Earth’s characteristics liquid water; surface or lithosphere

which includes the crust and the upper

● It has the right distance from the mantle; and It has atmosphere that
Sun shelters it from the worst of the sun’s
● It is protected from harmful solar rays.
radiation.
● The atmosphere keeps us arm
● It has the right amount of
ingredients for life. Earth is the only planet in the solar
system that has a large amount of liquid
Earth is the only planet in the solar water.
system known to harbor life. Our planet
has a molten nickel-iron core which About 70% of the surface of the Earth is
gave rise to an extensive magnetic field, covered by liquid or frozen water.
which, along with the atmosphere, Because of this, Earth is sometimes
shields us from harmful radiation coming called “blue planet.”
from the sun.
Planet Earth is habitable because it has
Therefore if the Earth is like Goldilocks, the right distance from the sun. It is kept
it will take the right position in our solar warm by an insulating atmosphere, and
system. That is why the Earth is in what it has the right chemical ingredients for
we call the “ Goldilocks Zone.” life including water and carbon.

Factors that make the planet habitable It can provide water, oxygen, useful
biological products for human, and has
● Temperature suitable weather and climate.
● Atmosphere
● Energy Earth, Venus, and Mars may have
● Nutrients similarities:

Characteristics of planet Earth that (1) They all are terrestrial planets, made
makes it habitable of solid rocks and silicates;

● Extensive continental structure. (2) They all have an atmosphere;

● Plate tectonic activity and
volcanism. (3) They all almost have the same time
● Liquid water covering most of the to rotate on their axes;
surface.
● Oxygen-rich atmosphere. (4) Earth and Mars both have water;
● Relatively strong magnetic field.
(5) They all have carbon dioxide; and
Life. Intelligent life
(6 All have landforms.
Earth is the only place in the known
universe confirmed to host life and is the
only one known for sure to have liquid
water in the surface. These are reasons
why planet Earth is a unique one: It has
Earth, Venus, and Mars may have existing mineral to recrystallize while still
differences: solid

(1)Venus has no water; 4. Hydrothermal Solutions- A hot

mixtures of water with substances
(2)Venus and Mars don’t have oxygen; dissolved in them. When they come in
and contact with existing minerals- a
chemical reaction occurs forming a new
(3) Earth has life forms. mineral

Mineral Composition
Introduction to Minerals 1. Carbonates - contain carbon,
oxygen, and one ore more metallic
Minerals are naturaly formed, generally element
inorganic, crystalline, solid and has a
definite chemical composition. 2. Silicates- formed from Si and O
elements combined to form a silicon
They are formed through a variety of tetrahedron, 1 silicon atom and 4
geological processes, such as the oxygen atoms formed from cooling
cooling and solidification of molten rock, magma either near the surface (few
the precipitation of dissolved materials, crystals) or deep below surface (larger
and the alteration of existing minerals. crystals)
Minerals 3. Oxides - Minerals that contain
-the building blocks of rocks oxygen and one or more other
element(s)
Mineral Characteristics
4. Sulfates and Sulfides- Minerals
● natural
containing sulfur (pyrite, gypsum)
● inorganic
● solid
● definite composition
● crystal structure 5. Halides -minerals containing halogen
ions plus one or more other elements
(halite)
Mineral Formation 6. Native Elements- Minerals that exist
in a relatively pure form
1. Crystallization from magma-
cooling magma causes minerals to i.e. Gold, silver, copper
crystallize

2. Precipitation -Minerals dissolve out

of evaporated water; precipitated Mineral Properties
3. Pressure and Temperature- Change HARDNESS
in pressure and temperature cause an
Hardness is a measure of a mineral's -This property is influenced by a
resistance to scratching or abrasion. mineral's chemical composition and the
arrangement of its internal structure,
It is determined using the Mohs and it can provide valuable clues about
Hardness Scale, which ranges from 1 a mineral's identity.
(the softest) to 10 (the hardest).
Metallic Luster
HARDNESS: MOHS HARDNESS
SCALE -Minerals with a metallic luster, such as
gold, silver, and copper, have a shiny,
Soft reflective appearance that is similar to
polished metal. These minerals are
-Minerals with a low Mohs hardness, often used in jewelry and electronics
such as talc (1) and gypsum (2), are due to their conductive properties.
easily scratched and can be cut with a
knife. These soft minerals are often Vitreous Luster
used in the production of personal care
products, paints, and chalk. -Minerals with a vitreous luster, such as
quartz and diamond, have a glassy,
Medium transparent appearance that is similar to
the surface of broken glass. These
-Minerals with a medium hardness, such minerals are commonly used in various
as calcite (3) and feldspar (6), are more industrial and decorative applications.
resistant to scratching and can be used
in a variety of industrial and construction
applications, including glass making,
ceramics, and abrasives. Dull Luster

