Project WRITE XI: An Easy Guide for Course Pack making and Module Development 1

COURSE OVERVIEW

This course is intended to introduce students to the various aspects of animal

science, through an exploration of the animal industries, the roles that animals serve in
society, and how cultural background (indigenous and non-indigenous) may influence the
interactions that occur between humans, animals, and their environment.

Through practical activities, students will begin to develop an appreciation of

animal management and safe handling techniques, including the parts and functions of the
body, nutrition, genetics, reproduction, production, slaughtering, processing, and
marketing.

Emphasis will be placed on the best evidence-based practices regarding the

maintenance, health, and welfare of farm animals. Students will also begin to develop skills
in scientific communication, critical thinking and inquiry in the context of animal science.

To deliver the desired outcomes of this course, there will be six modules included
in the course pack that include:

Module 1: Introduction
Module 2: Anatomy and Physiology 1
Module 3: Anatomy and Physiology 2
Module 4: Animal Nutrition
Module 5: Genetics and Livestock Improvement
Module 6: Slaughtering, Processing, and Marketing of Farm Animals
After completing all modules, learners are expected to:
• Explain the significance of animal science as a field in agriculture
• Describe the basic concepts and principles of animal physiology, breeding,
nutrition, slaughtering, processing and marketing of animal products as they
relate to animal productivity
• Demonstrate basic skills in formulating simple animal rations, slaughtering
animals and processing of products
Students are encouraged to engage in all the activities prescribed in all lessons as
this will facilitate learning. Also, it is expected that discipline, time-management, and
honesty be observed at all times since the course pack is self-paced. Try to set aside study
time for yourself every day; a little time each day is usually much more productive than
trying to cram at the last minute.
Your success in this course depends to a great extent on you. Good luck!

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Table of Contents

Course Overview ________________________________________________________2

Module 1 – Introduction by Hyde D. Nadela, Ph.D. ___________________________5
Lesson 1. Man, Animal and the Environment _______________________________6
Lesson 2. Development and Chalenges of the Animal Industry ________________13
Module 2 – Anatomy and Physiology I by Hyde D. Nadela, Ph.D. _______________21
Lesson 1. The Integumentary System ____________________________________22
Lesson 2. The Skeletal System _________________________________________25
Lesson 3. The Muscular System ________________________________________30
Lesson 4. The Nervous System ________________________________________34
Lesson 5. The Cardiovascular System ___________________________________39
Lesson 6. The Respiratory System _____________________________________45
Module 2 – Anatomy and Physiology II by Shirley S. Villanueva, Ph.D. ___________51
Lesson 1. The Endocrine System _______________________________________52
Lesson 2. Body Temperature Regulation _________________________________62
Lesson 3. The Reproductive System ____________________________________69
Lesson 4. The Excretory System _______________________________________78
Lesson 5. The Digestive System _______________________________________82
Module 3 – Animal Nutrition by Jonash A. Bunda, MSA and Shirley S.
Villanueva, Ph.D. _______________________________________________________94
Lesson 1. Introduction to Animal Nutrition ______________________________95
Lesson 2. Classes of Nutrients, Functions and Deficiency Symptoms _________107
Lesson 3. Digestion, Absorption & Metabolism __________________________129
Lesson 4. Nutrient Requirements of Farm Animals, Feeds and Feed Formulation
_____________________________________________________________________141
Module 4 – Animal Breeding and Livestock Improvement by Angie Poliquit, Ph.D. __155
Lesson 1. Genes and their Role in the Animal Productivity __________________163
Lesson 2. The Mechanics of Inheritance ________________________________169
Lesson 3. Gene in Population _________________________________________174
Lesson 4. Animal Breeding, Reproduction and Genetic Improvement of Animals 184

Project WRITE XI: An Easy Guide for Course Pack making and Module Development 3
Module 5 – Slaughtering, Processing and Marketing of Farm Animals by Fryan Allen
Subong, MSA __________________________________________________________154
Lesson 1. Slaughtering and Fabrication _________________________________155
Lesson 2. Composition of Meat, Milk and Eggs __________________________165
Lesson 3. Basic Principles of Proper Handling and Processing of Meat and Milk 175
Lesson 4. Marketing of Livestock and Livestock Products __________________183

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Module No. & Module 1: INTRODUCTION
Title
Module "Be fertile and multiply,
Overview fill the earth, and subdue it. Have
dominion over the fish of the sea,
the birds of the air and overall the
living things that move on earth'
God also said, "See, I give you
every seed-bearing plant all over
the earth and every tree that has
seed-bearing fruit on it to be your
food; and to all the animals of the
https://www.crosswalk.com/faith/bible-study/why-should-you-read-the-book-of-genesis-in-the-bible.html land, all the birds of the air and
all the living creatures that crawl on the ground, I give all the green plants
for food."
Genesis 1:28-29

Hello dear students, in this module, you will be introduced to animals'

role in humans and how they interrelate and impact the environment;
the many products utilities food animals provide. The coverage also
includes the development of the animal industry, its current status, and
the many challenges in both the Philippines and world setting. So better
get ready and be amazed by the many facets of animal science.

Module This module aims to:

Objectives/Out • Describe the interrelationship and role of plants, animals, and
comes man in the ecological system.
• Discuss the developments of the animal industry.
• Compare the extent of development of the swine, poultry,
small and large ruminants’ industry in the Philippines to the
world.

Lessons in the Lesson 1: Man, Animals, and Ecosystem

module Lesson 2: Development and Challenges of the Agriculture Industry

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Module No. Module 1: INTRODUCTION
and Title
Lesson No. Lesson 1: Man, Animals, and Ecosystem
and Title
Learning After you have studied this chapter, you should be able to:
Outcomes • Define animal science and all its allied sciences.
• Discuss the relationship of man, animals, and the ecosystem
• Determine the contributions of livestock to ecological services
• Discuss the impact of livestock production on the environment

Time Frame 1 hour

Introduction
Welcome to lesson 1 of module 1! This lesson introduces you
to the man's role in relation to plants and animals. As an animal
specialist/scientist in the future, you must know and understand the
history and sciences behind the ecosystem. Lesson 1 provides you with
reading activities and analysis to deepen your understanding and
connectivity about man, animals, and ecosystems. It is also essential to
express your thoughts and beliefs about the animal ecosystem and share
them with the class. So, enjoy and start reading!

Activity Let’s Review!

A food chain is an order that shows the flow of energy from one
organism to the other. In a community which has producers, consumers,
and decomposers, the energy flows in a specific pathway. Energy is not
created or destroyed. But it flows from one level to the other, through
different organisms. A network of food chains existing together in an
ecosystem is known as food web and generally a graphical
representation what-eats-what in an ecological community.

