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International Automotive Conference (KONMOT2018) IOP Publishing
IOP Conf. Series: Materials Science and Engineering 421 (2018) 042067 doi:10.1088/1757-899X/421/4/042067

Use of 3 kW BLDC motor for light two-wheeled electric

vehicle construction

Szymon Racewicz, Paweł Kazimierczuk, Bronisław Kolator, Andrzej Olszewski

University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn
ul. Michała Oczapowskiego 2, 10-719 Olsztyn, Poland

szymon.racewicz@uwm.edu.pl

Abstract. The article presents design and construction of the light two-wheeled vehicle
powered by the brushless DC motor of 3 kW. The construction of the vehicle is based on a
steel frame similar to the classical bicycle frame. The vehicle has been additionally equipped
with pedals as an alternative driving source as well as with the standard motorcycle equipment,
i.e. lamps, breaking light, horn, front disc brake, etc. The prime power source which is the
BLDC motor has been installed in the rear wheel hub and is powered by a pack of 220 lithium-
ion power cells of 2600 mAh each. The nominal parameters of the designed power pack is 72
V and 27.5 Ah of capacity. The motor controller which can be powered by the voltage from 36
V to 95 V can deliver up to 80 A of current. It enables regenerative braking which increases an
overall range of the vehicle. The article discusses also the problem of classification of such
construction according to the Polish law described in the Act on the Law of Road Traffic as
well as in the Regulation of the Minister of Infrastructure of 31 December 2002 on the
technical conditions of vehicles and the scope of their necessary equipment. Finally, the
designed construction has been tested on the MAHA LPS 3000 chassis dynamometer in order
to measure mechanical and electrical parameters like maximal electric power of the motor,
maximal mechanical power on the wheel, motor torque, maximal rotational speed, energy
consumption, windings temperature reached, etc. These quantities will serve to further
development of the designed construction.

1. Introduction
Electric vehicles have been known since 19th century. In general, they can be divided into few groups:
bicycles, motorcycles, cars and buses. One of the first electric car was constructed in 1834 by Thomas
Davenport [1]. For comparison, the first car with combustion engine was built by Carl Benz in 1885.
At that time, electrical technology was developed on a par with combustion technology. Even
Ferdinand Porsche, known today as a legendary designer of the super sports cars with powerful
combustion engines, in 1900 unveiled his electric front-wheel drive car. However, at the beginning of
the 20th century, Ford started the mass production of the Ford T model. It was a relatively cheap car
which has motorized the USA. From that moment, the combustion engines began to gain in popularity.
After all, in the recent years one can observe a return to the electrical technology. This is because
of the huge progress in the field of energy storage, batteries, electrical motors, permanent magnets,
frequency converters and control strategies. Second important reason for the electrical energy use in
automotive applications is fast decreasing fossil fuel resources like petroleum and so the uncertain
future of the combustion technology. At the same time, the cost of electrical energy in comparison to
the energy from fuel is several times smaller. Moreover, nowadays the electrical energy from

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International Automotive Conference (KONMOT2018) IOP Publishing
IOP Conf. Series: Materials Science and Engineering 421 (2018) 042067 doi:10.1088/1757-899X/421/4/042067

renewable sources is playing the more and more important role in the global energy market because
the production cost of 1 kWh of so called green energy is now much more profitable and achievable
than a few decades ago. Furthermore, one can observe the growing demand for the environment
protection which forces the biggest energy companies and automotive concerns to implement the
newest technology achievements for continuous reduction of pollution emissions [2], especially in the
cities [3]. The above mentioned arguments have encouraged authors of the article to design and to
build a light two-wheeled electric vehicle similar to a bicycle.

