A LEARNING MODULE FOR:

THE CHILD
AND
ADOLESCENT LEARNERS
AND
LEARNING PRINCIPLES

Prepared by:

IVY S. DIAZ, MAED

CTE-Faculty

&
The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles Page 1
ANGEL ANN T. ALEJANDRO, LPT
CTE-FACULTY
Overview
“Child development”, or “child and adolescent development” refer to
the process of growth and maturation of the human individual from
conception to adulthood. In many cultures, the care of children is shared
among a wider group of adults, and often older children, than is common in
western societies. The emotional, social and physical development of
young children has a direct effect on their overall development and on the
adult they will become. That is why understanding the need to invest in very
young children is so important, so as to maximize their future well-being.

In this course, we are going to learn concerning child and adolescent

development, both from theoretical perspectives, and also from applied
perspectives, in the form of parenting skills coverage. .In order to create an
effective learning environment, a teacher must understand how students
learn. This module will discuss basic concepts and issues on human
development, its meaning, concepts and approaches , as well as the stages
of developmental tasks, and research in child and adolescent development.

This module contains four lessons . These are:

 Basic Concepts and Issues on Human Development

Lesson 1- Human Development: Meaning, Concepts and
Approaches
Lesson 2- The Stages of Development and Developmental Tasks
Lesson 3- Issues on Human Development
Lesson 4- Research in Child and Adolescent Development

After studying this module, you should be able to:

 Define growth and development and differentiate these two terms;

 Identify the different developmental stages and tasks in child and
adolescent development;
 Recognize the major issues on human development and take a stand
on it; and
 Know and apply the research in child and adolescent development as
a reference for present pre-service training and for actual future
teaching.
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 Table of Contents

Overview 2
Objectives 2
Table of Contents 3
Pre-Assessment 4

Lesson 1 Human Development: Meaning, Concepts & Approaches 5-

10
Activity 1 11
Activity 2 12
Activity 3 13

Lesson 2 The Stages of Development and Developmental Task 14-23

Activity 1 24
Activity 2 24
Activity 3 25

Lesson 3 Issues on Human Development 26-30

Activity 1 31
Activity 2 31
Activity 3 32

Lesson 4 Research in Child and Adolescent Development 34-44

Activity 1 45
Activity 2 46

Pre-test Answers Key 47

Summary 48
References 49

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 Pre-Assessment

Direction: Match the items in Column A with their definitions or descriptions in

Column B. Write the letters on the lines before the numbers.

A B
______1. Growth a. Refers to biological/genetic predispositions’
impact on human traits
_____2. Development b. Personalities are modified by interactions
with family, experiences at school, and
acculturation
_____ 3. Nature c. Before birth; during or relating to
pregnancy
_____4. Nurture d. Refers to the quantitative changes in an
individual as the processes in chronological
age.
_____5. Continuity e. Personality traits present during infancy
endure throughout the lifespan
_____6. Discontinuity f. It sees our development as taking place in
specific steps or stages: Changes are sudden.
_____7. Change g. It describes the influence of learning and
other influences from one’s environment
_____8. Stability h. It is the stage of life from the 60s onward; it
constitutes the last stage of physical change
_____9. Pre-natal stage i. It is structured & systematic form of
learning.
_____10. Late adulthood j. It sees our development as a cumulative
process: Changes are gradual
k. Refers to qualitative changes in an
individual leading to the individual’s
maturation

If all your answers are correct, very good! This shows that you already
know much about the topics in this module. You may still study the module to
review what you already know.
If you got a low score, don’t feel bad. This means that this module is for
you. It will help you understand some important concepts that you can apply
in your daily life. If you study this module carefully, you will learn the answers

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to all the items in the test and a lot more! Are you ready? You may go now to
the next page to begin Lesson 1.

Lesson 1 HUMAN DEVELOPMENT:

MEANING, CONCEPTS
AND APPROACHES

Every living creature is called to become what it meant to be. The

caterpillar is meant to become a butterfly: a seed into a full grown herb,
bush or tree; and a human baby into a mature person, the person “who is
fully alive, the glory of God” in the words of St. Irenaeus. The process of
development involves beginnings and endings.

In this lesson, you will be acquainted with human development as a

process, the developmental tasks that come along with each
developmental stage and relevant issues that are raised about human
development.

After studying this lesson, you should be able to:

 define human development in your own words,

 draw some principles of human development, and
 distinguish two approaches to human development.

Let’s Study…

Human Development is the pattern of movement or change that

begins at conception and continues through the life span. Development
includes growth and decline. According to Santrock, development can be
positive or negative.

Growth and Development

Growth
- refers to the quantitative changes in an individual as the processes in
chronological age.
- refer to increase in size, height, or weight.
Development
- refers to qualitative changes in an individual leading to the individual’s
maturation
- is a series of orderly progression towards maturity.
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 Growth Development
 Quantitative changes in size,  Qualitative changes in the quality
weight number, etc.
 One of the parts of development  Growth is one of its parts
 Changes that take place in  Describes the changes in the
particular aspects of the body and organism as a whole.
behavior  Continuous process – from womb
 Continue throughout life but stops to tomb
with the attainment of maturity  Changes are qualitative in nature
 Quantitative and observable and cannot measured
 May or may not bring about  Possible without growth
development

Factors influencing Growth and Development

1. Maturation/Nature – the natural growth resulting from heredity

2. Environmental Influences/Nurture – in and through which the growing
takes place

Principles of Development

1. Development follows an orderly sequence which is predictable.

Patterns of Physical Development
a. Cephalocaudal Pattern – during infancy, the greatest growth always
occur at the top.
b. Proximodistal Pattern – muscular control of the trunk and arms
comes earlier as compared to the hands and finger.
2. The rate of development is unique in each individual.
3. Development involves change.
4. Early development is more critical than later development.
5. Development is the product of maturation and learning.
6. Principle of inter-related development.
7. There are social expectations for every development period which are
often referred to as developmental tasks.

