CHAPTER-3 DEVELOPMENT OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION IN GREECE, ROME, SWEDEN, RUSSIA, ENGLAND, DENMARK, GERMANY, USA, AUSTRALIA AND CHINA Development of Physical Education in Greece The western civilization began with Greeks. They were the first one to provide a methodical and philosophical attitude toward education, physical education and sport. It is believed that no other civilization has held fitness in such appreciation as the ancient Greece had. Ancient Greek people were well civilized and making all efforts to upgrade the mental and physical capabilities through the means of physical activities. In the whole Europe Greece was established as one of the important sources of knowledge and development. The Greeks were the first people in Europe to attain a high degree of civilization. Physical education held a more important place among the Greeks than any other society in the World. Physical education experienced a “golden age” in the ancient Greece. The Greeks believed so much in physical education and this affected all phases of their lives. It played major role in the National festivals and helped in building strong military establishments. Greece looked the aspects of Physical education as a scientific approach for keeping oneself fit and competitive. They believed that the physical well-being was crucial for the mental well-being, Greeks were the people who recognized the importance of physical education much earlier and were very energetic and creative. Greek made the rest of the world to realize and understand the vertices while performing physical activities involvement of rhythm, color, sound, light etc. Greece was great lovers of festival which they used to organized with a great honor to Greek deities. The Greeks are well known in history for their love of sports and particularly for the creation of the Olympic Games. They used to organize Olympic on the name of God Zeus, the supreme god around 776 B.C. which they used to organize in every four year till it was abolished by Roman Emperor, Theodosius in 394 A.D. The two city states which gave physical activities much importance were Sparta and Athens. During the period Olympic Game, a truce was declared and no fighting was permitted. Physical Activities during ancient Greece time has put their impression in each and every phase of our life and RB} © scanned with OKEN Scannerical Education Instant Ni inci istory of Phys} lotes on Principles and History the first Modern Olympj, cient sports culture also in the whole world society. As a tribute to Greece ancient SPO ee jcal fitness soldiers but games and id has contributed so much to the w« which demands phys sirology, philosophy etc. as did Gree, her nation of the worl ory, mathematics, a or cience and love of freedom. tions were not y sndent. Their interrela a “Prtidation only 20 states were found Greece was known as the city of war Was the way of life for their citizens. No ot of poetry, art, drama, music, sculpture, orat We virtually owe to Greece love of art, love Greece consisted of numerous tiny states politically ind favorable and rivalry existed among each other. After cons lay cast prominentamongst hem were Athen Sparta, ec Athens and Sparta wets sunite other far as their political and social philosophies and ideologies are. conten eee ‘Athens conferre full freedom on the individuals, Sparta emphasized subordination to the state: fan Educational philosophy. For Greeks, education aimed aj lity. Greeks society is well known as a very dynamic anj ble in the generations. They were the first people to think of the development of individual's personality. Gr progressive society and changes in the Greek society were visi The history of physical education is divided into four periods: © Homeric Age © Sparta Age «Early Athenian Period * Later Athenian Period Homeric Age The Homeric Age which extended from approximately 1200 to 800 BC, has its aim to develop tk ‘man of action. Every citizen was a soldier and physical fitness was a necessity. The two Homeric eps lliad and Odyssey, which were written during the Geometric period (8th-7th century BC), providea fil description of all athletic events, as they were known in that period: chariot races, Daa wrestling ‘anning amor ghing discus archery ‘and javelin. Although they reflect the customs of tee Mycenea| a ee . peal apeee! ae these specific epics also describe the customs and valuesd © scanned with OKEN ScannerDevelopment of Physical Education in Greece, Rome, Sweden, Russia, England, » role athletic sports played during the Homeri The iliad and the odyssey give us a picture of the role athletic sports played during the ies The chariot race, sport, reserved for nobleman, was ordained as the first event. After the chariot race came the boxing match. The wrestling match was ordained as the next event. After the wrestling match ‘was concluded, the foot race was held. The final contest of javelin throwing was awarded. In odyssey, Homer described another dramatic display of sports events, such as footraces, wrestling, leaping, boxing and throwing the discuss, Dancing