1.1. Conception of E-bike

History of electric bikes began in 1890 but on the 31st of December 1895 Ogden Bolton was
granted the first patent for the battery powered bicycle. His idea was to place the motor in the rear
wheel hub of the bicycle. Even if over the next many years, the constructors have created various
types of drives, from belt transmissions to planetary gears, the Bolton’s idea is considered the best
concept to this day. His motor was the 6-poles DC brush and commutator motor which could take up
to 100 A from a 10 V battery. Today, the most widely used drives in the E-bike constructions are the
BrushLess Direct Current motors (BLDC) with the high density neodymium permanent magnets and
continuous powers up to 6 kW. The robust frame construction combined with the powerful electric
motor make that these vehicles can compete with motorcycles and are of great interest today. Electric
bikes have become popular all around the world thanks to the electric bike parts manufacturers. They
design and produce all kinds of electric bike components that meet requirements of the customers. For
example, nowadays one can buy a set for conversion a classic bicycle into an electric one. With the
user’s manual, the ready-made elements are easy to assemble and to configure. This fast growing
market makes the E-bike companies compete with each other offering the more and more efficient
drive solutions.
The purpose of the presented project has been to design and to build a light two-wheeled electric
vehicle similar to a bicycle, i.e. E-bike and to measure its electrical and mechanical parameters on the
chassis dynamometer originally dedicated for four wheel vehicles. The constructed vehicle has been
used as a means of transport to benefit the low cost of transportation in comparison to the internal
combustion vehicles. Cost of full charging of the battery is about 2.5 PLN and enables to drive about
80 km. Another advantage of the E-bike construction is a pleasure of driving a silent vehicle with a
considerable torque which can be used on tracks as well as in terrain conditions.
The basic assumptions adopted in the project are as follows:
 Large battery capacity (~ 30 Ah)
 Fast battery charging
 Maximal discharging current of the battery (~ 150 A)
 Use of BLDC motor of 3 kW of power placed in a rear wheel hub
 Possibility of driving on tracks as well as in terrain conditions
 Possibility of driving parameters change while driving a vehicle
 Ability to immediate disconnection of the power supply
All of above mentioned assumption have been met and the light two-wheeled electric vehicle has been
constructed in order to perform the further research. The described vehicle has been presented in the
Fig. 1.

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International Automotive Conference (KONMOT2018) IOP Publishing
IOP Conf. Series: Materials Science and Engineering 421 (2018) 042067 doi:10.1088/1757-899X/421/4/042067

Fig. 1. Two-wheeled electric vehicle during tests on the chassis dynamometer

2. Classification of the vehicle according to the Polish law

2.1. Electric bicycles

Polish law regulations concerning electric bicycles and other vehicles still evolve. The definition of a
bicycle was formulated in the Act on Road Traffic of June 20, 1997. However, only on April 1, 2011,
some changes concerning vehicles equipped with an electric drive have been made. According to this
act, the bicycle is "a vehicle of width not exceeding 0.9 m, moved by the strength of a person riding
this vehicle; the bicycle can be equipped with an auxiliary electric drive activated by a pedal pressure,
of no more than 48 V, with a nominal continuous power not exceeding 250 W, of which output power
decreases gradually and falls to zero after exceeding the speed of 25 km/h" [4]. The above definition is
valid to this day.
This law contains some restrictions and uncertainties that may affect the interests of sellers as well
as customers. For example, an auxiliary electric drive can be activated only by the pedal pressure. The
device adjusting the motor power to the speed of the bicycle is called the cadence sensor. This device
measures the number of crank turns per minute. Then, basing on this information, the controller
adjusts the motor power to facilitate pedalling. It means that when the cyclist stops pedalling, the bike
will automatically turn off the drive, which will result in bike braking. It would be more convenient to
control the motor power with the handle but this solution is forbidden.
To sum up, the constructed vehicle does not meet the conditions mentioned in the above act,
especially in terms of battery voltage, motor power and cadence sensor so it cannot be called an
electric bicycle. Nevertheless, for this article purpose the name of E-bike has been be used.