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Domains of Development – also referred to as areas of development which
include:
 Physical Development
a. Gross motor development – the large muscle in the body such as
legs, arms, and the chest.
b. Fine motor development – the small muscles such as those in the
hand, fingers, lips and tongue. Hand-eye co-ordination is an
example.
 Social/Emotional Development
- Refers to the development of self-concept and self-esteem as well
as the ability to express feelings and form relationships with other
people.
 Language Development
- Speech – production of sounds (articulation) and voice quality
- Language development – understanding or comprehending
(receptive language) and being able to communicate using
language
- (expressive language)

Meaning of Human Development

Human development is the pattern of movement or change that

begins at conception and continues through the life span. Development
includes growth and decline. This means that development can be positive
or negative (Santrock, 2002).

Some major principles of human development

Here are some major principles of human development:

1. Development is relatively orderly.

(http://www.cdipage.com/developnet.htm)

- A child will learn to sit, crawl then walk before they can run. The
muscular control of the trunk and the arms comes earlier as compared
to the hands and finger. This is the proximodistal pattern.

- During infancy, the greatest growth always occurs at the top – the
head with physical growth in size, weight and future differentiation
gradually working its way down from top to bottom (for example, neck
should, middle tuck and so on). This is the cephalocaudal pattern.

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2. While the pattern of development is likely to be similar, the outcomes of
developmental processes and the rate of development are likely to
vary among individuals.
(http://www.cdipage.com/development.htm)

- A child who comes from a good home with loving and caring parents
may develop into warm and responsible child, adolescent and adult. If
the child comes from a deprived environment, he/she may develop
into carefree and irresponsible adolescent and adult.

3. Development takes place gradually.

(http://www.cdipage.com/development.htm)

- Children won’t develop into pimply teenagers overnight. It takes years

before they become one. In fact, that’s the way of nature. The bud
does not blossom suddenly. The seed does not germinate overnight.
While some changes occur in a flash of sight, more often it takes
weeks, months, or years for a person to undergo changes that result in
the display of developmental characteristics.

4. Development as a process is complex because it is the product of

biological, cognitive and socio-emotional processes (Santrock, 2002)

- Biological processes involve changes in the individual’s physical

nature. The brain of a child develops. He/she will gain height and
weight; and will experience hormonal changes when he/she reaches
the period of puberty, and cardiovascular decline as he/she
approaches late adulthood.

- Cognitive processes involve changes in the individual’s thought,

intelligence, and language. A child develops from mere sounds to a
word becoming two words, the two words becoming a sentence.
He/she would move on to memorizing their first prayer, singing Lupang
Hinirang in every flag ceremony to imagining what it would be like to
be a teacher or a pilot, playing chess and solving a complex math
problem.

- Socio-emotional processes include changes in the individual’s

relationships with other people, changes in emotions, and changes in
personality. Babies respond with a sweet smile when affectionately
touched and frown when displeased and even show temper tantrum
when they could not get or do what they wanted. From aggressive
children, they may develop into a fine lady and a gentleman or
otherwise, depending on a myriad of factors. They may fall in love and
get inspired for life or may end up betrayed, deserted and desperate
afterwards.

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Two approaches to Human Development

Children show extensive change from birth to adolescence, little or no

change in adulthood and decline in late old age, your approach to
development is traditional. In contrast, if you believe that even in adulthood
developmental change takes place as it does during childhood , your
approach is termed life-span approach.

What are the characteristics of the life-span perspective? Paul Baltes

(Santrock, 2002), an expert in life-span development, gives the following
characteristics:

1. Development is life-long. It does not end in adulthood. No

developmental stage dominates development.

2. Development is multi-dimensional. Development consists of biological,

cognitive, and socio-emotional dimensions.

3. Development is plastic. Development is possible throughout the life-

span.

4. Development is contextual. Individuals are changing beings in a

changing world.

5. Development involves growth, maintenance and regulation. Growth,

maintenance and regulation are three (3) goals of human
development. The goals of individuals vary among developmental
stages. For instance, as individuals reach middle and late adulthood,
concern with growth gets into the back stage while maintenance and
regulation take the center stage.

Principles of child development and learning that inform practice

Below are the principles of child development and learning which are
the bases of developmentally appropriate practice (DAP) in early childhood
program for children from birth through age 8, which were stated in the
position paper of the National Association for the Education of Young
Children (2009). They affirm the principles of human development and
characteristics of life-span development approach we just discussed. Find
out which one is a re-statement of the principles of human development.
1. All the domains of development and learning-physical, social and
emotional, and cognitive – are important, and they are closely
interrelated. Children’s development and learning in one domain
influence and are influenced by what takes place in other domains.

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 2. Many aspects of children’s learning and development follow well
documented sequenced sequences, with later abilities, skills, and
knowledge building on those already acquired.
3. Development and learning proceed at varying rates from child to
child, as well as at uneven rates across different areas of a child’s
individual functioning.
4. Development and learning result from a dynamic and continues
interaction of biological maturation and experience.
5. Early experiences have profound effects, both cumulative and
delayed, on a child’s development and learning; and optimal periods
exist for certain types of development and learning to occur.
6. Development proceeds toward greater complexity, self-regulation,
and symbolic or representational capacities.
7. Children develop best when they have secure, consistent relationships
with responsive adults and opportunities for positive relationships with
peers.
8. Development and learning occur in and are influenced by multiple
social and cultural contexts.
9. Always mentally active in seeking to understand the world around
them, children learn in a variety of ways; a wide range of teaching
strategies and interactions are effective in supporting all these kinds of
learning.
10. Play is an important vehicle for developing self-regulation as well as for
promoting language, cognitive, and social competence.
11. Development and learning advance when children are challenged to
achieve at level just beyond their current mastery, and also when they
have many opportunities to practice newly acquired skills.
12. Children’s experiences shape their motivation and approaches to
learning, such as persistence, initiative, and flexibility; in turn, these
dispositions and behaviors affect their learning and development.

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 Activity No. 1

Direction: Answer the following questions.

1. “Growth is an evidence of life”, what does this mean?

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

2. Define development in your own words. Translate the meaning of

development in Filipino and in your local dialect.

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

Filipino
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

Local Dialect
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

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 Activity No. 2

Direction: Do the following to ensure mastery of the big ideas presented in

the lesson.