was another activity participated in by the Greek "noblemen from the earliest times. iS fe Some of the sports activities were reserved for the aristocrats, particularly chariot racing, boxing, tye) wrestling and running. Although the men of high birth also excelled in throwing the javelin, shooting the bow and heaving the weight, there were primarily the sports of the common soldiers. Itis evident that a life of ease was not the delight of Homeric men, for they were frequently participating in sports of the most strenuous type. Sparta Age Sparta, which is located in the present-day Mora peninsula, was an agricultural state that had been formed by the immigration of Dors from the 8th century B.C. Spartan education provided an extremely paternalistic education, which sought the complete submergence of the individual in the citizen and provided him with the attributes of courage, complete obedience and physical perfection. In Sparta, Where the foundations of social order constituted iron discipline, military proficiency, strictness and absolute obedience, the peaceful stages of life had the character of a “preparation for the war school” During this period, physical education was designed to develop a man of action who possessed brute strength, physical endurance, unflinching courage and military skill. Spartans believed in a life of Giscipline, self-denial, and simplicity,’ and so the purpose of education was, simply, to produce an army When babies were born, soldiers came to check the child. If it appeared healthy and strong, they would beassigned toa ‘brotherhood’ or a ‘sisterhood,’ however if the baby appeared weak and small, the infant would be left to die on a hillside or taken away to be trained as a slave. It was ‘survival of the fittest’ in Ancient Sparta o The Spartans emphasized the single objective of the “man of action”. Military excellence was the @ apogee of Spartan physical education. Spartan Greeks held a very restricted concept of the purpose of je Physical education. Only the healthy and strong children were allowed to live by a council of elders. Until the age of # Seven the mother was responsible for the training of the child. The more formal education system, called “2goge’” was supervised by the superintendent. Stage in education, after 18 concentrated on military @xercises. Spartan would remain in military services until he was at least 50. The youths were grouped into companies of 64 with a selected leader. Four of these companies were combined into a troop. At the age of 30, a man gained full citizenships. expected to marry and take a seating the council but still live in Public barracks. The education of Spartan women was similar to that of men. Divided into different ‘lasses and participated in same exercise but live in only home. Great success in Ancient Olympics between 720 B.C. and 576 B.C. ¥ Male children were taken at the age of seven to leam the basic military skills. Physical activities }, Such as gymnastics, running, jumping, boxing, wrestling and pankration were provided to produce Powerful warriors. At the age of fourteen, they were taught group fighting tactics which would allow © scanned with OKEN ScannerInstant Notes on Principles and History of Physical Education. also started school at the a; them to succeed while in the military from the ages of twenty to thirty. Girls also stare" Oe MTT of six or seven. The 4 horse riding, javelin, s s 'y participate in discuss, gymnastics, horse q roduce healthy an, wrestling, The objective for women’s pve ‘education was to enable them to pr i Strong potential warriors. ines: i ining. Gymnastic exercises wer The Spartan curriculum consisted almost entirely of a military So Soap the main means of education for beginning youths. They engaged in running’ 8 A sing in arena hunting, wrestling, hiking, boxing, playing ball, throwing discus, and jave™ny igid training in the public A conditioning program subjected all boys after six years of age ae ai ‘The physical activi barracks, and entered the Agoge which wasasystem of publiccompulsory ‘ding, huntin, consisted of wrestling, facie running, throwing discus and the javelin, Se anaes proballl marching, among others. Dancing was given an important place in the coi oe q a more serious undertaking for the Spartans than for citizens of other cultures. The following the key features of the Spartans: ‘Sparta has autocratic approach © They gave training about war only ‘© Reasoning was not allowed «The main educational aim was production of competent warriors «Training for war was started very early in life Less advanced system compared to Athens ‘Focused on physical training * Spartan gave women’s equal chances of education Early Athenian Period In Athens the individual's life was not controlled and regulated ‘Sparta, i freedom. The Athenians developed a more liberal, preseewtna was ee oie indivi For the Athenian, the ‘motto for > or education was “a sound mind in t sane mech mars rethinking and democratic society eee Se oes - y Pott he rege sce a es ‘e educational opportunities were Provided to the citizens only In Athens