Parenting Styles in Zambia: An Overview and Implications for Child Development

Parenting styles are the general patterns of behaviors and attitudes that parents
exhibit toward their children. Different parenting styles can have different
effects on children's development, health, and well-being. In this article, we will
review the four main parenting styles: indulgent, authoritarian, authoritative, and
uninvolved, and discuss how they are practiced and perceived in Zambia, a sub-
Saharan African country with diverse cultural and socioeconomic contexts. We will
also explore the implications of parenting styles for early childhood development
(ECD), which is crucial for children's cognitive, emotional, social, behavioral,
and physical development. Finally, we will provide some recommendations for
promoting positive parenting practices that support optimal child development in
Zambia.

The Four Main Parenting Styles

According to Baumrind (1967, 1971), who first proposed the concept of parenting
styles, there are two dimensions of parenting: responsiveness and demandingness.
Responsiveness refers to the extent to which parents are sensitive, supportive, and
responsive to their children's needs and emotions. Demandingness refers to the
extent to which parents have expectations, rules, and standards for their
children's behavior and performance. Based on these two dimensions, Baumrind
identified three parenting styles: authoritative, authoritarian, and permissive.
Later, Maccoby and Martin (1983) added a fourth style: uninvolved. These four
parenting styles are briefly described below:

• Authoritative parents are balanced and flexible with their children. They have
reasonable rules and expectations, and they enforce them with consistent and fair
consequences. They are responsive to their children's needs and emotions, and they
value independence and individuality. Authoritative parents are warm and
supportive, and they provide guidance and structure. Children of authoritative
parents tend to be confident and competent, as they are encouraged to explore and
learn. They have high self-esteem and self-regulation, as they are taught to
respect themselves and others. They have good social and academic skills, as they
are able to cooperate and communicate effectively (Baumrind, 1967, 1971; Maccoby &
Martin, 1983).

• Authoritarian parents are very strict and demanding with their children. They
have many rules and expectations, and they enforce them with harsh punishments.
They are unresponsive to their children's needs and emotions, and they value
obedience and conformity over individuality and autonomy. Authoritarian parents may
be cold and hostile, or they may be warm and caring. Children of authoritarian
parents tend to be obedient and respectful, but they may also be fearful and
anxious. They may have low self-esteem and self-expression, as they are afraid of
making mistakes and displeasing their parents. They may have difficulty coping with
stress and challenges, as they lack problem-solving and decision-making skills
(Baumrind, 1967, 1971; Maccoby & Martin, 1983).

• Permissive parents are very lenient and permissive with their children. They
have few rules and expectations, and they rarely enforce consequences. They are
responsive to their children's needs and desires, but they do not provide much
guidance or structure. Permissive parents may be affectionate and supportive, or
they may be indifferent and neglectful. Children of permissive parents tend to have
low self-control and self-regulation, as they are used to getting their way. They
may also have low self-esteem and academic achievement, as they lack motivation and
discipline. They may have difficulty respecting authority and following social
norms (Baumrind, 1967, 1971; Maccoby & Martin, 1983).

• Uninvolved parents are detached and indifferent with their children. They have
few or no rules and expectations, and they rarely monitor or supervise their
children's activities. They are unresponsive to their children's needs and
emotions, and they value their own interests and well-being over their children's.
Uninvolved parents may be neglectful and abusive, or they may be overwhelmed and
depressed. Children of uninvolved parents tend to be insecure and unhappy, as they
feel unloved and unwanted. They may have low self-esteem and self-control, as they
lack support and guidance. They may have poor social and academic outcomes, as they
lack skills and resources (Maccoby & Martin, 1983).

Parenting Styles in Zambia

Zambia is a landlocked country in southern Africa, with a population of about 18

million people. It has a rich and diverse cultural heritage, with over 70 ethnic
groups and languages. Zambia also faces many social and economic challenges, such
as poverty, inequality, unemployment, illiteracy, malnutrition, disease, and
violence. These factors may influence the parenting practices and beliefs of
Zambian parents, as well as the development and well-being of Zambian children.