Create a food web by connecting arrows among the organisms in the

picture below.

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 Source:https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0048969720346702

Analysis Let’s Do the Math!

▪ List down each of the food chain you have created.

_________________________________________________
_________________________________________________
_________________________________________________
_________________________________________________
_________________________________________________
▪ Group the organisms into producers and consumers.
_________________________________________________
_________________________________________________
_________________________________________________
________________________________________________
▪ Do you agree that energy is neither created nor destroyed along
the food chain? Support your answer?
_________________________________________________
_________________________________________________
_________________________________________________
_________________________________________________

Abstraction What is Animal Science?

Animal Science is the study of the biology of animals that are under the
control of humankind.

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 • The combination of disciplines that together comprise the study
of domestic animals
• Described as the production and management of farm animals.

Livestock are animals kept on a farm such as cow, sheep, pig, goat, or
chicken.

Poultry are domesticated birds that are kept for eggs and meat.

Disciplines under Animal Science

Genetics- the science of heredity and the variation of inherited

characteristics.
Animal breeding - the use of biometry and genetics to improve farm
animal production.
Animal Nutrition- the study of nutrients and how the body uses them.
Animal Physiology - the study of the physical and chemical processes of
an animal or any of the animal's body systems or cells.
Animal Health - is the study of how diseases, parasites, and
environmental factors affect productivity and animal welfare.
Meat science - the science of handling, distributing, and marketing meat
and meat products.
Dairy product science – the science of providing milk and milk products
as food.
Biotechnology - a collective set of tools and applications of living
organisms, or parts of organisms, to make or modify products, improve
plants or animals, or develop microorganisms for specific uses.

Man, Animal and Ecosystem

In the beginning, man did not have to cultivate the land nor her
animals for his food. Fruits on the trees, eggs in the nest were plentiful
waiting only to be gathered, Animals on the range, and fish in the water
waiting to be caught. But in the course of his existence, the man felt that
nature's bounty was not enough to satisfy him. He decided that
somehow, he had to have control over its production. He cultivated that
land and herded animals for his food. But even as he worked hard on the
land, a famine came. People went hungry, and many perished. As part
of the ecological milieu, man and animals had much to do with it.

In an ecosystem, plants' and animals' continued growth depends

on maintaining the balance between the food producers (plants) and the
food consumers (animal and man).

Plants, through their photosynthetic activity, convert the sun's

energy into carbohydrates and fix nitrogen from the atmosphere and

Project WRITE XI: An Easy Guide for Course Pack making and Module Development 8
 convert them into proteins together with the other elements of the air,
water, and soil. Plants are, therefore, producers of energy and protein
foods. Animals, on the other hand, directly or indirectly consume plants
for their energy, growth, and reproduction. As consumers, some animals
feed only on plants (herbivores). Some feed on other animals only
(carnivores), and some feed on both plants and animals (omnivores).
Man is omnivorous.

While animals return part of the nutrients that they consume back
to the soil and eventually to the plants, they are much less than what they
withdraw from the plants. Much of the energy taken in by animals from
the plants is dissipated to the atmosphere during respiration. Thus, for a
given land area, the animal population's growth could introduce an
imbalance in the ecosystem in a way that could deplete the vegetation.

In a system where animals are produced in a pastoral system and

where the regrowth of vegetation is left entirely to nature, the land could
be easily over-grazed to the extent that animals continue to reproduce
and increase in number is not allowed to recover its average growth.
Indeed, in many parts of the world, which used to be lush vegetation
areas, have become deserts.

Aside from plants, animals are also sources of food energy for
man. But because of the dissipation of energy in the process of
conversion of plants and other feedstuffs into products, animals are poor
producers of food.

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 Solar
Energy

Water
Heat Loss to
Environment
Gaseous
Products to
PRODUCERS Atmosphere
Photosynthesizing
Plants
Atmospheric
Nitrogen
Soil Nutrients
Fixed N2

Humus
Nitrogen Fixing DECOMPOSERS
Bacteria

Dead
Animals Leached
Nutrients
Excreta
to Soil

Respired Gases Heat Loss from

to Atmosphere CONSUMERS
Herbivores Body to the
Environment
Carnivores

Omnivores

Fig. 1. Interrelationship of the various components of the ecosystem.

Picture Sources: https://study.com/academy/lesson/decomposers-lesson-for-kids-
definition-examples.html

Animal Contribution to Ecosystem Services

Livestock plays a unique role in providing ecosystem services and

is an essential part of many agro-ecosystems.

A. Provisioning services - are the products people obtain from

ecosystems.

• Livestock provides one-third of humanity's protein intake and

13 percent of all calories.
• Meat, milk, eggs, dairy products, and edible offal supply
essential protein, vitamins, and other micronutrients.
• Well-adapted breeds of ruminants provide food security for
people and livelihoods.
• Animals such as poultry and pigs recycle crop residues and
waste into nutritionally valuable foods.
• In developing countries, up to 2 billion people utilized animals
for transportation and draught power.
• About 15 percent of the nutrients applied as crop fertilizer
worldwide
came from animal manure and used as fuel in cooking stoves
and biogas production.

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 • The clothing industry relies on skins and fibers of animal
origin, with particular breeds providing products with unique
qualities.
• The global livestock gene pool serves as a model for adapting
and improving our food production systems.
• Animal-derived biochemicals derived from animals are utilized
for research and medical applications.

B. Regulating services are the benefits humans obtain from the

internal ecosystem processes that regulate our environment,
such as soil fertility.

• Browsing and grazing can increase land cover, plant

productivity, and biodiversity, reduces soil erosion, positive
effects on water infiltration and filtering, and increases
grassland's ability to capture carbon.
• Livestock plays a role in maintaining firebreaks or helps control
invasive species and weeds in rangelands while reducing
avalanches' risk in mountainous areas.
• Livestock recycle waste, fibrous vegetation, and crop residues
into readily available nutrients for human use and organic
matter for soil formation and plant growth.
• Livestock distribute nutrients contained in urine and dung as
they roam around.
• In mixed farming systems, livestock recycle waste and excess
biomass into valuable plant nutrition and useful produce.
Certain breeds are adapted to dry areas. Others can survive in
frigid climates or have the ability to navigate steep and rocky
terrain.

C. Supporting and habitat services - supporting services underpin

other ecosystem services. Habitat services refer to the role
ecosystems play in providing habitats for wild plants and
animals and maintaining healthy gene pools.

• In grassland landscapes, livestock grazing can be vital in

maintaining habitats for wild plants and animals by altering the
vegetation. Their selective feeding can help grow or allow
access to plant species and parts preferred by wildlife (feed
facilitation).