democratic. fre a ds edom was given to ll the citizens. Athens mi i 10 physical eee emphasis was also given to moral, mental, ph aay ioe ial “manat wisdom” Ape are Spars. Athenians sought idee aed ; iste for producing th 8 aa ate 8 this ideal citizen was an educational system that wot! © scanned with OKEN ScannerDevelopment of Physical Education in Greece, Rome, Sweden, Russia, England, ee gevelop all aspects of a child’s physical and mental potentialities and harmoniously blend them into a Single well-integrated personality Physical education was at its zenith in Athens where it flourished as an integral function of national life. The Athenian aim of physical education synchronized with the Greek ideals of beauty and harmony. In Athens gymnastic were the part of their life and gymnasium were the place of political, social and & intellectual life. Greeks had high artistic standards in art, literature and music, they also developed definite "a _intfeme and forms for the achievement of bodily beauty and perfection. The whole physical education ‘program had to be perfectly balanced within its own area and completely harmonized with the other Yi phases of education. ‘ ‘Moral taining was not incidental in the physical education during early Athenians. Through physical education, youngsters were expected to develop self-discipline, courage, humility, determination and sportsmanship. Emphasis was given to the formation of character than to the development of strength. The early education of Athenian youth was obtained in two kind of schools, the Palaestra or Wrestling school, provide boys with their physical education and the Didascaleum or music schools, offered courses in music, literature and some arithmetic. The gymnasiums served the Athenian men of all ages for their daily exercises. These institutions were similar to Palaestra. The athletic meetings, assemblies, marketplaces, juries and theatres were other agencies that contributed to the education of Athenian youth. The education of the child was much less prescribed and regulated than in Sparta. The physical fitness of the infant was the prerequisite for the survival. The father determined whether the newborn was tobe accepted or rejected. At the age of six or seven, child sent to the palaestra for physical education and didascaleum for intellectual studies. The child terminates their education at the age of fourteen to eighteen. Education was only restricted to the citizen’s only. At the age of eighteen the lads were examined for assumption of citizenship. They participate in a public ceremony that included taking the famed Athenian oath. From the eighteen to age of twenty, youth were subject to military service whenever the state needed them. The Olympic Games, the most celebrated of the national festivals, were conducted every four years at Olympia, commencing in 776 B.C. The games lasted for five days and were always accompanied by the religious ceremonies in honor of Zeus. The Pythian festival was probably the second in importance of all the Panhellenic games. Originally, ithas been a musical event in honor of Apollo and music continued to hold a dominant position in the celebration even after the athletic events of the Olympics were added to the contests. The Pythian festival asheld on a plain below Delphi every four years, the third year of each Olympiad. Chariot racing and horse racing were prominent events in this contest. The Panhellenic Corinth di ‘Musical ey games of Isthmia were also popular with the Athenians. They were celebrated at luring the second and fourth year of each Olympiad. In this contest, athletic, equestrian and ‘vents were held and boating events in honor of Poseidon, god of the sea. oe also engaged in the Nemean Games which were conducted every two years in Argolis in veins: The Pythian and Nemean games were local in nature as compared with Olympics. In faite, of Olympics, most of the content of the educational curriculum is revealed, the foot on, pancratium, wrestling, boxing and chariot racing. examining th ace, the pent © scanned with OKEN ScannerInstant Notes on Principles and History of Physical Education Foot race always played an important part in the Athenian physical education program. in ty Olympic games, foot race isan independent event as well asa part ofthe pentathlon. In the sixth centun B.C. racing in armor was introduced, but it was not taught to the boys. Torch races was introduced Panathenaea festivals. The pentathlon was not introduced in the festival until the eighteenth Olympics The pentathlete was a representative of the Greek ideals of harmony and balance as opposed to specializgy and one-sided development. The pentathlon consists of running, jumping, throwing the discuss, javely throw and wrestling. The jump existed in the pentathlon but unlike the foot race. The pancratium was introduced as an event in the Olympic, was a primitive rough-and -tumby activity combining, many elements of boxing and wrestling. Chariot racing has attained a high popula as far back as the funeral games in the Homeric age. Aquatic sports and dancing were not always