Internship Report

A report submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the award of

Degree of
BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
in
ELECTRONICS AND INSTRUMENTATION ENGINEERING
Submitted By
Name- Ankit Yadav
Roll No-2000520320015

submitted to the

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & INSTRUMENTATION

ENGINEERING

INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

(Sitapur Road, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India)

 DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND INSTRUMENTATION ENGINEERING
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
(Sitapur Road, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India)

CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the “Internship report” submitted by Ankit Yadav (Roll. No-
2000520320015) is work done by him and submitted during the 2023-2024 academic year, in
partial fulfilment of the requirements for the award of the degree of Bachelor of Technology
in Electronics and Instrumentation Engineering, at Institute of Engineering & Technology
(Sitapur road, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India) .

Date: 14th October 2023

Dr. Prerana Dr. Subodh Wariya

Assistant Professor Head of Department
Electronics & Instrumentation Engg.

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CERTIFICATE OF COMPLETION
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
TABLE OF FIGURES ..................................................................................................................................... 4

INTRODUCTION TO ONGC ........................................................................................................................ 5

ONGC Group Of Companies ...................................................................................................................... 7

ONGC HISTORY ......................................................................................................................................... 8

ONGC OPERATIONS ............................................................................................................................... 10

ONGC SUBSIDIARIES............................................................................................................................. 12

IT Services Of ONGC ................................................................................................................................ 14

National & International Recognition ...................................................................................................... 16

Vision & Mission of ONGC ....................................................................................................................... 18

Role of electronics in exploring hydrocarbon leading to capture of seismic data .................................... 20

Seismic Data Acquisition System .............................................................................................................. 22

Exploration of Hydrocarbons ................................................................................................................... 25

Seismic Methods ............................................................................................................................................. 27

GEOPHONE ............................................................................................................................................... 29

Seismic ancillary equipment ...................................................................................................................... 31

Geophysical Operation .............................................................................................................................. 33

Evolution of Seismic Data Acquisition Units ........................................................................................... 35

INSTRUMENTATION .................................................................................................................................. 36

Introductions: ............................................................................................................................................. 36

Types of Transformers ............................................................................................................................... 38

Compatible Circuits ................................................................................................................................... 40

Sensitivity and Actuators ........................................................................................................................... 42

Essentials of Instrumentation and Process control ................................................................................. 44

Instrumentation System............................................................................................................................. 46

Process Control ........................................................................................................................................... 48

SATELLITE COMMUNICATION.............................................................................................................. 51

INTRODUCTION:..................................................................................................................................... 51

CONCLUSION .............................................................................................................................................. 59

REFERENCES............................................................................................................................................... 60

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 TABLE OF FIGURES
Figure 1 ONGC Introduction 5
Figure 2 ONGC Groups 7
Figure 3 Offshore Rig 10
Figure 4 ONGC Subsidiaries 12
Figure 5 ONGC SCADA Room 14
Figure 6 ONGC International Recognition 16
Figure 7 Green Energy 18
Figure 8 Seismic Data Diagram 20
Figure 9 Data Acquisition System 22
Figure 10 Geophone 29
Figure 11 ONGC Offshore 33
Figure 12Types Of Transformer 38
Figure 13Process Control Diagram 44
Figure 14 Instrumentation System Flowchart 46
Figure 15 Generalized process control system 48
Figure 16 Satellite Communication 51
Figure 17 Basic Structure of Satellite Communication 53
 INTRODUCTION TO ONGC

Figure 1 ONGC Introduction

Oil and Natural Gas Corporation Limited (ONGC) is a major Indian multinational oil and gas company
headquartered in Dehradun, Uttarakhand, India. Established on August 14, 1956, ONGC is one of the largest
state-owned enterprises in India and holds a significant position in the global oil and gas industry. The
company operates under the administrative control of the Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Gas of the
Government of India.

ONGC's primary business focus lies in the exploration, production, and marketing of oil and natural gas
resources. It plays a vital role in meeting India's energy demands and contributes significantly to the country's
economic growth. With a mission to be a world-class oil and gas company, ONGC continuously strives to
enhance its operational efficiency, technological prowess, and sustainable practices.

Exploration and Production:

ONGC is primarily involved in the exploration and production of crude oil and natural gas from its vast
reserves both onshore and offshore. The company's exploration activities involve identifying and locating
hydrocarbon reserves through seismic surveys and other cutting-edge technologies. Once potential reserves
are discovered, drilling operations are undertaken to extract oil and gas from the ground.

ONGC's exploration and production efforts extend beyond the borders of India, with the company having a
global presence through its subsidiary ONGC Videsh Limited (OVL). OVL invests in oil and gas assets

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overseas and has established a strong presence in various countries, enabling India to secure energy supplies
from international sources.

Refining and Marketing:

While ONGC is primarily an exploration and production company, it also has interests in the downstream
sector, particularly through its subsidiary, Mangalore Refinery and Petrochemicals Limited (MRPL). MRPL
operates a refinery in Mangalore, Karnataka, with a significant refining capacity.

ONGC's crude oil and natural gas production contribute to meeting India's energy requirements, but it also
sells its surplus oil and gas to other oil marketing companies and petrochemical industries. By catering to
domestic and international markets, ONGC plays a crucial role in India's energy security and contributes
significantly to the country's foreign exchange earnings.

Research and Development:

ONGC emphasizes continuous innovation and technological advancement. The company invests significantly
in research and development to enhance exploration and production efficiency, reduce environmental impact,
and adopt sustainable practices. The ONGC Energy Centre, based in Dehradun, leads the research and
development efforts, collaborating with various academic and industrial institutions to promote innovation in
the energy sector.

Corporate Social Responsibility:

ONGC is committed to the welfare of society and focuses on various social and community development
initiatives. The company actively engages in activities that promote education, healthcare, environmental
conservation, and rural development in the regions where it operates. ONGC's CSR initiatives positively
impact the lives of thousands of people and reflect the company's commitment to sustainable development.

Environmental Stewardship:
ONGC places a strong emphasis on environmental sustainability and undertakes various measures to minimize
its ecological footprint. The company adopts best practices to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, conserve
water, and manage waste responsibly. ONGC is also involved in promoting renewable energy sources and
investing in clean technologies to contribute to India's transition to a greener and more sustainable future.

Conclusion:
With its rich heritage, technical expertise, and commitment to innovation, ONGC remains a vital player in
India's energy landscape. The company's pursuit of excellence in the oil and gas sector, combined with its
dedication to societal and environmental well-being, positions ONGC as a significant contributor to India's
economic growth and sustainable development.
ONGC Group Of Companies

Figure 2 ONGC Groups

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 ONGC HISTORY

Oil and Natural Gas Corporation Limited (ONGC) has a rich and illustrious history that dates back to the early
years after India's independence. The story of ONGC is intertwined with India's quest for energy security and
self-sufficiency in the oil and gas sector.

The roots of ONGC can be traced back to the formation of the Oil and Natural Gas Directorate (ONGD) in
1955, which operated under the Indian Ministry of Natural Resources and Scientific Research. The primary
objective of ONGD was to promote the exploration and production of hydrocarbons in the country. On August
14, 1956, the Government of India established ONGC as a statutory corporation through an act of parliament,
which provided it with autonomous status and operational flexibility.

In its early years, ONGC faced various challenges, including technical expertise, financial constraints, and
political uncertainties. The company was tasked with the exploration and development of oil and gas resources
in a country that was largely dependent on imports to meet its energy needs.

Despite the challenges, ONGC embarked on its journey of exploration with zeal and determination. The
company's first successful oil well was drilled at Naharkatiya in Assam in 1959, marking a significant
milestone in India's quest for self-sufficiency in oil production. Subsequently, ONGC made several important
discoveries in Assam, Gujarat, and other parts of the country.

In the 1960s, ONGC expanded its exploration activities to offshore areas, and in 1974, the company made its
first offshore discovery in the Bombay High region. The Bombay High field, one of the largest offshore
oilfields in the world, played a crucial role in boosting India's oil production and reducing its dependence on
imports.

Throughout the years, ONGC continued to explore and develop hydrocarbon reserves across the country. The
company expanded its exploration activities to challenging terrains and deepwater regions, demonstrating its
technical prowess and commitment to innovation.

In the 1990s, ONGC underwent significant restructuring and diversification to adapt to the changing global
energy landscape. It ventured into downstream activities and established ONGC Videsh Limited (OVL) to
pursue international exploration and production opportunities. OVL's successful ventures in countries like
Sudan, Vietnam, and Russia further strengthened India's energy security and enhanced its global standing in
the oil and gas industry.

In the 21st century, ONGC continued to push the boundaries of exploration and production. The company
adopted advanced technologies and practices to improve recovery rates from mature fields and discovered
new reserves in challenging geological formations.
Besides its core business, ONGC expanded its operations into the petrochemical sector, renewable energy, and
other alternative sources of energy. The company embraced sustainability practices and invested in research
and development to reduce its environmental impact.

ONGC's journey has been marked by several significant milestones and accomplishments. It has consistently
been recognized as one of the largest publicly traded companies in India and has received numerous accolades
for its excellence in various areas.

ONGC's commitment to corporate social responsibility (CSR) has led to the implementation of various
community development projects. The company actively engages in initiatives focused on education,
healthcare, and rural development, contributing to the well-being of the communities where it operates.

As ONGC moves into the future, it remains dedicated to its mission of ensuring energy security for India and
contributing to the nation's economic growth and development. With its vision set on sustainable practices and
technological innovation, ONGC continues to be a leading player in the global energy landscape.

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 ONGC OPERATIONS

Figure 3 Offshore Rig

Oil and Natural Gas Corporation (ONGC) is involved in a wide range of operations across the entire oil and
gas value chain, making it a significant player in India's energy sector. These operations encompass
exploration, production, refining, petrochemicals, renewable energy, and various support services. Let's
delve into each aspect of ONGC's operations:

1. Exploration:

ONGC's primary function is to explore for hydrocarbon reserves, both onshore and offshore. The company
conducts seismic surveys, geological studies, and geophysical investigations to identify potential oil and gas
fields. Once promising locations are identified, exploration drilling is carried out to confirm the presence of
hydrocarbons.

2. Production:

Once oil and gas reserves are discovered, ONGC engages in production operations to extract these
resources. The company utilizes advanced drilling techniques, such as directional drilling and hydraulic
fracturing, to enhance production rates and recovery from existing wells. ONGC operates several onshore
and offshore production facilities across India.

3. Offshore Operations:
ONGC has a significant offshore presence, with operations in the Arabian Sea, Bay of Bengal, and other
offshore basins. The company employs sophisticated offshore platforms and rigs to drill and produce oil and
gas from beneath the seabed.

4. Onshore Operations:

In addition to offshore assets, ONGC operates onshore oil and gas fields in various states of India. These
onshore fields are crucial contributors to the country's domestic energy production.

5. Refining and Petrochemicals:

ONGC has ventured into the downstream sector by acquiring refining and petrochemical assets. The
acquisition of Mangalore Refinery and Petrochemicals Limited (MRPL) and Hindustan Petroleum
Corporation Limited (HPCL) has allowed ONGC to integrate its operations vertically. This enables the
company to refine crude oil into various petroleum products and produce petrochemicals for the market.

6. Renewable Energy:

Recognizing the importance of sustainable energy sources, ONGC has expanded its focus to include
renewable energy. The company invests in projects related to solar power, wind energy, and biofuels,
contributing to India's green energy transition.

