints, perceived consequences, and the presence of
in unethical behavior.
authority figures can affect individuals' ethical decision-making
processes. In some situations, individuals may face ethical
10. Ethical Guidance and Support: The availability of ethical guidance,
dilemmas where competing values or interests must be support, and resources within an organization can influence
balanced. individuals' ethical behavior. Clear ethical guidelines, training
programs, and access to ethical advisors or mentors can help
individuals navigate ethical dilemmas and make principled
decisions.