Chapter 1

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Cell and tissues

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The Wacky history of Cell theory Seven things all living things need to live with:
- Cells
Cell theory - Respiration
- water
• All organisms are components of one of more cells
- energy
• The cell is the basic unit of structure and
- response to environment
organizations in organisms
- growth
• All cells come from preexisting cells
- waste

History of microscopes:
About Antoni van Leeuwenhoek
wanted the microscope as well “The greatest debate of all
Made his own microscope time is the debate about if
Discovered bacteria through dental scrapings. the cell or egg came first..
Looked at practically everything that came out of the body It’s the egg then the cell and
then the chicken.” - Valance

Matthias Shleiden liked to study plants through a microscope. He figured

out all plants had cells.
Theodor Schwann Looked at animals through microscope, he came to the
conclusion that all animals have cell
Later on Rudolf Virchow
Both of them worked on cell theory.
Zachrias Jansen is said to have come up with the microscope.

Cell process
• it all starts with a cell Main idea: all cells are
- we have 110 quadrillion cells on and with you Made from pre-existing cells
- it will be bacteria and it’s on you and in you
• just like a car
- hundreds of complex part working together
- much more dangerous
• factory specs
- every cell is the same meaning if someone get even one cell of you they can make a entire different person
- thanks to DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)
 Plant cells
Animal cells
• Cell walls
• nucleus - support the cells to make sure it will stand
- is close to the centre and can be easily straight up
spotted protects the nucleolus and has a little bit - so in our bodies the bones and muscles
of dna that make up our bodies help ur do our daily
• cell membrane activities which include standings, walking,
- separates the interior of the cell from the and more
outside environment • nucleus
• Cytoplasm - the brain of the cell and contain DNA
- is a fluid that is in the cells that’s will help it - generally in the centre
move around and the mitochondria in float in the - they decide what happens to the cell
cytoplasm and ALLOW IT TO MOVE IT FREELY • Vacuoles
• Mitochondria - bubbles that floats in the cell and are more
- power house of the cell important in plant cells as plants have to wait
- breaks down food for energy for their food while animals can eat any time
-make sure everything has enough energy • ER (endoplasmic reticulum)
- having a food producer inside will make the - same as animal cell
living thing have more energy • Chloroplast
- looking like a kidney bean - help with photosynthesis
- the energy producer of the cell - and they bring in light, co2, and water
• Endoplasmic reticulum which will give out oxygen and sugar
- there are two types of ERs (endoplasmic • Golgi apparatus
reticulum) - processing and packaging proteins the
- smooth er - main function is to collect, that exit through the rough ER which is
maintain and transport things around the cell and transported out/ in of the cell
it creates steroids, it also stores Lon’s for the cell • Cell membrane
to keep nutrients balanced Border patrol and holds cell together
- rough er - has bumps, this er collects • nucleolus
proteins to build ribosomes and creates a bubble produce the cells ribosomes
to send them out again, vesicle is created to • ribosomes
transport material away Both RNA and protein is in the ribosomes
• Vacuoles • Mitochondria
- smaller in animals - power house of the cell
• Golgi apparatus: - breaks down food for energy
It is the recycling center -make sure everything has enough energy
Takes Large molecules and puts them in packs - having a food producer inside will make
called golgi vesicles which are reused or the living thing have more energy
released as waste - looking like a kidney bean
• nucleolus - the energy producer of the cell
produce the cells ribosomes • Cytoplasm
• ribosomes platform for the other organelles
Both RNA and protein is in the ri bosomes
• Lysosomes
the digestive system of the cell, killing things that
aren’t working and the only thing can can kill it
would be UV light; if we don’t wear sunscreen the
UV light will affect the Lysosomes of your skin
cells which can cause skin cancer
 Drawings for animal and plant cells
Animal cell

Mitochondria; powerhouse of the cell, breaks Cytoplasm; platform for the other
down food into energy shaped like a kidney organelles
bean

