UNIT 2

PERSPECTIVES OF GEOGRAPHY
Structure
2.1 Introduction 2.4 Geography as the Science of
Expected Learning Outcome Human-Environment
2.2 Geography as the Study of Relationships
Planet Earth 2.5 Summary
2.3 Geography as the Science of 2.6 Terminal Questions
Distributions 2.7 Answers
2.8 References and Further
Reading

2.1 INTRODUCTION
In the previous Unit, you have learnt about the foundations of geography
including geography as an institutionalised discipline and its place in the
classification of knowledge. You have also learnt about the geographical
traditions and different branches and sub-branches of geography, like
regional and systematic, physical and human, etc., in detail. In this Unit, you
will be learning about the perspectives of geography, covering ‘geography as
the study of planet earth’, ‘geography as the science of distributions’, and
‘geography as the science of human-environment relationships’.

Geography as a discipline originated in the 19th century in Europe but has a

long history that has evolved with varying perspectives from scholars over
time (Holt-Jensen,1999). Human beings and animals have always been
curious about their surroundings and have identified their living spaces. This
inquisitiveness compels them to discover what lies beyond the hills,
mountains and oceans. Human beings noted the behaviour and
characteristics of the environment around and this process eventually became
the foundation of the history of geographical ideas. The history of
geographical ideas is the record of human effort to gain more and more
knowledge of the human habitat.

The first period of intellectual import can be traced to the written tradition of
the Western world, particularly to ancient Greece, in the fourth and third
centuries B.C. The Greek scholar, Eratosthenes, described geography ‘as the
study of the earth as the home of human beings’. The Greeks and Arabs

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developed the science of astronomy, which was a formidable step forward in
the history of ideas.

A long period of decline had set in during the Middle Ages when geographic
horizons contracted in the Western world. The Greek and Phoenician
explorers and Greek geographical concepts were largely forgotten. Dikshit
(2004) summarises the struggle that eventually led to the acceptance of
scientific enquiry. Geographical work in ancient Greece followed two distinct
traditions: the mathematical tradition pertaining to the location of places, and,
the literary tradition concerned with describing what was actually observed.
Ptolemy represented the former, while Strabo the latter. The expansion of the
Roman Empire contributed immensely to the pursuit of geographical
knowledge. The fall of the empire marked the decline of interest in geography
due to the rising influence of theocracy. The spirit of scientific inquiry ebbed
as any attempt to question God's creation was viewed as blasphemy. Arabs
had access to Greek literature and were developing their own as they traded
far and wide across the land and seas.

In Europe, things had begun to change for the better during the Age of
Explorations, approximately from the sixteenth century. The geographical
horizons of the Europeans began to change, which eventually culminated into
territorial imperialism. Scientific knowledge about lands and the peoples on
the earth's surface became the most sought-after intellectual commodity. The
decline of theocracy led to the concomitant rise of the spirit of 'academic
freedom' -the right of scholars to seek answers to questions. The momentum
was in favour of scientific enquiry that eventually shattered the old theocratic
and biblical tradition with the publication of Darwin’s theory of evolution. In the
middle of the nineteenth century, Europe's separation of fields of knowledge
became possible with rising specialisation. Under such a scenario, geography
as a subject focused on the integrated study of man and the environment
faced a crisis of identity as the human and physical world was seen as
fundamentally separate entities. The anomalous situation arose as geography
sought to study both and this did not fit into the scientific framework then. The
geographers were divided as many pleaded that geography should focus on
the study of man whereas others maintained that geography should
concentrate exclusively on the study of the physical elements.

In this Unit, we will study three main views or perspectives that contributed
towards diversities of ideas and methodologies in the early stages of the
evolution of geography as a modern scientific discipline- ‘Geography as the
Study of Planet Earth’, ‘Geography as the Science of Distributions’ and
‘Geography as the Science of Human-Environment Relationships’.

Expected Learning Outcomes

After studying of this unit, you should be able to:
 analyse the perspectives of geography from the viewpoint of eminent
geographers;
 be acquainted with geography as the study of planet Earth;
 recognise geography as the science of distributions with respect to
systematic science; and
 explain geography as the science of human-environment relationships.
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2.2 GEOGRAPHY AS THE STUDY OF PLANET
EARTH
In the introduction of the unit, you have already learnt how different scholars
from different countries not only started debating about what should be taught
and how it should be taught in geography but also tried to convince the world
about their philosophies for the development of the subject matter of
geography. In this section, we will study how geography is regarded as the
study of the planet Earth and how different geographers had advocated this
idea.

There were many geographers whose ideas and debates have laid the
foundation of geography discipline as the study of the planet Earth. According
to Hartshrone (1959), Geographers like Georg Gerland (1833-1919), Otto
Lehmann (1855-1922), Albrecht Penck (1858-1945) and Ferdinand von
Richthofen (1833-1905) thought that geography is the study of the entire
planet Earth. However, there is some confusion about whether geography
only focuses on the Earth's surface and its environment that we can see or
experience directly or whether it includes the Earth as a whole, including
those that are not apparently visible to humans.

According to Hartshrone (1959), Georg Gerland, a German geographer, and

geologist, had raised a critical question in his famous essay titled, ‘The
Position of Geography among the Natural Sciences’, which was published in
1891, about whether the field of geography encompasses the entire planet
Earth or only the part that is known to everyone. His essay had a significant
impact on the development of geography as a discipline and helped to
establish the idea that geography is the study of the Earth as a system.
However, most geographers limited their studies to the surface phenomena of
the Earth, and so geography in practice was the study of the Earth as it is
typically understood. This attempt to limit the study of the planet Earth to its
outer surface is arbitrary. In 1883, Richthofen defended this restriction in his
inaugural address at Leipzig. He claimed that a geographer's primary focus
should be on the outer shell of the Earth, but this was not found to be
convincing.