2.2. Electric mopeds

Another vehicle group similar to the bicycles and included in the previously mentioned act are
mopeds. Requirements that must be met by a vehicle to be specified as a moped are described in the
act definition: “Moped – a two- or three-wheeled vehicle equipped with a combustion engine of a
cylinder capacity not exceeding 50 cm3 or an electric motor with a power not exceeding 4 kW, whose
design limits the speed of travel to 45 km/h” [4]. In addition, the moped should be equipped with
appropriate running lights, dipped headlights, high beams, two front and two rear direction indicator
lights, stop light and other equipment like warning signal, exhaust silencer (only for combustion
engines), rear-view mirror located on the left side of the vehicle, etc. The external noise level,
measured when the moped stops at a distance of 0.5 m, must not exceed 90 dB (A) what is easily
achievable by electric mopeds. Also in this case, the presented in the article construction cannot be
called a moped because of exceeding the maximal speed of 45 km/h and lack of some equipment like
rear-view mirrors or retroreflector lights placed on each side of the vehicle.

2.3. Electric motorcycles

There are some slight differences between the regulations for mopeds and motorcycles. Namely,
they do not precise the maximal engine capacity and power for the motorcycles as well as the top
speed of the vehicle. Finally, according to the Polish law, even if the light two-wheeled electric

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International Automotive Conference (KONMOT2018) IOP Publishing
IOP Conf. Series: Materials Science and Engineering 421 (2018) 042067 doi:10.1088/1757-899X/421/4/042067

vehicle is based on the bicycle frame and is equipped with pedals but its auxiliary electric motor can
accelerate the vehicle to a speed of more than 45 km/h it should be classified as a motorcycle and
should subject to totally different law regulations than a classic electric bicycle. One driving such a
vehicle must among other have a valid registration document with positive technical examination,
cannot drive on sidewalks or without helmet. That is why a lot of people are hiding the real potential
of their constructions by installing an electronic power and speed limiter in case of police control
while driving on public roads or sidewalks. Officially, owners of such constructions admits that they
use their vehicles only on closed tracks or private terrains.

3. Electric drive system

Electric drive system of the presented vehicle consists of three main elements, i.e.: battery pack of 220
lithium-ion power cells of 2600 mAh each, BLDC motor of 3 kW of output mechanical power and the
Sabvoton 3-phase controller of the electric motor. They are characterised in the following chapters.

3.1. Battery pack

There are several types of batteries used in electric vehicles. Term “battery” usually refers to the pack
of cells connected together in one of the specific ways – in series, in parallel or in combined series and
parallel way. Lead-acid and gel batteries are rarely used as an energy storage in electric vehicles due to
their significant weight and dimensions. Whereas, nickel-cadmium cells have low capacity and to low
continuous discharging current for this kind of application. Lithium-ion and lithium-polymer cells
have large capacity, high discharge current and high operating temperature what meets the project
requirements. The only feature that differs these two products is the price. Lithium-ion cell is few
times cheaper than the lithium-polymer cell. Taking into account the number of cells needed in the
project, the lithium-ion cells have been chosen. Parameters of a single cell have been presented in
Table 1.
Table 1. Parameters of the SONY US18650VTC5 C5 2600mAh cell
Parameter Value
Nominal capacity 2500 mAh
Maximum voltage 4.2 V
Nominal voltage 3.6 V
Minimum voltage 2.0 V
Charging voltage 4.2 V
Maximum charging voltage 4.25 V
Charging current 2.5 A
Maximum charging current 4.0 A
Maximum continuous discharging current 10 A
Discharge current intensity at a temperature below 80 ºC 30 A (<10 sec.)
Discharge current intensity at a temperature above 80 ºC 20 A (<10 sec.)
Safe discharging current 10 A (> 10 sec.)
Weight 44.3 g
Charging temperature 0  + 45 ºC
Discharge temperature –20  +60 ºC

During the tests on the chassis dynamometer, the temperature of the battery pack did not exceed
35°C.

