behavioral

sciences
Article
Effect of Achievement Motivation and Self-Efficacy on General
Well-Being among Students at Normal Universities in Ningxia:
The Mediating Role of Time Management
Jingyi Dong 1 , Norlizah Che Hassan 1, *, Aminuddin Bin Hassan 1 , Dan Chen 2,† and Wei Guo 3,†

1 Faculty of Educational Studies, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Selangor 43300, Malaysia;

djyooo2023@163.com (J.D.); aminuddin@upm.edu.my (A.B.H.)
2 Department of Foreign Language Teaching, Ningxia Medical University, Yinchuan 750000, China
3 Faculty of Physical Education, Ningxia Normal University, Yinchuan 750000, China
* Correspondence: norlizah@upm.edu.my
† These authors contributed equally to this work.

Abstract: General well-being is a positive evaluation of one’s mental health, which is an important
topic in mental health. General well-being is fundamental to the positive development of young
people. A thorough understanding of the factors that influence happiness have not yet been devel-
oped for students at normal universities in Ningxia Province in China. This study examined the
mediation effects of time management on the relationship between achievement motivation, self-
efficacy, and general well-being among students at normal universities in Ningxia Province in China.
Using a random sampling, 163 participants (68 males and 95 females) completed the Achievement
Motivation Scale (AMS), General Self-efficacy Scale (GSES), Time Management Questionnaire (TMQ)
and General Well-being Scale (GWBS). Achievement motivation, self-efficacy, and time management
were positively correlated with general well-being. The mediation effects of time management on the
relationships between achievement motivation, self-efficacy, and general wellbeing (0.169 and 0.447)
were demonstrated. These results add to the nuanced relationship between self-efficacy, achievement
Citation: Dong, J.; Hassan, N.C.; motivation, and general well-being. According to the Achievement Motivation Theory and the
Hassan, A.B.; Chen, D.; Guo, W. Effect Self-efficacy Theory, this study reveals the role of achievement motivation, self-efficacy on general
of Achievement Motivation and well-being and the mediating effect of time management in the relationship between achievement
Self-Efficacy on General Well-Being motivation, self-efficacy, and general well-being. According to the findings, the school can carry out a
among Students at Normal
series of lectures and tutoring activities to enhance students’ achievement motivation, self-efficacy,
Universities in Ningxia: The
time management, and general well-being.
Mediating Role of Time Management.
Behav. Sci. 2024, 14, 15. https://
Keywords: achievement motivation; self-efficacy; time management; general well-being; university
doi.org/10.3390/bs14010015
students
Academic Editors: Noelia Belando-
Pedreño and Ines Testoni

Received: 24 September 2023

1. Introduction
Revised: 19 December 2023
Accepted: 20 December 2023 General well-being has been defined as the experience of pleasant emotions like
Published: 24 December 2023 happiness and satisfaction, and the ability to feel good and operate well, the development
of personal potential, having some control over life, having goals, and experiencing positive
connections [1]. General well-being is a positive evaluation of one’s mental health, which is
an important topic. Individuals with high life satisfaction and high positive emotions may
Copyright: © 2023 by the authors.
have less depression, loneliness, higher self-esteem, and fewer mental problems [2].
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
At present, the incidence of psychological problems among college students is fright-
This article is an open access article
eningly high, among which depression, anxiety, stress, and other diseases are the most
distributed under the terms and
common, accounting for 76%, 88.4%, and 45.5% [3–5]. These issues can affect the general
conditions of the Creative Commons
well-being of college students [6]. When college students enter university, they often feel
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
academic tension, which can also have a certain impact on their general well-being [7].
4.0/).
Among college students, academic stress can increase due to heavy workloads, inadequate

Behav. Sci. 2024, 14, 15. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs14010015 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/behavsci