parts ¢ various festivals, but they did play a vital role in the physical education program of the Athenian, Dancing permeated the lives of the Athenians. They danced in the temples, the woods, and the fel Every event of interest to the family was the occasion of a dance. The dance played a synoptic role in th Greek Athenian educational system. Dancing was a creative act of expressing the emotional, spiritua, intellectual experience through physical activity. Later Athenian Period A new Greek educational approach opened after the victorious culmination of the Persian Wax Having played a major role in defeating an empire that had long been feared and thought invincible, th Athenians were filed with a sense of excitement, well-being and self-confidence. Both as an individ and as a nation they were anxious to expand and enjoy their new freedom and prestige. The later Athenian era of physical education was a period of transition. Immediately after the Persia wars, the citizens were still acutely aware of the importance of physical fitness for military efficiency an continued to embrace the high ideals of the early Athenian educators. Physical training was relegated to the highly remunerated specialists. When the conditions of har type of life disappeared, there was a growing interest in the effect of diet, hygiene and exercise for heald of man. The rapid rise of professionalism wrought ruinous results. The great festivals were no longer th concer of gentlemen, but the province of paid athletes. The participants in the games and sports wi no longer men who were equally useful as soldiers. The short and glorified career of the athlete a lucrative business. The celebrations lost much of their religious significance, They become prof commercial enterprises, offering costly prizes. Athletes, who had once taken pride in representing own city-states, now often sold their services to any community desiring to seek fame by Olympic victoi _ PRET, 22. Teh. BRE _ 3a ARR YR The early Athenian agencies of physical education continued to exist after the Persian wars, but importance of their function in the general education of youth declined. The framework for the trai of boys was gradually reorganized until the child’s education was acquired from different sources. Gymnasium are no longer a place where young citizens too pride in exercising themselves. These P! ; have become pleasurable resorts where a man could indulge in some light, aesthetic exercises, obse™ the training of professional athletes, utilize new facilities, etc. The gymnasts came into existence with the rise of professional athletics. This individual pre the technical skill to train his people in one or more sports and employed some knowledge of ana © scanned with OKEN ScannerDevelopment of Physical Education in Greece, Rome, Sweden, Russia, and dietetics to keep the athlete in good physical condition. Although athletic par Soy. physiology prtrot so popular festivals. mn ‘The content of the later Athenian physical education program reflected the fluctuating trend 1, pofectatien was now a its height and men took more pleasure in sitting at ther ease, watchin ae ofessiones of the athletes. The more conservative Athenians considered attendance atthe bathe an ey _Fifeminate practice. It was gossiping, gambling, feasting and the ballet and flute girls that interested ther the javelin and discuss. A short support of military enthusiasm stimulated physical ears after the Persian wars. The armored race, with runners attired in their helmets 4 colorful and popular athletic event in the fifth century. Javelin, archery and Iso attracted great attention. king Colorful parades and military maneuvers of horsemen were frequently held during festivals. The iti, type of participants in festivals had changed and list of events was altered only slightly. Many of the old sports, such as boxing and wrestling became largely exhibitions of strength. Dancing remained an important function in Greek life. There were changes in the form of dance, however that did not meet the approval of everyone. Ithas become an artistic standard ofbalance, harmony Lim and order, every gesture had to be perfectly synchronized with the spoken word to heighten its effect biey and meaning. iit ‘At the end of later Athenian period, the Ephebic college provided a two-year program of physical activities that would be serviceable in war. The content of Xenophon’s ideal school reflects the military rex character of the Spartan model. Xenophon particularly advocated hunting a5 excellent training for war because it taught courage, endurance, alertness and adaptability. Pu, young men Fal Pay education for few y* ej, and shields, provide eg) equestrian activities al in the palaestra the method of teaching remained more or less same as in earlier period. Coaching fue became the favored method of physical education due to rise of professionalism. Athletes began to train ‘men for the sport in which they had excelled and developed specialized techniques for competitions hed gat Some gymnasts developed definite system of training which is based on science, and