Gerland discussed the difference between geography and geophysics. He

argued that geography should take an objective and scientific view of the
Earth, considering it as one of many similar units in the universe. Gerland
believed that the focus on the Earth's surface in geography was simply due to
our inability to directly observe the interior of the Earth. He also acknowledged
that the Earth's unique features, such as its narrow temperature range and
the existence of life, justified studying it as a separate science.

Gerland recognised that science is the pursuit of knowledge in the universe

and that the Earth is unique because it's where humans lived. He explained
that if we were to compare Earth with other similar planets, we would see it
from a celestial perspective, which would require little justification for studying
it as a separate science. Gerland concluded by saying that it is important to
study the Earth because it is the only known planet, where life exists.

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It is evident that humans have always thought of the world they live in as a
significant part of their reality. Thus, now we know that the Earth is not just a
planetary body, but it is also the only home we have. The term "earth surface"
is now essential as it accurately describes the physical extent of our planet's
outer shell. The word "world" is commonly used in phrases like "worldwide,"
"world map," and "world tour," which all refer to the physical space that
includes the Earth's surface. This space goes deep into the ground and high
into the atmosphere, but it does not include the Earth's core, moon, or other
celestial bodies.

The physical scope of geography doesn't require a strict definition of the

earth's surface. Geographers study surface phenomena and can explore
deeper conditions if needed. There is no need to set a boundary between the
world and the earth's interior. The earth's surface is the focus of geographic
study serving as the meeting place for various sciences like history,
geophysics, meteorology, economics, and geology. Each science approaches
the study of the earth's surface from a different perspective. However, the
distinction between the geographic viewpoint and systematic sciences
studying the same subjects was often overlooked by scholars like Richthofen.
Hettner emphasised this distinction in 1905. Geographers' contributions were
limited by specialised techniques in geophysics, leading to the establishment
of geophysics as an independent field associated with geology and physics,
as noted by Wagener (Hartshorne, 1939, pp. 119-120).

There are many other important works from eminent geographers who
advocated “Geography as the study of Earth Planet” and are mentioned
below:

 Carl Sauer (1956) said, "Geography is the science of the earth's surface,
and the study of the relationships between people and their environment".
 Richard Hartshorne (1939) said, "Geography is the study of the earth as
the home of human beings".
 D.W. Meinig (1975) said, "Geography is the science of the earth and its
features, the study of human activity and its relationship with the physical
environment, and the synthesis of knowledge about the earth and its
inhabitants".
 William Morris Davis (1909) said, "Geography is the science that studies
the physical and cultural features of the earth's surface, and the spatial
relationships between them".
 Jean Gottmann (1973) said, "Geography is the study of the earth's
surface, the human use of it, and the interrelations between the two".
 Peter Haggett (1983) said, "Geography is the study of the Earth's surface
and the processes that shape it, including human activities".

From the above discussions, it is evident that the study of the Earth's surface
is essential in geography, as it is the physical extent of our planet's outer shell
which refers to the space that goes deep into the Earth and high into the
atmosphere but does not include the Earth's core, moon, or other celestial
bodies. Geographers need not concern themselves with establishing an exact
line between the world and the interior of the earth. The earth's surface is the
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sphere of geographic study, and it forms the meeting place for all sciences
concerned with the earth, including history, geophysics, meteorology,
economics, and geology.

SAQ 1
Fill in the blanks with suitable words:

i.) The Greek Scholar _______________________ described geography as

the study of the earth as the home of human beings.
ii.) ___________________ in his books “Nature of Geography” (1939) and
“Perspective of Nature of Geography” (1949) traced and identified phases
in the development of geography as a discipline.
iii.) ___________________ suggested that if history may be considered the
science of “when”, geography would be logically the science of “where”.
iv.) _______________ developed the science of astronomy, which helped in
the development of geography as a discipline.
v.) In the opinion of geographers such as Gerland, Lehman and Richthofen,
geography is the science of _________________.

2.3 GEOGRAPHY AS THE SCIENCE OF

DISTRIBUTIONS
Distribution refers to the way something is spread out or arranged over a
geographic area. The concept of distribution can be applied to almost
everything on the planet, from floral and faunal species to weather
phenomena. Geography and geographers have proved that many of the
things listed are found in some places but not in others and that’s why it is
considered as the science of distributions. Geography as a science of
distribution is rooted in the idea that everything on Earth has a spatial context.
Geographers study the distribution of physical phenomena such as landforms,
climate, vegetation, and water resources, as well as human phenomena such
as population, culture, economic activity and political organisation. By
analysing these distributions, geographers can gain insights into how and why
phenomena are distributed as they are and how they interact with each other.

