INTRODUCTION: KEY CONCEPTS IN ETHICS governing principles are outlined in what is

called constitution.
Ethics - is derived from the Greek word “ethos”,
 Rules produce a sense of justice among social
which means ‘character’ or manners.
beings.
- branch of philosophy that studies morality or  Rules are needed in order to keep the strong
the rightness or wrongness of human from dominating the weak that is to prevent
conduct. exploitation and domination. Without rules,
schemes in which those with the power
Montemayor (1994) - Proclaims that the importance
control the system, would take over.
of the study of ethics follows immediately from the
 Rules are essential for a healthy economic
importance of ethics itself.
system.
 1. Ethics is the practical science of the  Without rules regulating business, power
morality of human actions. would centralize around monopolies and
 2. Ethics is the science of human acts with threaten the strength and competitiveness of
reference to right and wrong. the system.
 3. Ethics is the scientific inquiry into the
principles of morality.
Moral Standards - Are norms that individuals or
 4. Ethics is the study of the rectitude of
groups have about the kinds of actions believed to be
human conduct
morally right or wrong, as well as the values placed
 5. Ethics is the human conduct from the
on what we believed to be morally good or morally
standpoint of morality.
bad.
 6. Ethics is the science which lays down the
principles of right living. Non-Moral Standards - Refer to standards by which
 7. Ethics is the practical science that guides us we judge what is good or bad and right or wrong in a
in our actions that we may live rightly and non-moral way.
well.
Dilemma - Refers to a situation in which a tough
 8. Ethics is normative and practical science,
decision has to be made between two or more
based on reason, which studies human
options, especially more or less equally undesirable
conduct and provides norm for its
ones
 natural integrity and honesty.
 9. According to Socrates, ethics is the Moral Dilemma - Also called ‘ethical dilemmas’,
investigation of life. moral dilemmas are situation in which a difficult
choice has to be made between two courses of
Ethics means right living and good moral character action, either of which entails transgressing a moral
and it is in good moral character that man finds his principle.
true worth and perfection.
Personal Dilemmas - Personal Dilemmas are those
experienced and resolved on the personal level.
Education is the harmonious development of the
whole man-of all man’s faculties: the moral, Organizational Dilemma - refer to ethical cases
intellectual, and physical powers in man. encountered and resolves by social organization.

Structural Dilemmas - refer to cases involving

network of institutions and operative theoretical
Rules- Protect social beings by regulating behaviour.
paradigms.
(Lifted from the book of De Guzman, (2017) -Ethics:
Principles of Ethical Behavior in Modern Society)
Only humans can be ETHICAL
 Rules build boundaries that place limits on
behaviour. Rules are usually coupled with a. Only human beings are rational, autonomous, and
means to impose consequences on those who self-conscious.
violate them. One of the reasons people
b. Only human beings can act morally and immorally.
follow accepted rules is to avoid negative
consequences. c. Only human beings are part of the moral
 Rules help to guarantee each person certain community
right and freedom.
 Rules form frameworks for society. Nations
are generally nations of laws and the
 - The common response in all societies to other
cultures is to judge them in terms of the values
and customs of their own familiar culture.

CULTURE: SOCIAL EXPERIENCE Culture is varied.

