13

Stone
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Upon completion of this chapter, the student should be able to: ● Understand the processes used to quarry and work
● Discuss the characteristics and uses of various stones stone to make it useful for building construction.
used in building construction. ● Select stone for a project based on the requirements of
● Identify the various types of commercially available the job.
stone. ● Define manufactured stone.

Figure 13.1 Stone is used as a finish material on the interior

Build Your Knowledge and exterior of buildings.

For further information on these materials and methods,

please refer to:
Chapter 37 Flooring

For centuries, stone was used as a material to build structural

load-bearing walls. Today it is used mainly as a veneer or facing,
which greatly reduces the weight of a building while still enabling
a designer to take advantage of stone’s beauty as a finish mate-
rial (Figure 13.1). Rock is solid mineral matter, occurring in indi-
vidual pieces or large masses, such as an outcropping. Stone is
a hard, solid non-metallic mineral material made from rock that is
quarried and shaped to size for construction purposes.

BASIC CLASSIFICATIONS OF ROCK

Granite Granite is an igneous rock containing crystals or
Rock is classified into three basic categories, depending on its grains of visible size. It consists mainly of quartz, feldspar,
origin: igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic. mica, and other colored minerals. Colors include black, gray,
red, pink, brown, buff, and green. It is hard, strong, nonporous,
and durable. Granite is one of the most permanent building
Igneous Rock stones. It can be used under severe weather conditions and in
Igneous rock is formed, usually deep in the earth, when a contact with the ground. Granite can be finished with a range
molten (magma or lava) material changes from a liquid to a of surface textures, from rough to highly polished. Granite is
solid state. Commonly used forms include granite, serpentine, used for windowsills, cornices, columns, floors, countertops,
and basalt. Igneous rock is known for its strength and durability. and wall veneers (Figure 13.2).

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Chapter 13 Stone 203

Figure 13.2 Granite is a hard, strong, and durable stone used planes. It is not suitable as a concrete aggregate because it
for both interior and exterior applications. may expand in the presence of water, causing concrete failure.
Shale that is high in limestone is ground into small particles and
used in making cement, bricks, and tiles. It is predominantly
gray in color but can be found in hues ranging from black to
red, yellow, and blue.

Limestone Limestone is a sedimentary rock formed by the

compressed, cemented shells of marine animals. The three
types of limestone are composed mainly of calcite and dolo-
mite. Oolitic is a calcite-cemented calcareous stone formed
from shells that are uniform in composition and structure.

Vladislav Gurfinkel/Shutterstock.com
Dolomitic limestone consists mainly of magnesium carbonate
and has a greater compressive strength than oolitic. Crystalline
limestone consists mainly of calcium carbonate crystals. It has
high tensile and compressive strengths.
Limestone is used for building stones and is available
as dimension (cut), ashlar, and rubble stones. It is used for
paneling, veneer, window stools and windowsills, flagstone,
mantels, copings, and facings (Figure 13.3). It is also pul-
Serpentine Serpentine is an igneous rock named after its verized to form crushed stone aggregate and burnt to pro-
major ingredient. It ranges from olive-green to greenish black, duce lime.
has a fine grain, and is dense. Since some types deteriorate
due to weathering, its major uses are for interior applications.
Metamorphic Rock
It can be cut into thin sections, to 7⁄8 to 1¼ in. (22 to 32 mm),
and is used for paneling, windowsills, stair treads and risers, Metamorphic rock is either igneous or sedimentary rock that
and landings. has been altered in appearance, density, and crystalline struc-
ture by high temperature and/or high pressure. Major types
Basalt Basalt is an igneous rock that ranges in color from used in construction include marble, quartzite, schist, and
gray to black. It has a fine grain and is used mainly for paving slate.
stones and retaining walls.
Marble Marble is a metamorphic rock made up largely of
calcite or dolomite that has been recrystallized. There are a
Sedimentary Rock number of types of marble, with colors varying from white
Sedimentary rock is formed of materials (sediments) depos-
ited on the bottom of bodies of water or on the surface of the
earth. Major types include sandstone, shale, and limestone. Figure 13.3 This limestone facing exposes the sedimentary
formation of the natural rock.
Sandstone Sandstone is a sedimentary rock composed
of sand-sized grains cemented together by naturally occurring
mineral materials, such as silica, iron oxide, and clay. Quartz
grains predominate in sandstone used for building construc-
tion. The two most familiar forms are brownstone, used mainly
in wall construction, and bluestone, used for paving and wall
copings. Available colors include gray, brown, light brown, buff,
russet, red, copper, and purple.
Since sandstone’s hardness and durability depend on
the cementing material, there is a wide range of weight and
porosity. Sandstone is used for wall facing panels and can
alb_photo/Shutterstock.com

have a variety of surface finishes, including chipped, ham-

mered, and rubbed.