some were Bye sincerely searching for the deeper values of the effect of exercise and diet on health. The new twat This method consume the energy of ws developed neither intellect, health, activity, nor beauty of form. so athlete and he has no time to devote to other activities. It has developed one-sided development of human body, disregarding the old Greek ideals of the perfectly proportioned physique. C oo The following are the key features of Athens: o ‘* Athens has democratic approach towards education A * They gave training about both peace and war ah * Reasoning was allowed a * Main aim was complete personality development ip * Formal education was started from seven year J * More advanced system as compared to Spartans A * Focused on mind training © scanned with OKEN Scanneri ducation Instant Notes on Principles and History of Physical Ei © The education was only for boys Development of Physical Education in Rome pecune th tere ee F am 7 Es 5 BCE when Augustus beca abi tofuatty ace h a es ST a fe: and language of the Ro eae a erate will his successors tried to maintair y Sane , eir personal pow inning with Augustus, emperors Empire in 27 BCE when Juli pocorn sas of poral ‘The Roman Republic became hee ue July Caesar's adopted son, best known as Augustus, became the ru tion of amutual d Of the many contributions made by the Greeks to Classical culture, the not : republican and i between a sound mind and a healthy body persisted in Rome eave = aa ree periods. Romans were intent on making practical use of physical i i =e ai into a national progran, on general health. Roman political ambition incorporated physical e ao S Facuise: cniaeteateia catia military preparedness. Centering on boys and men, physical education focused on acivit ae and maintained warriors. Therefore, similar to the Greeks, Sports, games & ea a ducation a meant to prepare boys and young men for military service. The objective of physical education in Rony affected the sound objectives held by Greeks whom they conquered. In ancient times and history Romans were not great lovers of physical education and activities as, part of their culture. For them it was a part of their military training and a way to serve its militay Purpose. Romans did not believe in the Greek’s concept of Physical Activities which is overall developmen and participating in games for the overall beneficiary of the individual. When the Roman Empire grey in power and strength and size, Roman chooses to become spectators instead of playing and being a par of physical activities. They choose to be the spectators of violent games, brutal games, ‘which there were no rules and regulation and mercy, w! In Rome chariot races and Gladiators combats were f of other's life. The rise of Roman Empires was the di and cruel gamesis hich displays the physical prowess of an individu famous in which the fight was till the end of thelit| lark period of progression. The Early Roman Romans never the early Roman pegott ported the educati ; People. Youngsters was trained or the home was the basic educational inottuton ined ina well-organized home under the constant SUP © scanned with OKEN Scannerlopment of Physical Education in Greece, Rome, Sweden, — ofhis parents. Atbirth, the father determined whether the child should survive and he continued to exert his patriarchal power over the youth even after marriage. The Roman mother was socially active woman. i isted her husband in organizing the home into a worthy agency of education. who: xh There were no schools in Rome, until the Greek institutions were adopted. Primary schools were NS) established during 300 B.C,, but these school emphasized subject matter instruction and’ incised none "hay! Of the activities so important in the Greek palaestra and gymnasium. The campus Martius and military campus were the physical education school of the Roman’s. Festivals and games were an integral part of Roman life from the ancient times. The games were dig, adjunct activities of simple agricultural holidays. They assumed an important function in religious rites bhi, and sacrifices where they were employed to propitiate the gods. In addition to these regular events, periodic festivals were given at triumphs of generals, funerals of notable and on days of thanksgiving. thy, These celebrations were free to the public and all business was supposed to terminate during their progress. tal Inthe passing years, the festivals lost their original simplicity and religious significance. Romans disdained a personal participation in their games. They preferred to observe the performance of slaves and professionals. Roman youngsters participated in a variety of activities. Hoops, carts, whipping tops, ivory letter *S locks, dolls, hobby horses, stilts and toy houses were among their playthings. They kept pet dogs, birds and cats and enjoyed games of blind-man’s buff, hide and seek, ducks and drakes, odd and even and many other activities employing nuts and pebbles. There were some activities played with pellets on “= board such as ludus latrunculorun, which resembled chess, and micare digitis, which