Golgi body: a recycling centre,

takes random cells to pack them Vacuoles: throw out waste
together so they can reuse it produces from the cell
protects from contamination
Smooth ER; maintain and transport
Lysosomes; the digestive system
things around the cell
of the cell
Ribosomes: making proteins
found both un nucleus and
Nucleolus: produce cell’s ribosomes er

Nucleus: control centre,

DNA replication

Rough ER; collects protein to build

ribosomes
 Plant cell Rough ER; collects protein to build
ribosomes

Cell wall; provides the

Nucleolus: produce cell’s ribosomes structure protects it
Nucleus: the brain of the cell, has
genetically information like DNA Cell membrane: protects with
the contents of interior cell
Smooth ER; maintain and transport
things around the cell

Cytoplasm: allows every

Mitochondria; powerhouse of organelle to function
the cell, breaks down food
into energy shaped like a
kidney bean
Vacuoles: structure to the
Chloroplast: focus of cell, maintains water balance
providing energy to the cell in plant cell

Golgi body: a recycling centre,

takes random cells to pack them
together so they can reuse it
 Chapter 3
• when a cell is reproduced it will always start with a cell
• a cell reproduction can be compared to a lot of things
• We as humans have one of the most complex reproductive
systems of a cell
• Cells are just like cars
• Hundreds of complex parts working together
• Much more dangerous if one part of the cell isn’t working it
could kill the entire cells which can cause cancer
• Cells are a factory species
• Every cell is built the same with its things like integral
protein
• Cells are multi talented
• Every cell can became anything within the system as they are
programmed the same
• Cancer is really unlucky as it is uncommon due to the fact
that there is always a Golgi body which can act like a
recycling centre along with a nucleus (brain of cell)
 TISSUES

Organs
tissues make up organs
organs make up organ systems
function of an organ system depends on the integrated activity of its organs
How do tissues turn into organs?
When different types of tissues are organised together to perform a complex function, it's called an organ.
The heart is an organ. It has muscle tissue, connective tissue, and nerve tissue all working together to pump
blood.
Organs can do more than one function and each function can be pretty complicated.
eyes sense colour, movement, and light.
biggest organ in (or on) the human body is the skin
it's a great example of layers of tissue working together to do several functions:
Holds in fluids
Regulates temperature
Senses heat, itch, pressure, pain
Produces hormones

organisation of the anatomy starts with these three building blocks.

Whether you're talking about delicate tissue of the brain or the hardness of bone
It's still made of cells banded together into tissue and organised into organs.

Tissues
cells of a certain type are grouped together, the resulting structure is called tissue.
There is muscle tissue, which is made of strands of muscle cells.
Adipose tissue is a tissue composed of fat cells (adipocytes).
Connective tissue is a term used for various types of tough, fibrous matter like tendons or ligaments.
Most of the time in first aid, we refer to tissues more than cells.
Cells are typically microscopic, while tissues can be seen and manipulated.
you look at a skin laceration to determine if it needs stitches,
you are looking at the skin and the adipose tissue underneath the skin.
Indeed, stitches hold together the tissue, not the individual cells.

Nervous Tissue: Transmits and receives impulses. The brain, spin, and nervous all
have nervous tissue.
Comedive Tissue: Supports and connects different parts or the body
Muscle Tissue: Contracts to cause motion.
Epithelial Tissue: Covers body & lines the inside of the organs