Geography as a science of distribution has its roots in the work of Alexander

von Humboldt, a German naturalist who explored South America in the early
19th century. Humboldt was interested in the spatial distribution of plant and
animal species, and he used this information to develop a concept of the
‘geography of plants’ that would become the foundation of biogeography.
Since then, geography has evolved to encompass a wide range of disciplines,
including physical geography, human geography and environmental
geography. These sub-disciplines are united by a common focus on
understanding the distribution of phenomena on the earth's surface. Physical
geography, for example, examines the spatial distribution of natural
phenomena such as climate, vegetation and landforms. It seeks to
understand the processes that shape these distributions, such as plate
tectonics, weather patterns and erosion. Human geography, on the other
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hand, is concerned with the spatial distribution of human activities, such as
Wallace line is a
population, migration and economic activity. It seeks to understand the social,
geographical boundary that
economic, and political factors that influence these distributions. Similarly,
marks a distinct difference
in the distribution of flora environmental geography tries to understand the complex interactions
and fauna between the between humans and the environment. It examines the distribution of
regions of Asia and environmental phenomena such as pollution, biodiversity, and natural
Australia. The Wallace Line resources, and seeks to understand the underlying causes and
runs through the Indonesian consequences of these distributions.
archipelago, specifically
between the islands of Bali One of the key strengths of geography as a science of distribution is its ability
and Lombok, and then to identify and analyse spatial patterns and relationships. For example,
continues eastward through Cartography and Geographic Information Systems (GIS) allow researchers to
the Makassar Strait, map and analyse spatial data on different scales, from local to global. This
separating Borneo and can help to identify areas of high or low biodiversity, patterns of land use
Sulawesi.
change, or the distribution of natural hazards such as earthquakes and
The significance of the tsunamis.
Wallace Line lies in the
distinct differences in animal Geography as the study of distribution is a derivation from Humboldt's
and plant species found on description of geography as the study of what exists together in an area.
either side of the boundary. Humboldt, during the expedition of the Orinoco River, Colombia, Cuba, West
To the west of the line, Indies, Amazon Basin, and Andes Mountains, established the fact that there
which includes mainland is variation in the distribution of precipitation, soil, vegetation, flora, fauna, and
Asia and the western part of
temperature. Consequently, there are variations in the distribution of
the Indonesian archipelago,
economic activity and population. In his monumental work called Erdkunde,
the fauna and flora are
predominantly of Asian Ritter's teleological approach discussed the spatial distribution of physical
origin. Species such as phenomena. Hettner, in his work, declared that geography deals with
tigers, elephants, monkeys, "distribution by place." He, while dealing with the distribution of flora and
and various Asian plant fauna, focused on the importance of the Wallace Line, which separates the
species are the flora and fauna of Australia from South-East Asia and Asia. Hettner illustrated
characteristics of this the same distinction in viewpoint. In each case, systematic science is focused
region. To the east of the on the phenomena that are studied in their distribution, and that of geography
line, in areas such as Bali, on the areas that differ from each other in their other content.
Lombok, and the islands of
Wallacea, the fauna and Hettner stated similar objections to this concept of geography commencing
flora are predominantly of with his earliest methodological discussion in 1895. He wrote "Distribution by
Australian origin. Unique
Place" in 1905, which forms a characteristic of the objects and should,
species such as marsupials,
therefore, necessarily be included by systematic science and not geography
cockatoos, and other
in the arena of their research and presentation. He focused on the difference
Australian plant and animal
species are found in this that Wallace had made between geographical zoology, which studies the
region. distribution of the individual sorts and species of animals, and zoological
geography, or simply animal geography, which is concerned with the
The Wallace Line is
difference in faunal equipment of the different lands. Hettner illustrated this
considered one of the most
significant biogeographic
through several other examples of physical features from the same difference
boundaries in the world. It in perspective. In each instance, the view of systematic science emphasises
highlights the separation the phenomena that are studied in their distribution and that of geography on
between two distinct the areas that differ from each other in their floral, faunal, and mineral
evolutionary realms and has associations. This geographical view represents a consistent derivation from
had a profound impact on Humboldt's description of geography as the study of that which exists together
our understanding of in an area. It appears in Hettner's example concerning cultural phenomena.
species distribution and
evolution in Southeast Asia. Geographers are often inclined to focus on the distribution of various
phenomena, and, one may also note that distribution alone doesn't create a

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common bond of interest. While many geographers acknowledge that
geography's special function is not solely the study of distributions, it is
difficult to avoid the assumption that the study of ‘where’ is an integral part of
the field. This issue is particularly relevant in systematic geography. It is worth
noting that all systematic sciences studying phenomena within the earth's
surface must address the question of ‘where’ in some of their work. However,
geography as the discipline dealing with distribution has not been accepted by
several geographers as the main sphere of geography.

Many scholars have contributed to the development of geography as a

science of distribution. Some of the famous scholars with their works are
listed below:

 Von Thunen's Agricultural Land Use Model: In 1826, Johann Heinrich von
Thunen developed a model to explain the spatial distribution of
agricultural land use around cities. The model suggests that different
types of crops are grown at different distances from the city based on their
perishability and transport costs.
 Carl O’ Sauer (1925): Sauer is known for his work on cultural landscapes,
which are the result of human interactions with the natural environment.
He argued that cultural landscapes are not just a product of physical
geography, but are shaped by human activity and cultural practices.
 August Losch (1930): In his famous work on Location theory, he explains
how businesses and other economic activities choose a location based on
factors such as transportation costs, labour availability and market access.
The theory helps to explain the spatial distribution of economic activities
and the location of industries.
 Walter Christaller (1933): Christaller's work on the Central Place Theory
sought to explain the distribution of human settlements and economic
activity. This theory posits that settlements are organised hierarchically
with larger settlements providing more complex goods and services.