was played to s#| determine the number fo fingers an opponent has concealed. Ball games were popular with the Romans = throughout their entire history. Throwing and catching reformed the basis of most ball games. More active games Roman youth included are handball, trigon, aphaeromachiae and harpastum. Dancing was tk’ practiced to a limited degree in ancient time by youth of the most noble Roman families. The programs for Greek and Roman festivals game were considerably different in character. The earlier Roman holidays were devoted almost entirely to horse and chariot races, Athletics, which made up so much of the Greek festivals, never become popular in Rome. A number of roman festivals were devoted to dramatics and some holidays that originally included races later became almost entirely «theatrical presentations o War was the greatest profession of the Romans and the army activities provided a substantial portion ¢ of the education of a youth. The trainee was drilled in running, jumping, swimming, javelin throwing # and fencing. Cavalry and light troops practiced archery and riding. # Roman youths learned by precept and example from their elders. Discipline was rigorous, for 4 searing the habit of obedience in youth was of paramount importance for te Sanile eatin, The © of Roman youth was probably a result ‘of the constant, firm supervision and high moral character of thei it education THe Fesult of these methods definitely brought the narrow Roman aim of physical } Later Roman Period Rome has acquired a far-flung emy wee ; 7 pire, enormous wealth, imy cd poeiee Phin crtaet wi palung empire, , impressive power and prestig ith the great Greek and Oriental civilization was » powerful stimulus that considerably broadened the intel i i , lectual horizon of the Roman mind, They looted libraries, art treasures, erudite slaves, profound © scanned with OKEN ScannerInstant Notes on Principles and History of Physical Education : ‘ech philosophers and medical men acquainted fhe Feat By Se eae = = literature and religion. During the early days of the Emy : ability, but during the last three centuries, the intellectual efforts were mostly confined to organizing jy books from the knowledge of the past. Et a F Educational aims of the later Roam period ee the Ce oaneest ei se os Moral education of the earlier was weakened by the stress an s linin; Education become subsidized by the state and municipals. The education of women was on a high plane. Roman women possessed a great equality. Acquaintance with the Hellenic peoples increased the emphasis on invellochaal, analy adoption ofa professional army decreased the importance of physical training, but the int ual at of Greek culture were accepted. Roman educational altitudes and school practices, in which mental trai ‘was stressed, checked the continuance of the Greek tradition of physical education in Europe and Christiay thought almost completely destroyed the tradition for centuries. The majority of Roam. cieaase fashion their offspring into orators who would win fame and fortune in conducting public affairs. The later Roman period was characterized by the absence of any comprehensive physical educatigy ideals. The elders understand the importance of physical education for the professional military may and athletes, but they themselves are willing to engage in the minimum amount of exercise for th maintenance of health and recreation. Military, aesthetic and moral goals of physical education held little appeal for the later Romans They exercise either for fun or to prevent themselves from weaknesses and illness. Health gymnastia were encouraged both in Greek and Rome when individual happiness and welfare began to transceni the importance of service to the commonweal. The maintenance of health was a practical aim for th Romans and they imported many Greek physician for this purpose. Roman attitude towards Gred Bymnastics was negative, but there was limited value of physical education for school boys. The festivals revealed a distinct divergence in the Roman and Greek physical education aims. the Hellenes, games were great events in which every man aspired to compete, they were contests betwee citizens to demonstrate their physical fitness. The Romans promoted games and festivals for politii Purposes rather than athletic ideals. During the Republic, new games were initiated to ki Promotion of the games for such inspiring the unifying citizens for state action, far from the high objectiv great athletic festivals. ep up the spirits of a war-weary people. Purpose certainly was far removed from the early Roman abjectives es held by the Greeks in the on 8encies of physical education that did not exist during the Empire were established apart Schools and were primarily professional, spectator, or recreational institutes The army re Peery Of physical education, but its program was not extended to the general citizen because it some professional organization. © scanned with OKEN ScannerLE Development of Physical Education in Greece, Rome, Sweden, Russia, England, For food and wages. The professional gladiators