1. Four principles of human development and their educational implications.

Principle Educational Implication

a. _______________________________
_________________________________
_________________________________
__________________________________
b. _______________________________ __________________________________
________________________________ __________________________________

c._______________________________
_________________________________
_________________________________ __________________________________

d._______________________________ __________________________________
_________________________________ __________________________________
_________________________________ __________________________________
_________________________________

2. Patterns of development

a. The direction of growth following the cephalocaudal pattern is from

_______________________ to the ________________________.
b. The direction of growth following the proximodistal pattern is from
_______________________ to the ________________________.

3. Two approaches to human development

Concept Approach
Traditional Life-span
Development during
childhood
Development during
adulthood
Developmental stage/s
as focus of study

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 Activity No. 3

Direction: Put a check if the statement is correct and an if it is a wrong

one .

_______ 1. Development is a pattern of change.

_______ 2. Development is either growth or decline.
_______ 3. From both traditional and life-span perspectives development is
lifelong.
_______ 4. In the development process, there are things that hold true to all
people.
_______ 5. Individuals develop uniformly.
_______ 6. Development is predictable because it follows an orderly process.
_______ 7. Development is uni-dimensional.
_______ 8. Development takes place in a vacuum.
_______ 9. The effect of biological process on development is isolated from
the effect of cognitive and socio-emotional processes.
_______10. Development and learning occur in and are influenced by multiple

social and cultural contexts.

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Lesson 2 THE STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT
AND DEVELOPMENTAL TASKS

For every developmental stage, there is an expected developmental

task. What happens when the expected developmental tasks are not
achieved at the corresponding developmental stage? How can you help
children achieve these developmental tasks?

After studying this lesson, you should be able to:

 define developmental tasks in your own words.

 identify developmental stages of learners in different curriculum year
levels.
 describe the development tasks in each stage.
 state for yourself how these developmental tasks affect your role as a
facilitator of learning.

STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT

PRE-NATAL STAGE

- Before birth; during or relating to pregnancy.

- Relating to pregnant woman and her unborn baby.

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 Three Periods of Prenatal Stage (GEF)

1. Germinal Period
- Prenatal development that
takes place in the first two
weeks after conception.
- It includes the creation of the
Zygote, continued cell division
and the attachment of the
zygote to the uterine wall.
A. Blastocyst
- Inner layer of cells.
- Develops later into
embryo
B. Trophoblast
- Outer layer of cells.
- Provides nutrition and
support for the embryo.

2. Embryonic Period
- Prenatal development occurs 2
to 8 weeks after conception.
- The zygote will become Embryo.

The following development takes

place:
- Cell differentiation intensifies
- Life-support systems for the
embryodevelop
- Organs appear

Organogenesis – it is the
process of organ formation
during the first two months of
prenatal development.

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 Three layers of cells
 Endoderm
- inner layer of the cell.
- becomes the digestive and respiratory systems.
 Ectoderm
- outermost layer of the cell
- becomes the nervous, sensory receptors and skin parts.
 Mesoderm
- middle layer
- develops into circulatory, skeletal, muscular, excretory, and
reproductive system.
As the three layers of the embryo form, the support systems for
the embryo develop rapidly.

 Three life-support systems: (PUA)

a. Placenta – a life support system that

consists of disk-shaped group of tissues in which
small blood vessels from the mother and the off-
spring intertwine but do not join.
b. Umbilical Cord – contains two
arteries and one vein that connect the baby to the
placenta.
c. Amnion/Amniotic Sac – is a bag or
an envelope that contains a clear fluid in which
the developing embryo floats.

3. Fetal Period (Fetus)

- Last from about 2 months after conception until 9 months when
the infant is born.
- Dramatic course and organ systems mature to the point at which
life can be sustained outside of the womb.

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INFANCY (from birth to 2 years)

Infancy is defined as the first year of life and is the period of most
rapid growth after birth. As a toddler, humans develop motor skills, such as
the ability to walk, and communication skills. Adolescence is an important
period in terms of physical, mental, emotional, and social changes. New-born
usually refers to a baby from birth to about 2 months of age. Infants can be
considered children anywhere from birth to 1 year old. Baby can be used to
refer to any child from birth to age 4 years old, thus encompassing newborns,
infants, and toddlers.

EARLY CHILDHOOD (3 to 5 years)

Early childhood, defined as the period from birth to eight years old, is
a time of remarkable growth with brain development at its peak. Early
childhood care and education (ECCE) is more than preparation for primary
school.

In early childhood, the rapid increase in body size of the first two years
tapers off into a slower growth pattern. On average, children add 2 to 3
inches in height and about 5 pounds in weight each year. The child gradually
becomes thinner; girls retain somewhat more body fat, whereas boys are
slightly more muscular. Posture and balance improve, resulting in gains in
motor coordination. Individual differences in body size are even more
apparent during early childhood than in infancy. To determine if a child's a
typical stature is a sign of a growth or health problem, the child's ethnic
heritage must be considered.

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MIDDLE AND LATE CHILDHOOD (6-12 years)

Children add about 2 to 3 inches in height and 5 pounds in weight each

year. Girls tend to have small growth spurts at ages 4.5, 6.5, 8.5, and 10, boys
slightly later at 4 .5, 7, 9, and 10.5. Girls are slightly shorter and lighter than
boys at ages 6 to 8, but by age 9 this trend is reversed. The lower portion of
the body is growing fastest at this age period and children during this time
appear long-legged. Girls have slightly more body fat and boys have more
muscle. After age 8, girls begin accumulating fat at a faster rate.
The frontal lobes of the cortex show a slight increase in surface area
between ages 5 and 7 due to continuing myelinization. The corpus callosum
thickens, leading to improved communication between the two cortical
hemispheres. Synaptic pruning continues, and lateralization of the cerebral
hemispheres increases over the school years. Neurotransmitters are chemicals
that permit neurons to communicate across synapses. Secretions of particular
neurotransmitters are related to cognitive performance. Brain functioning
may also change because of an increase in androgens that occurs in both
boys and girls around age 7 to 8.

ADOLESCENCE (13-18 years)

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 Adolescence is a developmental transition between childhood and
adulthood. It is the period from puberty until full adult status has been
attained. Adolescence is one of the most fascinating and complex transitions
in the life span. Its breathtaking pace of growth and change is second only
to that of infancy.

