GROUP 1: REPORT

KANT AND HIS THEORY OF RIGHT

Who is Immanuel Kant?

➢ Immanuel Kant was an 18th-century German philosopher known for his influential work
in the field of ethics. One of his key contributions is the deontological ethical theory
outlined in his "Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals." Kant argued for the importance
of moral duties based on reason and the concept of the categorical imperative
➢ Kant’s moral philosophy is unique and counterintuitive. Kant believed that for something
to be good, it had to be universal—that is, it can’t be “right” to do something in one
situation and “wrong” to do it in another. If lying is wrong, it has to be wronged all the
time. It has to be wrong when everyone does it. Period. If it isn’t always right or always
wrong, then that cannot be a valid ethical principle.
➢ Kant called these universalized ethical principles “categorical imperatives”—rules to live
by that are valid in all contexts, in every situation, to every human being.
➢ Kant's ethics are organized around the notion of a “categorical imperative,” which is a
universal ethical principle stating that one should always respect the humanity in others,
and that one should only act in accordance with rules that could hold for everyone.
➢ "Act that you use humanity, whether in your own person or in the person of any other,
always at the same time as an end, never merely as a means." -IMMANUEL KANT
➢ Kant wrote that “without rationality, the universe would be a waste, in vain, and without
purpose.” To Kant’s mind, without intelligence, and the freedom to exercise that
intelligence, we might as well just all be a bunch of rocks. Nothing would matter.
➢ Therefore, Kant believed that all morality is derived from the protection and promotion of
rational consciousness in each individual.

KANTIAN ETHICS

Kant categorically rejects that ethical judgments are based on feelings.

❖ For him, feelings even serve as obstruction to our discernment of right and wrong.

KANTIAN ETHICAL THEORY

ETHICAL THEORY bases moral judgements on REASON alone.

❖ For Kant, REASON is what deems an action either ethical or not.

GOODWILL PRINCIPLE

He believes that when we wish to determine the moral status of an action, we consult reason.

An act either accords with reason or it does not, if it accords with the reason, we must do
it. If not, we must avoid it.

Kant doesn’t agree in many ethicists that happiness is the summum bonum or the highest good.

For him, the goodwill is the highest good/virtue.

WHO IS A GOOD PERSON OR A PERSON OF GOODWILL?

It is the person who acts from the sense of duty.

❖ Kant believes that acting from a sense of duty means exhibiting goodwill even in the
face of difficulty.

KANTIAN ETHICS

It must be an act done not from inclination but from a sense of duty dictated by reason.

❖ We act morally only when we restrain our feelings and inclination and do what which we
are obliged to do. Acting morally entails acting from the motive of duty regardless of the
consequences that doing so or not doing so will bring.

MORALITY is essentially connected with DUTIES, OBLIGATION AND REASON.

CATEGORICAL IMPERATIVE AND HYPOTHETICAL IMPERATIVE

The Categorical Imperative and Hypothetical imperative are commands that depend on my
preference for a particular end. These are demands that you should follow if you want something.
Hypothetical imperatives are about prudence rather than morality.

Examples:

• If your desire is to get money, then you ought to get a job.

• If your desire is to get high grades, then you ought to study.

Categorical imperatives are absolute commands, such as "you shall treat people with respect,"
which is not based on subjective considerations. Thus, the supreme principle of morality is a
categorical imperative since it is not conditional upon one’s preferences.

Examples:

• You shouldn’t kill.

• You ought to help those in need.

Four Formulations of Kant’s Categorical Imperative

All of these formulas are, according to Kant, essentially equivalent. There are different
interpretations of this claim. The most straightforward interpretation seems to be that following or
applying each of the below formulas would generate the same duties (Allison, 2011).

1. The Universalizability Principle

▪ “Act only according to that maxim which you can at the same time will that it should
become a universal law without contradiction.”

2. The Formula of Humanity

▪ “Act so that you treat humanity, whether in your own person or in that of another, always
as an end, and never as a mere means.”

3. The Formula of Autonomy

▪ "So, act that your will can regard itself at the same time as making universal law
through its maxims."

4. The Formula of the Kingdom of Ends

▪ "So, act as if you were through your maxims a law-making member of a kingdom of ends."

RIGHT

-is described as an entitlement or justified claim to a certain kind of positive and negative
treatment from others, to support from others or non-interference from others.

Theories of rights:

There are compelling theories of rights offered by several theorists.

 Utilitarianism
Kantianism
(Deontology) Laski’s
Theory of Rights

LEGAL RIGHTS AND MORAL RIGHTS

LEGAL RIGHTS

The central principle of the legal theory of rights is that they completely depend upon the
institutions and recognition of state. An individual cannot claim rights if those are not recognised
by the state. Mere recognition, moreover, is not sufficient for the exercise of rights. The state must,
through law and institutions, implement the rights.

Legal Rights are of three types:

Civil Rights
Political Rights
Economic
Rights

MORAL RIGHTS

Moral rights are sometimes justified on the grounds that certain interests are important enough to
warrant strong protection, because this is the best way to maximize the wellbeing of all. This is the
case with the right to life and physical safety (freedom from assault and murder) and the right not
to be used by others as a slave.

LEGAL RIGHTS VS. MORAL RIGHTS

Legal rights and moral rights refer to different aspects of behavior and obligations within a
society.

Legal Rights:

Definition: Legal rights are entitlements or permissions granted by the law of a particular country
or jurisdiction. These rights are enforceable by the legal system, and individuals have the backing
of the law to exercise or claim these rights.
 Moral Rights:

Definition: Moral rights are based on ethical principles and are not necessarily enforced by the legal
system. These rights are grounded in notions of what is morally justifiable or fair, and they may
vary among different cultures and belief systems.