received their professional education in private institutions. The thermae, or baths, were one agency of recreation that Romans actually utilized, rather than assuming the role of spectators. Republic and Empire men began to construct public baths after the Greek custom. Earlier baths were called balneae, the vast structures of the later day, which incorporated Cay features of the Greek gymnasium, were known as thermae. The baths were owned by individuals, crected by wealthy men as gifts to the city or constructed from public funds. The size and number of the paths indicate the popularity of this light recreational activity. Itwasnot the Campus Martius or the Greek palaestra that attracted the later Roman youths. Instead, they lingered for long hours in the hot baths and massage rooms of the thermae, participated at the gambling tables, entertained by the dancers and became enthusiastic devotees of the circuses and fladiatorial combats. They participate in recreational activities such as hunting, running, ball games, Svimming, fishing, boating, and sun bathing. There are only few men who kept up the old military disciplines and enjoyed boxing, wrestling and other vigorous sports. There were dramatic and musical performances, gladiatorial combats, chariot races, athletic displays and sea fights. During the Empire, gambling games were favorite activities of the Romans. The Romans contributed nothing ennobling to the character of the dance, they destroyed the beauty of its expression and merely presented vulgar exhibition of a debased character. Health gymnastics experienced considerable popular in Rome. ‘The training of soldiers and professional athletes become more elaborate and prolonged. The soldiers ‘underwent intensive periods of instruction and drill. The professional athletes indulged in a prescribed program of diets, exercising and training in the use of different types of weapons. Development of Physical Education in Sweden By the seventeenth century the mighty warriors of the house of Vasa had built up such a significance power in Northern European life that Sweden ruled an extensive empire in Baltic basin including Finland and important areas along with Souther Baltic Coast. Later Sweden surrendered her possessions, South of the Baltic as a result of her participation in the coalitions and battles associated with the Napoleonic Wars. In the nineteenth century Swedish elementary schools the masses were imbued with a love and loyalty for their nation and acquired those fundamental skills necessary for reading the Bible and Performing their daily tasks. Secondary education which was primarily for the children of the well-to- do, was a classical, intellectual training for the preparation of clergymen and public officials. The purpose of education has slowly evolved until today the Swedish people seek the complete, individual development 7 all children. Effort has been to cultivate the individual capacities of the children and tolay a foundation ‘or their future vocational pursuits. Swedish citizen is assumed to be capable of undertaking his *sponsibilities and enjoying his freedom in a democratic, Christian society. Beat fame of Per Henrik Lingis symbolic ofthe rise of physical education toa place of importance in led the Gymnastic Central Institute in Stockholm with the obligation to educate nd cha teachers for military and school needs. He was a versatile person, lively, sensitive een peat crc With intense manners, excellent judgement and an extraordinary pedagogic capability UNS ontribution is that he strove to make physical education a science. 4 © scanned with OKEN Scanneri tion Instant Notes on Principles and History of Physical Bau He established Ro, ‘ if SB acation received iRuh gg vs by Per Henrik Lin Swedish gymnastics ‘unded in the early 1800's by Ee i edish gymmnastics was founded in the ea"'y ccof Gymnastica Se Gt al ¢' e teachers of Physics Central Institute of Gymnastics at Stockholm, where ( a aByal ‘Central Institul performance. The Swedish Gymnastics system taught a the tee divided in to four branches: |i # Pedagogical Gymnastics (Physical Education) 7 3 © Military Gymnastics (Mostly Fencing) ee : 1 Therapy, Physiotherapy) ‘© Medical Gymnastics (Massage, Physical y © Aesthetic Gymnastics (Dance, Performance) a erson as well as strong person, he mind and body must functi, 5 i of indivi wwledge of the eff fae trac ne cen power ac harmoniously together and that eocher © naturally high-lighted By e™P concerned aboutlal yo exercise on human body. Ling's Progra on cer of medical gymnastics, Ne Wie od to d bout yo! Sta ethan rts mms weenerea soap) possibility of restoring ot Se eee and perfect organism. Aesthetic gymnast) bat Fanate potentialities of the body, creating a well-ba anced and p Te odily <ducatior rane eeventiBal tin strengthening charac ‘jer of the Tuer movement in Gena al ‘and strength and importan| ! ‘een cern at military in his method, evolving from physic) 8 He introduced 3 Practices developed local and “remote cities. His Nazi ideolog | 2 oe mad his system specially by the exclusive concer of th at ‘eloped