There is limited research on parenting styles in Zambia, but some studies have
explored the traditional and contemporary parenting practices and perceptions of
Zambian parents and children. For example, a study by UNICEF and the Ministry of
General Education (MoGE) in 2018 investigated the traditional parenting and child
care practices in 10 districts across five Zambian provinces, using qualitative
methods such as interviews and focus group discussions. The study aimed to inform
parenting programs intended to promote optimal ECD outcomes by understanding the
cultural context in which children develop. The study found that Zambian parents
have diverse and complex parenting practices and beliefs, influenced by various
factors such as ethnicity, religion, education, gender, location, and socioeconomic
status. The study also identified some common themes and patterns across the study
districts, which are summarized below:

• General care: Mothers in the study districts typically have primary

responsibility for the general care of their children, such as feeding, bathing,
dressing, and health care. Older siblings, relatives, and neighbors also frequently
care for children, and in the case of older siblings this often includes tasks such
as feeding, bathing, dressing, and disciplining. Sibling help allows mothers to
share the burden of care and engage in activities such as farming and household
tasks. Many fathers are largely absent from everyday activities in the household,
although a few fathers in the study reported helping with child care. In some
cases, mothers take over fathers' traditional role as the breadwinner. Service
providers reported that the absence of fathers typically is caused by unemployment
and, in some cases, alcohol abuse (UNICEF & MoGE, 2018).

• Approaches to learning: Respondents indicated that they generally value

creativity and curiosity in children. However, in some cases overly curious
children are viewed negatively, as they may ask too many questions or challenge
authority. Play and games (either independent or with other children) are
considered key ways through which children learn and curiosity and creativity are
fostered. Games and activities with practical applications (such as basket-weaving
or repairing household objects) are highly valued, as they prepare children to
perform income generating activities as they mature. Formal education is also
valued, but access and quality are often limited, especially in rural areas. Some
parents reported sending their children to school late or irregularly, due to
factors such as distance, cost, safety, and work. Some parents also reported being
dissatisfied with the quality of education and the teachers' attitudes and
behaviors. Some parents expressed a preference for traditional or religious
education over formal education, as they felt it was more relevant and respectful
of their culture and values (UNICEF & MoGE, 2018).
• Health and nutrition: Respondents reported various practices and beliefs related
to health and nutrition of their children. Some practices are beneficial, such as
exclusive breastfeeding for the first six months, immunization, and hygiene. Some
practices are harmful, such as early and forced marriage, female genital
mutilation, and child labor. Some practices are mixed, such as traditional
medicine, dietary restrictions, and rituals. Traditional medicine is widely used,
especially in rural areas, where access to modern health care is limited.
Traditional medicine includes herbal remedies, spiritual healing, and traditional
birth attendants. Some traditional medicinal practices are beneficial, such as
using herbs to treat common ailments or prevent infections. Some traditional
medicinal practices are harmful, such as bathing a baby without soap and having the
baby drink the bathwater to prevent illness and evil spirits. Some traditional
medicinal practices are mixed, such as using herbs to induce labor or stop
bleeding, which may have positive or negative effects depending on the dosage and
quality. Dietary restrictions are common, especially for pregnant and lactating
women and young children. Some dietary restrictions are beneficial, such as
avoiding alcohol, tobacco, and caffeine. Some dietary restrictions are harmful,
such as avoiding eggs, meat, fish, and milk, which are rich sources of protein and
micronutrients. Some dietary restrictions are mixed, such as avoiding certain
fruits and vegetables, which may have positive or negative effects depending on the
nutritional value and availability. Rituals are performed for various purposes,
such as protection, blessing, initiation, and celebration. Some rituals are
beneficial, such as naming ceremonies, which confer identity and belonging to the
child. Some rituals are harmful, such as scarification, which involves cutting or
burning the skin to create permanent marks. Some rituals are mixed, such as
circumcision, which may have positive or negative effects depending on the age,
method, and hygiene (UNICEF & MoGE, 2018).