7. Support Services:

ONGC provides a range of support services to facilitate its operations effectively. These services include
drilling services, logistics, technical support, and research and development. The company also engages in
strategic alliances and partnerships with national and international entities to access cutting-edge
technologies and expertise.

8. International Operations:

ONGC has ventured into international markets through strategic partnerships and consortiums. The
company participates in exploration and production projects in various countries, including Russia, Vietnam,
Myanmar, and others, contributing to India's global energy presence.

9. Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR):

ONGC is actively involved in corporate social responsibility initiatives. The company undertakes projects
for community development, education, healthcare, skill development, and environmental conservation in
the areas where it operates. This demonstrates ONGC's commitment to sustainable development and
inclusive growth.

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 ONGC SUBSIDIARIES

Figure 4 ONGC Subsidiaries

Oil and Natural Gas Corporation Limited (ONGC) has several subsidiaries, each playing a crucial role in
different aspects of the oil and gas industry. These subsidiaries contribute to ONGC's diverse operations,
ranging from exploration and production to refining, petrochemicals, and other energy-related businesses.
Here are some of the significant subsidiaries of ONGC:

1. ONGC Videsh Limited (OVL): OVL is the international arm of ONGC, responsible for the company's
overseas exploration and production activities. It operates in various countries, securing exploration and
production blocks, and participating in joint ventures and consortiums with international oil companies. OVL's
global operations contribute significantly to India's energy security by enhancing the country's hydrocarbon
reserves.

2. Mangalore Refinery and Petrochemicals Limited (MRPL): MRPL, a public sector oil refinery, was
acquired by ONGC in 2003. Located in Mangalore, Karnataka, MRPL has a refining capacity of around 15
million metric tons per annum (MMTPA) and produces a wide range of petroleum products like gasoline,
diesel, jet fuel, and petrochemical feedstocks.
3. Hindustan Petroleum Corporation Limited (HPCL): ONGC acquired a majority stake in HPCL in 2018,
making it a subsidiary. HPCL is a significant player in India's downstream oil sector, operating refineries,
marketing petroleum products, and engaging in petrochemicals and other diversified activities.

4. ONGC Mangalore Petrochemicals Limited (OMPL): OMPL is a joint venture between ONGC and
MRPL. Located adjacent to MRPL in Mangalore, OMPL produces petrochemical products such as paraxylene,
benzene, and Ortho xylene.

5. ONGC Tripura Power Company (OTPC): OTPC is a joint venture between ONGC, Infrastructure
Leasing & Financial Services (IL&FS), and the Tripura State Electricity Corporation (TSECL). It operates a
gas-based power plant in Tripura, contributing to the state's power generation capacity.

6. ONGC Petro Additions Limited (OPaL): OPaL is a joint venture between ONGC, Gujarat State
Petroleum Corporation (GSPC), and GAIL (India) Limited. Located at the Dahej SEZ in Gujarat, OPaL
operates a mega petrochemical complex that produces polymers, chemicals, and other downstream products.

7. ONGC Uranium Limited (OUL): OUL is a subsidiary of ONGC, engaged in the exploration and mining
of uranium. It plays a vital role in India's nuclear power program by supplying uranium ore to the country's
nuclear reactors.

8. ONGC Nile Ganga BV (ONG BV): ONG BV is a joint venture between OVL and Sudan National
Petroleum Corporation (Suda pet) for oil exploration and production in Sudan.

9. ONGC Bokaro Power Supply Company Limited (OBPSCL): OBPSCL is a joint venture between
ONGC, Damodar Valley Corporation (DVC), and Bokaro Steel Limited (BSL). It operates a captive power
plant to supply electricity to BSL and meet ONGC's power requirements in the region.

10. ONGC Mangalore Petrochemicals Limited (OMPL): OMPL is a joint venture between ONGC and
MRPL, set up to produce petrochemical products.

11. Mangalore SEZ Limited (MSEZL): MSEZL is a subsidiary of MRPL and ONGC, responsible for the
development and management of the Mangalore Special Economic Zone (SEZ) in Karnataka.

These subsidiaries of ONGC contribute significantly to the company's overall growth and diversification,
enabling it to play a vital role in India's energy sector and expand its global footprint in the oil and gas industry.
Each subsidiary focuses on specific aspects of the energy value chain, working towards enhancing India's
energy security and contributing to the nation's economic development.

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 IT Services Of ONGC

Figure 5 ONGC SCADA Room

As a leading public sector enterprise in the oil and gas industry, Oil and Natural Gas Corporation (ONGC) has
recognized the importance of information technology (IT) in streamlining operations, enhancing efficiency,
and promoting digital transformation. ONGC's IT services encompass a wide range of initiatives and
technologies that facilitate its diverse operations and contribute to the organization's growth and
competitiveness.

1. IT Infrastructure: ONGC has invested in a robust IT infrastructure to support its geographically dispersed
operations. The company maintains data centers, communication networks, and hardware resources to ensure
seamless connectivity and data accessibility across its various locations, including onshore and offshore
facilities.

2. Exploration and Production: IT plays a pivotal role in ONGC's exploration and production activities. The
company utilizes advanced geological and geophysical software, seismic data analysis tools, and reservoir
modeling solutions to optimize the discovery and development of oil and gas reserves. These technologies aid
in identifying potential hydrocarbon deposits, analyzing subsurface data, and making informed decisions on
drilling and production strategies.
3. Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP): ONGC has implemented ERP solutions to integrate and streamline
its business processes. ERP systems facilitate efficient management of various functions, including finance,
procurement, human resources, and asset management, leading to improved operational efficiency and better
decision-making capabilities.

4. Data Analytics and Business Intelligence: Data analytics and business intelligence tools are leveraged to
process and analyze large volumes of data generated during exploration, production, and refining processes.
The insights gained from data analysis help ONGC make informed decisions, optimize resource utilization,
and identify areas for process improvement.

5. Digital Oilfield: ONGC has embraced the concept of the digital oilfield, where data from various sources,
including sensors and Internet of Things (IoT) devices, is collected and analyzed in real-time. This enables the
company to monitor equipment health, well performance, and production processes remotely, leading to
proactive maintenance and operational efficiencies.

6. Cybersecurity: Given the criticality of its operations and sensitive data, ONGC places a strong emphasis
on cybersecurity. The company implements advanced security measures, including firewalls, encryption, and
access controls, to safeguard its IT systems and data from cyber threats and potential breaches.

7. Collaboration and Communication: ONGC utilizes collaborative tools and communication technologies
to enable seamless communication and collaboration among its workforce. These tools facilitate virtual
meetings, file sharing, and project management, supporting effective teamwork across different locations.

8. Asset Management: IT solutions are employed for asset management, tracking the performance and
maintenance of equipment and facilities. This aids in optimizing asset utilization, extending the lifecycle of
equipment, and reducing downtime.

9. E-commerce and Supply Chain Management: ONGC utilizes e-commerce platforms and supply chain
management solutions to streamline its procurement processes, enhance vendor management, and ensure
efficient inventory management.

10. Renewable Energy Initiatives: As ONGC ventures into renewable energy sources, IT plays a crucial role
in monitoring and optimizing the performance of solar and wind power projects.

Overall, ONGC's IT services encompass a wide array of technologies and initiatives, empowering the
organization to stay at the forefront of the energy sector's digital transformation. These IT services play a
crucial role in enhancing efficiency, optimizing operations, promoting sustainability, and contributing to the
company's overall growth and success.

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 National & International Recognition

Figure 6 ONGC International Recognition

Oil and Natural Gas Corporation (ONGC) has garnered significant national and international recognition for
its contributions to the oil and gas industry, sustainable practices, corporate social responsibility (CSR)
initiatives, and overall excellence in various domains. Here are some of the key recognitions received by
ONGC:

1. National Awards: ONGC has been honoured with several prestigious awards by the Government of India
and other national institutions. It has been awarded the "Best Maharana" in the Nartana and Maharatna
category by the Indian Ministry of Heavy Industries and Public Enterprises.

2. Global Rankings: ONGC has consistently been ranked among the world's largest publicly traded
companies by market capitalization. Its market performance and strategic vision have earned it recognition on
various global lists.

3. Sustainable Practices: ONGC's commitment to sustainable development has been acknowledged by

various institutions. It has been ranked among the top global energy companies in the Dow Jones Sustainability
Index (DJSI) and received the prestigious "Golden Peacock Award for Sustainability" for its initiatives in this
domain.

4. Exploration and Production: ONGC has received recognition for its successful exploration and
production endeavors. The discovery and development of significant oil and gas fields, such as the Mumbai
High field, have been lauded for their impact on India's energy security.

5. Technology and Innovation: ONGC's innovative use of technology in its exploration and production
activities has received praise from industry experts. It has won the "Best Technological Innovations Award"
for its advancements in the oil and gas sector.
6. Corporate Social Responsibility: ONGC's commitment to CSR has been recognized both nationally and
internationally. It has received numerous awards for its initiatives in education, healthcare, environmental
conservation, and rural development, making a positive impact on the lives of people in the areas where it
operates.

7. Environmental Stewardship: ONGC has been commended for its efforts in environmental conservation.
It has been honoured with the "Greentech Environment Excellence Award" for its sustainable practices and
eco-friendly initiatives.

8. Safety and Occupational Health: ONGC places a strong emphasis on safety, and its safety practices have
been acknowledged through various awards and accolades. It has received the "Greentech Safety Award" for
its outstanding safety performance.

9. International Ventures: ONGC Videsh Limited (OVL), the international arm of ONGC, has received
recognition for its successful overseas ventures and contributions to the energy sector in various countries. It
has been acknowledged for its participation in exploration projects and production-sharing agreements
globally.

10. Sports and Cultural Activities: ONGC's active involvement in promoting sports and cultural activities
has earned it accolades from various national and regional sports bodies. The company's football team, ONGC
Football Club, has won several prestigious tournaments, enhancing ONGC's reputation in the sports arena.

11. Human Resources: ONGC's focus on nurturing talent and providing a conducive work environment has
been recognized through various HR awards. It has received recognition for its employee welfare programs
and initiatives.

These are just a few examples of the national and international recognition that ONGC has received over the
years. As a leading energy company, ONGC's commitment to excellence, sustainability, and social
responsibility has earned it a prominent place in the global energy landscape and continues to drive its success
and recognition on multiple fronts.

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 Vision & Mission of ONGC

Figure 7 Green Energy

Vision and Mission of Oil and Natural Gas Corporation (ONGC):

Vision:

"Envisioning a world of excellence in exploration and production of oil and gas and contributing significantly
to India's energy security and growth."

ONGC's vision reflects its aspirations for excellence in the exploration and production of oil and gas resources.
The company aims to play a pivotal role in India's energy landscape by ensuring a secure and sustainable
supply of hydrocarbons. Through continuous innovation, responsible practices, and global partnerships,
ONGC strives to be at the forefront of the oil and gas industry, meeting the nation's energy needs and
contributing to its economic growth.

Mission:

1. Enhance Domestic Hydrocarbon Production: ONGC's primary mission is to enhance domestic

hydrocarbon production to meet India's growing energy demand. The company focuses on exploring and
developing indigenous oil and gas reserves to reduce the nation's dependence on imported hydrocarbons.

2. Foster Exploration and Technological Advancements: ONGC is committed to fostering exploration

activities to discover new hydrocarbon reserves. It invests in cutting-edge technologies, research, and
development to unlock the full potential of its existing fields and identify new prospects.
3. Optimize Oil and Gas Operations: ONGC strives to optimize its oil and gas operations by implementing
best practices, advanced production techniques, and asset management strategies. It aims to improve
efficiency, productivity, and profitability across its exploration and production activities.