From the above discussion, it is evident that geography as the science of

distribution focuses on the study of the patterns and spatial arrangement of
various phenomena on the earth's surface. It seeks to understand the
distribution of natural and human phenomena such as landforms, climate,
vegetation, population, and economic activities among others. This
perspective is based on the assumption that the distribution of these
phenomena is not random, but rather determined by various factors such as
physical and environmental processes, human activities and historical events.
By studying the patterns and processes of distribution, geographers can gain
insights into the functioning and interrelationships of different aspects of the
earth's surface, and develop theories and models to explain and predict their
behaviour.

SAQ 2
State whether the following statements are true or false:
i) It is important to understand factors like vegetation, climate, landforms,
etc. to understand the population distribution patterns.

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ii) Geography as the study of distribution is a derivation from Humboldt's
description of geography as the study of what exists together in an area.
iii) 'When' is one of the many questions historians seek to answer, just as
geographers are always interested in knowing 'where' these phenomena
are.
iv) ‘Erdkunde’ is the monumental work of Hettner, where he discussed his
teleological approach to the spatial distribution of physical phenomena.
v) Cultural Morphology and Agricultural Origins and Dispersal is the
monograph of Carl O’ Sauer.

2.4 GEOGRAPHY AS THE SCIENCE OF

HUMAN-ENVIRONMENT RELATIONSHIPS
Geography is often described as the science of human-environment
relationships. This is because it studies how human societies interact with and
are influenced by the natural environment. Geography explores how physical
processes, such as climate, landforms, and natural resources, shape human
activities and how human activities, in turn, impact the environment. It seeks
to understand how societies use, modify and adapt to their environments, and
how these interactions can have both positive and negative consequences.
By studying the complex relationships between humans and the environment,
geography can provide insights into some of the most pressing global
challenges of our time, such as climate change, environmental degradation
and sustainable development.

Richard Hartshorne was a prominent geographer who contributed significantly

to the study of human-environment relationships. In his book ‘The Nature of
Geography: A Critical Survey of Current Thought in the Light of the Past
(1939),’ he emphasised the importance of understanding the complex
relationship between human societies and their physical environment.
According to Hartshorne, human societies were not merely passive recipients
of environmental influences but were active agents who could shape and
modify their environment to suit their needs. He recognised that the
environment exerted a powerful influence on human societies, shaping their
culture, economy and way of life.

Hartshorne's work on human-environment relationships continues to influence

the study of geography today. He stressed the importance of understanding
the reciprocal relationship between human societies and their environment
and the need for a holistic approach to studying this relationship.

As we know geography as a discipline is comprised of multiple dualisms with

varying schools of thought. So, it will be interesting to study these dualisms
which are dealing with the relationship between human beings and the
environment. The human-environment relationship has been interpreted for
several years. Since the post-Darwinism era, geographers have differed
greatly over the methodology and approaches required for examining and
interpreting human-environment relationships. The approaches to studying

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human-environment relationships are Determinism, Possibilism, and Neo-
Determinism. We will discuss these approaches in the following sections.

2.4.1 Determinism
Determinism was at the centre of one of the longest debates in the history of
the evolution of geography. Determinism refers to the idea that everything in
human life is caused inevitably by previous events or conditions laid by nature
or the environment. It talks about the functional relationship, which means
human beings are the products of nature. Human beings are bound by their
physical environment and climate and adjust their behaviour to their
environment. It suggests that the environment and climate determine human
societies. In the early stages of human beings, their interaction with their
natural environment was greatly influenced by it. They were controlled by the
dictates of nature because they listened to nature and were afraid of its
ferocity and worshipped it. This is so because the level of technology was not
so advanced and the stage of human social development was primitive. This
type of interaction between strong forces of nature and primitive human
society was called environmental determinism. The German school of thought
thoroughly supported determinism, which greatly affected the geography in
America also. It is a way of thinking or thinking about how nature determines
human activities. The first approach adopted by geographers to generalise
the pattern of human occupation on the earth's surface is that the nature of
human activity is controlled by the parameters of the physical world within
which it was set.

Determinists generally regard humans as passive agents, where nature is

superior to humans. There is a direct dependence of human beings on nature
for resources that sustain them. The physical environment for such societies
becomes Mother Nature. The essence of the deterministic school of thought
is that the culture, lifestyle, stage of development and history of a social group
or nation are exclusively governed by physical factors of the environment.
While describing the ecumene in the modern geography epoch, Eratosthenes
(234 B.C.) redefined Aristotle's zone of habitability, but he also emphasised
climatic determinism. Carl Ritter attempted to establish the cause of variations
in the physical constitution, health, body and physique of humans living in
different environmental conditions. Humboldt asserted that the role of nature
as a model of life for the inhabitants of mountainous countries differs from that
of plain countries. Darwin's publication of ‘Origin of Species‘ in 1859
profoundly guided the geographical approach of study in a deterministic
fashion. It influenced W. M. Davis, E. Heckel and the German geographers-
Fredrich Ratzel and Herbert Spencer. Spencer developed the concept of the
‘Survival of the Fittest’. Ratzel followed the path of Social Darwinism. E. C.
Semple propounded the theory that "Man is the product of the earth surface."
Huntington was engaged in developing the idea of the leading role of climate
in the advancement of civilisation. He said that religion and racial
characteristics are products of the climate. Hence, determinism advocates
that temperature, soil, rainfall, humidity, topography, and vegetation
individually and collectively affect social and economic institutions.