❖ An action is considered legal if it does not violate any of the state's written rules. An action
is considered moral if it fits within one's definition of what is good, though everyone has
different standards. Laws and morals have similarities and differences, but the two certainly
influence each other.
❖ While legal rights are codified in laws and regulations, moral rights are often more
subjective and depend on individuals' ethical beliefs. In some cases, legal rights and moral
rights may align, but there are situations where a person may have a legal right to do
something that is perceived as morally questionable or vice versa.
❖ The law is a system of rules that a state enforces to regulate behavior through penalties.
Legal principles are based on the rights of the citizens and the state expressed in the rules.
An action is permissible if it does not violate any of the written rules.
❖ Morality is a body of principles that attempt to define what is good and bad conduct. Moral
principles can be based on culture, religion, experiences, and personal values. An action is
considered moral if it fits within those standards, though everyone has different standards.

GROUP 2: UTILITARIANISM
ORIGIN AND NATURE OF THE THEORY

- it comes from the Latin word 'Utilis' which means useful, beneficial, profitable, advantageous, and
serviceable.
- it is a moral theory that advocate action that promotes overall happiness or pleasure and rejects
action that cause unhappiness or pain.
- a tradition of ethical philosophy that is associated with Jeremy Bentham (1747-1832) and John
Stuart Mill (1806-1873), twi late 18th- and 19th- century British philosophers, economists, and
political thinkers.
CLASSICAL UTILITARIANISM

Jeremy Bentham
-born in 1748 to a wealthy family
-a child prodigy, his father sent him to study at Queen’s College, Oxford University, aged 12
-trained as a lawyer and wrote extensively on law and legal reform
-died in 1832 at the age of 84 and requested his body and head to be preserved for scientific research
They are currently on display at University College London.
Jeremy Bentham
-often regarded as the founder of classical utilitarianism.

“The principle of utility”

-inspired by the writings of Hume, Priestley, Helvétius and Beccaria
- it states that any action is right insofar as it increases happiness, and wrong insofar as it increases
pain.

CLASSICAL UTILITARIANISM ELEMENTS

-first, HEDONISM, the view that well-being consists only of conscious experiences.
-second, THE TOTAL VIEW OF POPULATION ETHICS, on which one outcome is better than
another if and only if it contains a greater sum total of well-being, where well-being can be increased
either by making existing people better off or by creating new people with good lives.

JOHN STUART MILL AND HIS UTILITARIANISM

John Stuart Mill (1806–1873)- a follower of Bentham
-most of his life, greatly admired Bentham's work even though he disagreed with some of Bentham's
claims — particularly on the nature of ‘happiness.’
His Variety of Criticisms
1. Bentham's Hedonism was too egalitarian
2.Bentham's view that there were no qualitative differences in pleasures also left him open to the
complaint that on his view human pleasures were of no more value than animal pleasures.
3.committed him to the corollary that the moral status of animals, tied to their sentience, was the
same as that of humans.
Mill's Hedonism Utilitarianism
1. Was influenced by perfectionist intuitions. There are some pleasures that are more fitting
than others. Intellectual pleasures are of a higher, better, sort than the ones that are merely sensual,
and that we share with animals.
It is better to be Socrates ‘dissatisfied’ than a fool ‘satisfied.’
2. Weight on the effectiveness of internal sanctions — emotions like guilt and remorse which
serve to regulate our actions.
3. Mill sought to use utilitarianism to inform law and social policy.
The aim of increasing happiness underlies his arguments for women's suffrage and free speech.
4. Argues that virtue not only has instrumental value but is constitutive of the good life. A
person without virtue is morally lacking, is not as able to promote the good.
5. Pursuit of pleasure and avoidance of pain are the only motives in human behavior.

UTILITARIANISM IN BUSINESS

For a business to grow, it not only needs to increase its bottom line, but it also must create a
reputation for being socially responsible.
Moreover, utilitarianism is the most common approach to business ethics because of the way that it
accounts for costs and benefits.
There are two types of utilitarian ethics in practiced in the business world:
•Rule Utilitarianism
-helps the largest number of people using the fairest methods possible.
•Act Utilitarianism
-makes the most ethical actions possible for the benefit of the people.

GROUP 3:
Justice and Fairness: Promoting the Common Good

I. The nature of the theory

What is Justice?
Justice means giving each person what he or she deserves or, in more traditional terms, giving each
person his or her due. The most fundamental principle of justice that has been widely accepted since
it was first defined by Aristotle (2000 years ago). Aristotle stated that "equals should be treated
equally anneals unequally. “It means that "Individuals should be treated the same, unless they differ
in ways that are relevant to the situation in which they are involved." For example, if Jack and Jill
both do the same work, and there are no relevant differences between them or the work they are
doing, then in justice they should be paid the same wages. And if Jack is paid more than Jill simply
because he is a man, or because he is white, then we have an injustice a form of discrimination
because race and sexier not relevant to normal work situations.

Nevertheless, justice is an expression of our mutual recognition of each other's basic dignity, and
an acknowledgement that if we are to live together in an interdependent community, we must treat
each other as equals

Different Kinds of Justice

1.Retributive or Corrective justice
Retributive justice refers to the extent to which punishments are fair and just. In general,
punishments are held to be just to the extent that they take into account relevant criteria such as the
seriousness of the crime and the intent of the criminal, and discount irrelevant criteria such as race.

2.Compensatory justice
Compensatory justice refers to the extent to which people are fairly compensated for their injuries
by those who have injured them; just compensation is proportional to the loss inflicted on a person.

3.Distributive justice
Refers to the extent to which society's institutions ensure that benefits and burdens are distributed
among society's members in ways that are fair and just. When the institutions of a society distribute
benefits or burdens in unjust ways, there is a strong presumption that those institutions should be
changed.