4. Promote Sustainability and Environmental Stewardship: ONGC is dedicated to promoting sustainable

practices and environmental stewardship in its operations. The company adopts measures to reduce its carbon
footprint, minimize environmental impact, and contribute to the global fight against climate change.

5. Focus on Human Capital and Social Responsibility: ONGC recognizes the importance of its human
capital and aims to nurture a skilled, diverse, and engaged workforce. The company values its employees'
well-being, safety, and professional development. Moreover, ONGC is committed to its corporate social
responsibility, contributing to community development, education, healthcare, and environmental
conservation.

6. Expand Global Footprint: ONGC's mission includes expanding its global footprint through international
exploration and production ventures. The company seeks opportunities in countries with significant
hydrocarbon reserves, forging strategic partnerships to secure energy resources for India's energy security.

7. Embrace Digital Transformation: ONGC is on a journey of digital transformation, adopting emerging

technologies like Artificial Intelligence (AI), Internet of Things (IoT), and data analytics to optimize
operations, enhance decision-making, and increase efficiency.

8. Pursue Growth and Diversification: ONGC aims to pursue growth and diversification beyond its core oil
and gas business. This includes venturing into renewable energy sources and petrochemicals to contribute to
India's overall energy needs and economic growth.

Through its vision and mission, ONGC reaffirms its commitment to excellence, innovation, sustainability, and
responsible growth. The company's endeavors align with India's energy security objectives and reflect its
dedication to being a significant player in the global energy landscape. By striving for these goals, ONGC
aims to be a catalyst for India's progress and a leader in the oil and gas industry.

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 Role of electronics in exploring hydrocarbon leading to capture of seismic

Figure 8 Seismic Data Diagram

data

Introduction:

The exploration and production of hydrocarbons play a vital role in meeting the world's energy demands. The
search for new oil and gas reserves requires sophisticated technology and techniques to locate these valuable
resources beneath the Earth's surface. One of the most crucial steps in the hydrocarbon exploration process is
the capture of seismic data. This process involves using electronics and advanced instruments to record and
analyze seismic waves generated by artificially induced vibrations or natural phenomena. This seismic data
provides valuable insights into the subsurface geology, helping identify potential hydrocarbon reserves. In this
article, we will explore the role of electronics in capturing seismic data for hydrocarbon exploration.

Role of Electronics in Seismic Data Acquisition:

1. Seismic Sources: The first step in capturing seismic data involves generating seismic waves using sources
such as vibrators or explosives. Modern electronic vibrators, known as seismic sources, produce controlled
vibrations at specific frequencies and amplitudes. These sources are crucial in generating consistent and
reliable seismic waves for data acquisition.
2. Seismic Sensors: After the seismic waves are generated, they propagate through the subsurface,
encountering different rock layers with varying properties. Seismic sensors, also known as geophones or
accelerometers, are deployed on the ground to detect and record these seismic waves. These electronic sensors
are capable of converting mechanical vibrations into electrical signals, which are then digitized for further
analysis.

3. Analog to Digital Conversion: The electrical signals received from the seismic sensors are analog in nature
and need to be converted into digital format for processing and storage. This analog-to-digital conversion is a
critical step, and advancements in electronics have led to high-precision digitizers capable of capturing seismic
data with greater accuracy and resolution.

4. Seismic Data Acquisition Systems: Electronic data acquisition systems play a pivotal role in capturing
seismic data. These systems consist of multiple channels of seismic sensors, data recorders, and data
processing units. They are designed to capture and store vast amounts of seismic data during exploration
surveys.

5. Signal Processing: Once the seismic data is captured, it undergoes extensive signal processing to extract
valuable information about the subsurface geology. Electronic signal processing techniques, such as filtering,
deconvolution, and time-frequency analysis, help enhance the seismic data quality and identify potential
hydrocarbon-bearing formations.

6. Data Transmission: In remote exploration areas, where real-time data analysis may not be possible,
electronic data transmission plays a crucial role. Modern seismic data acquisition systems are equipped with
advanced telemetry capabilities, enabling real-time or near-real-time transmission of seismic data to central
processing centers.

7. Data Visualization and Interpretation: Electronics also play a significant role in visualizing and
interpreting seismic data. Advanced software and computing tools allow geophysicists and geologists to
visualize seismic data in three-dimensional (3D) representations, facilitating better insights into subsurface
structures and potential hydrocarbon traps.

Conclusion:

The role of electronics in capturing seismic data for hydrocarbon exploration is indispensable. From
generating seismic waves to deploying sensors, digitizing signals, and processing data, electronics have
revolutionized the way we explore and produce hydrocarbons. The advancements in electronics have not only
improved data quality and processing efficiency but have also led to greater success in identifying hydrocarbon
reserves, contributing to the global energy supply and ensuring a sustainable energy future.

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 Seismic Data Acquisition System

Figure 9 Data Acquisition System

Seismic data acquisition is a crucial process in the exploration of hydrocarbon resources. It involves the
generation and recording of seismic waves to create detailed images of the subsurface geology. These images
help geoscientists and engineers identify potential oil and gas reservoirs, leading to more effective and efficient
drilling operations. The seismic data acquisition system is a complex and sophisticated setup that comprises
various components, instruments, and technologies working together to collect accurate and reliable seismic
data.

1. Seismic Source:

The seismic source is a device used to generate controlled seismic waves. It can be an explosive charge, a
seismic vibrator, or an air gun, depending on the onshore or offshore environment. In onshore operations,
explosives are sometimes used to create shockwaves that travel through the subsurface. However, modern
seismic data acquisition systems primarily use seismic vibrators, which are large trucks equipped with
hydraulic systems that produce low-frequency vibrations transmitted into the ground. In offshore operations,
air guns are commonly used as the seismic source, creating underwater pressure waves that propagate through
the water and into the subsurface.
2. Geophones:

Geophones are sensors used to detect and measure the seismic waves' reflections. These instruments are
typically small and sensitive devices placed on the ground surface or buried in the Earth at specific locations
called receiver points. Geophones work on the principle of converting ground vibrations into electrical signals,
which are then recorded for further analysis.

3. Seismic Spread:

The arrangement of geophones in a systematic grid pattern is known as a seismic spread. It ensures that seismic
reflections are recorded from various angles and depths, providing a comprehensive picture of the subsurface.
The size and layout of the seismic spread depend on factors like the survey area, geological complexity, and
desired resolution.

4. Cable Systems:

Cable systems, also known as seismic lines, connect the geophones to the central recording unit. These cables
carry the electrical signals from the geophones to the seismic data acquisition system. Traditional cable
systems use multi-channel cables, while modern systems may utilize wireless or radio telemetry to transmit
data without physical cables, allowing for more flexible data collection.

5. Central Recording Unit (CRU):

The central recording unit is the core component of the seismic data acquisition system. It is a data acquisition
system that collects, stores, and processes the signals from the geophones. The CRU is responsible for
synchronizing the data from multiple geophones, ensuring accurate data collection. It may also incorporate
GPS systems to precisely time-stamp each recorded signal, enabling precise location information.

6. Field Management System (FMS):

The field management system is software that controls the operation of seismic vibrators, air guns, or
explosives, ensuring consistent and controlled seismic wave generation. It communicates with the central
recording unit and synchronizes the seismic source with the geophones.

7. Energy Source Monitoring:

During seismic data acquisition, it is essential to monitor the energy output of the seismic source continuously.
This monitoring helps ensure that the generated seismic waves meet the required specifications for data quality
and safety. Energy source monitoring systems provide real-time feedback to field operators, enabling
adjustments if necessary.

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8. Navigation and Positioning Systems:

Navigation and positioning systems, such as GPS and inertial navigation systems, are integrated into the
seismic data acquisition system to precisely locate the seismic source and receiver points. Accurate positioning
is crucial for aligning seismic data with geological structures accurately.

9. Power and Data Management:

Seismic data acquisition systems require a stable power supply for extended field operations. They are
equipped with power management systems that optimize power usage to ensure continuous data acquisition.
Data management systems facilitate efficient storage, retrieval, and transfer of the massive amounts of seismic
data collected during the survey.

10. Data QC and Real-Time Monitoring:

Real-time monitoring and quality control (QC) are integral parts of the seismic data acquisition process. QC
systems continuously analyse the acquired seismic data to identify any anomalies or data acquisition issues
that may require immediate attention. This real-time feedback allows field operators to adjust survey
parameters to ensure data quality and completeness.

In conclusion, the seismic data acquisition system is a sophisticated and intricate setup that plays a crucial role
in exploring hydrocarbon resources. It involves advanced technologies, precise instrumentation, and effective
data management to collect accurate and reliable seismic data. The integration of various components in the
system ensures that the seismic survey provides valuable insights into the subsurface geology, ultimately
leading to successful hydrocarbon exploration and production endeavors.
 Exploration of Hydrocarbons

The exploration of hydrocarbons is a complex and multi-stage process aimed at identifying and extracting oil
and natural gas resources from beneath the Earth's surface. This exploration is critical for meeting the world's
increasing energy demands and ensuring energy security. The exploration process involves a combination of
geology, geophysics, and advanced technologies to locate potential hydrocarbon reserves. Here's an overview
of the exploration of hydrocarbons:

1. Geological Studies: The first step in hydrocarbon exploration involves conducting geological studies to
identify regions with the potential to contain oil and gas reserves. Geologists study the Earth's rock formations,
sedimentary basins, and geological structures to identify areas where hydrocarbons might have been trapped
over millions of years.

2. Seismic Surveys: Seismic surveys are a fundamental technique used in hydrocarbon exploration. These
surveys use controlled seismic waves generated by seismic sources, such as vibrators or explosives. The
reflected waves are detected by geophones or accelerometers, which are deployed on the ground surface or
buried in boreholes. The data collected from these surveys provide detailed images of the subsurface geology,
helping geoscientists identify potential hydrocarbon traps.

3. Exploration Wells: Once a potential hydrocarbon trap is identified through seismic surveys, an exploration
well is drilled to verify the presence of oil or gas. These wells are often known as wildcat wells or exploration
wells, as they are drilled in unproven areas. Core samples and well logs obtained from these wells provide
valuable information about the rock formations and reservoir properties.

4. Wireline Logging: Wireline logging is a technique used to evaluate the properties of the rock formations
encountered while drilling. Various tools are lowered into the well on a wireline to measure parameters such
as porosity, permeability, and fluid content. This data helps geoscientists assess the potential productivity of
the reservoir.

5. Reservoir Evaluation: Once hydrocarbons are confirmed in the exploration well, reservoir engineers
evaluate the size and potential productivity of the reservoir. This involves estimating the volume of
hydrocarbons present and calculating recovery factors.

6. 3D Seismic Surveys: In more advanced stages of exploration, 3D seismic surveys are conducted to obtain
a more detailed and accurate image of the subsurface. 3D surveys provide a comprehensive view of the
reservoir's architecture and enable more precise well placement.

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7. Appraisal Wells: After a promising discovery, appraisal wells are drilled to further assess the size and
characteristics of the reservoir. Additional data obtained from these wells helps refine reservoir models and
estimate reserves more accurately.

8. Production Testing: Production testing, also known as well testing, involves temporarily producing
hydrocarbons from the well to determine the flow rate and reservoir properties. This data aids in designing the
optimal production strategy.