the capacity for ‘suffering and fighting spirit throug, a He mainly come up wi idea that physical activitig) 0! sect is equally essential for developmen’ of the natin) — foun education w and national identity. practices conducted outdoors t and the exaltation ‘of the Germanic ra strongest and practice of violent games dev competitions running, jumping and struggles Were not only required as an educational proms r " and progres eae the society. The turner system of gymnastics that he oe poe me ¥ followers. The goals of Turnen Gymnastics wa to create able-bodied citizens for the bent © der ¢ ‘community. He exposed physical education a8 nation solidarity. He put his efforts in eee ion wis} ol German gymnastics society to form a regular exercise program for the people and stu Be aoe | This attempt was popularly known. is Tumverein movement. In 1811, he ‘enhanced the plan and startei]| 5 sastematic physical education classes in a specified ‘ectangular area and named it Tumplatz, mean come popular and itexisted a unity enhancement program. He wa] sther devices rectangular. The whole movement b the designer and creator ofthe parallel bars, horizontal bars and donkey racing, among o| : present today in many gyms. a adi ‘Adolf Speiss was born in 1810, was a German gymnast development of school gymnastics for c i trained in Pestalozzian methods, adapted bo! nd girls in Burgdorf Switzerland, He added marching and ‘ided in discipline and erect carriage. His book, “The Science of Gymnastics,” forboys and girls of allages designed to develop the entire musculzture Through his efforts, too are Rol subject in Switzerland, and Spiess is known as the “Father of Schoo! Gymnastics.” Spies aeent favor Jahn’s squad-leader plan, preferring to employ trained teachers instead, but these lackel deren enthusiasm, foresight and ability that were characteristic of Jahn and Spiess. AS a result the Keetyitude became apparent and has handicapped gymnastics ever since. The freedom and the ari nd the wide scope of activities which under Spiess’ personal teaching had included music appreciabis playing of games, hiking, and outd ‘Th factor that Jahn had so earnestly ‘program for all, was lost sight of w! effort directed to the adoption of physical exercise and a vital part of child’ create, organize, introduce, train teachers for and write about a system of German school gymnast) Mainly he tried to convey the following: 7 aed * He made every effort to introduce school gymnastics in every school. ) * He made people realized the having one period in the ‘haba of physical gymnastics and tried to compulso He cam vi er ae a the individual requirement of apparatus. He convinced the people ” ; graded according to suitability of different group. ° rmnasti 'ymnastic should be recognized and treated at par with other subjects. * He put his efforts in other sports also. Stand popularizing all other sports and assisted to increase the s! 54 © scanned with OKEN Scannera ee ee a Development of Physical Education in Greece, Rome, Sweden Russia, En, i ’ England, Credit goes to Adolf Speiss in making Germany a country in the field of gymnast and and othe; Carl Diem, who was born in 1882, was a German sports official, scientist and journali ia important sports bureaucrat of this century. He was planner and principal organizer of Satie He was an rved to the Olympic movement from the 1912 stockholm games till his death, Hed games. He sctablishment of the worlds first sports university in Berlin. he was Secretary-general of ee the Committee for Physical Education. He ‘was secretary-general of the Organizing Committee of nee Olympic Games and conceived the idea of the Olympic Torch Relay. From 1938-1944, at Reve de Coubertin’s request, he served as Director of the International Olympic Institute in Berlin. After ie 7 War Il, Diem was a sports consultant to the German government. In 1940 he declared that “the rector of European sport has its geographical and spiritual center in Germany”. In 1941 he Proposed a aac: capable of holding 200,000 spectators so that Berlin would become the crossroads of world sport. His self-proclaimed goal was to involve as many people as possible in sports, and to convince them that sport was important to their lives and could be practiced well into old age. Diem needed a solid base from which he could strengthen the German sports movement, so he founded the Deutsche Reichshochschule fiir Leibesiibungen (Central Institute of Physical Education and Sport). After the World War 1, the great mental and emotional strain and the food famine had a very detrimental effect on the physical welfare of German children. In addition to a rehabilitation movement which evolved to influence the total physical education program, more emphasis was played on the games and athletic sports and additional attention was given to health education. After the world war 11, the old clubs began to form, but without political affiliations. Sports in Germany have risen again but occupying authored for political reasons, refuse to permit any overall centralized sports authority. © scanned with OKEN Scanner