Protective Tissues: Covering on most plants that protect water & protect plants
Photosynthetic Tissues: Transform sun and energy into sugar
Transport Tissues: Hollow tube to move food & water through the plant
 Safety 1
I. General Laboratory Safety Practices
Personal Preparation:
Tie back hair to avoid interference with equipment.
Avoid loose clothing and jewelry that could pose risks.
Be mindful of sharp objects, such as saws, and avoid touching their sharp ends.
Choose clothing that doesn't impede the project.
Be aware of your surroundings at all times.
Behavior in the Lab:
Prioritize safety by adhering to safety protocols and wearing appropriate protective equipment.
Follow provided instructions, protocols, and guidelines.
Handle lab equipment carefully to prevent damage or contamination.
Maintain a clean and organized workspace to prevent cross-contamination.
Communicate effectively with colleagues and supervisors.
Promptly report accidents, spills, or incidents.
Follow proper waste disposal procedures.
Prepare materials in advance to minimize disruptions.
Efficiently manage time to meet deadlines and avoid rushed work.
Be prepared for unexpected issues during experiments.
Keep track of samples, reagents, and data to maintain order.
II. Workplace Hazardous Materials Information System (WHMIS)
Overview:
WHMIS stands for Workplace Hazardous Materials Information System.
It provides information on the safe use of hazardous products in the workplace.
Each WHMIS box is color-coded (blue, red, yellow, white) based on the level of danger (0 to 4).
Categories:
Health (Blue): Indicates potential health hazards, such as cancer, gene mutation, reproductive effects,
respiratory sensitivity, and organ toxicity.
Flammable (Red): Alerts to flammability, potential fire hazard, or inclusion of organic peroxides.
Chemical (Yellow): Indicates the presence of toxic chemicals causing skin, eye, or respiratory irritation.
III. Safety Tips for Each Tool
Saw:
Never clear scraps with bare hands.
Avoid loose clothing, jewelry; tie up hair.
Use a sharp blade with caution, wear eye protection.
Do not test saw teeth on hands.
Hold the saw by the handle, not the teeth.
Mark the cutting area before starting.
Take time when sawing; avoid rushing.
Hand Drill:
Wear safety glasses.
Avoid cutting on desks to prevent injuries.
Hot Glue Gun:
Avoid putting hot glue on hands or any body part.
Let glue dry before handling.
Drill Press:
Tie up hair to prevent entanglement.
Avoid wearing baggy clothing.
 Safety 2
IV. First Aid Procedures
Cuts:
Clean with mild soap and water.
Apply antiseptic ointment.
Cover with a sterile bandage.
Seek medical attention for deep cuts or signs of infection.
Burns:
Run cool water over the burn.
Cover loosely with a non-stick bandage.
Take pain relief if needed.
Consult a healthcare professional for severe burns.
Blood:
Apply direct pressure with a clean cloth.
Elevate the injured area.
Seek medical help if bleeding persists.
Eye Pain:
Rinse the eye with clean, lukewarm water.
Avoid rubbing.
Consult an eye specialist for persistent discomfort or injuries.
Note: Always prioritize safety and follow specific guidelines provided by supervisors or manuals.
STUDY GUIDE PHOTOSYNTHESIS FORMULA
Overview of Photosynthesis:
Definition: Photosynthesis is the process by which green plants, algae, and some bacteria convert light
energy into chemical energy in the form of glucose.
Equation: 6 CO2 + 6 H2O
Breakdown: 6 molecules of carbon dioxide and 6 molecules of water, with the help of sunlight, produce
glucose and release oxygen.
Location: Chloroplasts in plant cells.
2. Photosynthesis:
Photosynthesis primarily occurs during the day when sunlight is available.
Sunlight is a crucial factor as it provides energy for the conversion process.
Oxygen is released as a byproduct and is essential for sustaining life.
3. Respiration:
Respiration is the process where cells break down glucose to release energy.
Equation: C6 H12 O6 + 6 O2 =6 C O2 + 6 H2 O
During the night, plants undergo respiration to generate energy since photosynthesis is not actively
occurring.
4. Continuous Plant Activity:
Plants don't exclusively perform photosynthesis during the day; they also respire(respiration) at night.
Respiration ensures the plant's ongoing energy needs, even when sunlight is unavailable.
5. Carbon Dioxide Release at Night:
Plants release a small amount of carbon dioxide during respiration at night.
This is similar to humans who exhale carbon dioxide during breathing.
The amount released by plants is relatively low and unlikely to be harmful.
6. "Don't Sit Under the Tree at Night" Myth:
The caution about sitting under a tree at night is often based on the idea that trees release carbon
dioxide during respiration.
However, the amount released is minimal and not harmful to humans.
Comparing it to sharing space with another person who also releases carbon dioxide illustrates the
relative insignificance.
7. Importance of Oxygen:
The oxygen released during photosynthesis is vital for sustaining life on Earth.
Plants contribute significantly to the oxygen content in the atmosphere.
8. Relationship Between Photosynthesis and Respiration:
Photosynthesis and respiration are interconnected processes.
Oxygen produced during photosynthesis is used in respiration, and carbon dioxide released during
respiration is used in photosynthesis.
9. Environmental Impact:
Plants play a crucial role in maintaining the balance of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.
Understanding these processes helps in appreciating the importance of plant life for our environment.
10. Conclusion:
Photosynthesis and respiration are fundamental processes for plant survival.
Plants continuously balance these processes to meet their energy needs and contribute to the overall
well-being of the ecosystem.