Behav. Sci. 2024, 14, 15 2 of 12

faculty support, and an unsupportive campus environment [8,9]. In addition, academic

performance is a major factor in college students’ employment success. It makes some
students feel more stress, resulting in anxiety, depression, and so on [10–12]. The lack
of quality of life may lead to some negative consequences, such as psychological stress,
physical discomfort, low mood, social isolation, etc. [13,14]. The evaluation of college
students’ general well-being has become a key issue in current social and mental health
research [15].
Students in normal universities are the key group for the cultivation of educational
talents. The term “normal university” is a kind of oxymoron, or contradiction of terms.
The term “normal” in English can only be clearly understood with reference to its French
roots, where it means “setting a moral standard or pattern” [16]. Students from normal
Universities in Ningxia will become teachers, educational administrators, and educational
researchers in the future. Their educational professional ability will directly affect the
development and promotion of education in Ningxia. Ningxia is in the stage of rapid de-
velopment and transformation, requiring both social stability and sustainable development.
University students in normal universities have a professional educational background and
knowledge, making them a crucial force in promoting social development in Ningxia [17].
According to the Achievement Motivation Theory and the Self-efficacy Theory, achieve-
ment motivation and self-efficacy can influence general well-being [18–25]. In addition,
some studies have showed that time management as well can influence general well-being.
Therefore, the current study was aimed to identify the relationship among achievement
motivation, self-efficacy, and time management towards general well-being of students at
normal universities in Ningxia Province in China.
Motivation refers to an innate drive that motivates people to engage in certain activities,
and achievement motivation is an important form of motivation. A person’s success
depends on his motivation [18]. In the context of the knowledge economy, motivation
is a very important psychological element that occupies a central position among non-
intellectual elements and exerts a significant influence on it [19]. Achievement motivation is
the self-motivating force created by exceptional people in the survival of the fittest struggle.
People are driven to want to engage in tough and meaningful activities, and to be better
than others by this motivation [20].
According to the Achievement Motivation Theory, when an individual is able to
achieve personal goals, overcome challenges, and achieve success, he will experience a
positive emotion, thus improving well-being. Individuals with high achievement moti-
vation are generally more determined and motivated to pursue success, they value their
own achievements more, and they have a higher likelihood of experiencing satisfaction
and high general well-being [21].
Research shows that there is a strong relationship between people’s achievement
motivation and their level of general well-being. Numerous studies have shown that
general well-being and achievement motivation are closely associated, and that high
achievement motivation is essential for improving general well-being [22–24]. People
with higher achievement motivation have higher needs for self-realization in their lives.
As people progress towards self-realization, they will have a higher sense of well-being
overall [23,24].
The Self-efficacy theory holds that an individuals’ beliefs and confidence allows them
to effectively complete various tasks, namely self-efficacy, and it has an important impact
on happiness. Individuals with higher self-efficacy feel they can take on challenges, get
through obstacles, and accomplish goals, and are therefore more likely to experience the
pleasure of achievement and have high general well-being. Contrarily, individuals with low
self-efficacy frequently feel helpless and depressed, and lack confidence in achievement,
which affects their general well-being [25].
Research has found that generalized self-efficacy is strongly associated with positive
affects [26] and negative affects [27]. In addition, individual self-efficacy is also a key factor
in improving individual general well-being [28].
Behav. Sci. 2024, 14, 15 3 of 12