Biological processes drive many aspects of this growth and development,

with the onset of puberty marking the passage from childhood to
adolescence. Puberty is a transitional period between childhood and
adulthood, during which a growth spurt occurs, secondary sexual
characteristics appear, fertility is achieved, and profound psychological
changes take place. Although the sequence of pubertal changes is relatively
predictable, their timing is extremely variable. The normal range of onset is
ages 8 to 14 in females and ages 9 to 15 in males, with girls generally
experiencing physiological growth characteristic of the onset of puberty two
years before boys.

Pubertal maturation is controlled largely by complex interactions among

the brain, the pituitary gland, and the gonads, which in turn interact with
environment (i.e., the social, cultural, and ambient environment). A relatively
new area of research related to puberty is that of brain development.
Evidence now suggests that brain growth continues into adolescence,
including the proliferation of the support cells, which nourish the neurons, and
myelination, which permits faster neural processing. These changes in the
brain are likely to stimulate cognitive growth and development, including the
capacity for abstract reasoning.

EARLY ADULTHOOD (19-29 years)

Early adulthood extends from age 18 to 40 and contains many important

milestones. This stage of life generally consists of leaving home, completing
education, beginning full-time work, attaining economic independence,
establishing a long-term intimate relationship, and starting a family.

By the time we reach early adulthood, our physical maturation is

complete, although our height and weight may increase slightly. In early

The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles Page 19

adulthood, our physical abilities are at their peak, including muscle strength,
reaction time, sensory abilities, and cardiac functioning. Most professional
athletes are at the top of their game during this stage, and many women
have children in the early-adulthood years.

The aging process, although not overt, begins during early adulthood.
Around the age of 30, many changes begin to occur in different parts of the
body. For example, the lens of the eye starts to stiffen and thicken, resulting in
changes in vision (usually affecting the ability to focus on close objects).
Sensitivity to sound decreases; this happens twice as quickly for men as for
women. Hair can start to thin and become gray around the age of 35,
although this may happen earlier for some individuals and later for others. The
skin becomes drier and wrinkles start to appear by the end of early
adulthood. The immune system becomes less adept at fighting off illness, and
reproductive capacity starts to decline.

MIDDLE ADULTHOOD (30-60 years)

During middle adulthood, the aging process becomes more apparent.

Around the age of 60, the eyes lose their ability to adjust to objects at varying
distances, known as presbyopia. Most people between the ages of 40 and 60
will need some form of corrective lenses for vision deficits. Middle-aged adults
are also at higher risk than younger adults for certain eye problems, such as
glaucoma. Hearing also further declines: 14 percent of middle-aged
Americans have hearing problems. Skin continues to dry out and is prone to
more wrinkling, particularly on the sensitive face area. Age spots and blood
vessels become more apparent as the skin continues to dry and get thinner.
The muscle-to-fat ratio for both men and women also changes throughout
middle adulthood, with an accumulation of fat in the stomach area.

Women experience a gradual decline in fertility as they approach the

onset of menopause—the end of the menstrual cycle—around 50 years old.
This process involves hormonal changes and may last anywhere from six
months to five years. Because of the shifting hormone levels, women going
through menopause often experience a range of other symptoms, such as
anxiety, poor memory, inability to concentrate, depressive mood, irritability,
mood swings, and less interest in sexual activity.

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LATE ADULTHOOD (61 years and above)

Late adulthood is the stage of life from the 60s onward; it constitutes the
last stage of physical change. ... During late adulthood the skin continues to
lose elasticity, reaction time slows further, and muscle strength diminishes.
Aging process varies significantly from individual to individual and from one
organ system to another. However, some key generalization can be made
including heart muscles thickening with age, arteries becoming less flexible,
and lung capacity diminishing. Kidneys become less efficient in removing
waste from the blood, and the bladder loses its ability to store urine. Brain
cells also lose some functioning, but new neurons can also be produced.
Chronic illnesses are illnesses that are ongoing, generally incurable
conditions that require continuing medical attention and affect daily life. A
healthy diet is necessary for older adults to increase mental acuteness,
resistance to illness and disease, boost energy levels, improve immune system
strength, recuperation speed, and have greater effectiveness in the
management of chronic health problems.

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Concept of development Tasks
In each stage of development a certain task or tasks are expected of
every individuals. Robert Havighurst defines development task as one that
“arises at a certain period in our life, the successful achievement of which
leads to happiness and success with later tasks while failure leads to
unhappiness, social approval, and difficulty with later tasks,” (Havighurst,
1972).

Developmental stages
The eight (8) developmental stages cited by Santrock are the same with
Havighurst’s six (6) developmental stages only that Havighurst did not include
prenatal period. Havighurst combined infancy and earl childhood while
Santrock mentioned them as two (2) separate stages. These developmental
stages are described more detail in the next paragraphs.

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The developmental tasks (Santrock, 2002)
Let’s described the developmental tasks as described by Santrock and
compare them to those listed by Havighurst himself.

1. Prenatal period (from conception to birth) – it involves tremendous

growth- from a single cell to an organism complete with brain and
behavioral capabilities
2. Infancy (from birth to 18-24 months) – a time of extreme dependence on
adults. Many psychological activities are just beginning language,
symbolic thought, sensorimotor coordination and social learning.
3. Early childhood (end of infancy to 5-6 years (Grade I) – These are the
preschool years. Young children learn to become more self-sufficient and
to care for themselves, development school readiness skills and spend
many hours in play with peers.
4. Middle and late childhood (6-11 years of age, the elementary school
years) - The fundamental skills of reading, writing and arithmetic are
mastered. The child is formally exposed to the larger world and its culture.
Achievements become a more central theme of the child’s world and
self –control increases.
5. Adolescence – (10-12 years of age ending up to 18-22 years of age)
Begins with rapid physical changes – dramatic gains in height and
weight, changes in body contour, and the development of sexual
characteristic such as enlargement of the breasts. Development of the
pubic and facial hair, and depending of the voice. Pursuit of
independence and identity are prominent.
6. Early adulthood (from late teens or early 20s lasting through the 30s) – It is
a time of establishing personal and economic independence, career
development, selecting a male, learning to live with someone in an
intimate way, starting a family and rearing children.
7. Middle adulthood (40 to 60 years of age) – It is a time of expanding
personal and social involvement and responsibilities; of assisting the next
generation in becoming competent and mature individuals; and of
reaching and maintaining satisfaction in a career.
8. Late adulthood (60s and above) – It is a time for adjustment to decreasing
strength and health, lie review, retirement, and adjustment to new social
roles.