SAFETY METHODS
Observing: Ex. you’re observing a flower grow
Questioning Ex. what nutrients does a plant need to grow
Hypothesis: Ex. it needs water to grow
Experiment: I planted 2 of the same plants one I watered and one I didn’t
Results: After a week, the flower that I didn’t water, died while the other one was healthy
Conclusion: Yes, my hypothesis was right in this scenario.
 Water cycle
10. 2 -Water cycle
Study Guide: "What is Water?"
I. Introduction to Water
Importance of Water:
Major towns and cities are built near large bodies of water.
Essential for drinking, recreational activities, firefighting, and irrigation of crops.
Water in Various Uses:
Drinking water (Figure 1a).
Sports played on frozen water (ice) like hockey (Figure 1b).
Firefighters use water to put out fires (Figure 1c).
Farmers irrigate crops with water (Figure 1d).
II. Describing Water
Characteristics of Water:
At room temperature, water is a liquid with no color, taste, or odor.
Acts as a universal solvent, dissolving various substances like salt, sugar, oxygen, and carbon dioxide.
Vital for life as plants and animals are largely composed of water.
Over half of the human body is water, facilitating transportation of substances and essential chemical
reactions.
III. Water as a Pure Substance or Mixture
Pure Water:
Clear, colorless, tasteless, and odorless.
Natural bodies of water may appear colored or have different tastes and odors due to dissolved
substances.
Most natural water is a mixture of pure water and other substances.

IV. The Water Particle

Particle Composition:
According to the particle theory of matter,
water is made up of identical water
particles.
Water particles consist of one oxygen
particle and two hydrogen particles joined
together

States of Water:
Water can exist as a solid (ice), liquid (water), or gas (water vapor).
Solid ice has a definite shape; particles can only vibrate.
Liquid water allows particles to move freely in all directions.
Water vapour has particles far apart, with high energy and rapid movement.