Examples of Justice Coming from Different Perspectives:

1.In a recent court case, a man sued the driver who ran into his car for $5,000 in damages to his
automobile; $4,300 in medical bills; and $1,000 for inconveniences caused by the accident.
2.Before hiring a person to fill a vacancy in a governmental agency, the agency must advertise the
availability of the position and provide all applicants the opportunity to take a written examination
and to have an interview
3.During the Middle Ages, people were sometimes forced to confess to crimes by the use of torture.
4.If you are accused of a crime, the government has the obligation to provide a lawyer to assist you
at public expense if you cannot afford one
What is Fairness?
Fairness is concerned with actions, processes, and consequences, that are morally right honorable,
and equitable. In essence, the virtue of fairness establishes moral standards for decisions that affect
others. Fair decisions are made in an appropriate manner based on appropriate criteria. It is the
impartial and just treatment or behavior without favoritism or discrimination. Fairness has also been
used to refer to the ability to make judgments that are not overly general but that are concrete and
specific to a particular case. Fairness can be interpreted as being equal in provision, in opportunity
or in result.

Examples of Fairness coming from different Perspectives:

1.Most of us think it is fair and just when a parent gives his own children more attention and care
in his private affairs than he gives the children of others.
2.In the eyes of the majority, it is fair when the person who is first in a line at a theater is given first
choice of theater tickets.
3.We think it is just when the government gives benefits to the needy that it does not provide to
more affluent citizens.
4.We think it is just when some who have done wrong are given punishments that aren’t meted out
to others who have done nothing wrong.
5.We think it is fair when those who exert more efforts or who make a greater contribution to a
project receive more benefits from the project than others

Principles of Fairness
Fairness requires that we:

•Treat all people equitably based on their merits and abilities and handle all essentially similar
situations similarly and with consistency.
• Make all decisions on appropriate criteria, without undue favoritism or improper prejudice.
• Never blame or punish people for what they did not do, and appropriately sanction those who
violate moral obligations or laws.
•Promptly and voluntarily correct personal and institutional mistakes and improprieties.
• Not take unfair advantage of people’s mistakes or ignorance.
• Fully consider the rights, interests, and perspectives of all. Approach judgments with open-minded
impartiality (setting aside prejudices and predispositions), conscientiously gather and verify facts,
provide critical stakeholders with an opportunity to explain or clarify, and carefully evaluate the
information

What is Common Good?

The common good (also commonwealth, common weal, or general welfare) refers to either what is
shared and beneficial for all or most members of a given community, or alternatively, what is
achieved by citizenship, collective action, and active participation in the realm of politics and public
service.
From the era of the ancient Greek city-states through contemporary political philosophy, the idea
of the common good has pointed toward the possibility that certain goods, such as security and
justice, can be achieved only through citizenship, collective action, and active participation in the
public realm of politics and public service. In effect, the notion of the common good is a denial that
society is and should be composed of atomized individuals living in isolation from one another.
Instead, its proponents have asserted that people can and should live their lives as citizens deeply
embedded in social relationships.

The notion of the common good has been a consistent theme in Western political philosophy, most
notably in the work of Aristotle, Niccolò Machiavelli, and Jean-Jacques Rousseau. It has been most
clearly developed in the political theory of republicanism, which has contended that the common
good is something that can only be achieved through political means and the collective action of
citizens participating in their own self-government. At the same time, the notion of the common
good has been closely bound up with the idea of citizenship, a mutual commitment to common
goods and the value of political action as public service. Therefore, it has played a prominent role
in the defense of republican constitutional arrangements, notably the defense of the Constitution of
the United States in the Federalist papers.

The notion of the common good was next taken up in the late 15th and early 16th centuries in the
work of Machiavelli, most famously in The Prince. Machiavelli contended that securing the
common good would depend upon the existence of virtuous citizens. Aristotle stared that "good
proper to, and attainable only by, the community, yet individually shared by its members."
However, Adam Smith proposed “Individual ambition serves the common good.” On the other
hand, John Rawl – said that “certain general conditions that are...equally to everyone's advantage”
In Jean-Jacques Rousseau's The Social Contract, composed in the mid-18th century, Rousseau
argues that society can function only to the extent that individuals have interests in common, and
that the end goal of any state is the realization of the common good.

Is Justice and Fairness the same?

The notions of justice and fairness are very difficult to disentangle. It is often assumed that there is
no difference between the two ideas and hence that justice and fairness are of equal importance.
Justice and fairness are closely related terms that are often today used interchangeably. There have,
however, also been more distinct understandings of the two terms. While justice usually has been
used with reference to a standard of rightness, fairness often has been used with regard to an ability
to judge without reference to one's feelings or interests; fairness has also been used to refer to the
ability to make judgments that are not overly general but that are concrete and specific to a particular
case.

Distributive Justice- refers to the extent to which society's institutions ensure that benefits and
burdens are distributed among society's members in ways that are fair and just.

Some Examples of distributive justice

Public Education - The concept of public education, funded by taxpayers, generally refers to the
idea that all children, regardless of their family’s wealth or status, deserves to be educated in order
to receive a fighting chance in life.

Universal Healthcare - aims to provide health care and financial protection to all people in a given
country with three related objectives: equity in access – everyone who needs health services should
get them, and not simply those who can pay for them; quality of health services – good enough to
improve the health of those receiving the services; and financial-risk protection – ensuring that the
cost of health care does not put people at risk of financial hardship.

Minimum Wage - Minimum wage laws set the lowest pay that workers can legally receive. These
laws aim to ensure that even the lowest-paid workers earn enough to meet their basic needs, which
aligns with the need-based and equity conceptions of distributive justice.

Child Support and Alimony Laws - Child support and alimony laws represent redistributive justice
on an individual level. These laws require parents to financially support their children or ex-spouses
after a separation or divorce.
EGALITARIANISM
The word “egalitarianism” comes from the French word égal, meaning equal.
A doctrine and/or philosophical perspective that prioritizes equality.
Equal treatment among people in terms of gender, race, religion, economic status, and political
beliefs.
Egalitarianism advocates for equality and fairness.