• Discipline and guidance: Respondents reported various practices and beliefs

related to discipline and guidance of their children. Corporal punishment is
reportedly commonplace for disciplining children over two years old. Examples
include beating, whipping, spanking, burning, and withholding food. Corporal
punishment is justified by various reasons, such as teaching respect, obedience,
and morality, correcting bad behavior, and preventing worse consequences. Corporal
punishment is influenced by various factors, such as culture, religion, education,
gender, and stress. Some parents reported using alternative methods of discipline,
such as verbal reprimands, rewards, and explanations. Some parents reported being
aware of the negative effects of corporal punishment, such as physical and
psychological harm, aggression,

Parenting styles are the general patterns of behaviors and attitudes that parents
exhibit toward their children. Different parenting styles can have different
effects on children's development, health, and well-being. In this article, I will
discuss the following four parenting styles in comprehensive details, giving the
advantages and disadvantages to each, as well as how it works, with relevant
examples from Zambia, Africa and globally where necessary:

• Indulgent

• Authoritarian

• Authoritative

• Uninvolved

Indulgent Parenting
Indulgent parenting, also known as permissive parenting, is a parenting style in
which parents are very lenient and permissive with their children. They have few
rules and expectations, and they rarely enforce consequences. They are responsive
to their children's needs and desires, but they do not provide much guidance or
structure. Indulgent parents may be affectionate and supportive, or they may be
indifferent and neglectful.

Advantages of Indulgent Parenting

Some of the advantages of indulgent parenting are:

• Children may develop a strong sense of independence and self-reliance. They have
more freedom to explore their interests without parental interference.

• Children may have high self-esteem and confidence, as they are valued and
accepted by their parents.

• Children may have good social skills and relationships, as they are exposed to
diverse people and situations.

• Children may be more creative and innovative, as they are encouraged to express
themselves and try new things.

Disadvantages of Indulgent Parenting

Some of the disadvantages of indulgent parenting are:

• Children may have low self-control and self-regulation, as they are used to
getting their way. They may have difficulty following rules and boundaries, and may
act impulsively or irresponsibly.

• Children may have low academic achievement and motivation, as they lack
discipline and direction. They may struggle with time management, organization, and
goal-setting.

• Children may have difficulty respecting authority and following social norms, as
they are not taught to consider the rights and feelings of others. They may be
rebellious, defiant, or aggressive.

• Children may be more vulnerable to peer pressure and risky behaviors, such as
substance abuse, sexual activity, or delinquency, as they seek excitement and
validation from others.

How It Works
Indulgent parenting works by giving children a lot of freedom and autonomy, but not
enough guidance and structure. Indulgent parents tend to be more like friends than
authority figures to their children. They may use praise, rewards, or bribes to
influence their children's behavior, rather than rules, expectations, or
consequences. They may also avoid conflict or confrontation with their children,
and may give in to their demands or wishes. Indulgent parents may have a warm and
loving relationship with their children, but they may also neglect their children's
needs or development.

Examples
Some examples of indulgent parenting are:

• A parent who lets their child stay up late, watch TV, play video games, or eat
junk food whenever they want, without any limits or restrictions.

• A parent who buys their child expensive gifts, clothes, or gadgets, even if they
cannot afford them or if the child does not need them, just to make them happy or
to avoid tantrums.
• A parent who does not monitor or supervise their child's homework, schoolwork,
or extracurricular activities, and does not help them with their academic or
personal goals.

• A parent who does not set or enforce any rules or boundaries for their child,
such as chores, manners, or curfews, and lets them do whatever they please, without
any consequences or accountability.

Zambia, Africa and Global Contexts

Indulgent parenting is not very common in Zambia, Africa, or other parts of the
world, where parents tend to be more authoritative or authoritarian, due to
cultural, religious, or socioeconomic factors. However, some parents may adopt an
indulgent parenting style due to various reasons, such as:

• Lack of knowledge or awareness of the effects of parenting styles on child

development and well-being.

• Lack of time or resources to provide adequate care and supervision for their
children, due to work, poverty, or other challenges.