-Minerals with a dull, earthy luster, such

as graphite and talc, have a matte
Hard appearance that is often associated with
their soft and brittle nature. These
-Minerals with a high Mohs hardness, minerals are used in a variety of
such as diamond (10) and corundum applications, including as lubricants,
(9), are extremely resistant to scratching paints, and pencil leads.
and are used in a range of applications,
from cutting and polishing tools to Pearly Luster
gemstones and high-performance
electronics. -Minerals with a pearly luster, such as
calcite and gypsum, have a shimmering,
Luster iridescent appearance that is similar to
the surface of a pearl. These minerals
-Luster describes the way a mineral are often used in the production of
reflects light, ranging from the metallic decorative items and as a source of
shine of gold to the dull, earthy calcium in various industries.
appearance of graphite.
Cleavage- tendency to break along flat,
even surfaces (mica)
Fracture- uneven breakage (quartz) -break with a smooth, curved surface
that resembles the shape of a seashell.
This property is often associated with
the presence of silica in the mineral's
Cleavage composition and is commonly observed
in glassy or amorphous materials.
Perfect Cleavage (mica and halite)
Uneven Fracture (feldspar and calcite)
-have a tendency to split or break along
well-defined, smooth planes. This - break with a rough, jagged surface that
property makes them useful in does not exhibit any distinct patterns.
applications where thin, flat surfaces are This property is often related to the
required, such as in the production of mineral's internal structure and can be
electronics and building materials. influenced by factors like impurities and
the presence of cleavage planes.
Imperfect Cleavage (quartz and
feldspar) Splintery Fracture (amphibole and
pyroxene)
-have a less defined tendency to break
along specific planes. These minerals -break into long, thin, and sharp
often exhibit a more irregular or uneven fragments that resemble splinters of
fracture pattern, which can make them wood. This property is typically
suitable for a wider range of associated with the mineral's fibrous or
applications, including construction, columnar crystal structure and can be
abrasives, and gemstones. useful in certain industrial applications,
such as the production of abrasives and
No Cleavage (diamond and garnet) insulation materials.
-These minerals typically break in a Color
more random, uneven pattern, known as
a conchoidal fracture. This property Inherent Color
makes them ideal for use in high-impact
and abrasive applications, such as -determined by its chemical composition
cutting and polishing tools. and the way it interacts with light. For
example, the vibrant blue of sapphire is
Multiple Cleavage (calcite) caused by the presence of trace
amounts of the element iron in the
- break along several well-defined mineral's structure.
directions. This unique property is often
exploited in the production of optical Impurities
devices, as the mineral can be easily
cleaved to produce smooth, flat surfaces - influence a mineral's color.
for light refraction and polarization.
Light Interaction
Fracture
-The way a mineral interacts with light
Conchoidal Fracture (quartz and can also affect its perceived color.
obsidian)
Crystal Structure -can also be used to identify minerals.
This may involve testing for the
-The crystal structure of a mineral can presence of certain elements, such as
also play a role in its color. The cubic using a magnet to detect the presence
structure of pyrite, for example, results of iron, or performing acid tests to
in its distinctive golden-yellow hue, while determine the mineral's reactivity.
the hexagonal structure of quartz allows
it to appear in a variety of colors, from
clear to amethyst purple.
ROCKS
Streak
ROCKS
-color of a mineral in its powder form
-Any solid mass of mineral or mineral-
Magnetism like matter that occurs naturally as part
of our planet
--tendency of the mineral to
attract to magnets.
The 3 types of rocks:
Fluorescence 🞑Igneous
🞑Sedimentary
-- the ability of certain chemicals to give 🞑Metamorphic
off visible light after absorbing radiation
which is not normally visible

Mineral Identification

Physical Properties

-such as hardness, luster, cleavage, and

fracture, are crucial for identifying and
classifying different mineral species. By
carefully observing these
characteristics, you can often narrow
down the identity of an unknown mineral
sample.

Strak Test

-simple and effective method for

identifying a mineral's color in its
powdered form. By rubbing the mineral
against an unglazed porcelain plate, you
can observe the color of the streak,
which can provide valuable information
about the mineral's identity.