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 Activity 1

I. Put a check ( ) beside those statements that are correct and an ( )

beside those that are wrong.

________ 1. Developmental tasks are only for the first 3 stages of human
development.
________ 2. Failure of achieving developmental tasks in an earlier stage also
means failure for the learner to master the developmental task in
the nest stage.
________ 3. Preschool age corresponds to early childhood stage.
________ 4. Adolescence is middle and late adulthood stage.
________ 5. Teenage is middle childhood.
________ 6. Mastery of fundamental skills is a major concern during early
childhood.
________ 7. Play is a great need of children in middle childhood.
________ 8. Preparing children for school readiness is the major concern of
middle childhood.

Activity 2

Direction: Having mastered the developmental tasks of early childhood,

middle and late childhood, and adolescence, reflect on what you should do
as a teacher to facilitate your students’ acquisition of these developmental
tasks. Write down your reflections.
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The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles Page 24
 Activity 3

Direction: Show the developmental stages by means of drawing a diagram

inclusive of the age. Write also the outstanding characteristic trait and
developmental task of each developmental stage.

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The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles Page 25

 ISSUES
Lesson 3 ON
HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

Each of us has his/her own way of looking at our own and other people’s
development. These paradigms of human development while obviously
lacking in scholastic vigor, provide us with a conceptual framework for
understanding ourselves and others. Scholars have come up with their own
modes of human development. Back up by solid research, they take stand
on issues on human development.

In this course, we are going to learn about the three different issues in the
human development which are Nature vs. Nurture, Continuity vs.
Discontinuity, and All stability vs. All change. These issues characterize our life-
span development. We will be challenged and encouraged to take stand on
issues on human development that we had, have been, and will be facing in
the next future of time.

After studying this lesson, you should be able to:

 Identify the three different issues on human development

 Differentiate each issues and explain each characteristics
 Take a stand on the issues on human development

1. NATURE VS. NURTURE

In the context of the nature vs. nurture debate, “nature” refers to

biological/genetic predispositions’ impact on human traits, and nurture
describes the influence of learning and other influences from one’s
environment. The debate over whether the strengths and weaknesses of
people are the result of nature or nurture has, and somewhat continues to
rage on between scholars and lay people alike.

The nature versus nurture debate involves whether human behavior is

determined by the environment, either prenatal or during a person's life, or by
a person's genes. The alliterative expression "nature and nurture" in English has
been in use since at least the Elizabethan period and goes back to medieval
French.The nature versus nurture debate involves the extent to which
particular aspects of behavior are a product of either inherited (i.e., genetic)
or acquired (i.e., learned) influences. Nature is what we think of as pre-wiring
and is influenced by genetic inheritance and other biological factors.
The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles Page 26
 The initial use of the Nature vs. Nurture Theory was credited to
psychologist Sir Francis Galton in 1869 (Bynum, 2002). However, it is unclear
who initially described the impact of genes and biology versus environmental
influences.

How does nature vs. nurture affect our mental and physical health?

It is understood that certain physical traits, as well as the susceptibility to

most physical and mental health disorders tend to run in families. Specifically,
whatever illnesses your parents, grandparents, siblings, and other biological
family members have does not guarantee you will inherit them, but it does
increase the likelihood that you may develop them. On the other hand, it is
understood that environmental factors often have a significant effect on
whether or not you develop the health problems that run in your family. (You
can change your gene expressions).

 A couple of examples of how the environment (nurture) can provide a

benefit, and possibly decrease your risk in getting an illness from your
family are:

 If you are at risk for heart disease or diabetes, eat a

healthy diet and exercise.
 If you are at risk for other conditions, for example, breast or colon
cancer, get regular health screenings like mammograms and
colonoscopies per your doctor's recommendations.

 Examples of how negative environmental influences can affect genetic

expression include:

 Exposure to community violence increasing the likelihood of anxiety

 Depression and negative behaviors
 Children who are exposed to secondhand smoke may
develop cancers more often than those who do not have that
experience (Nesterak, 2015).

2. Continuity vs. Discontinuity

 Continuous development views development as a cumulative process,

gradually improving on existing skills. With this type of development, there
is gradual change. Consider, for example, a child’s physical growth:
adding inches to her height year by year.
In contrast, theorists who view development as discontinuous believe
that development takes place in unique stages: It occurs at specific
times or ages. With this type of development, the change is more
sudden, such as an infant’s ability to conceive object permanence.

The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles Page 27

 The continuity view says that change is gradual. Children become more
skillful in thinking, talking or acting much the same way as they get taller.

The discontinuity view sees development as more abrupt-a succession

of changes that produce different behaviors in different age-specific life
periods called stages.

 Continuous development sees our development as a cumulative process:

Changes are gradual.
On the other hand, discontinuous development sees
our development as taking place in specific steps or stages: Changes are
sudden.

3. All stability vs. All change

Stability implies personality traits present during infancy endure
throughout the lifespan. In contrast, change theorists argue that personalities
are modified by interactions with family, experiences at school, and
acculturation.This capacity for change is called plasticity.
For example, Rutter (1981) discovered than somber babies living in
understaffed orphanages often become cheerful and affectionate when
placed in socially stimulating adoptive homes.

Here is an interesting article titled “How the First Nine Months

Shape the Rest of Your Life” from the October 4, 2010 Issues of
Time Magazine.
Read, analyze then answer the following questions.

“How the First Nine Months Shape the Rest of Your Life”

What makes us the way we are? Why are some people predisposed to
be anxious, overweight or asthmatic? How is that some of us are prone to
heart attacks, diabetes or high blood pressure?
There’s a list conventional answers to these questions. We are the way we
are because it’s in our genes. We turn out the way we do because of our
childhood experiences. Or our health and well-being stem from the lifestyle
choices we make as adults.
But there’s another powerful source of influence you may not have
considered: your life as a fetus. The nutrition you received in the womb; the
pollutants, drugs and infection you were exposed to during gestation; your
mother’s health and state of mind while she was pregnant with you – all these
factors shaped you as a baby and continue to affect you to this day.