Culture - as defined by E.B. Taylor as “the sum total of - Culture tells us how we should dress based on
ideas, beliefs, values, material cultural equipment and our gender, but it allows us to dress in different
non-material aspects which man makes as a member of ways in different situations in order to
society.” communicate varied messages and statuses.
Clifford Geertz - refers to the important anthropological Culture no longer exists in isolation, it is organized and
work, Clyde Kluckhohn's Mirror for Man integrated and transmitted from generation to
1. “The total way of life of a people" generation.
2. "The social legacy the individual acquires from his - It is highly unlikely that there are any societies
group" still existing in total isolation from the outside
3. "a way of thinking, feeling, and believing" world. Even small, out-of-the-way tribal
4. “An abstraction from behavior"" societies are now being integrated to some
5. a theory on the part of the anthropologist about the extent into the global economy.
way in which a group of people in fact behave"
6. a "storehouse of pooled learning “
7. "a set of standardized orientations to recurrent CULTURE
problems “
FOLKWAYS/ RITUALS
8. “Learned behavior “
- are customary ways of doing things. Sometimes
9. “a mechanism for the normative regulation of
it is also called “repetitive ways of doing
behavior”
things”.
10. "a set of techniques for adjusting both to the
external environment and to other men “
SYMBOLS
11. "a precipitate of history “
- are anything that gives meaning to the culture.
12. “a behavioral map, sieve, or matrix”
LANGUAGE
- A system of organized symbols which allows
CHARACTER OF CULTURE communication with others particularly the
Culture Is an Adaptive Mechanism. dialect in the western language is an example.

- Culture has been a highly successful adaptive NORMS & MORES

mechanism for our species. It has given us a - refer to the standard set by society while social
major selective advantage in the competition deviation is an alleged break to the social order.
for survival with other life forms. On the other hand, Mores are norms also, but
with moral undertones.
Culture is learned.

- Since culture is non-instinctive, we are not LAWS

genetically programmed to learn a particular - these are institutionalized norms and mores
one. that were enacted by the state.

Culture is cumulative VALUES & BELIEFS

- are abstract concepts of what is important and
- Cultural evolution is due to the cumulative
worthwhile. Beliefs are the faith or trust of an
effect of culture. The progressively larger
individual.
human population was very likely both a
consequence and a cause of accelerating
cultural growth.
TWO KINDS OF CULTURE
Culture is stable yet dynamic.
Non-material Culture – is the intangible world of ideas
- While new cultural traits are added, some old created by members of society that span a wide range
ones are lost because they are no longer useful. of ideas from beliefs to religion.

CULTURE is a group product.

Material Culture - constitutes the tangible things Counter-culture – refers to cultural patterns that
created by members of the society ranging from strongly oppose those widely accepted within a society.
clothing to ornaments. (e.g in the 1960’s counter-culture among teenagers
reflect long hair, blue jeans, peace sign, rock and roll
music and drug abuse).

Cultural lag – when some parts of the society do not

change as fast as other parts and they are left behind.

FUNCTIONS OF CULTURE Culture Shock – inability to read meaning in one’s

surroundings, feeling of loss and isolation, unsure to act
• Culture provides behavioral patterns because of being outside the symbolic web of culture
that binds others.
• Culture maintains the biological functioning of
the group
CHAPTER 3
• Culture gives meaning and direction to one’s
existence DEVELOPING VIRTUE AS A HABIT
• Culture offers ready-made solutions to man’s
material and immaterial problems. MORAL AGENT
• Culture develops man’s attitude and values and - are those agents expected to meet the
gives him a conscience. demands of morality.

MORAL CHARACTER AND VIRTUES

- The term “character” is derived from the Greek
CULTURE DIVERSITY - It refers to the differentiation of
word “charakter” which was initially used as a
culture all over the world which means there is no right mark impressed upon a coin. It means a distinct
or wrong culture but there is an appropriate culture for mark or qualities by which one thing was
the needs of a specific group of people. distinguished from others.

VIRTUES
Subculture – refers to a smaller culture within a larger - "Virtues" are attitudes, dispositions, or
culture. These are cultural patterns that set apart some character traits that enable us to be and to act
segments of the society’s population. in ways that develop this potential.