Time management belongs to a common concept in every management field, and

it describes a set of actions used to raise people’s time utilization rate, so that they can
make better use of their time, so as to achieve their own or organizational goals [29].
People with high achievement motivation often have a strong desire for success and have
a high enthusiasm for success. In order to achieve success, they need to understand the
importance of time, monitor and use time reasonably and efficiently to achieve their goals.
On the contrary, individuals with low levels of achievement motivation have insufficient
understanding of time value and a low ability of time monitoring. Achievement motivation
can predict time management tendency. Lu (2018) and Xin et al. (2020) have proved that the
higher the college students’ achievement motivation, the stronger their time management
ability and ability to effectively monitor time [30,31].
Zhang et al. (2011) and Li et al. (2021) pointed out that general self-efficacy can
significantly positively predict time management tendency [32,33]. Individuals who have a
high sense of general self-efficacy are full of confidence in their ability to deal with things,
and they can deal with and arrange various problems properly, so they can better plan,
arrange, and make use of their time. While time control is a common problem among
college students, time control is also a recurring problem that can have an emotional and
physical impact on students in rigorous majors [34–37]. Existing studies have shown
that young people experience increased levels of stress and decreased levels of general
well-being due to learning, environmental factors, and time-management skills [37–40].
Some previous independent studies have confirmed the effectiveness of some interventions
that aim to increase general well-being in education environments, such as smart devices,
and the use of time management aides [41–45]. Based on the results of previous research,
hypotheses 1–5 were proposed.

Hypothesis 1. There is a positive influence of achievement motivation on general well-being.

Hypothesis 2. There is a positive influence of self-efficacy on general well-being.

Hypothesis 3. There is a positive influence of time management on well-being.

Hypothesis 4. Time management mediates the relationship between achievement motivation and
well-being.

Hypothesis 5. Time management mediates the relationship between self-efficacy and well-being.

2. Materials and Methods

Respondents in this study were students at normal universities in Ningxia. 215 ques-
tionnaires were collected online through Questionnair Star (a platform that randomly
distributes questionnaires), then, 52 invalid cases (due to students from non-normal uni-
versities, and some respondents provided the same responses for a majority of the items
in the questionnaires) were deleted, therefore, a total of 163 valid questionnaires were
kept. According to the results of the demographic survey, the participants comprised
68 men (41.7%) and 95 women (58.3%). Among them, there were 59 freshman (36.2%),
21 sophomore (12.9%), and 83 three-grade students (50.9%).
We measured achievement motivation using the Achievement Motivation Scale (AMS) [46].
There are two dimensions of achievement motivation: pursuing success (15 items) and
avoiding failure (15 items). The five-point Likert scale was used. Numerical numbers
were given to represent the level of agreement of each item (1 “Strongly disagree” to 5
“Strongly agree”). The total score is obtained by subtracting the score of the avoiding failure
dimension from the score of the pursuing success dimension. A higher mean on this scale
indicates higher achievement motivation while a lower mean indicates lower achievement
motivation. Test–retest reliability of the Achievement Motivation Scale is 0.77.
We evaluated students’ self-efficacy using the General Self-efficacy Scale (GSES) with
10 items [47]. The four-point Likert scale was used. Numerical numbers were given to
Behav. Sci. 2024, 14, 15 4 of 12

represent the level of agreement of each item (1 “totally false” to 4 “totally true”). The
coefficient of internal consistency of the General Self-efficacy Scale is 0.91.
We measured time management using the Time Management Questionnaire (TMQ) [48].
There are three dimensions of time management in this study: time value (15 items), time
monitoring (19 items), and time efficacy (10 items). Among them, there are 5 negative items.
The five-point Likert scale was used. Numerical numbers were given to represent the level
of agreement of each item (1 “Strongly disagree” to 5 “Strongly agree”). A higher mean
on this scale indicates higher time management while a lower mean indicates lower time
management. Negative items were reversed and implemented by assigning the highest
value (e.g., 5) to the lowest response and the lowest value (e.g., 1) to the highest response.
The test–retest reliability of the Time Management Questionnaire and its dimensions is
between 0.71 and 0.85, and the Cronbach Alpha value is between 0.61 and 0.81.
We measured general well-being using the General Well-being Scale (GWBS) (Dai,
2010) [49]. There are six dimensions of general well-being in this study: friendship (8 items),
freedom (5 items), achievement (6 items), family (7 items), environment (5 items), and school
(6 items). There are 5 negative items. The seven-point Likert scale was used. Numerical
numbers were given to represent the level of agreement of each item (1 “Strongly disagree”
to 7 “Strongly agree”). A higher mean on this scale indicates higher general well-being
while a lower mean indicates lower general well-being. The coefficient of stability of the
General Well-being Scale and its dimensions is between 0.67 and 0.82, and the Cronbach
Alpha value is between 0.71 and 0.91.
Written informed consent was obtained from all subjects involved in the study.
All respondents were informed that the information they provide, and their identity
remain confidential.
Descriptive statistics, a t-test, an ANOVA, and a correlation analysis of the variables
were all performed using SPSS 23.0. The SPSS PROCESS macro was used to the test
hypotheses [50].