• Lack of confidence or skills to assert their authority and discipline their

children, due to low self-esteem, stress, or trauma.

• Lack of support or guidance from their family, community, or society, due to

isolation, discrimination, or stigma.

Some examples of indulgent parenting in Zambia, Africa, or other parts of the world
are:

• A parent who lets their child skip school, roam the streets, or join gangs,
without any intervention or protection, due to poverty, violence, or corruption.

• A parent who spoils their child with material possessions, money, or privileges,
without any expectations or responsibilities, due to wealth, status, or influence.

• A parent who does not teach their child about their culture, religion, or
values, and lets them adopt foreign or modern lifestyles, without any respect or
appreciation, due to globalization, migration, or assimilation.

• A parent who does not involve their child in their family, community, or
society, and lets them live in their own world, without any connection or
contribution, due to individualism, technology, or consumerism.

Authoritarian Parenting
Authoritarian parenting, also known as strict parenting, is a parenting style in
which parents are very strict and demanding with their children. They have many
rules and expectations, and they enforce them with harsh punishments. They are
unresponsive to their children's needs and emotions, and they value obedience and
conformity over individuality and autonomy. Authoritarian parents may be cold and
hostile, or they may be warm and caring.

Advantages of Authoritarian Parenting

Some of the advantages of authoritarian parenting are:

• Children may be obedient and respectful, as they are taught to follow rules and
authority. They may have good manners, morals, and ethics, as they are taught to
distinguish right from wrong.
• Children may have high academic achievement and performance, as they are pushed
to excel and succeed. They may have good study habits, concentration, and memory,
as they are trained to work hard and focus.

• Children may be safe and protected, as they are kept away from harm and danger.
They may have good physical health, as they are disciplined to eat well, exercise,
and avoid risky behaviors.

Disadvantages of Authoritarian Parenting

Some of the disadvantages of authoritarian parenting are:

• Children may be fearful and anxious, as they are exposed to stress and pressure.
They may have low self-esteem and self-expression, as they are afraid of making
mistakes and displeasing their parents.

• Children may have poor social and emotional skills, as they are not allowed to
express their feelings or opinions. They may have difficulty coping with stress and
challenges, as they lack problem-solving and decision-making skills.

• Children may be rebellious and defiant, as they resent their parents' control
and dominance. They may seek freedom and autonomy, and may engage in oppositional
or deviant behaviors, such as lying, cheating, or breaking rules.

How It Works
Authoritarian parenting works by imposing a high level of control and discipline on
children, but not providing enough warmth and responsiveness. Authoritarian parents
tend to be more like dictators than leaders to their children. They may use
threats, criticism, or physical force to influence their children's behavior,
rather than praise, rewards, or explanations. They may also ignore or dismiss their
children's needs or emotions, and may expect them to obey without question.
Authoritarian parents may have a rigid and strict relationship with their children,
but they may also have a loyal and obedient relationship with them.

Examples
Some examples of authoritarian parenting are:

• A parent who sets and enforces a strict schedule for their child, such as waking
up, eating, studying, sleeping, etc., without any flexibility or variation.

• A parent who punishes their child severely for any misbehavior, such as hitting,
yelling, or grounding, without any warning or justification.

• A parent who does not allow their child to have any choices or preferences, such
as what to wear, what to play, or who to be friends with, and makes all the
decisions for them.

• A parent who does not listen to or respect their child's feelings or opinions,
and tells them what to think, feel, or do, without any consideration or
explanation.

Zambia, Africa and Global Contexts

Authoritarian parenting is quite common in Zambia, Africa, and other parts of the
world, where parents tend to be more authoritative or authoritarian, due to
cultural, religious, or socioeconomic factors. However, some parents may adopt an
authoritarian parenting style due to various reasons, such as:

• Respect for tradition or authority, as they believe that parents know best and
children should obey and honor them, according to their culture, religion, or
values.
• Fear for survival or security, as they face threats and challenges from poverty,
violence, or corruption, and want to protect and prepare their children for a harsh
and competitive world.