9. Development and Production: Once the reservoir is proven to be commercially viable, development wells
are drilled to extract hydrocarbons. Production facilities, such as platforms or processing plants, are
established to extract, process, and transport the oil and gas to the market.

10. Enhanced Recovery Techniques: As a reservoir matures, enhanced recovery techniques may be
employed to increase the amount of hydrocarbons recovered. Techniques such as water flooding, gas injection,
or chemical flooding are used to improve oil or gas recovery from the reservoir.

11. Environmental Considerations: Throughout the exploration and production process, environmental
considerations are essential. Companies strive to minimize the environmental impact through responsible
practices, adherence to regulations, and adopting eco-friendly technologies.

In conclusion, the exploration of hydrocarbons is a systematic and challenging process that requires a
combination of geological understanding, geophysical surveys, and advanced technologies. It involves the
diligent effort of multidisciplinary teams to identify potential hydrocarbon reserves, evaluate reservoir
characteristics, and develop efficient production strategies. As the demand for energy continues to grow, the
exploration of hydrocarbons remains crucial for meeting global energy needs and ensuring a stable and
sustainable energy future.
 Seismic Methods

Seismic methods are a crucial component of hydrocarbon exploration, providing valuable subsurface
information to identify potential oil and gas reservoirs. Seismic surveys involve generating controlled seismic
waves and recording their reflections to create detailed images of the subsurface geology. These images help
geoscientists and engineers understand the rock formations and structures, allowing them to pinpoint potential
hydrocarbon traps and plan drilling operations more efficiently. Let's delve deeper into the seismic methods
used in hydrocarbon exploration and the process of capturing seismic data.

1. Seismic Source:

The seismic survey begins with the use of a seismic source to generate controlled seismic waves. There are
two primary types of seismic sources used in hydrocarbon exploration:

- Seismic Vibrators: Seismic vibrators are large trucks or trailers equipped with vibrating plates. They generate
low-frequency seismic waves by vibrating the ground at specific frequencies and amplitudes. Vibrators are
commonly used in onshore seismic surveys and provide a controlled and repeatable source of seismic energy.

- Explosive Sources: In some cases, explosive charges are used as seismic sources. These charges are
strategically placed in shot holes and detonated to generate seismic waves. Explosive sources are generally
used in areas where vibrators may not be feasible or for specific geological conditions.

2. Seismic Sensors:

Seismic sensors, also known as receivers, are deployed on the ground surface or buried in shallow boreholes.
The two main types of sensors used are:

- Geophones: Geophones are the traditional seismic sensors widely used in hydrocarbon exploration. They
are relatively simple and cost-effective, consisting of a coil of wire and a magnet suspended on a spring. When
seismic waves pass through the ground, the ground motion induces voltage in the coil, which is recorded as
seismic data.

- Accelerometers: Accelerometers are more advanced seismic sensors that measure the ground's acceleration
during seismic events. Unlike geophones, accelerometers directly measure the ground's acceleration, making
them less sensitive to noise and providing more accurate seismic data.

3. Data Acquisition:

The process of capturing seismic data involves the interaction between the seismic source and the seismic
sensors. Seismic waves generated by the source travel through the subsurface, encountering different rock

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layers with varying acoustic properties. When these waves encounter an interface between rock layers with
different acoustic impedance (density times velocity), they reflect back to the surface.

The seismic sensors (geophones or accelerometers) detect and record these reflected seismic waves. The data
recorded by the sensors are analog signals that represent the ground's motion in response to the seismic energy.
These analog signals are then sent to data acquisition systems for further processing.

4. Data Acquisition Systems:

Data acquisition systems are an essential component of seismic surveys, responsible for recording and storing
the seismic data. These systems include data recorders equipped with analog-to-digital converters (ADCs) that
convert the analog signals from the sensors into digital data. The data are usually sampled at high frequencies
to capture the detailed characteristics of the seismic signals.

Modern data acquisition systems offer real-time monitoring, allowing surveyors to assess the quality of
seismic data as the survey progresses. GPS receivers are often integrated into data acquisition systems to
precisely time-stamp the seismic data, enabling accurate positioning and synchronization of data from multiple
recording units.

5. Data Processing and Interpretation:

After capturing the seismic data, the information undergoes complex data processing and interpretation. The
raw data are subjected to various filtering and noise reduction techniques to improve data quality. The
processed data are then used to create seismic images or seismic sections that represent subsurface structures
and potential hydrocarbon traps.

Geoscientists and reservoir engineers interpret these seismic images to identify potential oil and gas reservoirs
and plan the drilling locations. The interpretation process involves characterizing the subsurface layers,
determining their porosity and permeability, and estimating the presence and amount of hydrocarbons.

In conclusion, seismic methods play a critical role in hydrocarbon exploration, allowing for the capture of
seismic data that provides vital information about the subsurface geology. The process involves generating
controlled seismic waves using sources like seismic vibrators or explosives and recording the reflections of
these waves using sensors like geophones or accelerometers. Data acquisition systems capture and convert the
analog seismic signals into digital data, which is then processed and interpreted to create detailed seismic
images. These images aid geoscientists in identifying potential hydrocarbon reservoirs and planning
exploration and drilling operations with greater accuracy and efficiency.
 GEOPHONE

Figure 10 Geophone

A geophone is a highly sensitive seismic sensor used in geophysical exploration to detect and record ground
vibrations, especially during seismic surveys for hydrocarbon exploration, earthquake monitoring, and various
geotechnical studies. It plays a crucial role in capturing seismic data, providing valuable information about
the subsurface geology and potential hydrocarbon reservoirs.

Construction and Design:

A geophone consists of several key components that work together to detect and convert ground vibrations
into electrical signals. The primary elements of a geophone include:

1. Case: The outer casing of a geophone is typically made of sturdy materials like metal or plastic to protect
the delicate internal components from external impacts and environmental conditions.

2. Mass and Coil Assembly: The heart of a geophone is the mass and coil assembly. It consists of a small,
lightweight, magnetic mass suspended in a magnetic field. The mass is attached to a coil of wire, forming a
moving system. When ground vibrations occur, the mass moves in response to the seismic waves, inducing a
voltage in the coil due to the relative motion between the mass and the coil.

3. Damping Mechanism: To prevent the mass from oscillating too much and to dampen its motion quickly
after the seismic waves pass, geophones are equipped with a damping mechanism. This mechanism can be a
small magnetic damping system or a viscous fluid that absorbs the energy and prevents excessive ringing.

4. Spring: A spring connects the mass and coil assembly to the case. It provides the restoring force needed to
bring the mass back to its initial position after the seismic wave has passed.

Working Principle:

The working principle of a geophone is based on Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction. When ground
vibrations, or seismic waves, pass through the Earth, they cause the ground to move up and down or side to
side. This motion causes the suspended mass in the geophone to move, and the relative motion between the
mass and the coil induces a voltage in the coil.

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The induced voltage in the coil is proportional to the ground displacement caused by the seismic wave. The
voltage signal is then amplified, filtered, and converted into digital data by recording units during seismic
surveys.

Types of Geophones:

There are various types of geophones designed for different applications based on their sensitivity, frequency
response, and construction. Some common types include:

1. Vertical Geophones: These are used to measure ground motion in the vertical direction and are particularly
suitable for reflection seismic surveys.

2. Horizontal Geophones: Horizontal geophones are used to measure ground motion in the horizontal plane
and are commonly used in refraction seismic surveys.

3. Three-Component Geophones: These geophones are equipped with three orthogonal sensors that measure
ground motion in the vertical and two horizontal directions simultaneously. Three-component geophones are
used to capture comprehensive seismic data for detailed analysis and interpretation.

Applications of Geophones:

Geophones have diverse applications across various fields:

1. Seismic Exploration: Geophones are a critical tool in seismic exploration for the oil and gas industry. They
capture seismic data during surveys, enabling geoscientists to map subsurface structures and identify potential
hydrocarbon reservoirs.

2. Earthquake Monitoring: Geophones are widely used in earthquake monitoring networks to detect and
record ground motion during seismic events. This information helps in understanding earthquake behavior
and assessing seismic hazards.

3. Engineering and Geotechnical Studies: Geophones are employed in geotechnical studies to investigate
soil properties, assess ground stability, and identify potential hazards in construction projects.

4. Environmental Studies: Geophones are used in environmental studies to monitor ground vibrations from
various sources, such as construction activities, mining operations, and transportation.

In conclusion, geophones are indispensable seismic sensors that play a vital role in capturing ground vibrations
during seismic surveys for hydrocarbon exploration and various other applications. Their sensitivity and
accuracy enable geoscientists and engineers to gain valuable insights into the Earth's subsurface and contribute
to various fields, from energy exploration to earthquake monitoring and geotechnical studies.
 Seismic ancillary equipment

Seismic ancillary equipment refers to the additional instruments and tools used in conjunction with geophones
and seismic sources during seismic data acquisition. These ancillary tools play a crucial role in ensuring the
accuracy, efficiency, and safety of seismic surveys. They support various aspects of seismic exploration, from
source deployment to data recording and quality control. Here are some of the key seismic ancillary equipment
used in the field:

1. Seismic Source Trucks: Seismic source trucks are specialized vehicles equipped with vibrators used to
generate seismic waves. These vibrators produce controlled ground vibrations that propagate into the
subsurface. The trucks are designed to carry heavy equipment and are equipped with hydraulic systems to
operate the vibrators efficiently.

2. Explosive Charges: In some seismic surveys, explosive charges are used as seismic sources. These charges
are carefully placed in shallow boreholes and detonated to create seismic waves. Explosive source surveys are
typically used in remote and challenging terrains where using vibrators is not feasible.

3. Seismic Cables: Seismic cables, also known as geophone cables or sensor arrays, are used to connect
geophones to the recording units. These cables carry the analog signals from the geophones to the recording
units for data acquisition. Seismic cables are designed to be durable and flexible to withstand rough field
conditions.

4. GPS Receivers: GPS receivers are often integrated into the seismic data acquisition system to provide
precise time and location information for each seismic data point. This allows for accurate positioning and
synchronization of data from multiple recording units, crucial for creating accurate seismic images.

5. Recording Units: Recording units are electronic devices that receive and store the seismic data from the
geophones. These units contain analog-to-digital converters (ADCs) that convert the analog signals into digital
data for further processing.

6. Data Acquisition Systems (DAS): The data acquisition system is the central component that controls the
seismic sources, records the seismic data, and manages data storage. It includes hardware and software to
manage the entire data acquisition process efficiently.

7. Energy Sources: Seismic surveys require power sources to operate the recording units, GPS receivers, and
other equipment. Portable generators or rechargeable battery systems are used to provide power in the field.

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8. Field Computers: Field computers are used by field crews to monitor and control the seismic data
acquisition process. These computers are equipped with specialized software that allows real-time monitoring
of data quality, seismic source performance, and other critical parameters.

9. Surveying Equipment: Surveying instruments, such as total stations or GPS receivers, are used to
accurately position and mark the locations of seismic source points and geophones on the ground.

10. Communication Equipment: Communication devices like radios or satellite phones are used to maintain
communication between field crews and the central data processing team. This ensures efficient coordination
and timely troubleshooting during the survey.

11. Safety Equipment: Safety is paramount in seismic surveys. Field crews are equipped with safety gear,
including personal protective equipment (PPE), first aid kits, and emergency response plans.

12. Weather Stations: Weather stations may be set up at the survey site to monitor environmental conditions,
as weather can impact the quality and safety of seismic data acquisition.