3. Results
3.1. Descriptive Statistics
As Table 1 shows, the overall mean of achievement motivation was 0.16 (SD = 0.8),
meaning that there is little difference in the average score between pursuing success
and avoiding failure. The overall mean of self-efficacy (1 “totally false” to 4 “totally
true”), time management (1 “Strongly disagree” to 5 “Strongly agree”), and general well-
being (1 “Strongly disagree” to 7 “Strongly agree”) obtained was 2.68 (SD = 0. 4), 3.51
(SD = 0.39), and 4.98 (SD = 0.71), respectively, meaning that the respondents’ self-efficacy,
time management, and general well-being was positive and moderate.

Table 1. Descriptive statistics.

M SD
achievement motivation 0.16 0.8
self-efficacy 2.68 0.4
time management 3.51 0.39
general well-being 4.98 0.71

3.2. Differences of Demographic Variables in Achievement Motivation, Self-Efficacy, Time

Management, and General Well-Being
In order to identify differences in students’ achievement motivation, self-efficacy, time
management, and general well-being between genders, an independent samples t-test
was employed.
As shown in Table 2, the mean of the males’ achievement motivation was 0.099 (SD =
0.819), and the mean of the females’ achievement motivation was 0.207 (SD = 0.785). There
were no significant differences in achievement motivation between genders (t = −0.851,
p = 0.396 > 0.05). The mean of the males’ general self-efficacy was 2.71 (SD = 0.451), and the
Behav. Sci. 2024, 14, 15 5 of 12

mean of the females’ general self-efficacy was 2.67 (SD = 0.355). There were no significant
differences in general self-efficacy between genders (t = 0.602, p = 0.548 > 0.05). The
mean of the males’ time management was 3.53 (SD = 0.431), and the mean of the females’
time management was 3.5 (SD = 0. 368). There were no significant differences in time
management between genders (t = 0.554, p = 0.58 > 0.05). The mean of the males’ general
well-being was 4.96 (SD = 0.736), and the mean of the females’ general well-being was 5
(SD = 0.696). There were no significant differences in general well-being between genders
(t = −0.39, p = 0.697 > 0.05).

Table 2. Independent samples t-test.

Male (N = 68) Female (N = 95) t p

(M ± SD) (M ± SD)
achievement motivation 0.099 ± 0.819 0.207 ± 0.785 −0.851 0.396
self-efficacy 2.71 ± 0.451 2.67 ± 0.355 0.602 0.548
time management 3.53 ± 0.431 3.5 ± 0.368 0.554 0.58
general well-being 4.96 ± 0.736 5 ± 0.696 −0.39 0.697