Types of Egalitarianism
Legal Egalitarianism - everyone is subject to the same law.
Political Egalitarianism - every person has equal standing but with respect with the government
power.
Economic Egalitarianism - everyone has the right to collect or accumulate income.

Key point:
Egalitarianism advocates for equality and fairness.

CAPITALISM
Individual rights rule the capitalistic ideal and implementation. Private individuals, small
businesses, organizations, and corporations make independent decisions about prices, production,
and distribution of goods, ideally resulting in a self-regulating market.
A system of distribution rather than a theory of distribution.
Based on individual initiative and favors market mechanisms over government intervention.
It’s all based on the principle of supply and demand.

Socialism
- system of organization or government where all property, industry, and capital is owned by the
community, not individuals.
-is based on the idea that common or public ownership of resources and means of production leads
to a more equal society. Socialism is a way to organize a society. The goal of socialism is to spread
wealth more evenly and to treat all people fairly.

Types of Socialism
1.Democratic Socialism- the factors of production are managed by a democratically elected
government.
2. Revolutionary Socialism - socialism that will emerge only after capitalism has been destroyed. In
here, “There is no peaceful road to socialism”.

3. Libertarian Socialism – this assumes that the basic nature of people is rational, autonomous, and
self-determining. Once the structures of capitalism have been removed, people will naturally seek
a socialist society that takes care of all because they see that it is the best for their own self-interest.

4. Market Socialism - the production is owned by the workers. They decide how to distribute among
themselves. They would sell excess production on the free market. Alternatively, it could be turned
over to society, which would distribute it according to the free market.

5. Green Socialism - this type of socialistic economy highly values the maintenance of natural
resources. It emphasizes public transit and locally sourced food. Its production focuses on making
sure everyone has enough of the basics instead of consumer products one doesn't really need.

6. Utopian Socialism - this was more a vision of equality than a concrete plan. It would be achieved
peacefully through a series of experimental societies.

Communism - is a form of government most closely associated with the ideas of Karl Marx, which
he outlined in The Communist Manifesto.
-is based on the goal of eliminating socioeconomic class struggles by creating a classless society in
which everyone shares the benefits of labor, and the state controls all property and wealth.
-type of economy where all property, including land, factories, and companies, is held by the
government.

Disadvantages of Communism
The economic and political system of Communism effectively dictates what can and cannot be done
in the realm of business. There are defined limitations for the amount a business can produce and
how much money it can earn.
In such a society, production and distribution of goods is handled, according to Karl Marx, “From
each according to his ability, to each according to his needs.”
John Rawls - an American political philosopher in the liberal tradition.
-born on February 21, 1921, and died on Nov. 24, 2002
-He is best known for his defense of egalitarian liberalism in his major work, A Theory of Justice
(1971)
-Most influential political philosopher of the 20th century

Theory of Justice
-advocates for a system of rule-making that ignores the social, economic, physical, or mental- factor
that differentiate the people in society.
-largely influenced by the “Social Contract Theory” as interpreted by Immanuel Kant. (Social
Contact is a hypothetical agreement between the government and the people governed that defines
their rights and duties. Kant interpreted that the social contract should be agreed and accepted by
all the people.)

“Justice as fairness”
John Rawls argues that if people in a society come together to make collective principles of
governing themselves, the outcome would be the rules that are influenced by only certain section
of people. As a society is composed of people with different state in life and these people have
differences in their opinions and interest. Which may lead to justice will only satisfy the interest of
the influential people. In order to achieve justice for all, Rawls proposed a hypothetical scenario
where a group of people ignorant of their or others’ social, economic, physical, or mental factors
come together to make laws for themselves.
The objective of the Theory of Justice is to find a way to create a well-ordered society. According
to John Rawls, a well-ordered society should predominantly have the following elements:

•It should be designed to advance the good of its members and effectively regulated by a public
conception of justice.
•It should be a society wherein all people accept and know that all other people accept the same
principles of justice and that the basic social institutions satisfy those principles.

Justice as Fairness
Rawls called his concept of social justice "Justice as Fairness." It consists of two principles. Since
he first published A Theory of Justice, he changed the wording of these principles several times. He
published his last version in 2001.
The First Principle of social justice concerns political institutions:

Each person has the same and indefeasible [permanent] claim to a fully adequate scheme of equal
basic liberties, which scheme is compatible with the same scheme of liberties for all.

---This principle means that everyone has the same basic liberties, which can never be taken away.
Rawls included most of the liberties in the U.S. Bill of Rights, such as freedom of speech and due
process of law. He added some liberties from the broader area of human rights, like freedom of
travel.

The Second Principle of social justice concerns social and economic institutions:
Social and economic inequalities are to satisfy two conditions:

First, they are to be attached to offices and positions open to all under conditions of fair equality of
opportunity; and second, they are to be to the greatest benefit of the least-advantaged members of
society (the Difference Principle).

---This Second Principle focused on equality. Rawls realized that a society could not avoid
inequalities among its people. Inequalities result from such things as one's inherited characteristics,
social class, personal motivation, and even luck. Even so, Rawls insisted that a just society should
find ways to reduce inequalities in areas where it can act.

Finally, Rawls ranked his principles of social justice in the order of their priority. The First Principle
("basic liberties") holds priority over the Second Principle. The first part of the Second Principle
("fair equality of opportunity") holds priority over the second part (Difference Principle). But he
believed that both the First and Second Principles together are necessary for a just society.

Liberal Equality

In Rawls’s egalitarian liberalism, citizens relate to each other as equals within a social order defined
by reciprocity, instead of within the unjust status hierarchies familiar from today.

Rawls's first principle of justice is that “each person is to have an equal right to the most extensive
scheme of equal basic liberties compatible with a similar scheme of liberties for others”. This simply
means that the basic liberties should be equal for all.