D. Cultural services- are the non-material benefits people obtain

from ecosystems through recreation, spiritual enrichment,
aesthetic experiences, cognitive development, a collective or
individual sense of belonging, reflection, and inspiration.

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 • Livestock infer social status and represent a socio-economic
safety-net. Animals as gifts, play a significant part in human
relations and social events such as weddings, funerals, and rites
of passage.
• Animal sacrifice and the consumption of blood, milk, and meat
play a part in religious ceremonies.
• Specific livestock species and breeds are identified with some
people's cultural identity, a bond that features in creation stories
and oral histories.
• Indigenous breed products that have particular tastes or textures
feature prominently in many local cuisines.
• Ponies, horses, donkeys, camels, and cattle provide for many
educational and recreational activities and are sometimes used to
attract tourists, either directly or as part of tourist destinations'
identity.
• Indigenous livestock species and breeds are associated with
unique knowledge systems and management practices,
accumulated over countless generations.

Environment Impact of Livestock Production

Deforestation

• The livestock sector is by far the single largest anthropogenic

user of land. Grazing occupies 26 percent of the Earth's terrestrial
surface, while feed crop production requires about a third of all
arable land.
• Expansion of grazing land for livestock is a critical factor in
deforestation, especially in Latin America: some 70 percent of
previously forested land in the Amazon is used as pasture.
• About 70 percent of all grazing land in dry areas is considered
degraded, mostly because of overgrazing, compaction, and
erosion attributable to livestock activity.

Global Warming

• Livestock are responsible for 18 percent of greenhouse gas

emissions, a more significant share than transport. It accounts
for nine percent of anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions due
to the expansion of pastures and arable land for feed crops.
• It generates even bigger shares of emissions of other gases with
more significant potential to warm the atmosphere: as much as
37 percent of anthropogenic methane, mostly from enteric
fermentation by ruminants, and 65 percent of anthropogenic
nitrous oxide, mostly from manure.

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 Water Pollution

• Livestock production also impacts the world's water supply

heavily, accounting for more than 8 percent of global human
water use, mainly for the irrigation of feed crops.
• Evidence suggests it is the largest sectoral source of water
pollutants, principally animal wastes, antibiotics, hormones,
chemicals from tanneries, fertilizers, and pesticides used for feed
crops, and sediments from eroded pastures.
• The sector also generates almost two-thirds of anthropogenic
ammonia, which contributes significantly to acid rain and
ecosystems' acidification.

Loss of Biodiversity

• The sheer quantity of animals being raised for human

consumption also poses a threat to the Earth's biodiversity.
Livestock account for about 20 percent of the total terrestrial
animal biomass and the land area they now occupy was once
habitat for wildlife.
• In 306 of the 825 terrestrial eco-regions identified by the
Worldwide Fund for Nature, livestock are identified as "a
current threat," while 23 of Conservation International's 35
"global hotspots for biodiversity" - characterized by severe
levels of habitat loss - are affected by livestock production.

Application Watch the video on “The Environmental Impact of Livestock” by

following the link https://youtu.be/VGJduwENNw4. Make a reaction
paper on how you can mitigate the impact of livestock farming on the
environment.

Closure Well-done! So, you have completed the activities and tasks for lesson
1. It is expected that you have gained insights and meaningful
experience. Now, you are already prepared to move to lesson 2 of this
module. Enjoy and keep working!

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Module No. Module 1: INTRODUCTION
and Title
Lesson No. Lesson 2: Development and Challenges of the Agriculture Industry
and Title
Learning After you have studied this chapter, you should be able to:
Outcomes • Relate the need for animal agriculture to feed the growing human
population
• Give an overview of the distribution of agricultural animals
worldwide.
• Describe the worldwide livestock revolution and its
implications.
Time Frame 1 hour
Introduction
Lesson 2 tackles on the need to produce food to feed the growing
population and status of the animal industry as it strives to produce the
products needed. Also, the challenges faced by the industry and its
possible solutions; and the prospects for further development will be part
of the topics to be discussed. So what are you waiting for? Let’s go!

Activity Let Do Some Thinking!

Watch the video “The Super Cows Making Israel Flow With
Milk” on this site
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=etyRZgEcKUs

After watching, fill up the PMI table below. PMI means “Plus”,
“Minus” and “Interesting.”

PLUS MINUS INTERESTING

Step 1. Consider the Plus Points

Project WRITE XI: An Easy Guide for Course Pack making and Module Development 14
 In this step, simply enumerate all of the positive things you can think of
the dairy farm technology adapted by Israel.

Step 2. Consider the Minus Points

In this step, enumerate all of the negative things you can think of.

Step 3. Consider the Interesting Points of the Situation.

In this step, enumerate all the interesting points that you can think of.
Rather than positive or negative, they are simply points of interest that
you should direct your attention to.

Analysis After filling up the PMI Table, consider answering the following
questions:

✓ What makes dairy cows in Israel one of the best producers of milk
in the world?
___________________________________________________
___________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
✓ Is the adaption of the technology good for the cows? How?
____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
_
✓ Will it benefit the environment? Why?
___________________________________________________
___________________________________________________
___________________________________________________

✓ Will the adaption of the innovative technology of Israel, guarantee

success of the dairy enterprise in the Philippines?
___________________________________________________
___________________________________________________
___________________________________________________

Make Your Conclusion.

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Abstraction Food security has been a critical driver of socio-political priorities
globally, regional, and national levels. The food and agricultural sectors
were faced with the permanent challenges of rising world population,
sustainability, and uneven income growth. These pause a problem of
increasing total food production, satisfying the diverse consumers'
demand, and meeting quality standards for safety, environment, welfare,
and ethic while keeping food affordable.

Animal Agriculture and Population Problem

• The world population was growing at a 2% annual rate from the

sixties to the eighties. Since then, the 2019 world's population has
reached 7.7 billion worldwide. Population growth remains the key
driver for food demand in the future, albeit at rates closer to 1%,
and the increasing per capita consumption.
• Consumption has been growing faster than the population in the
past two decades, resulting in increased consumption per capita.
• Income growth in emerging economies led to increased
consumption of higher-value products (meats and dairy products).
On the other hand, developed economies with a rise in societal and
environmental concerns have to lead to decreased red meat
consumption.
• In Asia and Africa, meat consumption growth has been
decelerating but remained stable in South America and the EU and
had strengthened in North America.