The deterministic school of thought is criticised for two reasons. First, it is

clear that similar physical environments can't produce the same responses
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everywhere. In fact, the Mediterranean civilisation of Greece and Rome didn’t
develop in similar Mediterranean climatic conditions in South Africa, Australia,
California and Chile. Similarly, the cultural development of the Thar Desert is
quite different from that of Saudi Arabia and the Sahara Desert. Secondly,
although the environment influences humans, humans also influence the
environment, and the both have a cause-effect relationship.

The critics of determinism argue that it overlooks the role of human agency
and cultural factors in shaping human behaviour and societal outcomes. They
point out that humans have the ability to modify and transform their
environment, and that social, political, and economic factors also play a
significant role in shaping human societies. We will be studying this in the
section on possibilism later on in this unit.

2.4.2 Environmentalism
Environmentalism is a political and ethical movement that seeks to improve
and protect the quality of the natural environment through changes to
environmentally harmful human activities. It can be done through the adoption
of forms of social, economic and political organisation that are thought to be
necessary for, or at least conducive to, the caring treatment of the
environment by human beings. This can be done through a reassessment of
humans' relationship with nature. It advocates the discussion of environmental
rules and regulations, including international conventions, treaties, and
environmental laws. The environmental movement can be broadly divided into
two intellectual groups based on their perspectives towards the environment.
The first group is the anthropocentric or human-centred group, which sees the
environment as primarily valuable for human use and enjoyment. This
perspective focuses on how humans benefit from the environment, such as
through economic development, recreation and aesthetics. The
anthropocentric perspective focuses mainly on the negative effects that
environmental degradation has on human beings and their interests, including
their interest in recreation, quality of life and health. The second group is the
bio-centric or life-centred group, which sees the environment as valuable in
and of itself, independent of human use. This perspective emphasises the
intrinsic value of nature and the importance of preserving the environment for
future generations of all species.

The vision of the environmental movement of the 1960s and early 1970s was
generally pessimistic, reflecting a pervasive sense of civilisation malaise and
a conviction that the earth's long-term prospects were bleak. Important works
like Rachel Carson's ‘Silent Spring’ (1962), Paul Ehrlich's ‘The Population
Bomb’ (1968), Garrett Hardin's ‘The Tragedy of the Commons’ (1968),
Edward Goldsmith's ‘Blueprint for Survival’ (1972) and Donella H. Meadows'
‘The Limits to Growth’ (1972) suggested that the planetary ecosystem was
reaching the limits of what it could sustain. This so-called apocalyptic or
survivalist literature encouraged reluctant calls from some environmentalists
for increasing the powers of governments over human activities deemed
environmentally harmful. Environmentalists like Robert Heilbroner in his work
‘An Enquiry into the Human Prospect’ (1974) put forward the idea that human
survival may only be possible at the cost of human freedom of choice.
However, this viewpoint was challenged by counterarguments presented by
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Julian Simon and Herman Kahn's in their work ‘The Resourceful Earth’
(1984), which emphasised that humanity has the capability to come up with
alternatives for scarce resources that are at risk of being depleted.

The growing debate on the perspective of environmentalism also started

influencing the politics of the world. The first green parties in the world, such
as ‘The Value Party,’ a nationally based party in New Zealand and the United
Tasmania Group organised in the Australian state of Tasmania, were founded
in the early 1970s. The first explicitly green member of a national legislature
was elected in Switzerland in 1979. In the late 1980s, environmentalism had
become an international and national political force. Some environmental and
non-environmental organisations, such as the World Wildlife Fund,
Greenpeace, Friends of the Earth, and the International Union for the
Conservation of Nature, have established a significant international presence
with offices throughout the world and a centralised international headquarters
to coordinate lobbying campaigns and to serve as campaign centres and
information clearing houses for their national affiliate organisations. Although
some bilateral and multilateral international environmental agreements had
come into force before the 1960s, Stockholm hosted the first world
conference on the environment- United Nations Conference on the Human
Environment’ in 1972. The changing nature of the public debate on the
environment was reflected in the United Nations Conference on Environment
and Development, 1992 (the Earth Summit) in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. Around
180 countries and various business groups, non-government organisations
and media partners attended the summit. The Kyoto Protocol, Sustainable
Development Goals and Paris Agreement are the results of such a
movement.

In India, movements like Chipko Movement, Silent Valley Movement, Appiko

Movement, etc. took place which forced the government to make laws to
conserve their forests and environment. Concepts like green cities,
ecotourism, environmental impact assessment, and other environmental
friendly schemes have come into effect due to environmentalism. The Indian
government has launched several initiatives to promote the use of clean
energy, such as the National Solar Mission, which aims to generate 100 GW
of solar power by 2022. Additionally, India is a signatory to the Paris
Agreement on Climate Change and has committed itself to reducing
greenhouse gas emissions.

2.4.3 Possibilism
Possibilism is a philosophy that attempts to explain human and environmental
relationships differently, taking humans as active agents. Possibilism
suggests that there is a range of opportunities from which an individual may
choose. The choice is based on an individual's norms and needs. It
acknowledges the range of choices that may be limited by the environment
but allows choices to be made, rather than thinking along deterministic lines.
The emphasis of possibilism is firmly placed on humans rather than nature, in
which humans are seen as active forces rather than passive beings.
Possibilism in geography developed as a reaction to extreme generalisations
of environmental determinists that led to a counter-thesis as possibilism,
which presented man as an active agent. People begin to understand their
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environment and the forces of nature with the passage of time. Through
cultural and social development, human beings develop better and more
efficient technology to negotiate or alter these conditions suitable to them.
They have moved from the stage of necessity to the stage of freedom. They
create possibilities with the resources they obtain from the environment. The
activities of human beings create a cultural landscape. The imprints of human
activities are created ubiquitously, which include satellites in space, oceanic
routes on the oceanic surface, highlands, pastures, and orchards in plains,
which is termed as possibilism. Nature provides opportunities and human
beings use these opportunities, and slowly nature gets humanised and starts
bearing the imprints of human endeavour.