In summary, seismic ancillary equipment complements geophones and seismic sources, providing essential
support for efficient and accurate seismic data acquisition. These tools enable geoscientists and engineers to
capture valuable subsurface information, contributing to the successful exploration and identification of
potential hydrocarbon reserves and other geological features.
 Geophysical Operation

Figure 11 ONGC Offshore

Geophysical operations play a crucial role in the exploration of hydrocarbon reserves, and the capture of
seismic data is a fundamental component of this process. Geophysical exploration involves the use of various
techniques and instruments to study the subsurface geology and identify potential hydrocarbon-bearing
structures. Seismic data, obtained through seismic surveys, is a key source of information that helps
geoscientists and engineers locate and evaluate potential oil and gas reservoirs.

Here is a detailed overview of geophysical operations in exploring hydrocarbons, focusing on the capture of
seismic data:

1. Geological and Geophysical Surveys: The exploration process typically begins with geological and
geophysical surveys. Geologists study surface rock formations, analyze satellite imagery, and study geological
maps to identify potential sedimentary basins or areas with a high likelihood of hydrocarbon accumulations.

2. Seismic Surveys Planning: Once a prospective area is identified, the next step is to plan the seismic
surveys. Geophysicists and seismic surveyors determine the survey parameters, such as the survey area,
source-receiver configuration, and survey design, to ensure optimal data coverage.

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3. Seismic Energy Sources: Seismic surveys involve the use of seismic energy sources to generate controlled
seismic waves. The most common energy sources include seismic vibrators and explosive charges.

- Seismic Vibrators: These are large trucks or trailers equipped with vibrating plates that create low-frequency
seismic waves by vibrating the ground. Vibrators are commonly used in land-based seismic surveys.

- Explosive Sources: Explosive charges are sometimes used to generate seismic waves by detonating
controlled explosions at specific depths in the Earth. Explosive sources are more commonly employed in
marine seismic surveys.

4. Seismic Sensors (Geophones or Accelerometers): Seismic sensors, known as geophones or

accelerometers, are deployed on the ground surface or buried in shallow boreholes. These sensors detect and
measure the reflected seismic waves as they travel back to the surface.

5. Seismic Cable and Connectors: Seismic cables are used to connect the geophones or accelerometers to
the recording units. They carry the analog signals from the sensors to the data acquisition system for further
processing.

6. Data Acquisition System (DAS): The data acquisition system is a critical component of seismic surveys.
It includes hardware and software that control the seismic sources, receive the data from the recording units,
and store the digital seismic data for further processing and analysis.

7. Data Recording and Quality Control: During seismic data acquisition, quality control measures are
implemented to ensure the accuracy and reliability of the seismic data. Data processing crews may conduct
field tests and monitor the performance of the recording units and sensors.

8. Data Processing: After data acquisition, the digital seismic data are transferred to data processing centers,
where sophisticated algorithms and computer systems are used to process the data. Various processing
techniques are applied to enhance the signal-to-noise ratio and produce high-quality seismic images.

9. Interpretation and Subsurface Imaging: Geoscientists interpret the processed seismic data to create
detailed subsurface images. These images help in mapping the geological structures, identifying potential
hydrocarbon traps, and evaluating the size and productivity of the reservoirs.

10. Prospect Evaluation and Decision-Making: Based on the interpreted seismic data, geoscientists and
engineers evaluate the prospects for hydrocarbon reserves. These evaluations inform the decision-making
process regarding the viability of further exploration and potential drilling operations.

In summary, geophysical operations, particularly seismic surveys and the capture of seismic data, are integral
to exploring hydrocarbon reserves. Seismic data provides critical insights into the subsurface geology, helping
identify potential oil and gas reservoirs and guiding the decision-making process for successful exploration
and production operations. Advanced geophysical techniques and state-of-the-art instruments.
 Evolution of Seismic Data Acquisition Units

The evolution of seismic data acquisition units in hydrocarbon exploration has been a remarkable journey
characterized by technological advancements, increased efficiency, and improved data quality. From the early
days of analog recording to the current digital era, seismic data acquisition units have undergone significant
changes, revolutionizing the way seismic data is captured and processed. Here's a comprehensive overview of
this evolution:

1. Analog Recording Era:

In the early years of seismic exploration, data acquisition units used analog recording systems. Seismic
sensors, such as geophones, generated analog signals in response to ground vibrations, which were recorded
on analog magnetic tapes. This process required manual handling and extensive post-processing efforts to
convert the analog data into interpretable seismic images. Data storage and retrieval were time-consuming,
and data quality was limited due to various factors, such as noise and signal degradation.

2. Introduction of Digital Recording:

The transition from analog to digital recording marked a significant advancement in seismic data acquisition
units. Digital recording units, known as seismic recorders, started replacing analog systems. Digital recorders
used analog-to-digital converters (ADCs) to convert the analog seismic signals into digital data. This shift
improved data quality, facilitated easier storage, and streamlined data processing. The use of digital data also
enabled the application of advanced processing techniques for noise reduction and data enhancement.

3. Seismic Source Control Units:

With the evolution of digital recording, seismic source control units became an integral part of seismic data
acquisition units. These units were responsible for controlling the seismic sources, such as vibrators or
explosive charges, ensuring they generated consistent and repeatable seismic waves during data acquisition.
Seismic source control units enabled better control over the seismic energy input and improved the accuracy
of the seismic data.

4. Transition to High Channel Count:

Advancements in electronics and digital technology led to the development of seismic data acquisition units
with high channel count capabilities. This allowed the simultaneous recording of data from numerous sensors,
such as geophones, in a single survey. High channel count units significantly accelerated data acquisition,
reducing the time required for seismic surveys and improving exploration efficiency.

5. Real-time Monitoring and Quality Control:

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Modern seismic data acquisition units are equipped with real-time monitoring and quality control capabilities.
Field computers and software enable data acquisition crews to monitor seismic data in real-time, ensuring the
quality and consistency of the recorded data. This real-time feedback aids in making critical decisions during
the survey and optimizing data acquisition parameters.

6. GPS Integration:

Integration of Global Positioning System (GPS) technology into seismic data acquisition units revolutionized
seismic surveying. GPS receivers accurately time-stamp seismic data, ensuring precise positioning and
synchronization of data from multiple recording units. GPS integration improved survey accuracy, enhanced
data correlation, and allowed for seamless merging of data from different surveys.

7. Wireless and Remote Data Transmission:

Modern seismic data acquisition units incorporate wireless communication technology, allowing for remote
data transmission from the field to central processing centers. This capability streamlines data delivery,
enabling real-time data processing and interpretation by geoscientists at centralized locations.

8. Advanced Data Processing and Imaging:

The evolution of seismic data acquisition units has been complemented by significant advances in data
processing and imaging techniques. High-performance computers and sophisticated algorithms are now used
to process seismic data and create high-resolution, three-dimensional images of the subsurface. These
advancements have improved the accuracy and resolution of seismic images, aiding in better reservoir
characterization and prospect evaluation.

In conclusion, the evolution of seismic data acquisition units in hydrocarbon exploration has witnessed
groundbreaking advancements, moving from analog recording to digital data acquisition with real-time
monitoring and GPS integration. These advancements have enhanced the efficiency, accuracy, and data quality
in seismic surveys, contributing to successful exploration efforts and the discovery of valuable hydrocarbon
reserves. The continuous development of seismic data acquisition technology promises further improvements
in the future, opening new possibilities for the oil and gas industry.

INSTRUMENTATION
Introductions:

Oil and Natural Gas Corporation (ONGC) employs a wide range of instrumentation across various stages of
its oil and gas exploration, production, and refining operations. These instruments play a critical role in
monitoring, controlling, and optimizing processes, ensuring safety, and maximizing efficiency. Here's an
overview of the instrumentation used in ONGC's operations:

1. Downhole Instruments:
 - Downhole Pressure and Temperature Gauges: These instruments are deployed in oil and gas wells to
monitor reservoir pressure and temperature. They provide valuable data for reservoir characterization and well
performance evaluation.

- Flowmeters: Flowmeters are used to measure the rate of fluid flow from the well. They are essential for
calculating production volumes and optimizing well performance.

2. Surface Wellhead Instruments:

- Wellhead Pressure and Temperature Gauges: These instruments measure the pressure and temperature at
the wellhead, providing critical data for well control and safety.

- Choke Valves: Choke valves are used to control the flow of oil and gas from the wellhead to the production
facility. They ensure safe and efficient well operation.

3. Distributed Control Systems (DCS):

- DCS is a centralized control system that monitors and controls various process variables across the
production facility. It ensures seamless integration and real-time control of operations.

4. Programmable Logic Controllers (PLCs):

- PLCs are used for local control and automation of specific processes, such as pump control, valve
operation, and safety shutdowns.

5. Pressure Transmitters and Level Sensors:

- Pressure transmitters are used to measure pressure at various points in the production process. Level sensors
measure liquid levels in tanks and vessels.

6. Gas Chromatographs:

- Gas chromatographs analyze the composition of natural gas, helping in determining its quality and
suitability for further processing.

7. Control Valves and Actuators:

- Control valves regulate the flow of fluids and gases in the production process. Actuators provide the
necessary force to operate valves remotely.

8. Safety Instruments:

- Fire and Gas Detection Systems: These instruments detect the presence of flammable or toxic gases and
trigger alarms for timely evacuation and safety measures.

- Emergency Shutdown Systems (ESD): ESD systems are critical for rapid shutdown of equipment in
emergencies, preventing potential accidents and hazards.

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9. Remote Sensing and Monitoring Instruments:

- Remote Monitoring Stations: These stations gather data from remote facilities, allowing real-time
monitoring and control of operations.

- Satellite Communication Systems: Satellite communication ensures continuous data transmission from
remote locations, enabling timely decision-making.

10. Laboratory Instruments:

- Spectrometers, Chromatographs, and Analysers: ONGC laboratories employ various instruments for
chemical analysis, quality control, and testing of oil and gas samples.

These are just some of the key instrumentations used by ONGC across its exploration, production, and refining
operations. The integration of advanced instrumentation enables ONGC to maintain operational efficiency,
safety standards, and environmental stewardship in the oil and gas industry. As technology continues to evolve,
ONGC continuously invests in modern instruments and automation to improve its capabilities and optimize
its oil and gas processes.

Types of Transformers

Figure 12Types Of Transformer

Oil and Natural Gas Corporation (ONGC) employs various types of transformers in its operations to ensure
the reliable and efficient distribution of electrical power. These transformers are essential components in the
electrical infrastructure of ONGC's facilities, including production platforms, drilling rigs, refineries, and
onshore installations. Here's an overview of the types of transformers used in ONGC:
1. Power Transformers:
Power transformers are the most common type used in ONGC's power distribution network. They are designed
to step up or step down voltage levels, facilitating the transmission of electrical power over long distances or
between different voltage systems. Power transformers are crucial for delivering electrical energy from the
main power grid to various substations and equipment in ONGC's installations.
2. Distribution Transformers:
Distribution transformers are used at substations and local distribution points to further step down the voltage
to levels suitable for use by various electrical equipment and machinery on the ONGC sites. They play a vital
role in delivering electricity safely and efficiently to the end-users within the facility.
3. Dry Type Transformers:
Dry type transformers are used in specific areas where there is a need for fire safety and environmental
considerations. These transformers use air as an insulating medium, eliminating the need for oil. Dry type
transformers are often preferred in indoor installations or locations where oil-filled transformers might pose a
safety risk.
4. Oil-Filled Transformers:
Oil-filled transformers are commonly used in outdoor installations and areas where fire safety is not a primary
concern. These transformers use mineral oil as an insulating and cooling medium. They are robust and reliable,
making them suitable for various applications in ONGC's onshore and offshore facilities.