Animal Industry Status in the Philippines

At constant prices, the gross value added (GVA) for livestock was
PhP 232.534 billion while poultry and egg production were valued at PhP
179.875 billion in 2019. Other animal production was estimated at 70.909
billion. For livestock, GVA dropped by 0.8 percent from the positive
growth a year ago. Poultry and egg production had higher increment by
5.8 percent relative to last year’s record. GVA for other animal production
was highest at 31.8 percent. (Source: National Accounts of the
Philippines, PSA)

Philippine pork production decline by approximately 10 percent

in 2020, as African Swine Fever continues to spread throughout the
country. Imports of pork are likely to increase to augment the drop in
domestic production and as demand recovers from the decline seen at the
end of 2019. Chicken production in 2020, on the other hand, is expected
to grow, with broiler raisers ramping up production to offset the drop in
hog production. Cattle production is only seen to increase marginally in
2020, even as farm gate prices rise sharply, due to limited pastureland and

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 a lack of new breeding animals. The impact of COVID-19 in the
Philippines is likely to be in delayed shipments and supply disruptions.

The latest recorded livestock and poultry inventory by the

Philippine Statistics Authority (PSA) are as follows:

• As of January 1, 2020, a total of 2.54 million cattle was recorded,

a 0.3 percent rise from the previous year. The total cattle
production from January to March 2020 is estimated at 61.02
thousand metric tons, liveweight. It decreased by 0.5 percent
compared with the 2019 same quarter output of 61.31 thousand
metric tons, liveweight.
• As of April 01, 2020, the total swine inventory was registered at
12.71 million heads, about 0.2 percent lower than the 12.73
million heads stocks in the same period of 2019. The swine
population in backyard farms posted a decrease of 1.8 percent,
while commercial farms' shares registered an increase of 2.6
percent. The total hog production from January to March 2020 is
estimated at 571.26 thousand metric tons, liveweight.
• As of January 01, 2020, the total goat inventory was 1.5 percent
higher compared last year and estimated at 3.81 million heads.The
total goat production from January to March 2020 was estimated
at 19.07 thousand metric tons, liveweight. It is about 1.1 percent
higher than the previous year's same quarter output of 18.87
thousand metric tons, liveweight.
• As of April 01, 2020, the total inventory of chicken was recorded
at 185.58 million birds, higher by 0.4 percent from the 184.86
million birds recorded in the same period of the previous year.
From January to March 2020, total chicken production is
estimated at 474.01 thousand metric tons, liveweight, about 3.3
percent higher than the 2019 same quarter output of 459.06
thousand metric tons, liveweight.

Table 1. Inventory of livestock and poultry in the Philippines, 2011-2020

ANIMAL TYPE
YEAR Cattle Goat Hog Chicken
2011 2,518,000 3,882,000 12,303,000 162,813,000
2012 2,493,000 3,715,000 11,863,000 164,192,000
2013 2,498,000 3,694,000 11,843,000 166,386,000
2014 2,512,000 3,696,000 11,802,000 167,671,000
2015 2,534,000 3,674,000 12,000,000 176,469,000
2016 2,554,000 3,663,000 12,479,000 178,793,000
2017 2,548,000 3,710,000 12,428,000 175,317,000
2018 2,554,000 3,725,000 12,604,000 175,772,000
2019 2,535,000 3,756,000 12,709,000 186,370,000
2020 2,542,000 3,813,000 12,796,000 178,265,000
Source: Philippine Statistics Authority

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 World Consumption of Meat and Dairy Products

• The largest beef consumers can be found in North America (above

35 kg/capita), followed by South America (below 35 kg), Oceania
(above 20 kg), with the EU and the Black Sea at lower levels (15
kg). In Asia, where consumption reaches only 5 kilograms per
capita while in Africa, beef consumption is more traditional, but
limited slightly above 5 kg per capita.
• The EU is by far the largest consumer of pigmeat per capita, which
is its preferred meat (above 40 kg/capita), followed by North
America (below 30 kg), Black Sea and Oceania (around 20 kg).
Pork is also the favoured meat in Asia, where consumption
increased significantly over time to above 15 kg per capita by
2020. In Africa on the other hand, pork is not traditionally eaten.
• The African Swine Fever outbreak in Asia led to a significant drop
in production (and consumption) and higher imports in the region
and, more particularly, in China.
• Poultry meat consumption increases significantly in all regions of
the world and gains over the other meats (especially beef) because
it is cheaper and more convenient. It is now the first eaten meat in
the Americas, Oceania and Africa. The largest consumer is North
America (above 50 kg/capita), followed by South America (above
40 kg), Oceania (below 40 kg) and the EU (above 25 kg). In Asia
and Africa, the per capita intake is smaller but growing fast to 10
kg and 6 kg respectively.
• The EU and North America are the largest users of dairy products
with around 270 kg of milk equivalent per capita. 3 In Oceania,
consumption is slightly lower as well as in the Black Sea. In South
America, consumption grew to 150 kg per capita. In Asia,
consumption rose significantly to 70 kg per capita by 2020. In
Africa, the per capita consumption remains stable (below 50 kg)
but population growth leads to a significant increase in total use
and a more profound deficit, as production does not keep up with
demand. Only South Africa is self-sufficient. The rising import
needs of Asia (especially of China) mainly drive the world trade
developments. The leading suppliers of dairy products are
Oceania, the EU and North America. Oceania exports 200 % of its
use (and New Zealand 90 % of its production). In the EU, the
surplus reaches more than 10 % of use.

The animal industry is broken down into three major areas: production,
supplies and services, processing, and marketing.

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 BREEDING
STOCK
IMPORTATION
FEEDSTUFFS
FEEDMILLERS
IMPORTATION
BREEDER
FARMS

MIDDLEMEN PROCESSORS MARKET

VETERINARY VETERINARY
DRUGS & DRUGS &
CHEMICAL OTHER
IMPORTATION IMPORT PRODUCTION
SUPPLIERS FARMS

SMALLHOLD
FARMS

EQUIPMENT LIVESTOCK
IMPORTATION EQUIPMENT
SUPPLIERS

Fig.1. Schematic diagram of the Philippine Animal Industry

Challenges Facing the Animal Industry

Constraints
• Prolong droughts in some parts of the world in the United States
of America, the EuropeanPRODUCTION
Union,
FARMS
and Australia.
• The spread of the African Swine Fever (ASF) and associated
import restrictions
• The spread of the highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI)
• Global antimicrobial standards
• Animal welfare compliance
• Strict environmental regulations
• Higher tariffs on imported soybean and increased maize prices

Possible Solutions
• Innovative systems that protect and enhance the natural resource
base while increasing productivity.
• Transformative process towards 'holistic' approaches, such as
agroecology, agro-forestry, climate-smart agriculture and
conservation agriculture, which also build upon indigenous and
traditional knowledge.
• Technological improvements, along with drastic cuts in economy-
wide and agricultural fossil fuel use, would help address climate
change and the intensification of natural hazards, which affect all
ecosystems and every aspect of human life.
• Greater international collaboration is needed to prevent emerging
transboundary agriculture and food system threats, such as pests
and diseases.