In order to identify differences in students’ achievement motivation, self-efficacy, time

management, and general well-being between grades, ANOVA was employed.
As shown in Table 3, the mean of the freshmen’s achievement motivation was 0.1
(SD = 0.843), and the mean of the sophomore’s achievement motivation was −0.12 (SD = 0.597),
and the mean of the three-grade students’ achievement motivation was 0.28 (SD = 0.796).
There were no significant differences in achievement motivation between grades (F = 2.392,
p = 0.095 > 0.05). The mean of the freshmen’s self-efficacy was 2.61 (SD = 0.305), and
the mean of the sophomore’s self-efficacy was 2.69 (SD = 0.418), and the mean of the
three-grade students’ self-efficacy was 2.73 (SD = 0.444). There were no significant differ-
ences in general self-efficacy between grades (F = 1.499, p = 0.226 > 0.05). The mean of
the freshmen’s time management was 3.5 (SD = 0.368), and the mean of the sophomore’s
time management was 3.54 (SD = 0. 476), and the mean of the three-grade students’ time
management was 3.51 (SD = 0.395). There were no statistically significant differences in
time management between grades (F = 0.114, p = 0.893 > 0.05). The mean of the freshmen’s
well-being was 5.12 (SD = 0.73), and the mean of the sophomore’s well-being was 4.86
(SD = 0. 841), and the mean of the three-grade students’ self-efficacy was 4.91 (SD = 0.653).
There were no statistically significant differences in general well-being between grades
(F = 1.875, p = 0.157 > 0.05).

Table 3. ANOVA.

Freshman Sophomore Three-Grade

F p
(N = 59) (N = 59) Students (N = 83)
(M ± SD) (M ± SD) (M ± SD)
achievement motivation 0.1 ± 0.843 −0.12 ± 0.597 0.28 ± 0.796 2.392 0.095
self-efficacy 2.61 ± 0.305 2.69 ± 0.418 2.73 ± 0.444 1.499 0.226
time management 3.5 ± 0.368 3.54 ± 0.476 3.51 ± 0.395 0.114 0.893
general well-being 5.12 ± 0.73 4.86 ± 0.841 4.91 ± 0.653 1.875 0.157

3.3. Relationships between Students’ Achievement Motivation, Self-Efficacy, Time Management,

and Well-Being
In this study, Pearson’s correlation was chosen to represent the relationship between
students’ achievement motivation, general self-efficacy, time management, and general
well-being.
Table 4 shows that the correlations are all significant, and the values are between
0.250 and 0.545. The value of the Pearson Correlation between achievement motivation
and general well-being was 0.250, so there was a significant low positive relationship
Behav. Sci. 2024, 14, 15 6 of 12

between achievement motivation and general well-being. The result revealed that stu-
dents who have high achievement motivation tend to have high general well-being. The
table shows that the relationship between self-efficacy and general well-being was a sig-
nificant low positive relationship as well (r = 0.252, p= 0.001). The result implied that
students with high self-efficacy tend to have high general well-being. The results from
the Pearson’s Correlation statistics analysis showed that there was a significant moderate
relationship between time management and general well-being (r = 0.545, p < 0.001). The
result also implied that students who have high time management tend to have high
general well-being.

Table 4. Correlations.

1 2 3
1 achievement motivation 1
2 self-efficacy 0.331 **
3 time management 0.352 ** 0.455 **
4 general well-being 0.250 ** 0.252 ** 0.545 **
** p < 0.01.

3.4. Hypotheses Tests

The regression results (Table 5) show that achievement motivation, and time manage-
ment can predict general well-being. In model 1, achievement motivation can significantly
positively predict general well-being (β = 0.250, p < 0.001). Model 2 showed that there
was a significant positive effect between achievement motivation and time management
(β = 0.352, p < 0.001). The results of model 3 showed that there was a positive effect between
achievement motivation and general well-being (β = 0.066, p > 0.05), and time management
significantly predicted general well-being (β = 0.522, p < 0.001). In model 3, after time
management was added, the effect of achievement motivation on general well-being was
not significant.

Table 5. Hierarchical regression analysis results of achievement motivation, time management, and
general well-being.

Model 1 Model 2 Model 3

Variables General Well-Being Time Management General Well-Being
β t β t β t
achievement motivation 0.250 3.278 ** 0.352 4.779 *** 0.066 0.938
time management 0.522 7.386 ***
F 10.744 ** 22.841 *** 34.432 ***
R2 0.057 0.119 0.292
** p < 0.01,***p < 0.001.