Lucian Febvre and Paul Vidal de la Blache advocated the philosophy of

‘Possibilism’. However, the true preacher of possibilism in geography was
Paul Vidal de la Blache. In his studies, Vidal de la Blache saw a limited
influence of the environment on the activities of human beings. He tried to
explain that the differences between groups are not due to the physical
environment but are the outcomes of differences in customs, traditions,
culture, attitudes, ways of life, and habits. Variations in habits and attitudes
create several possibilities for human communities. According to him, human
societies have the ability to modify and adapt to their environment through
cultural practices and technology.

Vidal de la Blache believed that it was important to study the relationship

between people and their environment. He believed that each region had
unique physical and cultural features that shaped its society and that culture
and society could only be understood by examining these specific features.
His approach was therefore grounded in a deep appreciation for the diversity
of human societies and their connections to the natural world.

One of the key contributions of Vidal de la Blache's possibilism was its

emphasis on the role of human agency in shaping geography. It rejected the
idea that humans were passive actors who were entirely at the mercy of their
environment. Instead, it acknowledged that humans have the capacity to
modify their environment in a variety of ways and that they do so in response
to a complex interplay of social, economic and environmental factors. Another
important contribution of Vidal de la Blache's work was his rejection of the
idea that there were some universal laws or principles that could be used to
explain all of human history and culture. Instead, he believed that each region
had its own unique characteristics that made it distinct from other regions.
This view laid the foundation for the development of what is now known as
regional geography, which emphasises the study of specific places and the
unique characteristics that make them different from others.

Meanwhile, the French historian Lucian Febvre, who coined the term
‘Possibilism’ in the late 19th century, put forward the idea that the true and
only geographical problem is the utilisation of possibilities. According to him,
there are no necessities, but everywhere there are possibilities. Thus,
possibilities saw in the natural environment a series of possibilities for human
development but argued that the actual ways in which development occurred
were related to the culture of the concerned people in regions of extreme
climatic conditions. It includes tundra, deserts, high mountains, and equatorial

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regions. The concept was exclusively associated with the French school of
geography. It doesn't mean that the concept of possibility didn't exist before
the French school of geography. It has been in existence right from ancient to
modern times, but as a part of discipline, it came into existence with the
French school. The idea of possibilities emphasises that the natural
environment offers opportunities, the number of which increases as the
technology and knowledge of a cultural group develop.

According to possibilists, nature is never more than an advisor. However,

many geographers didn’t accept the approach of possibilism and argued that
although humans do have agency and can shape their environment to some
extent, they are still influenced and constrained by physical factors such as
climate, topography and natural resources. They believe that the environment
still plays an important role in shaping human activities and shaping the
course of history. In this view, the environment provides a range of
possibilities, but it also imposes limitations and sets boundaries on what is
possible which introduces a new concept of Neo-Determinism in the field of
geography.

2.4.4 Neo-Determinism
Neo-determinism is one of the three major approaches in geography that
explain human and environment relationships. As neither determinism nor
possibilism has been able to describe the relationship between the man and
environment correctly, the concept of Neo-determinism emerged in
geography. Neo-determinism believes that if human activities cause long-term
damage to the environment (climate change, pollution), then these activities
must be stopped, otherwise human beings can do everything the environment
permits us to do. Griffith Taylor introduced the term Neo-determinism, which
is also known as Stop-and-Go-Determinism. He argued that nature
determines the program only in broad terms and human beings determine the
rest and follow the program of nature to their benefit. Neo-determinism
reflects a middle path, which is known as Madhyam Marg, between the two
ideas of environmental determinism and possibilism. This middle path asserts
that human beings can influence and shape their environment, but they are
not entirely free from the constraints of their surroundings. This idea is similar
to the traffic lights at a crossroads which regulate the traffic. The red light
indicates stop, the amber light indicates a gap between the red and green
light indicating watch, and the green light indicates go. This shows that neither
there is a situation of absolute necessity (environmental determinism) nor is
there a situation of absolute freedom (possibilism). It means that human
beings can win over nature by obeying it. They must respond to the red
signals and can proceed in their search for development when nature permits
the modifications. It is apparent that possibilities can be created within the
limits that do not damage the environment. Neo-determinism seeks to strike a
balance in order to eliminate the ‘either or’ dichotomy.