The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles Page 28

 This is the provocation contention of a field known as fetal origins,
whose pioneers assert that the nine months of gestation constitute the most
consequential period of our lives, PERMANENTLY (Underscoring, mine)
influencing the wiring of the brain and the functioning of organs such as the
heart, liver and pancreas. In the literature on the subject, which has
exploded over the past 10 years, you can find references to the fetal origins
of cancer, cardiovascular disease, allergies, asthma, hypertension, diabetes,
obesity, mental illness. At the farthest edge of fetal-origins research, scientists
are exploring the possibility that intrauterine conditions influence not only our
physical health but also our intelligence, temperament, even our sanity.

As a journalist who covers science, I was intrigued when I first heard about
fetal origins. But two years ago, when I began to delve more deeply into the
field, I had a more personal motivation: I was newly pregnant. If it was true
that my actions over the next nine months would affect my offspring for the
rest of his life, I needed to know more.

Of course, no woman who is pregnant today can escape hearing the

message that what she does affects her fetus. She hears it at doctor’s
appointments, sees it in the pregnancy guidebooks: Do eat this, don’t drink
that, be vigilant but never stressed. Expectant mothers could be forgiven for
feeling that pregnancy is just a nine-month slog, full of gilt and devoid of
pressure, and this research threatened to add to the burden.

But the scientist I met weren’t full of dire warnings but of the excitement of
discovery - and the hope that their discoveries would make a positive
difference. Research on fetal origins is prompting a revolutionary shift in
thinking about where human qualities come from and when they begin to
develop. It’s turning pregnancy into a scientific frontier: the National Institutes
of Health embarked last year on a multidecade study that will examine its
subjects before they’re born. And it makes the womb a promising target for
prevention, raising hopes of conquering public-health scourges like obesity
and heart disease through interventions before birth.

-Time Magazine. October 4, 2010

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 Does the article agree that heredity, environment and individual’s choice
are the factors that contribute to what a person may become? Read
and write that paragraph that tells so.
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 Read the 4th paragraph again. Focus your attention on the highlighted
word, PERMANENTLY. Relate this to the issue on stability versus change
issue on previous page. Does the word PERMANENTLY convince you that
we are what our first experience have made of us (stability)? Explain your
answer.
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The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles Page 30
 Activity No.1

As far as our discussions are concerned, which statement is correct and

which one is wrong?

Put a check ( √ ) before the correct statement and mark ( × ) the wrong one.
If you mark a statement (×), explain why.

1. Heredity exerts a greater influence on human development

than environment.
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_______________________________________________________________
2. What has been experienced in the earlier stages of
development can no longer be changed.
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3. From the perspective of life-span developmentalist, later
experiences are the key determinants of a person’s
development.
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Activity No. 2

REFLECTION

1. Relate what you learned here to your personal development. Reflect on

your own personal development. What has helped you become the
person that you are now? Is what you have become a product of the
mere interaction of heredity and environment? Or what you have
become a product of both heredity and environment interacting and
what you have decided or determined yourself to become? (Self-
determination or freedom is a third factor). Write your reflections.
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The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles Page 31

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Activity No. 3

Direction: Using a diagram, differentiate and explain each

issue on the human development. Give at least one example in
each issue.

1. Nature vs. Nurture

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The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles Page 33
2. Continuity vs. Discontinuity
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3. Stability vs. Change

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The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles Page 34

 Lesson 4 RESEARCH IN CHILD
AND
ADOLESCENT DEVELOPMENT

You may have a separate 3-unit course on research. This lesson is not
intended to be a substitute for that three-unit course. It is simply meant to
supplement what you got or will still get in the Research course.

As you may have noticed, most if not all of what is presented about the
development of the child and the adolescent are products of research. It
might interest you to know how these concept/theories researches were
arrived at. Or after having been exposed to a number of research cited in
this Course, hopefully, you may be so inspired that you, too, would like to start
conducting researches on you own or join a group for research.

After studying this lesson, you should be able to:

 explain the basic principles of research.

 demonstrate appreciation of the role of teachers as consumers
and producers of developmental research.
 read researches on child and adolescent development and make
simple research abstracts out of researches read.

ACTIVITY

Read each statement below. Do you agree/disagree with each

statement? Put a check mark √ to indicate your answer.

Statement Yes No
1. Research is only for those who plan to take master’s
degree or doctorate degrees.
2. Research is easy to do.
3. Research is all about giving questionnaires and
tallying the responses.
4. Research with one or two respondents is not a valid
research.
5. Teachers, because they are busy in their classrooms,
are expected to use existing research rather that
conduct their own research in the classroom.
6. There is no need to go into research because a lot
of researches have already been conducted.

The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles Page 35

 7. Students are mere users of knowledge arrived at by
research. It is not their task to conduct research.
8. Students do not possess the qualifications to
conduct research.
9. It is not worth conducting research considering the
time and money it requires.

ABSTRACTION

Your answers to the short questionnaire indicate your basic attitude about
research. As a pre-service teacher, it is important to have a positive regard
for research. Best practices in education are usually borne out of research.
Research informs practice.
All of the topics discussed in this book is, in one way or another, a product
of research. Research is a very reliable means for teachers to learn about
child and adolescent development. When conducted in an appropriate and
accurate manner, it becomes a strong basis for making decisions about the
things you will do as an effective teacher.

 Teachers as Consumer/End Users of Research

Research gives teachers and also policy-makers important knowledge to

use in decision-making for the benefit of learners and their families. Well-
informed teachers are able to use and integrate the most authoritative
research findings. Research enables teachers to come up with informed
decision on what to teach and how to teach. This involves decisions related
to educational policies, curriculum, effective teaching-learning processes,
and even those involving research, too. It can help us, teachers, to be more
knowledgeable about how to fit our teaching with the developmental levels
of our learners.

 Teachers as Researchers

The conduct of research does not only belong to thesis and dissertation
writers. It is for students and teachers, too. Let us learn how to conduct
research by finding out the different research principles and the research
methods and designs with focus on child and adolescent development.