The regression results (Table 6) show that self-efficacy, and time management can
predict general well-being. In model 1, self-efficacy could significantly positively predict
general well-being (β = 0.252, p < 0.01). Model 2 showed that there was a significant
positive effect between self-efficacy and time management (β = 0.455, p < 0.001). The
results of model 3 showed that there was a positive effect between self-efficacy and general
well-being (β = 0.005, p > 0.05), and time management significantly predicted general
well-being (β = 0.543, p < 0.001). In the model 3, after time management was added, the
effect of self-efficacy on general well-being was not significant.
Behav. Sci. 2024, 14, 15 7 of 12

Table 6. Hierarchical regression analysis results of self-efficacy, time management, and general
well-being.

Model 1 Model 2 Model 3

Variables General Well-Being Time Management General Well-Being
β t β t β t
self-efficacy 0.252 3.304 ** 0.455 6.482 *** 0.005 0.069
time management 0.543 7.292 ***
F 10.916 ** 42.011 *** 33.81 ***
R2 0.058 0.202 0.288
** p < 0.01,***p < 0.001.

On the basis of the regression model, the mediation model of SPSS macro was used.
The bootstrap method was conducted to examine if the mediating effect was significant;
the sample size was 5000 and the confidence was 95%. Based on this, the mediating effect
of time management between achievement motivation, self-efficacy, and general well-being
was analyzed. Tables 7 and 8 show the results.

Table 7. Effects and 95% confidence intervals of achievement motivation, time management, and
general well-being.

Time Achievement Motivation on General Well-Being

Management Effect Boot SE Boot LLCI Boot ULCI
Direct effects 0.059 0.063 −0.065 0.183
Indirect effects 0.164 0.036 0.094 0.237

Table 8. Effects and 95% confidence intervals of self-efficacy, time Management, and general
well-being.

Time Self-Efficacy on General Well-Being

Management Effect Boot SE Boot LLCI Boot ULCI
Direct effects 0.009 0.133 −0.254 0.272
Indirect effects 0.442 0.087 0.275 0.613

From Table 7, the direct effect is 0.059, and the confidence interval of 95% is
[−0.065, 0.183], including 0, pointing out that the effect of achievement motivation on
general well-being is not significant. The total indirect mediating effect of time manage-
ment is 0.164, and the confidence interval of 95% is [0.094, 0.237], excluding 0, pointing
out that time management has a significant mediating effect on the relationship between
achievement motivation and general well-being. It shows that there is full mediation.
Full mediation would occur if inclusion of the mediation variable drops the relationship
between the independent variable and dependent variable to zero [51–53].
From Table 8, the direct effect is 0.009, and the confidence interval of 95% is
[−0.254, 0.272], including 0, pointing out that the effect of self-efficacy on general well-being
is not significant. The total indirect mediating effect of time management is 0.442, and the
confidence interval of 95% is [0.275, 0.613], excluding 0, pointing out that time management
has a significant mediating effect on the relationship between self-efficacy and general
well-being. It shows that there is full mediation as well. The specific path of achievement
motivation and self-efficacy acting on general well-being through time management is
detailed in Figure 1.
 fidence interval of 95% is [0.275, 0.613], excluding 0, pointing out that time mana
has a significant mediating effect on the relationship between self-efficacy and
well-being. It shows that there is full mediation as well. The specific path of achie
motivation and self-efficacy acting on general well-being through time manage
Behav. Sci. 2024, 14, 15
detailed in Figure 1.
8 of 12

Figure 1. The mediation model with time management as a mediator of the linkage between
achievement motivation, self-efficacy, and general well-being. *** p < 0.001.