Prospects

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 • Abundant global export supplies and market demand
• Continuing increase of urbanized population with higher incomes
and changing food habits
• Improvements to grandparent stocks
• Increase support from the government for expansion
• Abundant global export supplies and market demand
• Continuing increase of urbanized population with higher incomes
and changing food habits
• Improvements to grandparent stocks
• Increase support from the government for expansion

Application Make an infographic on the latest innovation in animal farming that will
help improve productivity and yet does not harm the environment.

Closure Congrats! You have just completed Module 1 of this course. It is hoped
that having a clear picture of the Animal Agriculture in the Philippines,
you will have greater understanding of the importance of the industry to
nation building. Brace up for the next lesson on the Anatomy and
Physiology of Farm Animals.

MODULE ASSESSMENT
MODULE SUMMARY
• Animal Science is the study of the biology of animals that are under the control of
humankind. Its allied disciplines include genetics, animal breeding, animal
nutrition, animal health, meat science, dairy science and biotechnology among
others.
• Livestock plays a unique role in providing ecosystem services and is an essential
part of many agro-ecosystems.
• Animal production maybe important in feeding the growing population but it also
has its downside that brought damage to the environment like deforestation, global
warming, water pollution and loss of biodiversity.
• The world population was growing at a 2% annual rate from the sixties to the
eighties. Since then, the 2019 world's population has reached 7.7 billion worldwide.
Population growth remains the key driver for food demand in the future, albeit at
rates closer to 1%, and the increasing per capita consumption.
• As of January 1, 2020, a total of 2.54 million cattle and 3.81 million goats was
recorded. While the total chicken and swine inventory were 185.58 million birds
and 12.71 million heads, respectively (as of April, 2020).
• At constant prices, the gross value added (GVA) for livestock was PhP 232.534
billion while poultry and egg production were valued at PhP 179.875 billion in
2019. Other animal production was estimated at 70.909 billion.

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 •
REFERENCES
Animal Science and Dairy Cluster. Lecture Syllabus in Animal Science 1: Introduction to
Animal Science. University of the Philippines Los Baños, College, Laguna.
Damron, W. Stephen.2020. Introduction to Animal Science: Global, Biological, Social and
Industry Perspectives (6th Edition). Pearson Education, Inc. pp.4-13.
http://www.fao.org/ecosystem-services-biodiversity/background/regulating-services/en/
http://ec.europa.eu/agriculture/markets-and-prices/index_en.htm
https://psa.gov.ph/sites/default/files/Publication-AIS-Eco-Growth-signed.pdf
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=etyRZgEcKUs

Project WRITE XI: An Easy Guide for Course Pack making and Module Development 21
Module No. & Title Module 2: ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY I

Module Overview Animal Science students need to have a firm grasp of the normal
structure of an animal’s body and how it functions before they
can develop the best possible ways of maintaining a healthy and
productive herd or flock. Familiarization can help prevent the
occurrence of diseases and injuries.

This module describes the structure of the animal’s body and the
way in which it works. Animals encountered in normal animal
husbandry practice are used as examples whenever possible. The
module is divided into six lessons.

Module Upon completion of this module, you must be able to:

Objectives/Outcomes • Identify the different parts of an organ system both internal
and external
• Interrelate the functions of the different organs system
• Discuss the regulatory role of the nervous and endocrine
system to the function of other organ systems
Lessons in the Lesson 1: The Integumentary System
module Lesson 2: The Skeletal System
Lesson 3: The Muscular System
Lesson 4: The Nervous System
Lesson 5: The Cardiovascular System
Lesson 6: The Respiratory System

Module No. Module 2: Anatomy and Physiology I

and Title
Lesson No. Lesson 1. The Integumentary System
and Title
Learning At the end of this lesson, you must be able to:
Outcomes • Explain the function of the skin and its appendages
• Discuss the significance of the skin and its appendages in the
identification and classification of the animals as well as in the
determination of its health status

Time Frame 1.5 hours

Introduction The food that we eat usually comes from domesticated animals raised
for their meat, egg, and milk. To be able to produce them in large
numbers, cattle, pigs, goats, sheep, chicken, etc. should be well-cared
and should remain healthy and productive. The skin is one of the first
systems affected when an animal becomes sick so it is important for

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 anyone working with animals to have a sound knowledge of the
structure and functioning of the skin so they can quickly recognize
signs of disease.

Activity
Match the Horse!
Let see if you can match the color of the horse with the pictures shown
below. Write the letter that corresponds to your answer inside the box.
a. Palomino b. Bay c. Appaloosa d. Dapple gray

Analysis ▪ What makes the animal differ in their skin coloring?

__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________

▪ What do you think is the importance of skin color and markings

in determining the identity of the animal?
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________

The Integumentary System

Abstraction
Integumentary System is composed of the skin and many different
tissue modifications such as the hair, horn, feather, etc. are, in fact, the
largest organ of the body. It performs many functions that are important
in maintaining homeostasis in the body.

Dermatology – the study of the integumentary system

Functions of Skin
a. Protection of sensitive tissues
b. Prevents the penetration of toxic liquids and gases
c. Protects the body from the adverse effects of light.
d. Regulates body temperature
e. Contains ergosterol which helps form vitamin d.

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 f. An organ of touch, heat, and pain
g. Prevents delicate tissues from dying

Significance of the Skin

a. Identification of the sex, breed, class, type, or species of the
animal
b. The basis for selection, judging, and culling
c. The basis for buying and marketing stocks
d. The basis on the determination of the animal’s condition
whether it is healthy (shiny and smooth) or not (dull and
rough).

Layers of Skin
a. Epidermis or cuticle
- outer layer and
composed of
stratified epithelial
cells of varying
thickness, devoid of
blood vessels
b. Dermis or corium -
with blood vessels,
nerves, hair
follicles, muscle
fibers and glands Fig. 1. Layers of the skin

Glands of the Skin Sweat or sudoriferous glands

- Eliminates body wastes in a form of sweat and cools off the
body
- Horse sweat on their body; pigs in their snout; and carabao on
their muzzle
a. Sebaceous glands
- Secrets oily substances (sebum) that lubricates hair and skin;
lessens evaporation of water from the body, and contains a
precursor of vit. D

Cerumen – a kind of sebum in the ear (wax) that discourages insects

and prevents the passage of foreign bodies into the ear

Subcutaneous Tissue—also called the superficial fascia; consist of

areolar tissue and adipose tissue that connect the skin to muscles

Appendages of the Skin

a. Hoof - horny covering of the distal and the digit
- Cloven hooves (e.g. cattle, carabao, goat, etc.)