Ethnocentrism – refers to the feeling or belief that

one’s culture is better than the rest. HOW DOES A PERSON DEVELOP VIRTUES?
- Virtues are developed through learning and
Xenocentrism – refers to the belief that one’s culture is
through practice.
inferior compared to others.
- Aristotle suggested, a person can improve his or
her character by practicing self-discipline, while
Ideal Culture – social patterns mandated by cultural
a good character can be corrupted by repeated
values and norms
self-indulgence.
Real culture – actual patterns that only approximate
cultural expectations.
EXCELLENCE OF THOUGHTS
High culture – refers to cultural patterns that - The excellences of thought include epistemic or
distinguish a society’s elite intellectual virtues.

Popular culture – cultural patterns that are widespread EXCELLENCES OF CHARACTER

among a society’s population. - Often translated as moral virtues or moral
excellence.

CULTURAL CHANGE - It refers to the manner by which MORAL CHARACTER

culture evolves. - Individual's disposition to think, feel, and
behave in an ethical versus unethical manner.

Culture diffusion – refers to the transfer or spread of

cultural traits from one area to another brought about THE CIRCULAR RELATION OF ACTS AND CHARACTER
by change agents such as people or the media. - The positive or negative way of a person views
the world.
 - A person's usual feeling towards something. • Self-love first.
- Natural mental and emotional attitude of a
person. • People are more focused on fulfilling
- The way a person naturally acts or behave in a their self-needs and desires.
certain event or circumstances. • What’s in it for me?
• Heinz should steal the drug because he
would feel gratified and happier
because his wife will be treated and
MORAL CHARACTER AS DISPOSITION live.
- When it comes to people with moral character
traits like virtue and vices are also called
dispositions. - Conventional Level
- A moral character which a person is showing a
Stage 3 Good Interpersonal Relationship
positive reactive attitude such as praise or
gratitude is a virtue. • Good Boy-Nice Girl
- A vice is amoral character trait for which is the
agent is showing of a negative attitude such as • People are more focused on doing the
resentment and blame. “right” acts, as dictated by society.
• What will others say/think of me?

STAGES OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT • Heinz should steal the drug because

he’s a good husband and it’s expected
LAWRENCE KOHLBERG of him to do this for his wife.
- American Psychologist and Educator • Heinz should not steal the drug because
- Served the US military during the Arab-Israeli people will frown upon his action and
War in 1948, where he was incarcerated. will call him a thief.
- Finished BA Psychology in University of Chicago
for only one year. Stage 4 Maintaining Social Order
- Drew inspiration from Piaget's Theory. • Law and Order
- Taught in various prestigious institutions such
as Harvard University. • People align their moralities on the
- Caught a parasitic infection in his travel in rules and regulation set by authorities.
Belize, making him paralyzed and in pain.
• Heinz should steal the drug but be
incarcerated because he broke the law.
ASSUMING YOU ARE HEINZ: • Heinz should not steal the drug because
- Your wife is dying. stealing is a crime, no matter what.
- There’s only one known cure.
- The drug is ten times more expensive than it’s
production cost and you cannot afford it. - Post-conventional Level
- If your wife doesn’t receive the drug, she will
die. Stage 5 Social Contract and Individual Rights
- What will you do? • Law: A Moderating Agent
• People respect the law but also believe
that people must agree to its standards.
THREE LEVELS OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT • Heinz should steal the drug because
saving a life is more important than the
- Pre-conventional Level
law or the profit of the chemist.
Moral reasoning came from what they observe around
them Stage 6 Universal Principles
• Own Principles Over Law
Stage 1 - Obedience and Punishment Orientation • People believed in democracy but also
- Avoid punishment. in disobeying unjust laws.
- Rules are fixed and absolute. • Heinz should steal the drug but not be
- Breaking them cause punishment. incarcerated because the law would be
- How can I avoid punishment? unjust if it penalized an individual for
- Heinz should not steal the drug because stealing saving a life.
is a crime punishable by the law. He could get
himself locked up in a prison.
- CRITICISMS WITH KOHLBERG’S THEORY

Stage 2 - Individualism and Exchange The dilemmas lack ecological validity.

The dilemma is hypothetical.
The sample is biased.