As mentioned above, the philosophy of Neo-determinism was given by Griffith

Taylor, an Australian Geographer. He stated that the purpose of geography is
to study the natural environment and its effects on humans and not all
problems connected with the human or cultural landscape. In his book,
Australia: A Study of Warm Environments and Their Effect on British
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Settlement (1949), Taylor said, "Man is able to accelerate, slow, or stop the
process of a country's development. He should not, if he is wise, depart from
the direction as indicated by the environment." Human beings can change the
environment through various innovations and can perform all those activities,
which are not naturally possible in the environment. For instance, human
beings have started cultivation in barren lands and even during summer by
providing fertilisers and irrigation facilities. Farming has become possible
without soil and water due to innovation and advancement in science and
technology. However, there is a limit to how much one can change the
environment as human beings cannot go against everything in nature. Human
activities must be done according to the law of nature; otherwise, nature will
force human beings to stop and regulate their activities accordingly. For
example, developed countries in the world have chosen the path of free run
as these countries are neither obeying nature nor judiciously using their
natural resources. We have examples from developed nations that despite
being a signatory to the Paris Climate Agreement, the U.S. government has
rolled back environmental regulations and promoted the use of fossil fuels.
China, one of the world's largest emitters of greenhouse gases, has been
facing criticism for its reliance on coal power and its construction of coal-fired
power plants. Australia has been criticised for its support of the coal industry,
including the construction of new coal mines and the export of coal to other
countries. The deforestation of the Amazon rainforest in Brazil has continued
to accelerate, despite international concern and pressure. These countries
are dealing with ozone depletion, glacier retreat, the greenhouse effect, land
degradation, forest fire, the extinction of life on land and below water, etc.

Human activities, such as climate change and pollution, are causing harm to
the environment. However, there is a limit to the extent of environmental
pollution. Nature, through climate change, is compelling humans to rectify
their actions. Unsustainable agricultural practices and over-exploitation of
groundwater in states like Punjab and Haryana in India have led to a decline
in groundwater levels indicating environmental degradation. The Maldives is
experiencing submergence due to rising sea levels resulting from climate
change. Water scarcity in major cities like Mumbai, Chennai, Delhi,
Bengaluru, Cape Town, and Islamabad is a consequence of excessive
groundwater extraction and inadequate conservation practices. Recent floods
in Indian states such as Jammu and Kashmir, Tamil Nadu, Assam, Kerala,
Karnataka, and Bihar are a result of mismanagement and abuse of natural
resources. The environment serves as a regulator indicating when human
activities are erroneous. Humans can adjust, slow down, or halt
developmental activities by adhering to environmental regulations, and remain
sensitive to the idea of sustainability.

SAQ 3
Match the columns A and B
Column A Column B
a) Griffith Taylor i) Possibilism
b) Blache ii) Social Darwinism
c) Humboldt iii) Man is the product of the earth surface

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d) Ratzel iv) Geography is the science of distribution
e) E.C. Semple v) Neo-Determinism

2.5 SUMMARY
In this unit, you have studied:

 Geography as the study of planet Earth, where the domain of geography

is not the entire planet Earth, but only its outer shell, where human beings
see the convergence of the hydrosphere, lithosphere, biosphere, and
atmosphere.
 Geography as the science of distributions; and
 Geography as the science of human-environment relationships with three
approaches – Determinism, Possibilism and Neo-Determinism.

2.6 TERMINAL QUESTIONS

1. Why is geography regarded as the ‘Study of Planet Earth’? Discuss it in
detail.

2. “Geography is the Science of Distributions.” Elaborate this with arguments

given by various geographers.

3. Explain the human-environment relationship with Determinism,

Environmentalism, Possibilism and Neo-Determinism.

2.7 ANSWERS
Self-Assessment Questions (SAQ)
1. i) Eratosthenes ii) Hartshorne iii) Carl O’ Sauer iv) Greek v) Planet
Earth
2. i) True ii) True iii)True iv) False v) True
3. a) v b) i c) iv d) iii e) ii

Term End Questions

1. Give your detailed discussion on geography as the study of planet Earth.
Refer to Section 2.2.
2. Place your arguments in the light of various geographers for geography as
the science of distribution. Refer to Section 2.3.
3. Discuss in detail geography as the study of human-environment
relationships with various approaches- Determinism and Environmentalism,
Possibilism and Neo-Determinism. Refer to section 2.4.

2.8 REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING

1. Dikshit, R.D. (2004): Geographical Thought A Contextual History of Ideas,
New Delhi: Prentice Hall of India.

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2. Husain, M. (2014): Evolution of Geographical Thought, New Delhi: Rawat
Publication.
2. Husain, M. (2013): Environment and Ecology (3rd ed.), New Delhi: Access
Publishing India Pvt. Ltd.
3. Singh, S. (2011): Geography of India, New Delhi: Tata McGraw Hill
Education Private Limited.
4. Henderson, G. & Waterstone, M. (ed.) (2009): The Geographic Thought,
Madison Avenue, New York: Routledge.
5. James, Preston E. and Martin, Geoffrey J. (1982): All Possible Worlds: A
History of Geographical Ideas (2nd ed.), New York: Johan Wiley & Sons.
6. Hartshorne, R. (1959): Perspectives on the Nature of Geography,
Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
7. Adhikari, S. (2004): Fundamentals of Geographical Thought, Allahabad:
Chaitanya Publishing House.
8. Martin, G.J. (2005): All Possible Worlds, New York: Oxford University
Press.
9. Goudie, A. (2019): The human impact on the natural environment: past,
present, and future, Sussex: John Wiley & Sons.
10. Heilbroner, R. L. (1974): An enquiry into the human prospect, New York:
Norton.
11. Simon, J., & Kahn, H. (1984): The resourceful earth: A response to global
2000, New York: Basil Blackwell.
12. Taylor, Griffith (1949): Australia: A Study of Warm Environments and Their
Effect on British Settlement, London: Edward Arnold Publishers Ltd., p.
96.
13. Sauer, C. (1956): “The Education of a Geographer”, Annals of the
Association of American Geographers, 46(3), pp. 283-288.
14. Hartshorne, R. (1939): “Perspective on the Nature of Geography”, Annals
of the Association of American Geographers, 29(4), pp. 201-215.
15. Meinig, D.W. (1975): The Shaping of America: A Geographical
Perspective on 500 Years of History, Volume 1: Atlantic America, 1492-
1800, New Haven: Yale University Press.
16. Davis, W.M. (1909): “The Nature and Purpose of the Geographical
Society”, Bulletin of the American Geographical Society, 41(4), pp. 233-
247.
17. Gottmann, J. (1973): “The Significance of Territory”, Virginia Geographical
Bulletin, 15, pp. 9-15.
18. Haggett, P. (1983): Geography: A Modern Synthesis, London:
HarperCollins.
19. Holt-Jensen, A. (2000): Geography: History and Concepts: A Students’
Guide, London: Sage Publications.