 The Scientific Method

One important principle in research is adherence to the scientific

method, since research is a systematic and a logical process. As such,

The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles Page 36

researchers basically follow the scientific method. Dewey gave us 5 steps of
the scientific method. They are as follows:
1. Identify and define the problem
2. Determine the hypothesis
3. Collect and analyze data
4. Formulate conclusions
5. Apply conclusions to the original hypothesis

Simply explained, identifying the research problem is the first step. This is
followed by stating a tentative answer to the research problem called the
hypothesis. The hypothesis is also referred to as an “educated guess”. How
correct is your “educated guess” or “hypothesis”? If you research problem is
concerned with determining the cause of an effect or a phenomenon you
have to gather and analyze data derived from an experiment. This is true with
experimental research. However, if your research problem is concerned with
describing data and characteristics about the subjects or phenomenon you
are studying, you do not need to perform an experiment. This is descriptive
research. After analyzing the data, you formulate your conclusions.
Compare your conclusions to your original hypothesis to find out if your
original hypothesis is correct or not. If your original hypothesis jibes with your
finding and conclusion, affirm your hypothesis. If your original hypothesis does
not jibe with your findings and conclusions, reject your original hypothesis.

 Research Design

Researchers that are done with high level of quality and integrity provide
us with valuable information about child and adolescent development. To be
able to conduct quality research, it is important that you know various
research design and different data-gathering technique used by
developmental researchers. Some are given and described below:

Research Design Description Strengths Weaknesses

1. Case Study An in-depth look It provides Need to exercise
at an individual. information caution when
about an generalizing from
individual’s the information;
fears, hopes, the subject of a
fantasies, case study is
traumatic unique, with a
experiences, genetic make-
upbringing, up and
family experiences no

The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles Page 37

 relationships,one else shares;
health, and involves
anything that judgments of
helps a unknown
psychologist reliability, in that
understand that
usually no heck is
person’s made to see if
development other
(Santrock, 2002)
psychologists
agree with other
observations
(Santrock, 2002)
2. Correlational A research Useful because Because
Study design that the more correlational
determines strongly two research does
associations events are not involve the
correlated, the manipulation of
more we can factors, it is not a
predict one from dependable
the other. way to isolate
cause
(Kantowitz, et al,
2001 cited by
Santrock, 2002).
3. Experimental A research The only true Experimental
design that reliable method research is
determines of establishing limited to what is
cause-and- cause and observable,
effect effect. testable and
relationships. The manipulable.
experimental
method involves Failure to
manipulating achieve
one variable to randomization
determine if may limit the
changes in one extent to which
variable cause the study sample
changes in is representative
another of the parent
variable. This population and,
method relies on with it,
controlled generalizability
methods, of the findings of
random the study.
assignments and
the Experimentation
manipulation of with humans is

The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles Page 38

 variables to test subject to a
a hypothesis. number of
external
influences that
may dilute the
study results
(Donnan, 2002)

A further
limitations of
experimental
research is that
subjects may
change their
behavior or
respond in a
specific manner
simply because
of awareness of
being observed
– Hawthome
effect (Haughey,
1994; Clifford,
1997).
4. Naturalistic A research One of the The
Observation design that advantages of disadvantages
focuses on this type of of naturalistic
children’s research is that it observation
experiences in allows the include the fact
natural settings. researcher to that it can be
directly observe difficult to
This does not the subject in a determine the
involve any natural setting. exact cause of a
intervention or behavior and
manipulation on the experimenter
the part of the cannot control
researcher. This outside
technique variables.
involves
observing
subjects in their
natural
environment.
This type of
research is often
utilized in
situations where

The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles Page 39

 conducting lab
research is
unrealistic, cost-
prohibitive or
would unduly
affect the
subject’s
behavior.
5. Longitudinal This research Allows them to They are
design studies record and expensive and
and follows monitor time-consuming,
through a single developmental
group over a trends The longer the
period of time. study lasts, the
The same more subjects
individuals are drop out – they
studied over a move, get sick,
period of time, lose interest, etc.
usually several Subjects can
years or more. bias the
outcome of a
study, because
those who
remain may be
dissimilar to those
who drop out.
6. Cross- A research Allow them to It gives no
sectional strategy in which record and information
individuals of monitor about how
different ages developmental individuals
are compared trends. The charge or about
at one time. researcher does the stability of
not have to wait their
for the characteristics
individuals to (Santrock, 2002).
grow up or
become older.
7. Sequential This is the Allow them to It is complex,
combined cross- record and expensive, and
sectional and monitor time –
individual developmental consuming.
approaches to trends. It
learn about life- provides
span information that
development is impossible to
(Schaie, 1993 obtain from
cited by Satrock, cross-sectional

The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles Page 40

 2002). This starts or longitudinal
with a cross- approaches
sectional study alone (Santrock,
that includes 2002).
individuals of
different ages. A
number of
months or years
after the initial
assessment the
same individuals
are tested
again-this is the
longitudinal
aspect of the
design. At this
later time, a new
group of
subjects is
assessed at
each grade
level.
Action Research Action Research Appropriate in a Typically takes
is a reflective particular setting place in one
process of when the organization only
progressive purpose of study at a particular
problem solving is “to create time and could
led by changes & gain not be
individuals information on interpreted
working with processes and within different
others in teams outcome of the organizations in
or as part of a strategies used” the same way.
“community of (Hunt 1987). Therefore,
practice” to research findings
improve the way Uses different are hard
they address methods, can (impossible) to
issues and solve get the best out generalize.
problems of the different
(Wikipedia, the methods If research
free employed, if participants do
encyclopedia). done well. not feel they
understand and
In the context of Stakeholders are ‘own’ the
teaching, action included research project,
researches of throughout and this could lead to
teachers stem so researchers a potential
from their own are more likely conflict of

The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles Page 41

 questions about to make a interest between
and reflections ‘difference’. the researcher
on their and those
everyday participating in
classroom the organization,
practice. but also
between the
researchers with
some
participants, on
the one hand
and other
members of the
organization, on
the other.

 Data-Gathering Technique

Data-Gathering
Definition/Description
Technique

1. Observation Observations can be made in either laboratories

or materialistic settings. In naturalistic
observation, behavior is observed in the real
world like classrooms, home in neighborhood.
2. Physiological Certain indicators of children’s development
Measures such as, among others, heart rate, hormonal
levels, bone growth, body weight, and brain
activity are measured.
3. Standardized Test These are prepared test that assess individuals’
performance in different domains. These tests are
administered in a consistent manner.
4. Interviews and Involve asking the participants to provide
Questionnaire information about themselves based on the
interview or questionnaire given by the
researcher.