• Desire for success or achievement, as they have high expectations and standards
for their children, and want them to excel and prosper in their education, career,
or life.

• Influence from family, community, or society, as they follow the norms and
practices of their peers, elders, or leaders, and want to fit in and conform to
their expectations and demands.

Some examples of authoritarian parenting in Zambia, Africa, or other parts of the

world are:

• A parent who beats their child with a stick, belt, or wire, for any mistake or
disobedience, such as failing an exam, talking back, or staying out late, as a form
of discipline or correction.

• A parent who forces their child to marry, work, or join a group, against their
will or consent, such as an arranged marriage, child labor, or a cult, as a form of
obligation or duty.

• A parent who forbids their child to pursue their interests or passions, such as
music,

Authoritative Parenting
Authoritative parenting, also known as democratic parenting, is a parenting style
in which parents are balanced and flexible with their children. They have
reasonable rules and expectations, and they enforce them with consistent and fair
consequences. They are responsive to their children's needs and emotions, and they
value independence and individuality. Authoritative parents are warm and
supportive, and they provide guidance and structure.

Advantages of Authoritative Parenting

Some of the advantages of authoritative parenting are:

• Children may develop a strong sense of self-esteem and self-regulation, as they

are taught to respect themselves and others. They have more freedom to explore and
learn, but also more responsibility to follow rules and boundaries.

• Children may have high social and academic skills, as they are encouraged to
cooperate and communicate effectively. They have good problem-solving and decision-
making skills, as they are involved in setting and achieving their goals.

• Children may be happy and healthy, as they are supported and nurtured by their
parents. They have good emotional and physical health, as they are able to express
their feelings and cope with stress.

Disadvantages of Authoritative Parenting

Some of the disadvantages of authoritative parenting are:

• Children may be overconfident and overambitious, as they may have unrealistic

expectations and standards for themselves and others. They may be too competitive
or perfectionist, and may suffer from anxiety or depression if they fail or face
challenges.

• Children may be rebellious and defiant, as they may test their limits and
challenge their parents' authority. They may seek more autonomy and independence,
and may resist their parents' guidance or influence.

• Children may be confused and conflicted, as they may encounter different or

contradictory parenting styles from their peers, teachers, or other adults. They
may have difficulty adapting to different situations or cultures, and may struggle
to find their identity or values.

How It Works
Authoritative parenting works by providing a balance of control and responsiveness
to children, but not too much or too little of either. Authoritative parents tend
to be more like mentors than managers to their children. They may use praise,
rewards, or explanations to influence their children's behavior, rather than
threats, criticism, or physical force. They may also listen to and respect their
children's needs and emotions, and may negotiate or compromise with them.
Authoritative parents may have a warm and respectful relationship with their
children, but they may also have a firm and consistent relationship with them.

Examples
Some examples of authoritative parenting are:

• A parent who sets and enforces a reasonable curfew for their child, such as 10
pm on weekdays and 12 am on weekends, and explains the reasons and benefits of
having a curfew, such as safety, health, and performance.

• A parent who rewards their child for good behavior or achievement, such as
giving them praise, money, or privileges, and also imposes consequences for bad
behavior or failure, such as taking away their phone, TV, or allowance.

• A parent who allows their child to have some choices and preferences, such as
what to wear, what to play, or who to be friends with, but also sets some limits
and guidelines, such as appropriate, safe, and respectful choices.

• A parent who listens to and respects their child's feelings and opinions, and
encourages them to express themselves and share their thoughts, but also teaches
them to be respectful and empathetic to others' feelings and opinions.

Zambia, Africa and Global Contexts

Authoritative parenting is not very common in Zambia, Africa, or other parts of the
world, where parents tend to be more authoritative or authoritarian, due to
cultural, religious, or socioeconomic factors. However, some parents may adopt an
authoritative parenting style due to various reasons, such as:

• Awareness and education, as they learn about the effects of parenting styles on
child development and well-being, and adopt positive parenting practices that
support optimal child development.