Chemical Tests
 ions can move = large crystal size

Fine-grained Texture (shale)

Igneous Rocks -form as a result of quick cooling time,
-are formed from molten rock called ions lose motion= small crystal size
magma. They are mostly crystalline
(made up of interlocking crystals) and Glassy Texture (OBSIDIAN)
usually very hard to break. E.g. granite, -form from lava that cools rapidly,
basalt, andesite. -ions don’t have time to arrange =
(granite, basalt, andesite) glassy texture

Porphyritic Texture (trachyte)

-rocks with different size minerals that
The formation of igneous rocks form from varying cooling rates
-A porphyritic texture is one that is
Extrusive characterized by large crystals
- igneous rocks are cooled quickly (phenocrysts) in a finer groundmass
so small crystals form (e.g. basalt). (aphanitic part)
Intrusive
- igneous rocks are cooled more slowly Pyroclastic Texture (VOLCANIC
so large crystals form (e.g. granite). BRECCIA)
-Results from the explosive
● Magma contains some gases, fragmentation of volcanic material,
including water vapor- this make including magma (commonly the light,
it less dense, so it rises frothy pumice variety and glass
● As magma rises, it cools and fragments called shards), country
forms crystals rock, and phenocrysts.
● The longer the cooling time the
larger the crystals Vesicular Texture (pumice)
-is a volcanic rock texture characterized
Texture by a rock being pitted with many cavities
-refers to the appearance of an igneous (known as vesicles) at its surface and
rock (size, shape, arrangement of inside.
crystals).
Composition ROCK COMPOSITION
-refers to the proportions of light and
dark Granitic Composition- contain mainly
minerals in the rock. quartz and feldspar, some with biotite
mica and amphibole. Make up major
Coarse- grained Texture (granite) rocks of continental crust
-form as a result of slow cooling,
Basaltic Composition- contain mainly This alters the structure of the existing
dark colored minerals and feldspar, rock.
along with Mg and Fe. Darker and
denser than granitic composition

Basalt Pillars
-These pillars were formed when The formation of metamorphic rocks
lava cooled on the Earth’s surface.

Sedimentary
-Sedimentary rocks are formed from
sediment grains deposited by water,
wind or ice. They are always formed in
layers, called “beds” or “strata”, and
quite often contain fossils. E.g…
Sandstone, limestone, chalk

The formation of sedimentary rocks

These were formed from layers Metamorphic Rocks

of sediment which were -Continent collision causes
squeezed together. metamorphism and huge folds like this
one in Scotland.

Metamorphic
-Metamorphic rocks were once igneous
or sedimentary rocks, but have been
changed (metamorphosed) as a result
of intense heat and/or pressure within
the Earth’s crust. E.g… slate, marble,
gneiss

MINING
Metamorphic rock - formation
Metamorphic rocks are formed by the
WHERE MINERALS ARE FOUND
effect of extreme pressures and
temperatures deep within the Earth.
● World’s earth crust
 ● Everywhere in the world - is a broad category of mining in which
● On low and moderate soil and rock overlying the mineral
temperatures deposit are removed.
● At the mines -In contrast to underground mining, in
● Rocks at the west which the overlying rock is left in place,
● Water and the mineral is removed through
shafts or tunnels.
WHAT IS MINING -is used to retrieve sand, gravel, stones,
-Also known as “extractivism” coal, iron and other metals.
-Extraction of valuable minerals or other
geological materials from the earth. TYPES OF SURFACE MINING

TYPES OF MINING STRIP MINING

1.) Underground mines -The process involves stripping the
2.) Surface mines surface away from the mineral that’s
3.) Placer mining being excavated (usually coal).
4.) In-situ mining -Soil, rock, and vegetation over the
mineral seam is removed with huge
1. UNDERGROUND MINING machines, including bucket-wheel
-Underground mining is used to extract excavators.
ore from below the surface of the earth
safely, economically and with as little TYPES OF STRIP MINING
waste as possible. Area Stripping
-Done below earth’s surface - extracts ore over a large, flat terrain in
Excavation long strips.
-coal, lead, limestone, and salt Contour mining
- is a version of strip mining that follows
The underground mining cycle includes: the contours of outcrops and hilly
● Drilling and blasting to advance terrains.
the development tunnel through
waste rock to the orebody and Open-Pit Mining
drill/blast of the orebody. -similar to strip mining, except the ore is
● Broken waste rock and ore, removed from an open pit which is not
known as muck, is then hauled to then filled in.
surface. -has been around for centuries, with
ancient cultures like the Greeks,
Romans, and Persians mining for
granite, marble and even salt.
-Open-pit mines are commonly called
2. SURFACE MINING quarries when they produce materials
used in building: limestone, granite, and 4. In-Situ Mining
marble. -Called solution mining
-Used to recover minerals through
boreholes drilled into a deposit
Mountaintop Removal -Is a mining process used to recover
- is highly controversial, and best suited minerals such as copper and uranium
for retrieving mass amounts of minerals, through boreholes drilled into a deposit,
usually coal, from mountain peaks. in situ.
-The process involves blasting the
overburden with explosives above the HOW MINERALS ARE PROCESSED
mineral seam to be mined. FOR HUMAN USE
- The broken mountaintop is then shifted
into valleys and fills below. MINERAL PROCESSING
-minerals is removed using chemical
3. PLACER MINING reactions.
-Done by open-pit -Process that most ores undergo after
-Mining of stream bed mining
-Recovery of heavy minerals from
alluvial HOW ARE MINERALS SEPARATED
● Must be separated from
Dredging unwanted rocks
-is the more sophisticated version of ● Must be separated out of the ore.
panning for gold it’s mostly associated ● Separated from unwanted
with gold mining materials
-Much like hopeful miners with their
pans during the gold rush, floating
dredges (a barge fitted with conveyor
belts and scoops) move up a water
table.