Gathering of data may be conducted through a

printed questionnaire, over the telephone, by
mail, in person, or on-line.

Information is obtained by utilizing standardized

procedures so that every participant is asked the
same questions in the same manner. It entails

The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles Page 42

 asking participants for information in some
structured format.
5. Life-History Records These are records of information about a lifetime
chronology of events and activities. They often
involve a combination of data records on
education, work, family, and residence. These
include public records or historical documents or
interviews with respondents.

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Ethic Principles
To serve the genuine purpose of research, teacher researchers are
subject to ethical principles. Just as we have the Code of Ethics that governs
the behavior of teachers, there also exist ethical standards that guide the
conduct of research. These ethical standards serve as reminders that as
researchers, we should strive to product the subjects of our study and to
maintain the integrity of our research. Details of these ethical principles are
found in documents such as the following:
1. Ethical standards of the American Educational Research
Association
http://www.aera.net/uploadedFiles/About_AERA/Ethical_Standards
/EthicalStandards.pdf
2. Ethical Standards for Research with Children – Society for Research
in Child Development (USA)
http://www.srcd.org/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&i
d=68&Itemid=110
3. Standards of the American Psychological Association Concerning
Research http://www.lcsc.edu/policy/Policy/1.112a.PDF

We invite you to read and reflect on them.

Common among the three standards given above are the following
considerations for researches conducted with young children and other
vulnerable population which are enumerated by the National Association for
the Education of Young Children (NAEYC).
Some key points are:
1. Research procedures must never harm children, physically or
psychologically.
2. Children and their families have the right to full information about the
research in which they may participate, including possible risks and
benefit. Their decisions to participate must be based on what is called
“informed consent”. There must be informed consent procedures with
research participants.
3. Children’s questions about the research should be answered in a
truthful manner and in ways that children can understand. Researchers
must be honest and clear in their communication.
4. There should be respect of privacy. Information obtained through
research with children should remain confidential. Researchers should
not disclose personal information or the identity of participants in
written or oral reports and discussions.

Impact of Teachers’ Research Involvement on Teachers

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 Research itself has proven that teachers have everything to gain and
nothing to lose when they get involved in the research process. Evidence
suggests that:
1. Teachers who have been involved in research may become more
reflective, more critical and analytical in their teaching, and more
open and committed to professional development (Oja & Pine
1989; Henson 1996; Keyes 2000; Rust 2007).
2. Participating in teacher research also helps teachers become more
deliberate in their decision-making and actions in the classroom.
3. Teacher research develops the professional dispositions of lifelong
learning, reflective and mindful teaching, and self-transformation
(Mills 2000; Stringer 2007).
4. Engaging in teacher research at any level may lead to rethinking
and reconstructing what it means to be a teacher or teacher
educator and, consequently, the way teachers relate to children
and students.
5. Teacher research has the potential to demonstrate to teachers and
prospective teachers that learning to teach is inherently connected
to learning to inquire (Borko, Liston, & Whitcomb 2007).

Teacher involvement in the conduct of teacher research shows a shift

from thinking about teacher research as something done to teachers to
something done by teachers (Zeichner 1999; Lampert 2000).

The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles Page 45

 Activity 1

Direction: Surf the internet for samples of research

abstracts/researches on child and adolescent development. Select one
research abstract then using the matrix given below, write the problem, the
research methodology, the findings and conclusions.

Problem Research Methodology

Source: (bibliographical entry format)

______________________________
Source
______________________________
Findings ______________________________ Conclusions
_

The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles Page 46

 Activity 2

Reflection

It is said that because teachers are overloaded with work, they usually
frown on the conduct of research. Reflect on the consequences of this
attitude. What can be done to prevent this? Write your reflections here.
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The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles Page 47

 Answers Key

 Pre-Assessment

1. d
2. k
3. a
4. g
5. j
6. f
7. b
8. e
9. c
10. h

The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles Page 48

SUMMARY

 Growth refers to the quantitative changes in an individual as the

processes in chronological age.
 Development refers to qualitative changes in an individual leading
to the individual’s maturation
 Factors influencing Growth and Development
 Maturation/Nature
 Environmental Influences/Nurture
 Eight stages of Human Development
 Pre-natal Stage
 Infancy (from birth to 2 years old)
 Early Childhood (3 to 5 years old)
 Middle and Late Childhood (6 to 12 years old)
 Adolescence (13 to 18vyears old)
 Early Adulthood (19 to 29 years old)
 Middle Adulthood (30 to 60 years old)
 Late Adulthood( 61 years and above)
 Issues on Human Development
 Nature vs. Nurture
 Continuity vs. Discontinuity
 Stability vs. Change

 Lifespan development explores how we change and grow from

conception to d e at h . T h is f iel d o f p s yc h ol o g y is s t u d ie d b y
developmental psychologists. They view development as a lifelong
process that can be studied scientifically across three developmental
domains: physical, cognitive development, and psychosocial. There
are several theories of development that focus on the following issues:
whether development is continuous or discontinuous, whether
development follows one course or many, and the relative influence of
n a t u r e v e r s u s n u r t u r e o n d e v e l o p m e n t .

The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles Page 49

References:

Acero, Victorina D., et.al, 2010, Child and Adolescent Development, REx
Book Store : Manila, Philippines.
Corpuz, Brenda B, et. al, 2010, Child and Adolescent Development;
Looking at Learners at Different Life Stages, Lorimar Publishing, Inc..

Other references (Website):

http://statpac.org/walonick/human-development.htm
https://sites.google.com/site/stagesofhumandevelopment/home/early-
childhood
https://www.slideshare.net/KimberlynMendoza/educ-201-issues-on-human-
development
https://www.slideshare.net/silvestrearenas2/module-4-research-in-child-and-
adolescent-development-bhel-and-
kevin#:~:text=Researches%20that%20are%20done%20with,about%20child%20
and%20adolescent%20development.&text=EXPERIMENTAL%20A%20research
%20design%20that,cause%20changes%20in%20another%20variable.

The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles Page 50