3.1.1. Cell connections

The way of cell connections are closely related to the controller parameters and at the same time to the
electric motor parameters. The space provided for the battery pack placement is also important. The
motor Sabvoton 3-phase controller can be powered by the voltage from 36 V to 95 V and can deliver

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International Automotive Conference (KONMOT2018) IOP Publishing
IOP Conf. Series: Materials Science and Engineering 421 (2018) 042067 doi:10.1088/1757-899X/421/4/042067

up to 80 A of current. Therefore, 20 cells have been connected in series and 11 such sets of 20 cells
have been connected in parallel. In order to gain in space, the battery pack has been additionally
splitted into 2 sections: 17x11 and 3x11 what is shown in the Fig. 2. The overall maximum voltage of
the designed battery pack is 84 V with the capacity of 27.5 Ah. Taking into account that the maximal
continuous discharging current for one cell is equal to 10 A, the battery can deliver up to 110 A of
current for about 15 minutes. As the maximum current output of the Sabvoton controller is 80 A, the
cells are discharged by the maximal current of 7.27 A what is the safe level in terms of battery life.
Consuming the current of 7 A, the time needed to discharge the SONY cell to a safe voltage of 2.8 V
is about 22 minutes [5].

Fig. 2. Connections of cells in the battery pack

The battery pack is charged with the automatic charger via BMS system (Battery Management
System), which continuously controls the charging and discharging process parameters of the battery.
The purpose of this device is to prevent the cell from being charged above 4.2 V and discharged below
2.8 V. Exceeding these values causes disconnection of the power supply [6]. After charging process,
the BMS performs a passive balancing of the battery cell sections which takes from 6 to 8 hours [7].

3.2. BLDC motor

Brushless direct current motors (BLDC) are a type of DC motors with an electronic commutator. Due
to their numerous advantages they are more and more often used instead of classic DC motors with the
mechanical commutator. The main advantages of the BLDC motors are: high durability, high
efficiency, relatively low weight and small dimensions in comparison to other electric motor
constructions. These features are of great importance during the construction of an electric vehicle as it
has to be as light as possible [8].
In the project, the Mxus 3K-Turbo motor of the Chinese manufacturer QSMotor has been used.
This is one of the most powerful motors on the market which is designed to be installed in the rear
wheel hub. Its mechanical and electrical parameters have been presented in Table 2.
Table 2. Characteristics of the Mxus 3K-Turbo motor
Parameter Value
Winding 10 x 6 (6T), 3-phase
Motor torque constant KT 1.59 Nm/A
Motor velocity constant KV 6.0 rpm/V
Nominal power at 60 V 3 kW
Maximum instantaneous power 7 kW (~8090 A)
Power supply voltage 24 - 120 V
Maximum continuous current 50 A

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International Automotive Conference (KONMOT2018) IOP Publishing
IOP Conf. Series: Materials Science and Engineering 421 (2018) 042067 doi:10.1088/1757-899X/421/4/042067

Wheel speed for a diameter of 26" 0.9 km/h for each 1 V of power supply
Torque > 125 Nm
Weight 9.2 kg
Fork spacing (dropout) 145 mm (36 spokes)
Hall sensor yes
Number of magnets 46 (23 pairs)

Fig. 3 presents the photos of disassembled rotor and stator of the motor. In the BLDC motors the
windings are connected directly to the controller which switches the voltage on the corresponding
winding using information from the three Hall sensors placed inside the motor every 120 of electric
degrees. Despite sophisticated control strategy, the BLDC motors have stable torque characteristics as
a function of rotational speed. The lack of mechanical commutator makes them more durable and
silent than the classic DC motors. They can also reach higher speeds [9].

Fig. 3. Photos of the rotor and the stator respectively of the Mxus 3K-Turbo motor.
1 – stationary motor shaft, 2 – shaft and stator fixing element, 3 – windings, 4 – stationary stator,
5 – rotating neodymium magnets of the rotor

Three-phase motors are divided into two types: outrunners – where the casing rotates and inrunners
– where the interior of the motor rotates. The presented Mxus 3K-Turbo motor is the outrunner type.
Windings of the stator are connected in star.
One of the main problem during electric vehicle design and construction is a heat dissipation from
the motor. The temperature inside the motor can reach up to 170°C what negatively affects the
insulation of leads and windings and weakens the magnetic induction of the neodymium magnets.
They have to be therefore assembled with a strong high-temperature adhesive. During the tests on the
chassis dynamometer, the maximal temperature inside the motor has reached 150°C. This has been
caused by very intensive tests with high dynamometer resistance. During normal road exploitation of
the vehicle the temperature usually does not exceed 50°C. The distribution of the temperature on the
motor housing has been registered by the thermal imaging camera FLIR and is shown in the Fig. 4.