Ex.
● the gold deposits of Nome,
Alaska;
● the zircon sands of Brazil and
Australia;
● the black sands (magnetite) of
Oregon and California; and
● the diamond-bearing marine ENERGY RESOURCES
gravels of Namaqualand, South
Africa.
Natural resources – natural and the microorganisms in the sediment
substances required by humans for are turned into gas and oil
different needs.
3. Oil and gas move upwards through
Natural resources such as oil, gas, tiny pores in the rock. Oil and gas gets
coal, wood, wind, sunlight and waves trapped under impermeable layers of
can be used to produce energy. These rock and can be then be taken out using
are energy resources. long powerful drills.

Non-renewable energy sources Oil & gas—->burned to heat water—

-are things like oil, natural gas and coal. >steam propels turbine—>electricity
They cannot be easily replaced,
because they have taken millions of Crude oil is turned into jet engine oil,
years to form. petrol and diesel which are used as a
fuel in planes and cars.
Renewable energy resources
-like wind power, wave power, solar When oil and gas are burnt they release
power and biofuel can be easily carbon dioxide gas into the
replaced and will not run out. atmosphere. CO2 is a greenhouse gas
and contributes to global warming.

COAL FORMATION

NON-RENEWABLE: OIL AND GAS

FORMATION

1. Dead microscopic animals and plants

sink to the bottom of the ocean and
become buried with other sediments Jurassic Period
(sand and mud) 201- 145 million years ago
2. Over millions of years these
sediments get buried deeper and
deeper. Temperature and pressure rises
 ● Uranium and plutonium are
nuclear fuels
● Nuclear fuels do not produce
harmful greenhouse gases
● Nuclear power is very efficient
● Nuclear power produces
radioactive waste which is
dangerous and has to be seal in
containers and buried for
thousands of years

Modern Day

RENEWABLE: WIND

● Large windmills are called wind

turbines
● When the wind blows, the blades
move and this spins a turbine
● Coal is cheap and there is lots of which is connected to a generator
it! which generates electricity.
● When coal is are burnt it releases ● Wind farms are made up of lots
carbon dioxide, sulphur dioxide of wind turbines this allows lots of
and nitrogen dioxide into the electricity to be generated
atmosphere contributing to global ● Wind farms are built in windy
warming and acid rain. areas
● No wind = no electricity

NUCLEAR RENEWABLE: SOLAR

Nuclear reactions—-> heat—>steam ● Solar energy is from sunlight

propels turbine—>electricity ● Solar energy can be used to
generate heat or electricity
 ● Solar panels filled with water are ● However fossil fuels are used in
used to produce heat the production of biofuels, for
● Photovoltaic cells are used to example in making fertilizers so
turn sunlight into electricity they are not carbon neutral.
● Solar panels can be put of ● Crops for biofuels could be used
building roofs to feed people instead
● Solar panels are expensive and
you need a lot of them!

RENEWABLE: GEOTHERMAL
● Geothermal energy is heat
energy from the Earth
● Water can be pumped down into
hot rock where it is heated.
● Geothermal energy can be used
to produce heat or electricity
● Iceland is very volcanic so uses a
lot of geothermal energy.

RENEWABLE: HYDROELECTRIC
● Hydroelectric power is a way of
harnessing energy from running
water.
● Hydroelectric dams trap water in
reservoirs
● When electricity is needed, water
is released and flows downwards
with gravity to spin a turbine.
● More reliable that solar and wind
power.
● Hydroelectric dams are very
expensive and can harm wildlife.

RENEWABLE: BIOFUEL
● Biofuels are made from crops.
● Ideally biofuels should be carbon
neutral – absorb carbon dioxide
as they grow and then give off
carbon dioxide when they are
burnt.