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 - Solid hooves (e.g. horse and some swine)
b. Horns - encloses the horn processes of the frontal bone
c. Hair
- the general surface covering of the animal body
- function in identification through its color/shades of color
- Cowlicks are hair on the body of the animal that converges
to form hair streams and vortices that is used as requisites
in the registration of large animals
- has adaptive functions relative to the temperature regulation
of the animal body
- Arrector pili muscle is a small muscle that makes the hair
“stand up” when the animal is frightened or cold
- Hair color - due to the pigment melanin (cortex):
pheomelanin and eumelanin
• Pheomelanin – iron-rich pigment colors hair that gives
hair a yellow-blonde to red shades
• Eumelanin – determine darkness of the hair
subtypes: black and brown eumelanin
o Blond - less concentration of brown eumelanin
o Brown - more concentration of brown
eumelanin
o Gray - less concentration of black eumelanin
o Black - more concentration of black eumelanin

List down at least 10 breeds of cattle, swine, goat, and chicken with
Application their distinguishing physical features.

What a good start! Hope you have gain insights on the importance of
Closure knowing the integumentary system. This is just the beginning of the
exploration of the wonderful structure of the body. Be prepared as we
further discover the next organ system which is the skeletal system.

Module No. Module 2: Anatomy and Physiology I

and Title
Lesson No. Lesson 2. The Skeletal System
and Title
Learning
Outcomes After completing this lesson, you are expected to:
• Identify the parts of the skeletal system
• Discuss the bone functions and processes of bone formation
• Differentiate the types of fractures
1.5 hours

Introduction

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 Imagine if you do not have bones in your body, will you be able to stand,
walk, run, jump, or do any of the usual activities that you are accustomed
to? Without the skeleton, our body would be much like a jellyfish that is
out of the water. Let us explore the skeletal system in Lesson 2.

Activity Direction:

Complete the bone-

word puzzle by
filling in the boxes
with letters forming
the name of the
bones described by
the clues listed
below. Have fun and
will see if you can
complete the puzzle!

Across Down
1. Fingerbone 1. Kneecap
4. Wishbone 2. Protects the brain
6. Jawbone 3. Clavicle
7. Protect the thorax 5. Upper arm

1. What do you think is the most important bone in your body and what
Analysis makes it so significant?
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
2. What will happen if you are born without bones?
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________

The Skeletal System

Abstraction
The skeletal system is consisting of bones and cartilages that provides a
framework for the body and actively contributes to the maintenance of its
internal environment.
Skeleton - the framework of hard structures that support and protect
the soft tissues of animals and is considered the largest component of the
adult mammalian’s body.

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 Osteology - the study of the bones which collectively make up the
skeleton

Divisions of the Skeleton

a. Axial skeleton - includes the skull, spinal column, or vertebrae
(cervical, thoracic, lumbar, sacral, and caudal/coccygeal), and
ribs.
b. Appendicular skeleton - includes the appendages (forelimb and
hindlimb), pelvic girdle, and shoulder girdle.
c. Visceral skeleton – consists of bones that developed in soft
tissues of certain organs – os rostri (snout in pig); os cordis (
heart of cattle and sheep); os penis (penis in dog)

Classification of Bones
a. Long bones - elongated, cylindrical form with two enlarged
extremities; function as lever and aids in locomotion and
prehension
Examples: Femur, Humerus, Radius, Ulna, Tibia
b. Short bones - equal dimension in length, width, and
thickness; helps in absorbing concussion
Example: Carpus and Tarsus
c. Flat bones - expanded in two directions and are thin; protects
vital organs and serves as an attachment for muscles
Example: Bones of the skull, scapula, and Pelvic bones
d. Irregular bones - unpaired, irregularly shaped and located in
the median plane; protect and support and serves for muscle
attachment
Example: Vertebrae
e. Sesamoid bones – developed along the course of tendons; help
diminish the impact of friction or change the course of tendons
Example: Patella
f. Pneumatic Bones – the presence of air spaces or sinuses that
communicate with the exterior
Example: present in flying birds; maxillary and frontal bones

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 Source: https://training.seer.cancer.gov/anatomy/skeletal/classification.html

Fig. 2. Parts of a long bone

Functions of Bones
a. Protection of vital organs
b. Gives rigidity and form to the body
c. Acts as levers
d. Storage of minerals
e. Site for blood formation

Osteoblasts - bone-producing cells

Osteoclasts - bone-destroying cells

Osteogenesis - the process by which bone is formed through the

secretory activity of the osteoblasts. In the embryo, it occurs in two
ways:
a. Intramembranous Ossification: bone develops in pre-existing
mesenchymal connective tissue (bones of this type are called
membrane bones)
b. Endochondral Ossification: bones that developed from pre-
existing cartilage (e.g. long bones like femur and humerus). This
type of bone growth is responsible for the longitudinal growth of
bones

Epiphyseal Plate (Epiphyseal Line) - site of bone growth as seen in long

bones. Composed of different zones:
a. zone of growth
b. zone of cartilage transformation
c. zone of ossification

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 Connective Tissues - the tissue that connects, supports, binds, or separates
other tissues or organs, typically having relatively few cells embedded in
an amorphous matrix, often with collagen or other fibers, and including
cartilaginous, fatty, and elastic tissues.

Four forms of connective tissue that are found in vertebrate

endoskeletons:
1. Bone: The main structural tissue found in most vertebrates. In
addition to forming the skeletal framework, bones are the site of
blood cell production.
2. Cartilage: Padding for joints in most vertebrates, and the main
structural tissue for some aquatic organisms that do not possess
bones, such as sharks.
3. Tendons: Tissue that joins bone to the muscle.
4. Ligaments: Tissue that connects bones

D. Structure of Bones
Consists of an external shell of dense compact substance, within
which is the more loosely arranged spongy substance and having two
membranes:
a. Periosteum - invests the outer surface of the bone
b. Endosteum - a thin fibrous membrane which lines the medullary
cavity

Fracture of Bones
Fracture – a break in the continuity of the bone
Types of Fractures
a. Simple fracture - the skin over the fracture site is not broken
b. Compound fracture - a wound from the exterior contacts the
bone at the point of fracture; caused by the broken end of bone
perforating the skin
c. Greenstick fracture - one side of the bone is broken or splintered,
and the other side only bent; found only in young animals
d. Epiphyseal fracture - occurs at the junction of an epiphysis and
the diaphysis of a bone; limited to young animals

Joints - the articulations (union) between bones Arthrology is the study

of joints and articulations.
Kinds of Joints:
a. Synarthroses - immovable joints
• Suture- junction bet. the bones of the skull
• Gomphosis- articulations of the teeth and their socket
• Synchondrosis- uniting medium is cartilage
• Synostosis – the uniting medium is bone
b. Amphiarthroses - slightly movable joints

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 • Symphysis- median-line joints united by fibrocartilage
• Syndesmoses- united by fibrous tissues
c. Diarthroses - freely movable joints; the true joints and are also
called synovial joints

Label the parts of the skeletal system of the chicken.