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International Automotive Conference (KONMOT2018) IOP Publishing
IOP Conf. Series: Materials Science and Engineering 421 (2018) 042067 doi:10.1088/1757-899X/421/4/042067

Fig. 4. Distribution of the temperature on the motor housing

3.3. Motor controller

The controller used in the project is the Sabvoton SVMC072080 from the Chinese manufacturer
MQCON. It can control the BLDC motors as well as the PMSM motors (Permanent Magnet
Synchronous Motors). Its characteristic has been presented in Table 3.
Table 3. Characteristics of the Sabvoton SVMC072080 controller
Parameter Value
Power supply 36 V – 95 V
Nominal power 2500 W
Maximum power 7600 W
Maximum current 80 A
Maximum working temperature 50 ºC
Weight 2.2 kg
Dimensions 243 x 146 x 62 mm
IP code IP65

The controller enables speed and breaking control by the lever based on the Hall sensor. It has also
regenerative breaking function which enables charging the battery during deceleration what increases
an overall range of the vehicle. Furthermore, it is equipped with the extensive diagnostic system and
the several protections such as: overcurrent, overload, too high temperature, too high or too low
voltage or accidental handle lock. The photo of the Sabvoton controller is shown in the Fig. 5.

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International Automotive Conference (KONMOT2018) IOP Publishing
IOP Conf. Series: Materials Science and Engineering 421 (2018) 042067 doi:10.1088/1757-899X/421/4/042067

Fig. 5. Photo of the Sabvoton SVMC072080 controller without casing

The heart of the controller are the IRFB4410ZPbF transistors, 470μF 100V electrolytic capacitors
and the TMS 320F28015PZA integrated circuit. Unfortunately, most of the elements do not have a
catalog number or any description due to the manufacturer's protection against copying a given
product. During the tests on the chassis dynamometer, the temperature of the controller did not exceed
30 ºC.

4. Tests on the chassis dynamometer

The designed and constructed vehicle has been tested on the MAHA (Maschinenbau Haldenwang
GmbH & Co. KG) LPS 3000 chassis dynamometer which is dedicated to investigate the power
characteristics of cars, trucks and motorcycles. This dynamometer enables measurement of many
parameters for predefined gasoline, gas and diesel engines. In addition, it can measure also the four-
wheel drive vehicles. The traffic load simulation is realized by an eddy current brake.
The above mentioned chassis dynamometer with simple electrical measuring instruments have
served to investigate the constructed E-bike parameters such as: mechanical power on the wheel,
electric power of the motor, maximum torque, maximum speed, acceleration and energy consumption.
The measured parameters have been gathered in Table 4.
Table 4. E-bike parameters measured on the MAHA chassis dynamometer
Parameter Value
Maximum mechanical power 3.6 kW at 375 rpm (49.8 km/h)
Maximum electric power 6.37 kW at 375 rpm (49.8 km/h)
Maximum torque 132.2 Nm at 185 rpm (25.0 km/h)
Maximum speed achieved 79.04 km/h

Acceleration measurements have been carried out on the road conditions as the mass of the
dynamometer measuring rollers and the lack of wind resistance could significantly perturb the results.

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International Automotive Conference (KONMOT2018) IOP Publishing
IOP Conf. Series: Materials Science and Engineering 421 (2018) 042067 doi:10.1088/1757-899X/421/4/042067

The weight of the E-bike has been equal to 78 kg and the driver has weighed 72 kg. The final results
of the vehicle acceleration have been shown in Table 5.
Table 5. Acceleration results of the E-bike
Speed Acceleration time
From 5 km/h to 30 km/h 2.1 sec.
From 5 km/h to 60 km/h 4.3 sec.
From 5 km/h to 78 km/h 6.9 sec.