V. Conclusion:
Temperature and States of Water:
Consider the temperatures at which each state of water exists.
Reflect on where each state of water might be found on Earth.
 Water cycle
Explanation of Key Concepts:
Water Cycle Overview:
The water cycle is a continuous and self-renewing process on Earth, involving the movement of water through its
three states: solid, liquid, and gas.
Solar energy from the Sun powers the water cycle, driving processes like evaporation, condensation, precipitation,
and more.
Changes of State:
Melting: Solid water (ice) transforms into liquid water when it gains thermal energy. This process is evident in the
melting of ice cubes or winter snow.
Sublimation: Solid water transitions directly to a gas without becoming a liquid. An example is the disappearance
of snow without forming slush on crisp winter days.
Evaporation: Liquid water transforms into water vapour by gaining thermal energy. It occurs naturally, such as
when wet clothes dry on a washing line.
Condensation: Water vapour changes back into liquid water when losing thermal energy, forming dew or rain. This
process is observed in the water droplets on a cold can on a hot day.
Deposition: Water vapour transforms directly into a solid without becoming a liquid. High in the atmosphere, water
vapour can form snow without an intermediate liquid state.
Freezing: Liquid water becomes solid when losing thermal energy. Everyday examples include the freezing of
puddles, lakes, and ponds in colder temperatures.
Water Cycle in Nature:
Melting, Evaporation, and Sublimation:
Solid water sources include permanent ice, snow, and winter ice.
Liquid water falls as precipitation, forming runoff that flows into streams, rivers, and eventually the oceans.
Some liquid water seeps into the ground as groundwater, forming aquifers.
Surface water evaporates, and snow and ice sublime, contributing to the water cycle.
Condensation, Freezing, and Deposition:
Water vapour in the atmosphere causes condensation and deposition, forming clouds.
Clouds move with air currents, leading to collisions and precipitation (rain or snow).
Fallen snow accumulates as polar ice sheets, ice caps, and glaciers.
Surface water freezes and forms ice during low temperatures.
Water's Influence on Seasons:
Winter snow melts in spring, contributing to streams, rivers, and oceans.
Some snowmelt becomes groundwater.
Surface water evaporates, contributing to the continuous water cycle.
 Water cycle
Key Concepts:
Runoff: Water flowing over Earth's surface due to precipitation and snowmelt.
Groundwater: Water seeping through soil and rock, contributing to underground springs and wells.
Aquifer: A geological formation saturated with groundwater, acting as a water reservoir.
Water Table: The upper boundary of an aquifer, indicating where loose rock and soil below Earth's surface are
saturated with water.
Precipitation: Solid or liquid water falling to Earth's surface, including rain and snow.
Real-world Examples:
Walkerton Tragedy: Highlights the severe consequences of water contamination, emphasising the importance of water
safety and treatment.
Hydrotherapy at McMaster: Demonstrates how water is used for therapeutic purposes in healthcare, showcasing
practical applications beyond the natural environment.
Environmental Research at McMaster: Illustrates ongoing research efforts to understand and address water-related
challenges, emphasising the interdisciplinary nature of water studies.
Environmental Impact and Global Perspective:
Global Implications: Water management and pollution have far-reaching consequences, emphasising the
interconnectedness of human actions across the globe.
Sustainable Practices: Stresses the importance of adopting sustainable practices to ensure the responsible use and
conservation of water resources.
Conclusion:
Summarization: The study guide concludes by summarising the fundamental concepts related to water's various states
and the continuous water cycle.
Reiteration of Importance: Reinforces the critical importance of understanding water processes for environmental
health, sustainability, and the interconnectedness of natural and human systems.
Water cycle

Watersheds and Continental Divides

Gravity's Role:
Influence on Water Movement:
Gravity acts as a driving force, causing surface water and ice
to move downward.
The gravitational pull varies, leading to the fast flow of
water downhill and the slow movement of glacier ice.
Land Shape and Water Flow:
2. Topography's Impact:
The shape of the land determines the direction of water
flow.
Continental Divides act as natural boundaries, guiding water
to flow in distinct directions.
Formation of Continental Divides:
3. Geological Processes:
North America's geological history involved being submerged
in a shallow sea.
Over time, Earth's crust underwent buckling and heaving,
resulting in the formation of mountain ranges, particularly
the high points known as continental divides.
 WATER FLOW
Water Flow in Canada:
4. Diverse Flow Patterns:
Approximately 80% of Canada's surface water follows a northward or northeastward path.
This diverse flow includes water moving westward into the Pacific Ocean.
II. Watershed Protection and Cleanup
Great Lakes Basin:
5. Importance of the Basin:
The Great Lakes Basin serves as a massive watershed, encompassing Southern Ontario and northeastern
U.S.
All water within this basin converges to a common destination, emphasizing its environmental
interconnectedness.
Threats to Watersheds:
6. Pollution Sources and Effects:
Various pollutants threaten water quality, including industrial contaminants and agricultural runoff.
Dam construction alters natural water volumes, affecting ecosystems downstream.
Over-extraction for industry and bottled water depletes both surface water and groundwater resources.
Conservation Authorities (CAs):
7. Custodians of Watersheds:
Established in 1946, Conservation Authorities play a crucial role in managing and safeguarding local
watersheds.
They act as stewards, harmonizing human needs with environmental preservation through partnerships,
planning, and advisory roles.
Remedial Action Plans (RAPs):
8. Joint Efforts for Remediation:
The Great Lakes Water Quality Agreement of 1987 demonstrates collaborative efforts between Canada and
the U.S.
Identification of pollution hot spots led to the development of local RAPs, setting goals for restoration
projects.
 Water cycle
III. Bioremediation and Water Quality
Bioremediation:
9. Harnessing Natural Processes:
Bioremediation utilizes living organisms, such as bacteria, to break down and eliminate pollutants.
In the example of a pond contaminated with oil, specific bacteria are introduced to convert the oil into
harmless byproducts like carbon dioxide and water.
Metal Removal:
10. Unique Challenges with Metals:
- Micro-organisms struggle to decompose metals like mercury.
- Aquatic plants, on the other hand, play a crucial role in accumulating and removing metals from the
environment.
Sustainability and Wetlands:
11. Wetlands as Natural Filters:
- Wetlands act as natural water-cleaners, removing bacteria, waste solids, and excess nutrients.
- Protecting natural wetlands is not only essential for water quality but is often a more cost-effective
alternative to modern water treatment facilities.
IV. Study Questions:
Gravity:
Gravity moves water and ice downward, shaping land and influencing how fast water flows.
Continental Divides:
These are raised areas formed by Earth's crust moving, guiding water in different directions.
Great Lakes Basin:
A big watershed where all water goes to the Great Lakes, showing how water systems are connected.
Watershed Threats:
Problems like pollution, dams, and taking too much water can hurt water quality and change how much water
there is.
Conservation Authorities' Role:
Groups like Conservation Authorities help take care of local watersheds, balancing what people need with
protecting nature through teamwork and planning.
Pollution in the Great Lakes Basin:
Both countries worked together to fix pollution problems by finding issues and making plans to restore the
area.
Bioremediation:
Using living things to naturally clean up pollution in a way that's good for the environment.
Wetlands and Sustainability:
Wetlands are like natural cleaners, removing bad stuff from water and being a cheaper way to treat water
compared to other methods.
Microscope parts and diagram
 SYSTEMS
Cardiovascular system
The cardiovascular system comprises the heart and the circulatory system of blood vessels. The heart is composed
of four chambers; two atria and two ventricles. Blood enters the heart through the upper chambers of the left and
right atria and exits via the left and right ventricles. Heart valves prevent the backflow of blood.