4. Discussion Figure 1. The mediation model with time management as a mediator of the linkage between
ment
As shown in motivation,
Table self-efficacy,
2, there were and general
no statistically well-being.
significant *** p < 0.001.
differences in achievement
motivation, self-efficacy, time management, and general well-being between genders. This
may be because 4. maleDiscussion
students and female students are under the same learning pressure,
As shown
so there is no significant differencein Table 2, there
in time were no statistically
management. Although the significant differences in achie
role requirements
motivation,
and parenting styles of boysself-efficacy,
and girls are time management,
different in society andandgeneral
somewell-being
families, on between
the gende
may be because male students
whole, the status of boys and girls is relatively equal. and female students are under the same learning p
so there is no significant difference in time management.
When students’ achievement motivation is strong, they often have the need to pursue Although the role requir
success. In orderand parenting
to achieve styles
success, of boys
they need to andsetgirls are different
corresponding in society
goals. and some families
The achievement
goal theory holdswhole, the status
that goals play aofguiding
boys and rolegirls
andisarerelatively equal.dynamic mechanism
an important
for learners to achieve When their students’ achievement
goals. Goals motivation
will promote is strong,
students they often
to manage have
their the need to
time
effectively [54]. Time
success.management
In order todisposition can show
achieve success, theytheneed
psychological and behavioral
to set corresponding goals. The a
traits of people in
menthowgoal
they use time.
theory holdsThe thatsense
goalsofplay
timea guiding
monitoring roleallows
and areindividuals
an important to dynami
reasonably arrangeanism for learners to achieve their goals. Goals will promote students to to
the priority of tasks according to their goals, allocate the main time manage th
important learning tasks, and
effectively be Time
[54]. good management
at discipliningdisposition
themselves.can The sense
show theofpsychological
time efficacy and beh
can help individuals
traits ofevaluate
people their
in how ownthey time
use management
time. The sense ability.
of timeWhen individuals
monitoring allows individ
arrange their time reasonably
reasonably and achieve
arrange their goals,
the priority they
of tasks will havetopositive
according emotions
their goals, andthe main
allocate
higher general well-being
important[55]. learning tasks, and be good at disciplining themselves. The sense of ti
The relationships
cacy can between self-efficacy,
help individuals time management,
evaluate their own timeand general well-being
management ability. When indi
are amply supported
arrange their time reasonably and achieve their goals,forward
by empirical data [56–59]. Therefore, we put they willthe haveviewpositive em
that generalizedand self-efficacy can enhance
higher general well-being [55]. individuals’ general well-being through time
management. College Thestudents who have
relationships betweenhigher levels of general
self-efficacy, well-being and
time management, and life
general we
satisfaction haveare
stronger adaptability, resilience, and efficient ability to deal
amply supported by empirical data [56–59]. Therefore, we put forward the vi with problems,
but also work harder to complete
generalized self-efficacylearning tasks andindividuals’
can enhance achieve more success
general [60]. This
well-being through tim
may be due to the fact that their strong self-efficacy beliefs may
agement. College students who have higher levels of general well-being have an impact on theirand life s
task selection, perseverance,
tion have stronger effort,adaptability,
and academic successand
resilience, [22].efficient
In essence,
abilityself-efficacy
to deal with proble
enhances higher commitment, problem-solving abilities, goal orientation, creativity, and
time management skills [61,62], so as to improve general well-being [63].

5. Conclusions
The main purpose of the study is to examine the mediating role of time management
in the effects of achievement motivation and self-efficacy on general well-being among
students at normal universities in Ningxia. Based on the reviews of previous research and
the purpose of the current study, five hypotheses has been proposed.

Hypothesis 1. There is a positive influence of achievement motivation on general well-being.

Behav. Sci. 2024, 14, 15 9 of 12

Hypothesis 2. There is a positive influence of self-efficacy on general well-being.

Hypothesis 3. There is a positive influence of time management on well-being.

Hypothesis 4. Time management mediates the relationship between achievement motivation and
well-being.