GROUP 4:
MORAL DEBATES: FACES AND FACETS

SUBJECTIVISM
-the doctrine that knowledge is merely subjective and that there is no external or objective truth.

In Western philosophy, the idea of subjectivity is thought to have its roots in the works of the
European Enlightenment thinkers Descartes and Kant though it could also stem as far back as the
Ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle's work relating to the soul.

-in the subject, not in the object

-based on feelings opposite of Kantianism and somehow connected to hedonism, because carnal
pleasure can also be defined as 'happiness' to others. Depends on the subject.

In this view, there is no such thing as "objective" right or wrong. It is a fact that some people are
homosexual, and some are heterosexual; but it is not a fact that one is good and the other bad.

Examples: Moral statements are just factual statements about the attitude the speaker holds on a
particular issue. (write) - lying is wrong
-life is not beautiful

Ethical subjectivism is the view that there are no moral absolutes, and that instead each individual
and each society determines what is acceptable.

-individual perspective
Ex. On LGBTQ
-societal standards on the society but the subject does not comply Ex. Gender stereotypes
Gender based businesses

Positive points of subjectivism:

-gives preference to a person's actions
-warns us against judging other people's perspectives in terms of a universal standard objective.

PSYCHOLOGICAL EGOISM
Egoism - which holds that people act in ways that are ultimately self-interested.
Example: When you take into consideration that a human being's fundamental objective is to stay
alive and procreate, putting your own welfare before the needs of others is just about the best
possible way to achieve that objective.

Altruism is acting on the motivation to benefit others without regard for one's own self-interest.
Example: Giving a welcoming gift to a new neighbor without expecting in return. This would be an
act done to benefit the new neighbor, not the gift-giver.

Psychological Egoism - holds that people only ever help other people as a means of helping
themselves.
Example: In business world, competing with other competitors because you notice that your
competitor is higher than yours so, you try to pull down him such destroying the reputation just to
satisfy your self-interest which is to be more profitable than the other or just to be on top of the
other.

In relation to the concept: Crab mentality concept

Crab mentality is also defined as someone's tendency to pull down people around them who they
consider are better than them in any aspect.

ETHICAL EGOISM
What is ethics egoism?
Ethical egoism is an ethical doctrine that asserts individuals should always act in their self-interest.
It suggests that the actions and decisions made by individuals should be guided solely by
considerations of personal benefit without regard for the interests of others.

Key Principles of Ethical Egoism

Ethical egoism can be categorized into two main types:

a. Psychological Egoism: Psychological egoism claims that individuals are naturally self-interested
and that all actions are motivated by self-interest, regardless of conscious intentions. It argues that
individuals are inherently driven by the pursuit of personal pleasure and avoidance of personal pain.
b. Ethical Egoism: Ethical egoism states that individuals ought to pursue their own self-interest,
asserting that morality ultimately lies in the promotion of one's own well- being and happiness.
According to ethical egoism, an action is morally right if it maximizes one's self-interest and wrong
if it does not.

Arguments Supporting Ethical Egoism

a. Individual Autonomy: Ethical egoism supports individual autonomy and freedom of
choice, allowing individuals to prioritize their own needs and desires without interference
from external obligations or duties.

b. Maximization of Overall Happiness: Advocates of ethical egoism argue that if everyone

acts in their own self-interest, overall happiness and well-being will be maximized. They
claim that by maximizing personal happiness, individuals contribute to the general welfare
of society in a more effective way than if they were primarily concerned with others'
interests.

Criticisms of Ethical Egoism

a. Lack of Empathy and Altruism: Critics argue that ethical egoism fails to uphold fundamental
moral values such as empathy, compassion, and altruism.

b. Conflicting Interests: Ethical egoism may lead to conflicts of interest when individuals pursue
their own interests, potentially resulting in detrimental consequences for others.

c. Moral Relativism: Critics point out that ethical egoism suffers from moral relativism since each
individual's self-interest can vary greatly.

ABSOLUTE MORALE RULES

What are Absolute Morale Rules?

Absolute moral rules mean the rules that everyone must follow in order to act morally. They are the
rules that hold under any circumstances universally.
Kant specified that there are 2 best candidates of absolute moral rules are:
a) We should never lie, and he thought that never lying is one of the absolute moral rules, and he
offered arguments for it:

1. You should only do things that you are willing to adopt to be universalized.
2. If you lie, that means you follow the maxim: it is acceptable to lie.
3. Yet, this rule cannot be universal. If everyone lies, there will be no reason to believe what others
say is true, and there will be no good for lying. Hence, the rule is self-defeating.
4. Therefore, you should never lie.

b) We should never kill innocent people.

There is an argument against the absolute moral rules. When there are two or more absolute moral
rules exist, there would be moment that the moral rules conflict to each other. For example, suppose
‘we should never lie' and ‘we should never accept killing innocent people' are absolute moral rules.
If we face the situation that we must lie to save an innocent life from a killer, there will be a conflict
between these two absolute moral rules. Because of the existence of this kind of moral dilemmas,
we could not always follow all absolute moral rules all the time. Hence, no moral rules are certain.

SOCIAL CONTRACT THEORY

-is an unspoken agreement between individuals to form a society.

-evolved on the relationship between the government and the people to form a society and why the
society needs laws.

A social contract is not a physical contract but an agreement between individuals to live peacefully,
respect one another's right, obey rules and laws of the community.

BEST KNOWN PROPONENTS OF SOCIAL CONTRACT THEORY

● Thomas Hobbes
-everyone is obligated to obey the leaders that enforce laws that keep people from doing unlawful
action.
-In the state of nature human life would be " solitary, poor, nasty, brutish and short."
Establishing political community through a social contract in which they gain security in exchange
for subjecting themselves to an absolute sovereign.