Shale Shale is a sedimentary rock derived from clays and

silts. It forms in thin laminations and tends to be weak along

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204 Division 4 Masonry

through gray and black. The presence of oxides of iron, sil-

ica, graphite, carbonaceous matter, and mica produce other
TYPES AND USES OF STONE
color variations, including red, violet, pink, yellow, and green. Commercially, stone is used in several types: rubble stone,
Marble is used for wall panels and column facings, as well rough stone, monumental stone, dimension stone, flagstone,
as window stools, windowsills, and floors. Some types are broken and crushed stone, and stone powder and dust.
used on building exteriors, and others are limited to interior
Rubble stone consists of irregular fragments from a
applications. Its surface can be ground to a fine, polished
quarry that have one good face. The pieces are irregular in
condition.
shape and sized usually in pieces 12 in. (300 mm) by 24 in.
Quartzite Quartzite is a metamorphic rock that is often (600 mm) that are cut and fitted by a mason.
confused with granite. It is a type of sandstone composed Rough building stone, sometimes called fieldstone,
mainly of granular quartz that is cemented by silica, producing occurs in naturally found rock masses. The stone is generally
a coarse, crystalline appearance. It has high tensile and crush- used in its natural shape.
ing strengths and is available in brown, buff, tan, ivory, red, and Dimension stone, also referred to as cut stone, is cut to size
gray. Quartzite is used for building stone, gravel, and aggregate at a stone mill and shipped to site. Its surface may be rough,
in concrete. as occurs when it is split, or polished. It is used as veneer on
interior and exterior walls, floors, copings, stair treads, and for
Schist Schist is a metamorphic rock generally made up of
other similar applications. Ashlar, a form of dimension stone, is
silica with smaller amounts of iron oxide and magnesium oxide.
a cut rectangular stone with square corners and faces that is
Its color depends on mineral makeup, but blue, green, brown,
smaller than other dimension stone (Figure 13.5).
gold, white, gray, and red are common. It is commonly avail-
able in rubble veneer and flagstone and is used for interior and Flagstone is thin, flat stone from ½ to 4 in. (12 to 100 mm) in
exterior wall facing, patios, and walks. thickness. Flagstones laid over a concrete base are usually ¾ to
1 in. (18 to 25 mm) thick. If laid over a sand or loam base, pieces
Slate Slate is a hard, brittle metamorphic rock consisting 1¼ to 1½ in. (31 to 37 mm) thick are required. Its surface may be
mainly of clays and shales. Its major ingredients are silicon left rough or polished. Random flagstones, with the exception of
dioxide, aluminum oxide, iron oxide, potassium oxide, mag- minor shaping, are left in their natural shape. Trimmed flagstones
nesium oxide, and, sometimes, titanium, calcium, and sulfur. are random, shaped pieces with several edges sawed straight.
Slate is found in parallel layers, which enables it to be cut into Trimmed rectangular flagstones are pieces with four sides
thin sheets. sawed, forming square and rectangular pieces (Figure 13.6).
Slate is produced in three textures: sand-rubbed, honed, Broken and crushed stone includes irregular shapes and
and natural cleft. It is cut into three types: roof tiles, random crushed pieces of one type of stone that are graded for hard-
flagging, and dimension slate (cut to size) (Figure 13.4). It is ness and size and used as aggregate in concrete for surfacing
commonly used for interior and exterior wall facing, flooring, roads and driveways and as aggregate for surfacing fiberglass
flagstones, countertops, coping, and windowsills and win- asphalt shingles and built-up roofing. Stone powder and stone
dow stools. dust are used as fill in paints and asphalt paving surfaces.