Nervous system:

Nervous system controls how we interact with and respond to our environment, by controlling the function of the
organs in our other body systems. The nervous system organs are the brain, spinal cord and sensory organs. These
are connected by neurons, which act to transmit neural signals around the body.

DIgestive system:
The digestive system function is to degrade food into smaller and smaller compounds, until they can be absorbed
into the body and used as energy. It consists of a series of gastrointestinal tract organs and accessory digestive
organs.

Urinary system: is a body drainage system composed of the group of organs that produce and excrete urine. It
consists of the kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder and urethra.

Endocrine system:
The endocrine system is a collection of specialised organs (endocrine glands) scattered throughout the body that
act to produce hormones. The main organs of the endocrine system can be seen in the diagram below.

The lymphatic system :is a network of lymphatic vessels that drains excess tissue fluid (lymph) from the
intracellular fluid compartment, filters it through lymph nodes, exposes it to lymphocytes (white blood cells) of the
immune system and returns the fluid to the circulatory system. The lymphatic system consists of lymph, lymphatic
plexuses, lymphatic vessels, lymph nodes and lymphoid organs. The lymphatic system function is to; convey and
eliminate toxins and waste from the body; recirculate proteins; and defend the body from microorganisms.

The reproductive system:, or genital system, is a system of internal and external sex organs which work together
to contribute towards the reproduction process. Unlike other systems of organs, the genital system has significant
differences among sexes.

The integumentary system: is the set of organs that forms the external covering of the body. It includes the skin,
skin appendages, sweat glands and sensory receptors.
circulatory:
For example, the circulatory and digestive systems work together to deliver nutrients throughout the body. With
the exception of the reproductive system, each …
The circulatory system transports fluid throughout the body, providing the cells with a steady supply of oxygen and
nutrients and carrying away waste products
Gastrointestinal: (Digestive) System ... The pancreas, gallbladder, and liver are also part of this organ system.
The GI tract and the endocrine system have a lot …
Immune:
The immune system helps the body fight against infection and other diseases. It is listed last because, while it's
important for survival, all of its organs are ...