• Empowerment and equality, as they challenge the traditional or patriarchal norms

and values that favor authoritarian or permissive parenting, and promote democratic
and egalitarian parenting that respects children's rights and dignity.

• Adaptation and integration, as they face changes and opportunities in their

environment and society, such as globalization, migration, or urbanization, and
adjust their parenting to suit the needs and demands of their children and
themselves.

• Support and guidance, as they receive help and advice from their family,
community, or society, such as NGOs, media, or government, that offer parenting
programs, resources, or policies that encourage and facilitate authoritative
parenting.

Some examples of authoritative parenting in Zambia, Africa, or other parts of the

world are:

• A parent who enrolls their child in an ECD program, such as the Parenting for
Lifelong Health (PLH) program, which is a low-cost, evidence-based parenting
program that aims to prevent violence, improve health, and enhance child
development, by teaching parents positive parenting skills, such as praise, play,
problem-solving, and communication (Cluver et al., 2018).

• A parent who advocates for their child's rights and participation, such as the
Child Rights Clubs (CRCs), which are groups of children and young people who learn
about and promote child rights, such as education, health, protection, and
expression, in their schools, communities, and society (UNICEF Zambia, 2019).

• A parent who supports their child's interests and passions, such as the Barefeet
Theatre, which is a Zambian NGO that uses art and creativity to empower and educate
vulnerable and marginalized children and youth, such as street children, orphans,
and refugees, by providing them with opportunities to express themselves, learn new
skills, and access services and resources (Barefeet Theatre, 2020).

• A parent who respects and appreciates their child's culture and identity, such
as the African Children's Stories (ACS), which is a global initiative that collects
and publishes stories written by African children, about their lives, experiences,
and dreams, in their own languages and voices, to celebrate and preserve their
culture and diversity (African Children's Stories, 2020).

Uninvolved Parenting
Uninvolved parenting, also known as neglectful parenting, is a parenting style in
which parents are detached and indifferent with their children. They have few or no
rules and expectations, and they rarely monitor or supervise their children's
activities. They are unresponsive to their children's needs and emotions, and they
value their own interests and well-being over their children's. Uninvolved parents
may be neglectful and abusive, or they may be overwhelmed and depressed.

Advantages of Uninvolved Parenting

Some of the advantages of uninvolved parenting are:

• Children may develop a strong sense of independence and resilience, as they

learn to fend for themselves and cope with adversity. They may have more freedom to
explore and learn, but also more resourcefulness to survive and thrive.

• Children may have high creativity and innovation, as they are not constrained by
rules or expectations. They may have more opportunities to discover and pursue
their interests and passions, without any interference or pressure.

• Children may have high empathy and compassion, as they are exposed to hardship
and suffering. They may have more awareness and appreciation of the needs and
feelings of others, and may be more willing to help and support them.

Disadvantages of Uninvolved Parenting

Some of the disadvantages of uninvolved parenting are:

• Children may be insecure and unhappy, as they feel unloved and unwanted. They
may have low self-esteem and self-control, as they lack support and guidance.

• Children may have poor social and academic outcomes, as they lack skills and
resources. They may have difficulty forming and maintaining relationships, as they
lack trust and attachment. They may also have low academic achievement and
motivation, as they lack direction and feedback.

• Children may be vulnerable and at risk, as they are exposed to harm and danger.
They may have poor physical and mental health, as they lack care and protection.
They may also engage in risky or deviant behaviors, such as substance abuse, sexual
activity, or delinquency, as they seek attention and validation from others.

How It Works
Uninvolved parenting works by providing a low level of control and responsiveness
to children, but not enough or too little of either. Uninvolved parents tend to be
more like strangers than caregivers to their children. They may use neglect,
abandonment, or abuse to influence their children's behavior, rather than rules,
expectations, or consequences. They may also ignore or reject their children's
needs or emotions, and may prioritize their own needs or problems. Uninvolved
parents may have a distant and cold relationship with their children, but they may
also have a chaotic and hostile relationship with them.

Examples
Some examples of uninvolved parenting are:

• A parent who leaves their child alone at home, without any food, water, or
supervision, while they go to work, drink, or gamble, without any concern or care
for their child's safety or well-being.