Hypothesis 5. Time management mediates the relationship between self-efficacy and well-being.

The findings showed that H1–H5 were all supported. Additionally, the data con-
firmed H4 and H5 by showing that time management had full mediation influence on the
relationship between achievement motivation, self-efficacy, and general well-being.

6. Limitations and Implications

There are some restrictions in this study. First, the cross-sectional survey design could
not test the causal relationships among variables. Therefore, a longitudinal design could be
used as a follow-up survey method. Second, only self-reporting questionnaires were used
in this study. In future investigation, different investigation methods need to be adopted in
order to obtain more information. Lastly, the sample size of the current study is a bit small,
and may lead to low sample representativeness.
Despite the limitations of this study, it has research value and significance. China has
a large territory and a large population, and almost every region has its own characteristics.
It is difficult to study every region at the same time, so every year there are a lot of studies of
the areas in which the researchers belong. The studies of different regions can be compared
with each other to understand the characteristics of each region. For example, some studies
showed achievement motivation of college students in a certain city was positive and
moderate, while some studies showed achievement motivation of college students in a
certain city was very high. So, the present study adds to our understanding of the present
level of achievement motivation, self-efficacy, time management, and general well-being
among students at normal universities in Ningxia Province in China.
Achievement motivation, self-efficacy, time management, and general well-being are
of great interest to researchers, and many researchers study these four variables together
with other variables every year. But few researchers have studied these four variables
together. Few studies put time management and happiness together, and generally time
management and time insight, mobile phone dependence and so on are put together. So,
the present study adds to our understanding of the relationship between achievement
motivation, self-efficacy, time management, and general well-being. The study shows
an interesting result that among achievement motivation, self-efficacy, and time man-
agement, time management was the most influencing predicting contributor to students’
general well-being.
The present study shows that achievement motivation, self-efficacy, time management,
and general well-being among students at normal universities in Ningxia Province in
China were not very high, and measures should be taken to improve them according to
the situation.
The universities could hold lectures to communicate the importance and uniqueness
of characteristic education in Ningxia, and help students understand the educational needs
and challenges in Ningxia, so as to enhance their achievement motivation. In addition,
students studying in normal universities can actively participate in educational projects
and activities, such as education support projects, social practice, and so on. Through
practical experience, they can improve their sense of self-efficacy and motivation and
cultivate practical problem-solving abilities at the same time. In addition, social services
could support people in their pain, loss, and anxiety, as well as their triumphs, joys, and
victories, and enhance well-being [64–66].
According to the results of this study, time management has a significant correlation
with general well-being, so if students’ time management skills are improved, their general
Behav. Sci. 2024, 14, 15 10 of 12

well-being may also be improved. Good interpersonal relationships and excellent academic
achievement are some of the important reasons for students’ happiness. Therefore, the
school should provide tutoring to students who are not good at dealing with interpersonal
relationships and want to improve their academic performance, so that they can acquire
the corresponding skills. As students become more proficient in the application of their
skills, students will become more adept at dealing with problems, and their self-confidence
and self-efficacy will gradually increase. And when they acquire good interpersonal
relationships and excellent academic achievement, their general well-being will increase.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, methodology, software, validation, and formal analysis,

J.D.; investigation, D.C. and W.G.; writing—original draft preparation, J.D.; writing—review and
editing, J.D. and N.C.H.; supervision, N.C.H. and A.B.H. All authors have read and agreed to the
published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Institutional Review Board Statement: The study was approved by The Ethics Committee for
Research involving Human Subjects of University Putra Malaysia (JKEUPM) (ethical approval code:
JKEUPM-2022-627) on 26 September 2022.
Informed Consent Statement: Written informed consent was obtained from all subjects involved in
the study.
Data Availability Statement: The authors will freely share the unfiltered raw data that underlies the
results of this article.
Acknowledgments: All authors would like to thank the principals, teachers, and students for
their cooperation.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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