Figure 13.5 Dimensional sandstone used in a random ashlar

pattern.
Figure 13.4 Natural slate is used for wall facings, flooring, and
countertops.
stocksolutions/Shutterstock.com

iStock.com/Luca Piccini Basile

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Chapter 13 Stone 205

Figure 13.6 Flagstone is thin, flat stone that can be laid over a Figure 13.7 Stone used in building construction is produced by
concrete, sand, or loam base. cutting large blocks from a quarry with channeling machines, chisel
cutters, or wire saws.

Christina Richards/Shutterstock.com

QUARRYING AND PRODUCING

NATURAL STONE
A quarry is an excavation from which stone used for building
is taken via blasting or cutting (Figure 13.7). Broken stone is
produced by blasting the rock. Larger pieces can be broken
or cut into smaller units for use as an exterior finish material.
The rest is crushed and sorted into various sizes for use as

iStock.com/CasarsaGuru
aggregate.
Most stone used in building construction is dimensional
and produced by cutting large blocks from a quarry, often
with a channeling machine, which makes an incision from
1 to 3 in. wide. Some machines use a rotating chisel cutter,
and others use a wire that runs over pulleys and moves a
quartz-sand cutting agent over the stone, producing a saw-
type cut.
Large blocks are removed from the quarry to a mill, where Figure 13.8 Rough-cut blocks are moved to a mill, where they
they are cut to the sizes and thicknesses needed (Figure 13.8). are cut to size and fitted with holes or anchors, as required.
The architectural drawings specify the shape and size of each
stone. Water-jet cutting technology uses high-pressure water
jets to execute complex shapes and designs on stone mate-
rials, such as granite, marble, quartz. Holes are drilled in each
block, as required for lifting and anchoring it in place.

CHOOSING STONE
iStock.com/CasarsaGuru

When selecting the stone to be used in a building, an architect

must consider a variety of parameters, including cost, strength,
durability, hardness, grain and color, and texture and porosity
(Figure 13.9).

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206 Division 4 Masonry

Figure 13.9 Stone selected for carving is carefully chosen for Figure 13.10 Manufactured stone can provide an economical
proper grain, color, durability, and hardness. substitute to natural cut stone.

pzAxe/Shutterstock.com

The ease with which a stone can be quarried and shaped

influences economic considerations. Soft stones have
lower production costs. Accessibility is a second cost fac-
tor, because costs rise as stone transportation distances
increase.

Greg Henry/Shutterstock.com
If stone is exposed to detrimental weather, it must have
sufficient durability to withstand freeze–thaw cycles and ero-
sive conditions. Hardness is very important in stones used for
floors, steps, patios, and other areas exposed to traffic. Grain
and color are considered when the appearance of stone in
its finished position is decided. As colors vary widely, they
are usually selected by inspecting actual material samples. high-quality fine aggregates and mineral coloring pigments to
All types of stone are ordered by the percentage of colors achieve the desired color and appearance.
desired to make the blend, and by quantity of flat stones,
Cast stone frequently is produced with a low water-to-cement
corners, and other specialty units needed. The texture of the
ratio mixture. The mix is consolidated into molds using an air- or
stone has a great influence on the finished appearance. Fine-
electric-driven tamping device, or vibration under pressure, to
grained stones can have a smoother, polished surface, while
replicate the formation of natural sedimentary rock. Products
coarse-grained stones present a more open face. Porosity
manufactured in this manner are referred to as vibrant-dry-tamped
pertains to the ability of stone to resist moisture penetration.
(VDT) cast stone. Physical properties and raw materials ingredients
Porous rock tends to permit some minerals to dissolve that
are specified by ASTM C 1364, Standard Specification for
can cause staining of the exposed face. It also is not durable
Architectural Cast Stone.
and will be damaged by freeze–thaw cycles.
The product can be reinforced as needed to increase
its structural integrity and is made from molds with precise
dimensional properties. Lifting inserts, anchors, and drips
MANUFACTURED STONE can be cast into the stone enabling installation that is more
efficient.
Manufactured stone is an architectural building unit manu-
factured to simulate natural cut stone used in masonry appli-
cations (Figure 13.10). While technically a concrete masonry Stone Composite Panels
unit, cast stone is included here because its use more closely Popular in Europe and used in the United States since the
resembles that of natural stone. Also referred to as cultured 1970s, stone composite panels find use in both interior and
stone, the material is cast of Portland cement mixed with exterior applications. These panels combine the beauty of

Copyright 2022 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.