5. Unit Substation Transformers:

Unit substations consist of a combination of power and distribution transformers along with associated
switchgear and protective devices. These compact substations are employed at specific locations within
ONGC's facilities to provide localized electrical power distribution and control.
6. Auto Transformers:
Auto transformers are used when the voltage conversion ratio is not significant. They have a common winding
shared between the primary and secondary sides, resulting in a compact design and lower losses. Auto
transformers are used in certain applications where efficiency and space-saving are important factors.
7. Instrument Transformers:
Instrument transformers, such as current transformers (CTs) and voltage transformers (VTs), are used for
metering and protective relay applications. CTs convert high currents to a standardized value for measurement,
while VTs step down high voltages for metering and control purposes.
8. Step-up and Step-down Transformers:
Step-up transformers are used to increase the voltage level for efficient long-distance power transmission.
They are commonly found in substation facilities. On the other hand, step-down transformers are used to
decrease the voltage to suitable levels for equipment operation and end-users.
9. Isolation Transformers:
Isolation transformers are used to electrically isolate sensitive electronic equipment and protect them from
voltage spikes and electrical noise. They are employed in critical applications where equipment protection and
isolation are essential.
10. Potential Transformers (PTs) and Capacitor Voltage Transformers (CVTs):
PTs and CVTs are specialized transformers used for voltage measurement and control. They are used in
protection relays and voltage regulation systems in ONGC's power distribution network.

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These are some of the main types of transformers used by ONGC in its various facilities to ensure a reliable
and safe electrical power supply. The selection of the appropriate transformer type depends on factors such as
voltage requirements, location, safety considerations, and the specific application in the oil and gas industry.
ONGC continues to employ modern and efficient transformers as part of its commitment to ensuring stable
and sustainable operations across its diverse range of facilities.

Compatible Circuits

In Oil and Natural Gas Corporation (ONGC), a wide range of compatible circuits is used in various
applications, including exploration, production, refining, and distribution of oil and gas. These circuits play a
crucial role in facilitating safe and efficient operations across ONGC's diverse facilities. Here is an overview
of some of the compatible circuits used in ONGC:

1. Power Distribution Circuits:

Power distribution circuits are fundamental to delivering electrical power from the main power source to
different sections of ONGC's installations. These circuits consist of power transformers, switchgear, circuit
breakers, and protective relays. They ensure a stable and reliable supply of electricity to power various
equipment, machinery, and lighting systems.

2. Motor Control Circuits:

Motor control circuits are extensively used in ONGC's operations to regulate and control the operation of
electric motors. These circuits include motor starters, contactors, and control devices that manage the starting,
stopping, and speed control of motors used in pumps, compressors, and other equipment.

3. Instrumentation and Control Circuits:

Instrumentation and control circuits are critical for monitoring and controlling various process parameters in
ONGC's facilities. These circuits connect sensors, transmitters, and control devices to data acquisition systems
and Distributed Control Systems (DCS). They facilitate real-time monitoring and automation of processes,
enhancing safety and operational efficiency.

4. Lighting Circuits:
Lighting circuits provide illumination in both indoor and outdoor areas of ONGC's facilities. These circuits
include lighting fixtures, switches, and distribution boards to ensure proper lighting levels for safe working
environments.

5. Communication Circuits:
Communication circuits are vital for establishing reliable communication between different sections of
ONGC's installations and remote locations. These circuits involve the use of communication equipment, such
as telecommunication systems, radios, and network infrastructure, for efficient data and voice communication.
6. Emergency Shutdown Circuits:
Emergency shutdown circuits are critical for rapidly shutting down equipment and processes in case of
emergencies or abnormal conditions. These circuits are part of the Safety Instrumented Systems (SIS) and use
safety devices such as Emergency Shutdown Valves (ESVs) and Safety Instrumented Function (SIF) logic.

7. Control Valve Circuits:

Control valve circuits are used to regulate the flow of liquids and gases in ONGC's production and refining
processes. They include control valves, actuators, and control systems that maintain precise control over the
flow rates, pressures, and temperatures.

8. Fire and Gas Detection Circuits:

Fire and gas detection circuits consist of sensors, alarms, and control systems that detect the presence of
flammable or toxic gases and trigger alarms for timely evacuation and safety measures.

9. Cathodic Protection Circuits:

Cathodic protection circuits are employed to prevent corrosion in metallic structures, such as pipelines and
storage tanks. They involve the use of sacrificial anodes or impressed current systems to protect metal surfaces
from corrosion.

10. Instrumented Safety Interlocks:

Instrumented Safety Interlocks (ISIs) are circuits that provide an additional layer of safety by interlocking
critical equipment and processes. These circuits ensure that specific conditions are met before allowing
specific operations, preventing potential hazards.

The compatibility and reliability of these circuits are crucial for ensuring safe and efficient operations in the
oil and gas industry. ONGC continuously invests in modern and robust circuitry, automation, and safety
systems to maintain the highest standards of performance and safety across its facilities. The integration of
compatible circuits and advanced technology helps ONGC achieve its operational objectives and supports
sustainable exploration, production, and refining of oil and natural gas resources.

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 Sensitivity and Actuators

In Oil and Natural Gas Corporation (ONGC), sensitivity and actuators play crucial roles in various
applications, especially in the oil and gas industry. Sensitivity refers to the ability of sensors and instruments
to detect and measure subtle changes in parameters, while actuators are devices that initiate a specific action
in response to control signals. Both sensitivity and actuators are essential for efficient and safe operations
across ONGC's exploration, production, refining, and distribution activities. Here's an overview of sensitivity
and actuators used in ONGC:

Sensitivity in ONGC:

1. Pressure Sensors: Pressure sensors are highly sensitive instruments used to measure pressure changes in
equipment and pipelines. They are deployed in wellheads, pipelines, and process vessels to monitor pressure
levels accurately. Sensitivity in pressure sensors is critical for early detection of pressure fluctuations, enabling
timely interventions to prevent accidents or equipment failure.

2. Temperature Sensors: Temperature sensors are employed to measure temperature variations in various
processes, including oil production and refining. These sensors provide critical data for optimizing process
efficiency and ensuring the safe operation of equipment.

3. Flow Sensors: Flow sensors are highly sensitive devices used to measure the rate of fluid flow in pipelines.
They play a crucial role in monitoring flow rates during oil and gas transportation, enabling accurate
accounting and efficient resource management.

4. Level Sensors: Level sensors are used to monitor liquid levels in storage tanks and vessels. Their sensitivity
ensures accurate measurement and helps prevent overflows or underfills.

5. Gas Detection Sensors: Gas detection sensors are sensitive to the presence of flammable or toxic gases in
the atmosphere. They trigger alarms and safety measures when gas concentrations reach critical levels,
ensuring the safety of personnel and equipment.

6. Water Quality Sensors: In offshore and onshore facilities, water quality sensors monitor the quality of
water used in various processes. They help detect contamination and ensure that water is suitable for use in
different applications.

7. Environmental Sensors: ONGC also employs sensitivity in environmental sensors to monitor air quality,
noise levels, and other environmental factors around its installations. These sensors aid in compliance with
environmental regulations and promote sustainable operations.
Actuators in ONGC:

1. Control Valves: Control valves are key actuators used to regulate the flow of fluids in pipelines and process
equipment. They respond to control signals and adjust their position to maintain the desired flow rate, pressure,
or temperature.

2. Actuated Valves: Actuated valves, including ball valves, gate valves, and butterfly valves, are equipped
with actuators to open or close the valve remotely. They are commonly used in wellhead control, process
control, and safety shutdown systems.

3. Electric Actuators: Electric actuators convert electrical signals into mechanical motion, controlling various
equipment and processes. They are commonly used in motorized valves and automated control systems.

4. Pneumatic Actuators: Pneumatic actuators use compressed air to operate valves and other equipment.
They are widely used in onshore and offshore facilities where electricity may not be readily available.

5. Hydraulic Actuators: Hydraulic actuators use pressurized hydraulic fluid to generate motion. They are
used in critical applications where precise control and high force output are required.

6. Safety Instrumented System (SIS) Actuators: Safety actuators are an integral part of ONGC's safety
systems, such as Emergency Shutdown Systems (ESD). They quickly close or open valves in response to
safety signals to protect personnel and equipment during emergencies.

7. Variable Frequency Drives (VFDs): VFDs are used to control the speed of electric motors, optimizing
energy consumption, and improving process efficiency. They act as energy-efficient actuators in various
motor-driven equipment.

8. Remote Operated Vehicles (ROVs): In offshore operations, ROVs serve as remotely controlled actuators,
performing tasks like pipeline inspections, repairs, and subsea operations.

Sensitivity and actuators are vital elements in ONGC's pursuit of safe, efficient, and sustainable oil and gas
operations. The integration of advanced sensors and actuators supports real-time monitoring, automation, and
control of critical processes, ensuring optimal performance and minimizing operational risks. ONGC
continues to invest in cutting-edge technologies and instrumentation to enhance sensitivity and improve the
performance of its actuators, contributing to the responsible development of oil and gas resources.

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 Essentials of Instrumentation and Process control

Figure 13Process Control Diagram

Instrumentation and process control are essential components of Oil and Natural Gas Corporation

(ONGC)'s operations. They play a crucial role in monitoring, regulating, and optimizing various processes
involved in the exploration, production, refining, and distribution of oil and gas resources. Here's an overview
of the essentials of instrumentation and process control in ONGC:

1. Monitoring Process Parameters:

Instrumentation is used to monitor a wide range of process parameters, such as pressure, temperature, flow
rate, level, and composition of fluids. Sensors and transmitters are strategically placed throughout the facilities
to provide real-time data on process conditions. This continuous monitoring ensures that operations remain
within safe and optimal operating ranges.

2. Safety Instrumented Systems (SIS):

Safety Instrumented Systems are integral to ONGC's operations to ensure the safety of personnel and
equipment. These systems consist of sensors, logic solvers, and final elements (actuators) that take immediate
actions in response to specific safety-critical conditions. SIS provides emergency shutdowns and safeguards
against hazardous situations, mitigating potential risks.

3. Distributed Control Systems (DCS):

DCS serves as the central nervous system of ONGC's operations, providing centralized control and automation
of various processes. DCS interfaces with multiple sensors, actuators, and control loops, allowing efficient
supervision and coordination of operations. It enables operators to monitor the entire facility from a single
control room, facilitating quick decision-making and optimizing process control.

4. Programmable Logic Controllers (PLCs):

PLCs are used for local control and automation of specific processes and equipment. They perform tasks like
starting and stopping motors, opening and closing valves, and executing predefined control sequences. PLCs
are especially useful for controlling standalone processes and critical operations.

5. Process Optimization:
Process control plays a vital role in optimizing operations to achieve maximum efficiency and productivity.
Feedback control loops regulate various process parameters, continuously adjusting setpoints to maintain
desired conditions. This leads to improved energy efficiency, reduced waste, and better resource utilization.

6. Remote Monitoring and Control:

ONGC often operates in remote and challenging environments. Remote monitoring and control systems,
including satellite communication and SCADA (Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition), enable real-time
data transmission and remote operation of critical equipment, reducing the need for manual intervention.