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GLOSSARY
Classification of : The process of segregation of branches of
Knowledge knowledge into various categories like natural or
physical sciences, social sciences, logical sciences,
etc. during the early phase of recognition of different
disciplines.
Chorography : Holistic (regional) study of a region including all
aspects in areal combination as a study of reality.
Chorology : Science of space relating geography as chorological
science concerned with the systematic study of
various facts in a region.
Determinism : It is one of the approaches to human-environment
relationships or interactions popularised by Friedrich
Ratzel, which advocates that the natural or physical
environment dictates and shapes the complete
functioning of human beings and their cultures.
According to this approach, nature is the active agent
and human beings are the passive ones completely
controlled and guided by nature.
Environmentalism : Environmentalism is a political and ethical movement
that seeks to improve and protect the quality of the
natural environment through changes to
environmentally harmful human activities.
Exceptionalism : Geography emerged with history as the science of
exceptionalism where the two disciplines' core
academic area was uniqueness with differentiation in
time (history) and space (geography) filling up the
entire circumference of our perceptions as anything
or phenomena exists on a particular space at a
particular time.
Genre-de-vie : Vidal de la Blache gave the idea of Possibilism
reflected through genre-de-vie indicating the lifestyle
or way of life of any particular region, which is the
reflection of a combination of entire physical and
human factors of that particular region.
Hartshorne- : During the post-Second World War period,
Schaefer Debate geography was greatly shaped by an idea of spatial
science through the Quantitative Revolution. During
this period there was a series of articles by Richard
Hartshorne and F.K. Schaefer where Schaefer
argued that geography cannot remain with
exceptionalism means just differentiation with
uniqueness as regions, but it was more than that
emerging as the spatial science. This exchange of
ideas between Hartshorne and Schaefer about the
nature of geography evolving from exceptional
discipline to spatial science is known as Hartshorne-
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Schaefer Debate.
Inductive – : An approach to scientific studies, is an explanation
Ideographic and description of a unique or particular
Method event/phenomenon or connections based on
empirical observation, which is on a single stance
only not of a general trend.
Integrating : A discipline bringing together a scientific
Discipline/ understanding of the natural environment with
Integrative studies of human and cultural aspects for the study
Science/Science
of whole reality drawing materials from various
of Synthesis
disciplines. Geography is a unique discipline known
as an Integrating discipline.
Logical : Logical positivism is another philosophy which says
Positivism that some facts in the form of statements can be
verified without empirical experience encompassing
the rules of formal logic.
Neo-Determinism : Also known as Stop-and-go-Determinism is also an
approach to the study of human-environment
relationships or interactions, where humans are
supposed to be like traffic controllers who control the
speed but not the direction. Humans should not go
against nature's direction; they can regulate their
pace of development.
Positivism : Positivism is a philosophy given by August Compte,
which is the application of scientific theories and
approaches to scientific knowledge validated with
observable facts.
Possibilism : Possibilism, the antithesis of Determinism, is an
approach to study human-environment studies in
geography, which suggests that human beings are
active agents and nature is passive in relationships.
In this approach, humans are seen as the modifiers
of nature for their needs. This approach was
advocated by Lucian Febvre and Paul Vidal de la
Blache.
Regional : Geographical study of any region or unit of area
Geography holistically covering physical and human aspects as
a synthesis or integrative study. In other words,
regional geography is the geographical study of
regions with their total features and phenomena as
single composition with their complex
interrelationships through synthesis and integration
of both the aspects- physical as well as human with
causal relationships considering both as cause and
effect simultaneously.

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Scientific : Scientific empiricism is a philosophical movement
Empiricism that denies the existence of any differences in the
sciences. It adheres to the principle of unity of
sciences through a synthesis of scientific
methodologies and is distinguished from earlier
empiricism.
Systematic : Specialised branches of geography based on specific
Geography themes covered like geomorphology, climatology,
hydrology, oceanography, social and cultural
geography, economic geography, population
geography, political geography, etc.
Systematic : Specialised branch of knowledge in the field of
Science natural science like Physics, Chemistry,
Mathematics, Meteorology, Geology, etc.
Tobler’s First Law : The First Law of Geography, “everything is related to
of Geography everything else, but near things are more related
than distant things” is given by Waldo R. Tobler in
1970, which strengthened the idea of causality of
things and phenomena existing in any particular area
or region in areal combination.
Wallace Line : Wallace Line is a geographical boundary that marks
a distinct difference in the distribution of flora and
fauna between the regions of Asia and Australia. The
Wallace Line runs through the Indonesian
archipelago, specifically between the islands of Bali
and Lombok, and then continues eastward through
the Makassar Strait, separating Borneo and
Sulawesi.

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