• A parent who does not provide their child with any basic needs, such as
clothing, shelter, or health care, and lets them suffer from hunger, cold, or
illness, without any help or intervention.

• A parent who does not show any interest or involvement in their child's life,
such as their school, hobbies, or friends, and does not communicate or interact
with them, without any affection or attention.

• A parent who verbally, physically, or sexually abuses their child, or allows

others to abuse them, and does not protect or defend them, without any remorse or
regret.

Zambia, Africa and Global Contexts

Uninvolved parenting is unfortunately quite common in Zambia, Africa, and other
parts of the world, where parents face many social and economic challenges, such as
poverty, inequality, unemployment, illiteracy, malnutrition, disease, and violence

Implications for Early Childhood Development

Early childhood development (ECD) is the process of physical, cognitive, emotional,
social, and behavioral development that occurs from conception to age eight. ECD is
crucial for children's well-being, learning, and productivity throughout their
lives. ECD is influenced by various factors, such as genetics, environment,
nutrition, health, and education. Among these factors, parenting is one of the most
important and influential, as parents are the primary caregivers and educators of
their children. Parenting styles can have significant effects on ECD outcomes, such
as:

• Physical development: Parenting styles can affect children's growth, health, and
survival. For example, authoritative parents may provide their children with
adequate nutrition, health care, and protection, which can enhance their physical
development. Uninvolved parents may neglect or abuse their children, which can
impair their physical development.

• Cognitive development: Parenting styles can affect children's intelligence,

language, and learning. For example, authoritative parents may stimulate their
children's curiosity and creativity, which can enhance their cognitive development.
Authoritarian parents may stifle their children's exploration and expression, which
can impair their cognitive development.

• Emotional development: Parenting styles can affect children's self-esteem, self-

regulation, and resilience. For example, authoritative parents may nurture their
children's confidence and competence, which can enhance their emotional
development. Permissive parents may spoil their children's self-control and self-
regulation, which can impair their emotional development.

• Social development: Parenting styles can affect children's relationships,

communication, and cooperation. For example, authoritative parents may foster their
children's empathy and respect, which can enhance their social development.
Authoritarian parents may instill their children's fear and anxiety, which can
impair their social development.

• Behavioral development: Parenting styles can affect children's morals, ethics,

and values. For example, authoritative parents may teach their children to
distinguish right from wrong, which can enhance their behavioral development.
Permissive parents may neglect their children's manners and morals, which can
impair their behavioral development.

Recommendations for Positive Parenting Practices

Based on the evidence and examples discussed above, it is clear that parenting
styles have significant and lasting effects on children's development and well-
being. Therefore, it is important to promote positive parenting practices that
support optimal child development in Zambia. Some of the recommendations for
positive parenting practices are:

• Adopt an authoritative parenting style, which is balanced and flexible, and

provides a balance of control and responsiveness to children. Authoritative
parenting is associated with the best ECD outcomes, as it respects children's
rights and dignity, while also providing them with guidance and structure.

• Avoid an authoritarian, permissive, or uninvolved parenting style, which is

either too strict or too lenient, and provides either too much or too little
control and responsiveness to children. These parenting styles are associated with
poor ECD outcomes, as they either harm or neglect children's needs and development.

• Learn about the effects of parenting styles on child development and well-being,
and adopt positive parenting skills, such as praise, play, problem-solving, and
communication. These skills can help parents to influence their children's behavior
and performance, while also listening to and respecting their children's needs and
emotions.

• Seek help and support from family, community, or society, such as NGOs, media,
or government, that offer parenting programs, resources, or policies that encourage
and facilitate positive parenting. These programs, resources, or policies can help
parents to overcome the challenges and barriers that they face, such as poverty,
violence, or corruption, and to access the opportunities and benefits that they
deserve, such as education, health, or protection.

Reference to choose from:

• African Children's Stories. (2020). Home. Retrieved from 1

https://www.scribbr.com/apa-style/format/
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