7. Control Valves and Actuators:

Control valves equipped with actuators are employed to regulate the flow of fluids within the process system.
Actuators modulate the valve positions based on control signals from the DCS or PLCs, ensuring precise and
accurate control of flow rates, pressures, and temperatures.

8. Data Analysis and Reporting:

Instrumentation and process control systems generate a vast amount of data. Advanced data analysis and
reporting tools are used to analyze this data, providing valuable insights into process performance, trends, and
potential anomalies. These insights help in making informed decisions and optimizing operations.

9. Process Safety and Alarm Management:

Proper alarm management is crucial for process safety. Instrumentation systems are designed to generate
alarms when certain process parameters deviate from safe operating limits. Alarm rationalization and
management ensure that operators receive relevant and actionable alarms, reducing the risk of alarm flooding
and improving response times during emergencies.

10. Instrument Calibration and Maintenance:

Regular calibration and maintenance of instruments are essential to ensure their accuracy and reliability.
Calibration checks and preventive maintenance routines are carried out to ensure that the instrumentation
remains in optimal working condition.

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 Instrumentation System

Figure 14 Instrumentation System Flowchart

Oil and Natural Gas Corporation (ONGC) employs a sophisticated and extensive instrumentation system
across its various facilities to monitor, control, and optimize the exploration, production, refining, and
distribution processes involved in the oil and gas industry. This instrumentation system comprises a wide array
of sensors, data acquisition devices, control systems, and communication infrastructure. Here's an overview
of the instrumentation system used in ONGC:

1. Sensors and Transmitters:

Sensors and transmitters are the foundation of ONGC's instrumentation system. These devices are strategically
placed throughout the facilities to measure critical process parameters, including pressure, temperature, flow
rate, level, and gas composition. Various types of sensors, such as pressure transducers, temperature sensors,
flowmeters, level sensors, and gas detectors, provide real-time data on process conditions.

2. Distributed Control Systems (DCS):

DCS serves as the central nervous system of ONGC's operations. It is a comprehensive control and automation
system that interfaces with multiple sensors, actuators, and control loops. The DCS allows operators to monitor
and control various processes from a centralized control room. It facilitates efficient supervision, coordination,
and optimization of operations, leading to improved productivity and safety.

3. Programmable Logic Controllers (PLCs):

PLCs are used for local control and automation of specific processes and equipment. These devices execute
predefined control sequences and logic based on input signals from sensors. PLCs are particularly useful for
standalone processes and critical operations where immediate control actions are required.

4. Safety Instrumented Systems (SIS):

Safety Instrumented Systems are integral to ONGC's operations to ensure the safety of personnel and
equipment. SIS comprises safety sensors, logic solvers, and final elements (actuators) that take immediate
actions in response to specific safety-critical conditions. These systems provide emergency shutdowns and
safeguards against hazardous situations, mitigating potential risks.

5. Control Valves and Actuators:

Control valves equipped with actuators are employed to regulate the flow of fluids within the process system.
Actuators modulate the valve positions based on control signals from the DCS or PLCs, ensuring precise and
accurate control of flow rates, pressures, and temperatures.

6. Remote Monitoring and Control:

ONGC often operates in remote and challenging environments. Remote monitoring and control systems,
including satellite communication and SCADA (Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition), enable real-time
data transmission and remote operation of critical equipment. These systems facilitate quick response and
decision-making, even in distant locations.

7. Data Acquisition Systems:

Data acquisition systems collect, process, and store data from various sensors and instruments. These systems
are responsible for converting analog signals from sensors into digital data for analysis and control. Data
acquisition systems are crucial for real-time monitoring and historical data recording.

8. Human-Machine Interface (HMI):

The HMI provides an interactive platform for operators to interact with the instrumentation system. It presents
real-time data, process trends, and control interfaces in a user-friendly format. Operators use the HMI to
monitor process conditions, control operations, and respond to alarms and abnormal situations.

9. Communication Infrastructure:
An efficient communication infrastructure is vital for connecting sensors, actuators, and control systems across
ONGC's facilities. Communication protocols and networks, such as Ethernet, Modbus, Profibus, and
Foundation Fieldbus, ensure seamless data exchange and control between various components of the
instrumentation system.

10. Alarm Management and Reporting:

Proper alarm management is essential for process safety. The instrumentation system generates alarms when
certain process parameters deviate from safe operating limits. Alarm rationalization and management ensure
that operators receive relevant and actionable alarms, reducing the risk of alarm flooding and improving
response times during emergencies. Comprehensive reporting tools provide valuable insights into process
performance and trends.

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 Process Control

Figure 15 Generalized process control system

Process control is a critical aspect of Oil and Natural Gas Corporation (ONGC)'s operations. It involves the
application of various control strategies and techniques to maintain and regulate process parameters within
desired ranges, ensuring safe, efficient, and optimized operation throughout the oil and gas production and
refining processes. Here's an overview of the process control used in ONGC:

1. Feedback Control Loops:

Feedback control is a fundamental process control technique used in ONGC's operations. It involves
continuously monitoring a process parameter using sensors and comparing it to a desired setpoint. Based on
the difference (error) between the actual value and the setpoint, control actions are taken to bring the process
parameter back to the desired range. Feedback control loops are commonly used to regulate variables like
pressure, temperature, flow rate, and level.

2. Proportional-Integral-Derivative (PID) Controllers:

PID controllers are widely used in ONGC's process control systems. These controllers combine three
components: proportional (P), integral (I), and derivative (D). The proportional component generates a control
signal proportional to the error, the integral component accounts for past errors to eliminate steady-state errors,
and the derivative component anticipates future errors to improve stability. PID controllers are essential for
precise and efficient control of various processes.

3. Cascade Control:
Cascade control is a control strategy that uses multiple control loops in a hierarchical structure. In ONGC's
operations, it is often used to control complex processes with multiple interacting variables. In a cascade
control system, the primary controller regulates a primary process variable, while the secondary controller
adjusts a secondary process variable to maintain the primary variable at its setpoint. This approach helps to
improve stability and reduce the impact of disturbances.

4. Feedforward Control:
Feedforward control anticipates disturbances and adjusts the control variables preemptively to minimize their
impact on the process. It is particularly useful in controlling processes with known disturbances, such as
changes in feed composition or flow rates. Feedforward control enhances the overall stability and
responsiveness of the process.

5. Ratio Control:
Ratio control is used when two or more process variables need to be controlled in proportion to each other. In
ONGC's operations, ratio control is often employed in processes where maintaining a specific ratio between
flow rates, temperatures, or pressures is critical.

6. Limit Control:
Limit control is used to prevent process variables from exceeding safe operating limits. It sets upper and lower
limits, and when the variable approaches these limits, the control system takes corrective actions to keep the
process within a safe range.

7. Sequential Control:
Sequential control is used for processes with a specific sequence of operations. It ensures that equipment and
processes operate in a predefined order, preventing errors and ensuring the safety and efficiency of the overall
process.

8. Model Predictive Control (MPC):

Model Predictive Control is an advanced control technique used in ONGC's complex and multivariable
processes. It uses mathematical models of the process to predict future behavior and optimize control actions
over a specified time horizon. MPC takes into account constraints and objectives, making it effective for
optimizing energy consumption, yield, and process efficiency.

9. Decentralized Control:
Decentralized control involves the distribution of control tasks across different control units or controllers. In
ONGC's extensive facilities, decentralized control is employed to efficiently manage and control various
processes independently while ensuring overall system coordination.

10. Safety Instrumented Systems (SIS):

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Safety Instrumented Systems are an integral part of ONGC's process control strategy, focusing on ensuring
the safety of personnel and equipment. These systems take immediate actions in response to specific safety-
critical conditions, providing emergency shutdowns and safeguards against hazardous situations.

Process control in ONGC is a continuous endeavor that involves the integration of advanced instrumentation,
control strategies, and automation technologies. The implementation of robust process control techniques is
crucial to achieving the company's objectives of safe, reliable, and efficient oil and gas production and refining
processes. By investing in cutting-edge technologies and optimizing control strategies, ONGC aims to further
enhance its process control capabilities and contribute to sustainable oil and gas operations for the benefit of
the nation and its stakeholders.
 SATELLITE COMMUNICATION

Figure 16 Satellite Communication

INTRODUCTION:

Satellite communication has revolutionized the way the Oil and Natural Gas Corporation (ONGC) operates in
the oil and gas industry. This report provides an in-depth analysis of how satellite communication is utilized
within ONGC, covering various aspects such as its history, technology, applications, benefits, challenges, and
future prospects. The report aims to shed light on the crucial role satellite communication plays in enhancing
ONGC's operations and ensuring the safety and efficiency of its offshore and onshore activities.

1. Introduction
1.1 Background:

The Oil and Natural Gas Corporation (ONGC) is one of India's leading energy companies, engaged in the
exploration, production, and refining of oil and gas resources. With operations both onshore and offshore,
often in remote and challenging environments, ONGC relies heavily on advanced technologies to ensure the
safety of its workforce, optimize operational efficiency, and maximize resource recovery. Satellite
communication has emerged as a critical technology for ONGC to meet these objectives.

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1.2 Purpose of the Report:
The purpose of this report is to provide a comprehensive overview of how satellite communication is employed
within ONGC. It delves into the historical development of satellite communication, the technological aspects,
applications, benefits, challenges, and future prospects, as well as the regulatory framework governing its use.
By examining these facets, the report aims to underline the significance of satellite communication in ONGC's
operations and its broader impact on the oil and gas industry.

1.3 Scope and Methodology:

This report focuses on satellite communication within the context of ONGC. It covers a wide range of topics
related to satellite communication, from its historical evolution to its applications in various ONGC
operations. The information presented in this report is based on a combination of primary and secondary
research, including interviews with ONGC personnel, industry experts, and an extensive review of relevant
literature.

2. History of Satellite Communication

2.1 Early Developments:

The history of satellite communication dates back to the mid-20th century when scientists and engineers began
exploring the possibility of using artificial satellites to transmit signals over long distances. The launch of
Sputnik 1 by the Soviet Union in 1957 marked the dawn of the satellite era. Subsequent developments led to
the creation of dedicated communication satellites, such as the Telstar series, which facilitated transatlantic
television broadcasts.

2.2 Evolution of Satellite Communication:

The evolution of satellite communication saw the development of various satellite orbits, including
geostationary orbit (GEO), medium Earth orbit (MEO), and low Earth orbit (LEO). Each orbit type offers
unique advantages and limitations for communication purposes. Additionally, advancements in satellite
technology, including multiple frequency bands and high throughput capabilities, have revolutionized the
industry.

2.3 Milestones in Satellite Communication:

This section highlights key milestones in satellite communication history, including the launch of significant
satellites, technological breakthroughs, and major developments that have shaped the industry's trajectory.
Notable examples include the launch of the first communication satellite, Syncom 3, and the deployment of
the Global Positioning System (GPS).

3. Fundamentals of Satellite Communication

3.1 Satellite Orbits and Types:

Satellites can be placed in various orbits, each serving specific purposes. GEO satellites, for instance, remain
fixed above a specific point on the Earth's surface, making them ideal for continuous communication. MEO
and LEO satellites, on the other hand, provide advantages in terms of lower latency and global coverage.

3.2 Satellite Frequency Bands:

Satellite communication employs different frequency bands, such as C-band, Ku-band, Ka-band, and X-band,
depending on the application and desired performance characteristics. This section explains the attributes and
applications of each frequency band.

3.3 Satellite Communication System Components:

Satellite communication systems consist of various components, including satellite transponders, ground
stations, user terminals, and communication protocols. The report provides an overview of each component's
role in enabling satellite communication.