● John Locke
-humans are born neutral (either good or bad)
-they will agree to give up some of their natural rights as long as the government protects the rights
that they give up.

● Jean- Jacque Rousseau

-thought that man's state of nature is free and happy.
-The general will be meant to identify the idea of the common good shared by people.

FEMINISM
-is the belief that women should have equal rights to men
-a collection of movements and ideologies aimed at defining, establishing, and defending equal
political, economic, and social rights for women

History of Feminism

● First-wave feminism of the 19th and early 20th centuries focused on overturning legal
inequalities, particularly addressing issues of women's suffrage

● Second-wave feminism (1960s–1980s) broadened debate to include cultural inequalities, gender

norms, and the role of women in society

● Third-wave feminism (1990s–2000s) refers to diverse strains of feminist activity, seen by third
wavers themselves both as a continuation of the second wave and as a response to its perceived
failures.

Feminist Ethics
-aims “to understand, criticize, and correct” how gender operates within our moral beliefs and
practices and our methodological approaches to ethical theory.
(1) the binary view of gender
(2) the privilege historically available to men
(3) the ways that views about gender maintain oppressive social orders or practices that harm others

Movements and Ideologies (subtypes)

1. Socialist and Marxist
- Socialist feminism connects the oppression of women to Marxist ideas about exploitation,
oppression, and labor. Socialist feminists focus their energies on broad change that affects society
as a whole, rather than on an individual basis. Marx felt when class oppression was overcome,
gender oppression would vanish as well. According to some socialist feminists, this view of gender
oppression as a sub-class of class oppression is naïve

2. Radical
- Considers the male-controlled capitalist hierarchy, which it describes as sexist, as the defining
feature of women’s oppression. Radical feminists believe that women can free themselves only
when they have done away with what they consider an inherently oppressive and dominating
patriarchal system.

3. Liberal
- Asserts the equality of men and women through political and legal reform. It is an
individualistic form of feminism, which focuses on women’s ability to show and maintain their
equality through their own actions and choices.

4. Black
- A feminism argues that sexism, class oppression, and racism are inextricably bound together.
Forms of feminism that strive to overcome sexism and class oppression but ignore race can
discriminate against many people, including women, through racial bias

5. Libertarian
- Classical liberal or libertarian feminism conceives of freedom as freedom from coercive
interference. It holds that women, as well as men, have a right to such freedom due to their status
as self-owners.
6. Environmental
- Ecofeminism links ecology with feminism. Ecofeminists see the domination of women as
stemming from the same ideologies that bring about the domination of the environment.

ETHICS OF CARE
● Believes that context can sometimes overrule justice and our universal code of conduct
● It focuses more on the interconnectedness of humanity and places a moral significance on our
relationships as “care-givers” and “care-receivers”.
● Ethics of care is a feminist approach to ethics. It seeks to incorporate traditionally feminized
virtues and values that include the importance of empathetic relationships and compassion.
● Proponents of Ethics of Care:

1. CAROL GILLIGAN
- In one of her famous works, "In a Different Voice", Gilligan argued that if women are ‘more
emotional’ than men, and pay more attention to relationships rather than rules, this is not a sign of
them being less ethical, but, rather, of different values that are equally valuable.
2. NEL NODDINGS
- Decided to focus the approach more on our intimate relationships
- Recalls David Hume’s’ saying that “Morality is founded upon and rooted in feeling.”
- Natural caring happens more or less involuntarily as a conditioned response to the misfortune or
needs of others. Ethical Caring, on the other hand, is an action done beyond what is expected.

GROUP 5
ETHICS IN GLOBALIZATION AND RELIGION

DEFINITION OF TERMS:

Pluralism
➢ Also called as: “value pluralism”, “ethical pluralism”, “moral pluralism”
➢ It refers to the recognition and acceptance of multiple ethical principles, perspectives, or
theories as valid
➢ It acknowledges that there isn't a single, universally applicable moral framework,
allowing for diversity in ethical beliefs and values
➢ It is the idea that there can be conflicting moral views that are each worthy of respect
 ★ Ethical Pluralism VS. Ethical Relativism

Ethical Pluralism Ethical Relativism

Embraces the idea that multiple ethical Asserts that moral values are contingent upon
perspectives can coexist and contribute to a cultural of individual beliefs, without
richer understanding of morality necessarily advocating for the coexistence of
diverse ethical frameworks

Different values coexist and can be practiced/ Not universally applicable and can vary across
apply by various group of people different cultures, societies, or individuals

There’s no absolute right or wrong choice Rightness and wrongness of an act is confined/
based on a specific group of people

Requires respect from other people

Fundamentalism
➢ the belief in old and traditional forms of religion, or the belief that what is written in a
holy book, such as the Christian Bible, is completely true
➢ Also means strict adherence to the tenants of religion

Globalization
➢ is the word used to describe the growing interdependence of the world’s economies,
cultures, and populations, brought about by cross-border trade in goods and services,
technology, and flows of investment, people, and information

THE CHALLENGES OF PLURALISM AND FUNDAMENTALISM

Globalization and Pluralism: New Challenges to Ethics

I. Pluralism presents a new challenge to ethics because it introduces the idea that there isn't a
singular, universally applicable set of ethical principles. Instead, it acknowledges the existence of
diverse and conflicting moral perspectives, each considered worthy of respect. This challenge
manifests in several ways:

*Conflicting Moral Views: Pluralism suggests that there can be conflicting moral views, and each
may be considered valid. This poses a challenge in situations where ethical decisions need to be
made, as there may not be a clear, universally accepted ethical framework to guide actions.

For example, imagine a close-knit group of friends who celebrate diverse cultural and religious
backgrounds. They decide to exchange gifts during the holiday season. However, the challenge
 arises when one friend, who is a strict vegan due to ethical concerns about animal welfare, receives
a gift containing leather products.