4.1. Energy consumption of the E-bike

Energy consumption test of the built E-bike has been carried out on the MAHA dynamometer for three
different speeds: 27.5 km/h, 40.5 km/h and 61.2 km/h. The speed has been maintained by
programmable constraints applied in the Sabvoton controller. Then, the formula (1) has been used to
calculate the energy consumption.

∙ ∙ /
𝐶= (1)
/

where:
C – energy consumption in [Wh/km],
U – motor voltage in [V],
I – motor current in [A],
t – time of drive in [s],
s – distance covered in [m].

The main problem with performing such a test in the laboratory condition is the lack of wind
resistance but on the other hand too high minimal load produced by the dynamometer measuring
rollers which are originally dedicated to the more heavy and powerful vehicles and therefore giving
too much of resistance. The MAHA dynamometer has a lot of predefined parameters but for the
internal combustion vehicle testing, where the parameters such as wind resistance and road conditions
can be simulated automatically by the dynamometer. For the electric vehicle testing these different
conditions may influence the results and will be investigated in further research by comparing the
laboratory tests with the road condition tests.
Fig. 6 shows the laboratory test results for the energy consumption of the constructed electric
vehicle in the above described conditions. Additionally, taking into account the bigger weight and
wider tires of the studied construction they are comparable to those presented in [10] which have been
obtained in the road conditions for lighter and less powerful construction. One has to take also into
account that the drive’s rated power influences not only vehicle’s dynamics but also its energy
efficiency [11].

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International Automotive Conference (KONMOT2018) IOP Publishing
IOP Conf. Series: Materials Science and Engineering 421 (2018) 042067 doi:10.1088/1757-899X/421/4/042067

27,50
Energy consumption [Wh/km]

27,00
26,50
26,00
25,50
25,00
24,50
24,00
23,50
23,00
25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65
Driving speed[km/h]

Fig. 6. Characteristic of the E-bike energy consumption

Taking into consideration the capacity of the designed battery pack which is equal to 27.5 Ah and
the nominal voltage of the battery which is 72 V, the energy source can deliver up to 1.98 kWh of
electric energy what enables to cover the very theoretical distance of about 85 km driving with the
speed of 27.5 km/h and the distance of about 72 km driving with the speed of 61.2 km/h. Obtained
results show that the higher but constant resistance of the measuring rollers does not compensate the
nonlinear dependence of the wind resistance for higher speeds. Nevertheless, in everyday use in the
road conditions and at variable speeds, the constructed vehicle is able to reach the average distance of
about 70 km on one battery charge.

5. Conclusion
In the article the construction of the light two-wheeled electric vehicle has been presented and tested.
The vehicle is powered by the brushless DC motor (BLDC) of 3 kW of nominal power which seems to
be the best solution for this type of construction. The presented vehicle is based on a steel durable
bicycle frame and has been additionally equipped with pedals as an alternative driving source which
by the significant power of the electric motor do not contribute much to the driving dynamics.
Nevertheless, according to the Polish law such a construction cannot be called an electric bicycle as its
auxiliary driving source parameters considerably exceed the requirements for the electric bicycles
described in the Act on Road Traffic of June 20, 1997.
The use of BLDC motor of 3 kW in such a construction makes the vehicle relatively fast and
powerful as the motorcycle. During the laboratory tests performed on the MAHA chassis
dynamometer the built E-bike has reached almost 80 km/h of maximum speed. The measured
mechanical power and the torque on the wheel has been equal respectively to 3.6 kW and 132 Nm.
The acceleration to 78 km/h is less than 7 seconds.
The last chapter of the article has been dedicated to the energy consumption of the presented
vehicle. With the 27.5 Ah of battery capacity the E-bike can cover the average theoretical distance of
about 80 km consuming about 25 Wh/km. The road tests confirmed the average distance of about
70 km on one battery charge. After all, if there were no legal aspects of driving such a vehicle it would
be a very economic and pleasure giving means of transportation.

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IOP Conf. Series: Materials Science and Engineering 421 (2018) 042067 doi:10.1088/1757-899X/421/4/042067

[2] S. Racewicz and A. Olejnik, “CONTROL OF FIAT MULTIAIR VALVE-LIFT SYSTEM

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