3.4 Signal Transmission and Reception:

This section discusses the process of signal transmission and reception in satellite communication, covering
aspects like modulation, multiplexing, and error correction techniques. It also explains how data is transmitted
to and from satellites.

4. Satellite Technology in ONGC

Figure 17 Basic Structure of Satellite Communication

4.1 Satellite Communication Infrastructure:

ONGC has invested in a robust satellite communication infrastructure that includes a network of satellites
strategically positioned to ensure reliable coverage of its operational areas. This section describes the key
elements of ONGC's satellite communication infrastructure.

4.2 Satellite Constellations:

ONGC may utilize various satellite constellations, such as geostationary

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satellites for stable communication links and low Earth orbit constellations for specific applications like
remote sensing and environmental monitoring. The report examines the relevance of different satellite
constellations in ONGC's operations.

4.3 Ground Stations and Terminals:

Ground stations play a pivotal role in satellite communication, serving as the interface between the satellite
network and ONGC's onshore and offshore facilities. This section explores the design and operation of ground
stations and user terminals used by ONGC.

4.4 Satellite Internet vs. Traditional Communication:

Comparing satellite internet with traditional terrestrial communication, this section highlights the advantages
and disadvantages of each approach. It emphasizes how satellite communication enhances ONGC's
connectivity and resilience, especially in remote locations.

5. Applications of Satellite Communication in ONGC

5.1 Offshore Drilling and Exploration:
Satellite communication is instrumental in supporting ONGC's offshore drilling and exploration activities. It
enables real-time data transmission, video conferencing with experts onshore, and remote monitoring of
drilling operations.

5.2 Data Transmission and Remote Monitoring:

ONGC relies on satellite communication to transmit critical data from remote facilities to central control
centers. This includes telemetry data, wellhead measurements, and production data that are vital for decision-
making and operational efficiency.

5.3 Emergency Communication:

During emergencies, such as oil spills or natural disasters, satellite communication ensures uninterrupted
communication with response teams and regulatory authorities. The report explores the role of satellite
communication in ONGC's emergency response strategies.

5.4 Geospatial Analysis and Mapping:

Satellite imagery and geospatial data are essential for ONGC's geological surveys and exploration activities.
This section discusses how satellite technology aids in mapping and assessing potential resource-rich areas.

5.5 Video Conferencing and Collaboration:

ONGC utilizes satellite-based video conferencing for collaboration among geographically dispersed teams,
enabling experts to provide guidance and support to remote sites. This enhances decision-making and
troubleshooting capabilities.

6. Benefits of Satellite Communication in ONGC

6.1 Improved Operational Efficiency:
Satellite communication streamlines ONGC's operations by providing real-time data and communication
links. This results in quicker decision-making, reduced downtime, and increased operational efficiency.

6.2 Enhanced Safety Measures:

Safety is paramount in the oil and gas industry. Satellite communication ensures constant connectivity between
offshore platforms, onshore facilities, and emergency response teams, improving safety measures and
response times.

6.3 Real-time Data Analysis:

Satellite-enabled data transmission facilitates real-time data analysis, enabling ONGC to optimize production,
monitor equipment health, and implement preventive maintenance strategies.

6.4 Cost Savings:

Despite initial investment costs, satellite communication can lead to cost savings in the long run by reducing
the need for frequent on-site visits, minimizing downtime, and optimizing logistics and resource allocation.

6.5 Global Reach and Connectivity:

Satellite communication extends ONGC's reach to remote and offshore locations that are otherwise
inaccessible through traditional communication methods. This global connectivity is vital for its international
operations.

7. Challenges and Limitations

7.1 Environmental Factors:
Extreme weather conditions, including tropical storms and heavy rains, can disrupt satellite communication
signals. This section examines the challenges posed by adverse weather and how ONGC mitigates these risks.

7.2 Technical Challenges:

Satellite communication systems are susceptible to technical challenges such as latency, signal interference,
and spectrum congestion. The report discusses these issues and potential solutions.

7.3 Security Concerns:

Satellite communication systems are vulnerable to cyberattacks and data breaches. ONGC's strategies for
securing its satellite communication infrastructure are explored in this section.

7.4 Regulatory and Licensing Issues:

Navigating the regulatory landscape for satellite communication can be complex. The report covers the
regulatory challenges faced by ONGC, including spectrum licensing and compliance with international
regulations.

7.5 Cost of Implementation and Maintenance:

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While satellite communication offers numerous benefits, it comes with substantial implementation and
maintenance costs. This section assesses the financial considerations associated with satellite communication
in ONGC.

8. Case Studies
8.1 Satellite Communication in Offshore Platforms:
This case study delves into how satellite communication is implemented on ONGC's offshore drilling
platforms. It highlights the technology's impact on drilling operations, data transmission, and crew safety.

8.2 Remote Pipeline Monitoring:

ONGC's extensive pipeline network is essential for transporting oil and gas from production sites to refineries.
Satellite communication aids in remote pipeline monitoring, ensuring the integrity of the infrastructure.

8.3 Disaster Response and Recovery:

During emergencies such as oil spills or natural disasters, ONGC relies on satellite communication to
coordinate response efforts and implement recovery strategies effectively.

8.4 Geospatial Analysis for Exploration:

This case study explores how satellite imagery and geospatial data are used to identify potential exploration
sites and assess geological formations, contributing to ONGC's resource discovery efforts.

9. Future Trends and Emerging Technologies

9.1 High Throughput Satellites (HTS):
HTS technology promises significantly higher data throughput, enabling faster and more reliable satellite
communication. The report investigates how ONGC can leverage HTS for its operations.

9.2 Low Earth Orbit (LEO) Satellites:

LEO satellites offer lower latency and expanded coverage, making them suitable for various applications. The
report discusses the potential integration of LEO satellites into ONGC's communication infrastructure.

9.3 5G Integration:
The integration of 5G technology with satellite communication holds the potential to revolutionize
connectivity and data transmission in remote areas. This section explores the implications for ONGC.

9.4 Quantum Satellite Communication:

Quantum communication is on the horizon, promising unbreakable encryption and enhanced security. The
report examines the potential role of quantum satellite communication in ONGC's operations.

9.5 Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning:

The use of AI and machine learning in satellite communication can optimize resource allocation, predict
maintenance needs, and enhance overall efficiency. This section explores AI's integration into ONGC's
satellite communication systems.

10. Regulatory Framework and Compliance

10.1 International Regulations:
Satellite communication is subject to international regulations and agreements. This section outlines the key
international bodies and regulations governing satellite communication and their relevance to ONGC.

10.2 Licensing and Spectrum Allocation:

Obtaining the necessary licenses and spectrum allocation is a critical aspect of deploying satellite
communication systems. The report discusses ONGC's compliance with licensing requirements.

10.3 Security and Encryption Standards:

Ensuring the security of satellite communication is paramount. This section examines the encryption standards
and security protocols employed by ONGC to protect its communication channels.

11. Recommendations and Best Practices

11.1 Implementing Redundancy:
To enhance reliability, ONGC should consider implementing redundancy in its satellite communication
systems, ensuring backup solutions are in place in case of failures.

11.2 Cybersecurity Measures:

ONGC should continually invest in cybersecurity measures to protect its satellite communication
infrastructure from cyber threats and data breaches.

11.3 Training and Skill Development:

Training and skill development programs for employees are essential to ensure they are proficient in using
satellite communication systems effectively.

11.4 Regular Maintenance and Upgrades:

Regular maintenance and system upgrades are crucial to keeping satellite communication infrastructure up to
date and optimized for performance.

12. Conclusion
12.1 Summary of Key Findings:
This section summarizes the key findings and highlights the critical role of satellite communication in ONGC's
operations.

12.2 Importance of Satellite Communication in ONGC:

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The conclusion emphasizes the importance of satellite communication in ONGC's quest for operational
efficiency, safety, and resource optimization.

12.3 Future Outlook:

The report concludes by discussing the future outlook for satellite communication in ONGC and how
emerging technologies will continue to shape its implementation.

13. References:
This section provides a comprehensive list of references and sources used in the report to support its findings
and analysis.
 CONCLUSION

The role of electronics in exploring hydrocarbon reserves and capturing seismic data has been nothing short
of transformative. The integration of advanced electronic technologies has revolutionized the oil and gas
industry, enabling more accurate, efficient, and cost-effective methods of hydrocarbon exploration and
reservoir characterization.

Electronic instrumentation has played a pivotal role in seismic data acquisition, processing, and interpretation.
With the advent of sophisticated sensors and digital recording systems, seismic surveys have become highly
precise and capable of capturing subtle subsurface details. This enhanced resolution has empowered
geoscientists and reservoir engineers to make better-informed decisions, reducing exploration risks and
maximizing the potential for successful discoveries. Moreover, real-time data transmission and advanced
analytics have enabled faster decision-making during seismic acquisition, expediting the exploration process
and optimizing resource allocation.

The application of electronics has also extended to downhole tools and drilling equipment. Advanced
electronic instruments, such as logging while drilling (LWD) and measurement while drilling (MWD) tools,
have improved wellbore placement accuracy and reservoir evaluation. These technologies offer invaluable
insights into the geological formations, fluid properties, and potential hydrocarbon reserves, thereby
increasing the overall efficiency of exploration and production operations.

The seamless integration of electronic instrumentation, data processing, and interpretation has led to a more
integrated approach in hydrocarbon exploration. Data-driven decision-making is now at the forefront of the
industry, helping operators to optimize resource allocation, reduce exploration costs, and minimize
environmental impacts. Additionally, machine learning and artificial intelligence applications are increasingly
being utilized to analyse massive datasets, identify patterns, and predict subsurface structures, further
enhancing exploration efficiency.

As technology continues to advance, the role of electronics in hydrocarbon exploration is expected to expand
even further. Continuous innovation in electronic instrumentation and data analytics will enable the industry
to delve deeper into challenging geological formations, unlocking new reservoirs and maximizing
hydrocarbon recovery. However, it is crucial to strike a balance between technological advancements and
environmental stewardship to ensure responsible and sustainable development of hydrocarbon resources.

In conclusion, electronic technologies have revolutionized hydrocarbon exploration by providing precise

seismic data, efficient instrumentation, and advanced data analytics. The integration of electronics has driven
the industry towards data-driven decision-making and sustainability, paving the way for a promising and
responsible future in the oil and gas sector.

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 REFERENCES

• “Fifty Years of Geophysical Ideas”, By W. Harry Mayne, SEG Publication “Reflections in life Time
Achievements, EAGE Publication
ONGC reports
• Dalen, J., Ona, E., Soldal, A., & Satre, R. (1996). Seismic investigations at sea: an evaluation of
consequences for fish and fisheries. Institute of Marine Research, 26.
• Fisheries and Oceans Canada. (2004). Review of Scientific Information on Impacts of Seismic Sound
on Fish, Invertebrates, Marine Turtles and Marine Mammals. Retrieved 2012, from Habitat Status
Report 2004/002: http://www.dfo-mpo.gc.ca/csas/Csas/status/2004/HSR2004_002_e.pdf
• Gausland, I. (2003). Seismic Surveys Impact on Fish and Fisheries. Stavanger: Norwegian Oil Industry
association (OLD).
• Lenhardt, M. B. (1983). Marine turtle reception of bone conducted sound. The Journal of Auditory
Research, 119 - 125.
• Løkkeborg , S., & Sodal, A. V. (1993). The infleunce of seismic exploration with air guns on cod
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