Application

Fig. 3. Skeletal system of chicken

Source: Hans-vander-lubbe@pixel.com
Good work! You have just finished exploring the skeletal system. This
Closure time, you will be amazed as to how the skeleton aids in locomotion
together with the muscular system, which is the next lesson in this
module.

Module No. Module 2: Anatomy and Physiology I

and Title
Lesson No. Lesson 3. The Muscular System
and Title
Learning After finishing this lesson, you are expected to:
Outcomes Differentiate the kinds of muscle tissue and its functions
Describe the structure of the muscle
Discuss the steps in muscle contraction
Time 2 hours
Frame

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Introductio Imagine if you do not have muscles in your body. Probably, you will just
n be lying down doing nothing. Walking, jumping, running, or any
movement activity requires muscles. To know more about how muscle
works, let us explore Lesson 3 of this module.

Activity List down 10 activities that you loved doing.

1. 6.
2. 7.
3. 8.
4. 9.
5. 10.

Analysis 1. How many among these activities you have listed involved the
muscles?_____________________________________________
2. What do you think is the most important function of the muscle?
____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
3. Will your muscle still contract even if you are asleep?
____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________

The Muscular System

Abstraction
The muscular system is made up of muscle cells that can contract, thus,
allowing the movement of the skeleton. Muscles make up the bulk of an
animal’s body and account for about half its weight. The muscle
contractions required for movement also produce heat, which contributes
to the maintenance of constant body temperature.

Myology is the study of muscle and their accessory structures.

Kinds of Muscle Tissue

a) Voluntary Striated muscles

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 ➢ Connected directly or directly
with the skeleton (skeletal
muscle)
➢ Covers the greater part of the
body and determines its form
➢ Red in color with varying
shades
➢ Some are attached to the skin
(cutaneous muscles)
➢ Individuals cells are striated
(striped), multinuclear located
near the surface
➢ Each muscle fiber is
controlled by the voluntary
nerve (motor neuron) and is
under conscious condition.

b) Involuntary striated muscles

➢ Known as cardiac muscle (found in the heart)
➢ Cells are arranged in a network, striated and nuclei are centrally
located
➢ Contraction requires no nerve stimulus (no conscious control)

c) Smooth muscles
➢ Involuntary and unstriated
➢ Found in visceral organs, walls of blood vessels, urogenital and
respiratory organs
➢ Contraction requires no nerve stimulus
➢ Cells are spindle-shaped, arranged in sheets, bundles, or network
with centrally located nuclei
➢ Some cells are scattered throughout the tissue (e.g. skin muscle
that raises the hair)

Functions of Muscles
a. Provide power for the movement of various body parts (e.g.
extensor muscle straightens body parts, flexor muscles cause
body parts to bend, abductor muscles move away from the plane
and adductor muscles draw parts toward the body plane).
b. Source of protein
c. Expel or force out secretions of organs, except endocrine glands
(involuntary muscles).
d. Provide impetus for movement of ingesta
e. Responsible for uterine motility
f. Aid in expelling fetus at parturition
g. Causes contraction of the heart and increase or decrease the
diameter of blood vessels (regulates blood flow)

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 Structure of Muscles
• Sarcolemma – the thin translucent envelope of a muscle fiber
• Myofibrils – tiny fibers arranged parallel to the long axis of the
fiber
• Epimysium – surrounds entire muscle
• Perimysium – surrounds muscle bundle
• Endomysium – surrounds muscle fiber

Fig. 4. Structure
of skeletal muscle

Muscle contraction

▪ Sliding filament mechanism of muscle contraction

Fig. 5. Stages in muscle contraction

Test Yourself
Application 1. Identify the kind of muscle tissue that do the following task:
a. control the passing out of urine: __________________________

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 b. moves bones: ________________________________________
c. passage of food along the intestine: _______________________
d. makes you smile: _____________________________________
e. makes the hair stands: _________________________________
f. makes the diaphragm contract for breathing in: _____________
g. helps you cough out phlegm: ___________________________
h. controls the passing out of urine: ________________________
i. makes the heart pump blood: ___________________________
j. dilates the pupil of the eyes: ____________________________

Happy to see you made it this far. Hopefully, you will have a better
Closure appreciation of how much effort your muscles need to work so that you
can move around. In the next lesson, you will know what controls most of
the systems of the body and how much coordination is necessary to
synchronize all these body activities.

Module No. Module 2: Anatomy and Physiology I

and Title
Lesson No. Lesson 4: The Nervous System
and Title
Learning • Identify the vital structures of the nervous system.
Outcomes • Relate the functions of the parts of the nervous systems with
the survival and productivity of the animal
Time Frame 1 hour
Introduction As a child, you had probably been warned by adults not to touch a hot
stove or play with fire; and still, you did it. The experience of pain from
burned fingers and immediate response of pulling away your hands are
but just a part of the function of the nervous system. In animals, the
reactions are just the same, but the only difference is that they received
no scolding from their parents. In this lesson, we shall try to appreciate
the function of the nervous system.
List down at least 5 observable behavior of a drunk individual.
Activity

Drunken Behavior
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

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Analysis What do you think are the reasons why an individual exhibits such
kind of behavior?

What are the effects of alcohol on the functioning of the brain?

Abstraction The Nervous System

Animals must be able to sense and respond to the environment in which

they live if they are to survive. The various systems and organs in the
body must also be linked so they work together. The adjustment of an
animal’s response to changes in the environment and the complex
linking of the various processes in the body that this response involves
is called coordination.

The nervous system is one of the regulating systems (the endocrine

system is the other which will be discussed separately) of the body. It
receives millions of bits of information from both the internal and
external environment and then integrates them to initiate responses
thus, maintaining homeostasis; and eventually, store this information
for future use. Some of this activity is conscious, but much of it
happens without our awareness. Two systems are involved in
coordination are the nervous and endocrine systems. The first operates
via electrical impulses along nerve fibers and the second by releasing
special chemicals or hormones into the bloodstream from glands.

Functions of the Nervous System:

1. Sensory function - to sense changes (known as stimuli) both

outside and within the body.
2. Integrative function - processing the information received from
the sense organs. The impulses from these organs are analyzed
and stored as memory. The many different impulses from
different sources are sorted, synchronized, coordinated and the
appropriate response initiated. The power to integrate,
remember, and apply experience gives higher animals much of
their superiority.
3. Motor function - the response to the stimuli that cause muscles
to contract or glands to secrete.