The friend who gave the leather gift might see it as a thoughtful and traditional present, not
considering the ethical concerns related to animal products. The vegan friend, on the other hand,
holds a strong moral stance against using animal products and views the gift as ethically
problematic.

*Complex Decision-Making: Pluralism acknowledges the complexity of moral issues and

emphasizes the need to consider multiple perspectives. This can make ethical decision-making
more challenging, as individuals must navigate a diverse array of values and principles.

Using the same situation, the vegan friend now faces a complex decision: whether to express their
concerns and risk causing discomfort to the gift-giver or to accept the gift gracefully without
compromising their ethical beliefs.
 *Lack of a Universal Standard: Unlike moral absolutism, which asserts the existence of a single,
objective moral standard, pluralism lacks a universally applicable moral standard. This absence of
a clear standard can make it difficult to determine what is ethically right or wrong in certain
situations.

Using the same situation, pluralism in this context means there is no universally accepted standard
for gift-giving that accommodates the diverse ethical perspectives within the friend group.

*Potential Relativism: Pluralism may lead to a form of moral relativism, where the validity of
moral principles is seen as subjective and dependent on individual or cultural perspectives. This
challenges the idea of universal ethical norms that transcend cultural differences.

Using the same situation, the ethical value attributed to the use of animal products varies among
individuals based on personal beliefs, leading to a potential perception of relativism in the ethical
considerations.

*Difficulty in Resolving Ethical Dilemmas: In situations where there are competing values, moral
pluralism acknowledges that it may be difficult to find a definitive solution to ethical dilemmas.
This can create uncertainty and ambiguity in ethical decision-making.

Resolving the dilemma involves finding a balance between respecting diverse ethical perspectives
and maintaining the harmony within the group.

*Questioning the Basis of Morality: Pluralism raises questions about the basis of morality itself.
If there are multiple, conflicting moral views, it prompts individuals to consider the foundations
of their ethical beliefs and the sources of moral authority.

Using the same situation, the vegan friend may question the basis of their ethical beliefs, reflecting
on whether they should be more flexible in certain situations or if there are alternative ways to
address ethical concerns without causing conflict.

This everyday example demonstrates how pluralism in ethics can manifest in seemingly simple situations,
requiring individuals to navigate conflicting values and make decisions that respect diverse moral
perspectives.

While pluralism encourages tolerance and respect for diverse viewpoints, its challenges arise in the practical
application of ethical principles and decision-making. Finding common ground and ethical guidelines that
accommodate diverse perspectives becomes a complex task in the face of conflicting values.
II. Fundamentalism poses a challenge to ethics in various ways due to its rigid adherence to
specific beliefs, often at the expense of tolerance, diversity, and the principles that underpin ethical
conduct.

Here are several ways in which fundamentalism can be seen as a challenge to ethics:
1. Intolerance and Exclusivity
2. Violation of Human Rights
3. Gender Inequality
4. Resistance to Pluralism
5. Political Engagement and Compromise
6. Use of Violence
7. Restrictions on Intellectual Freedom
8. Inflexibility and Adaptability

III. Globalization has had a significant impact on ethical considerations and has influenced the
way individuals and organizations behave and interact with each other. The role of globalization
in ethics is complex, and its effects can be both positive and negative.

People now live in a more globally interconnected society and are exposed to a wider range of
cultural customs and beliefs. Increased awareness and appreciation of cultural diversity as a result
of this exposure has fostered respect and tolerance throughout cultures. It has also increased
accountability for violations of human rights and drawn attention to these issues.

Globalization presents several ethical challenges including:

1. Economic inequality between nations
2. Exploitation of labor in developing countries
3. Environmental degradation
4. Cultural homogenization
5. Undermining local governance and sovereignty.

CHALLENGES TO FILINNIALS

6 GENERATIONS

● Traditionalists
● Boomers
● Gen X
● Millennial
● GENZ
● GEN A
 Millennial

- was first referred to as Generation Y, referring to those born between 1981 and 1996.

- Millennial became a popular term because this generation was born near the end of the
millennium. This generation has witnessed technological growth and development that is why

they are considered more progressive, creative, and far thinking than earlier generations. It is the
most populated age group in modern history.

Filinnials - Term used to denote the Filipino Millennials.

Characteristics of “Filinnials”

● They are tech-savvy

● They are “business-minded” people
● Globally Aware

Challenges

● Low Wages and Precarious Work

● Rising Cost of Living
● Lack of proper education
● Torn between the previous generation and the present

The Religious Response: The Role of Religion in Ethics

The role of religion in ethics is a complex and debated topic, as it involves the intersection of belief
systems, moral values, and cultural contexts. Different religions provide distinct frameworks for
understanding and guiding human behavior, often incorporating moral codes, commandments, or
ethical principles
Here are some key points to consider regarding the relationship between religion and ethics:

● Moral Guidelines: Religions offer followers guidelines addressing honesty, compassion,

justice, and respect.
● Source of Morality: Morality is often seen as derived from a higher power, grounding
ethical principles in divine will.
● Community Values: Religious communities share ethical values, fostering cohesion and
influencing collective moral standards.
● Motivation for Ethical Behavior: Believers may be motivated by spiritual rewards or fear
of divine punishment, impacting decisions.
● Cultural Influence: Religious beliefs shape cultural and legal norms governing ethical
behavior, even in secular societies.
● Challenges and Divergence: Within religions, diverse interpretations, changing norms,
 and cultural contexts contribute to ethical divergence.
● Secular Ethics: Ethical systems independent of religious beliefs, grounded in reason and
societal well-being, with shared principles across perspectives.
● Interfaith Dialogue: Recognition and respect for diverse religious perspectives, seeking
common ground on global ethical issues.

The role of religion in ethics varies across individuals and societies. While some find their
ethical principles deeply intertwined with their religious beliefs, others derive their moral
framework from secular or philosophical sources. The relationship between religion and ethics
continues to be a rich area of exploration and discussion.

REFERENCES:

GROUP 1:
https://iep.utm.edu/kantview/?fbclid=IwAR3gjEOIheMxHSQrovcWW7EcCo_8t1FM7udtLPVCEG
- J0Aux_3Rq45QpYh8

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=u3JfcNdisDI&list=PPSV
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mWj1uGzMt5c&t=439s&pp=ygUZa2FudCBhbmQgaGlzIHJp
Z2h0I HRoZW9yeQ%3D%3D
https://l.facebook.com/l.php?u=https%3A%2F%2Fwww3.nd.edu%2F~rbarger%2Fcategorical-
imperative.html%3Ffbclid%3DIwAR2JJq6mKtZ51d18UnRBxqRFYWSId4HDOE0uAQk1wpdSc
hhph3
LUyCohDyA%23%3A~%3Atext%3DAlthough%2520there%2520is%2520only%2520one%2Cw
ay%252
0that%2520you%2520always%2520treat&h=AT1CQV2pYblN4KYIH2zz3wFV_U5hUYydWZk
az1SQ3 0pdUIMB5eJndGFtkpgw4Kn-

https://l.facebook.com/l.php?u=https%3A%2F%2Fs28543.pcdn.co%2Fwp-
content%2Fuploads%2Fsites%2F39%2F2020%2F10%2FLegal-vs.-Moral-
lesson.pdf%3Ffbclid%3DIwAR0gTMICqnr2XNhDEneUR7k_u-
ANbDDbDiiAoS6eCK9J7myF0NbSr5gvzUc&h=AT1CQV2pYblN4KYIH2zz3wFV_U5hUYyd
WZkaz1 SQ30pdUIMB5eJndGFtkpgw4Kn-
VWxfAH4FxiI05K9LE2svHgZvWbCoxx0ZhSnH7zi99JStKH861bSbXw9qZIDEqVM2_JI_Qg
GROUP 2:

https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/utilitarianism-history/
https://www.investopedia.com/terms/u/utilitarianism.asp

GROUP 3:

• Isip, E. M. (2019). Justice and Fairness: Promoting The Common Good. Scribd.
https://www.scribd.com/embeds/434338486/content?start_page=1&view_mode=scroll&
access_key=key-
fFexxf7r1bzEfWu3HKwf&fbclid=IwAR3iB7wZM3tKyubwgHX4RAYHkeC627ZsJPD
M2NasTE7CbetnYQpyn6DMz90
• Velasquez, M. et. al. (2014). Justice and Fairness. Markkula Center for Applied Ethics.
https://www.scu.edu/ethics/ethics-resources/ethical-decision-making/justice-and-
fairness/#:~:text=Distributive%20justice%20refers%20to%20the,that%20are%20fair%20
and%20just.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distributive_justice#:~:text=Article%20Talk,%
2C%20income%2C%20and%20social%20status.https://helpfulprofessor.com/distributive
-justice-examples/
• Socialism. (2023, October 19). National Geographic Society.
https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/socialism/
• Difference between Communism, Capitalism, and Socialism. (2023). BYJU’S Exam prep.
https://byjus.com/free-ias-prep/difference-between-communism-capitalism-and-
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y%2Delected%20government.
• Garg, R. (2022). John Rawls’ Theory of Justice. Ipleaders. https://blog.ipleaders.in/john- rawls-
theory-of-
justice/?fbclid=IwAR2_1si1hrMabDviZtZSRuSBk_UZFeOPjfmrV3LnhcZv8E1nC8kSY xYsWuk
• BRIA 23 3 c Justice as Fairness: John Rawls and His Theory of Justice. (2023). Teach
Democracy.https://www.crf-usa.org/bill-of-rights-in-action/bria-23-3-c-justice-as- fairness-john-
rawls-and-his-theory-of-justice?fbclid=IwAR1YhRj8Olcm- Fm01r9nZaS4I4ay-
o9cHhLDCwkOPB5F9hopkq7ZXvp3lSA
•Wenar, Leif, "John Rawls", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Summer 2021 Edition),
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CambridgeUniversityPress.https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/kantianreview/article/abs/pri
nciples-of-justice-primary-goods-and-categories-of-right.
GROUP 4:
https://iep.utm.edu/soc-cont/#:~:text=Rousseau's%20social%20contract%20theories%20togeth
er,by%20our%20contingent%20social%20history.

https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/rousseau/

https://study.com/academy/lesson/the-social-contract-summary-author.html#:~:text=The%20gen
eral%20will%20is%20meant,and%20consequently%2C%20private%20interests).

https://study.com/academy/lesson/ethical-subjectivism-hume-spinoza-santayana.html#:~:text=D
avid%20Hume,-David%20Hume%20(1711&text=He%20believed%2C%20contrary%20to%20id
eas,on%20both%20reasoning%20and%20sentiment https://study.com/academy/lesson/ethical-
subjectivism-hume-spinoza-santayana.html#:~:text=D avid%20Hume,-
David%20Hume%20(1711&text=He%20believed%2C%20contrary%20to%20id
eas,on%20both%20reasoning%20and%20sentiment

https://study.com/academy/lesson/ethical-subjectivism-hume-spinoza-santayana.html#:~:text=D
avid%20Hume,-David%20Hume%20(1711&text=He%20believed%2C%20contrary%20to%20id
eas,on%20both%20reasoning%20and%20sentiment

https://study.com/academy/lesson/ethical-subjectivism-hume-spinoza-santayana.html#:~:text=D
avid%20Hume,-David%20Hume%20(1711&text=He%20believed%2C%20contrary%20to%20id
eas,on%20both%20reasoning%20and%20sentiment

https://study.com/academy/lesson/egoism-altruism.html#:~:text=Egoism%20holds%20that%20p
ople%20act,prosocial%20behaviors%20and%20be%2