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 Stimulus – any change in the environment of a nerve which if large
enough will cause the nerve to produce an action potential and transmit
an nerve impulse. Nerve impulses can be thought of as being like an
electric current.

The Neuron
A typical neuron has a cell body containing a nucleus, one or more
branching filaments called dendrites that conduct nerve impulses
towards the cell body and one long fiber, an axon, that carries the
impulses away from it. Many axons have a sheath of fatty material
called myelin surrounding them. This speed up the rate at which the
nerve impulses travel along the nerve.

Fig. 6. Parts of the neuron

Source: https://www.sciencefacts.net/wp-ontent/uploads/2019/12/Parts-
of-a-Neuron-Diagram.jpg

Synapse – is the point of contact between two neurons.

Divisions of the Nervous System

1. The central nervous system (CNS) - consists of the brain and

spinal cord.

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 2. The peripheral nervous system (PNS) - consists of the nerves
that connect to the brain and spinal cord (cranial and spinal
nerves) as well as the autonomic (or involuntary) nervous
system.

Divisions of the Nervous System

1. Central Nervous System

a) Brain
• Protected by the skull called the cranium.
• Surrounding by protective membranes called the meninges, and
a crystal-clear fluid called cerebrospinal fluid, which protects
and nourishes the brain tissue.
• Carotid artery, a branch of the dorsal aorta, supplies oxygen
(20% of the oxygen taken into the body) and nutrients to the
brain.
• Brain damage occurs if brain tissue is deprived of oxygen for
only 4-8 minutes.
• Cerebrum (cells of the cerebral cortex or gray matter) - for the
highest type of mental activities: e.g. interpretation of
sensations and reasoning, intellectual functions, memory
storage and processing, conscious and subconscious regulation
of skeletal muscle contractions
• Cerebellum (centrally located or the white matter) - center for
sensory and motor coordination such as voluntary movement,
regulation of posture, and maintenance of equilibrium
• Brain stem (medulla oblongata and pons) - Relay center
connecting the cerebrum and cerebellum to the spinal cord;
contains the control center for respiration; controls heart rate;
controls blood supply and regulation of body heat and some
digestive processes

b) Spinal Cord – the caudal continuation of the medulla oblongata

- Receives sensory (afferent) fibers by way of the dorsal roots
of the spinal nerves.
- Gives off the motor (efferent) fibers to the ventral roots of the
spinal nerves.

2. Peripheral Nervous System - includes all nervous structures

outside the brain and spinal cord.
• Cranial nerves - arise from the cranium consist of 12 nerves
that receive stimulus (sensory) or effect action (motor) or both
• Spinal nerves - emerge from the spinal cord and have 31 pairs
that supply sensory and motor fibers. The appendages are

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 supplied by braidlike arrangements of nerves known as
plexuses.
• Brachial plexus - supplied to each forelimb.
• Lumbo-sacral plexus - composed of the right and left
plexuses made of ventral branches of the few lumbar and first
1 or 2 sacral nerves.

3. Autonomic nervous system - part of the peripheral nervous system

that innervates smooth muscles, cardiac muscles, and glands,
subdivided into:

• Sympathetic nervous system - also called the thoracolumbar

portion because the sympathetic outflow is mainly from the
thoracic and lumbar spinal nerves.
• Parasympathetic nervous system - made up of a cranial and
sacral portion.

Reflex - an automatic or unconscious response of effector organ

(muscle or gland) to an appropriate stimulus
Reflex arc – includes an afferent and efferent neuron

Direction: Choose and write the letter of the correct answer in the
Application space before each number.

___1. The functional unit of the nervous system is the

a. Meninges
b. Neuron
c. Cell body
d. Brain
___2. The brain and the spinal cord are part of the
a. Autonomic nervous system
b. Central nervous system
c. Peripheral nervous system
d. Neuron
___3. Two neurons communicate via the
a. Dendrites
b. Axon
c. Cell body
d. Synapse
___4. The control center for respiration is in the
a. Medulla oblongata
b. Pons
c. Cerebellum
d. Brain stem
___5. Which of this is not a function of the cerebrum?
a. Regulates muscle contraction

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 b. Reasoning
c. Maintain equilibrium
d. Enervates smooth muscles
___6. Part of the CNS that controls heart rate
a. Cerebellum
b. Cerebrum
c. Medulla oblongata
d. Brain stem
___7. Which is a function of the meninges?
a. protect the brain and spinal cord
b. retain memories
c. reasoning
d. regulates temperature
___8. Injury to the brain stem may lead to
a. Memory loss
b. Disorientation
c. Lack of coordination
d. Death
___9. The passage of nerve impulse in much faster in
a. Unmyelinated axon
b. Myelinated axon
c. Sympathetic nerve
d. Parasympathetic nerve
___10. Other than the nervous system, what system is also involved
in regulating all body processes.
a. Endocrine system
b. Cardiovascular system
c. Muscular system
d. Urinary system

Closure Well done! After accomplishing all the activities in lesson 4, you are
now ready to move to lesson 5, which tackles on the cardiovascular
system.

Module No. Module 2: Anatomy and Physiology I

and Title
Lesson No. Lesson 5. The Cardiovascular System
and Title
Learning At the end of this lesson, you are expected to:
Outcomes • Describe the composition and explain the functions of blood
and its components
• Discuss the blood clotting mechanism
• Explain the function of the lymphatic system

Project WRITE XI: An Easy Guide for Course Pack making and Module Development 39
Time Frame 1.5 hours
Introduction This lesson on the Cardiovascular system is divided is into 4 sections.
These include the blood, the heart, the blood circulation, and the
lymphatic circulation. Each of these topics will be covered in more
detail in this chapter.
Survey at least 10 members of your family. Ask each one their blood
Activity type. Compute for the percentage of the people surveyed with blood
groups O, A, B, and AB.
▪ What blood group has the highest percentage? __________
Analysis ▪ What blood group has the lowest percentage? ___________
▪ Why is blood group O considered as a universal red cell
donor?_________________________________________
▪ Why is blood group AB considered as a universal plasma
donor: ________________________________________

The Cardiovascular System

Abstraction
Generally, the main function of the cardiovascular system is for
transport, regulation, and protection. Transported materials by the
blood include nutrients, waste products, gases, and hormones. It also
helps regulate fluid-electrolyte balance, acid-base balance, and body
temperature. The white blood cells protect the body against pathogens
while the blood platelets initiate blood clotting mechanism that
prevents excessive loss of blood after injuries.

The Heart
• A central pumping organ located in the mediastinal space of
the thoracic cavity opposite the 3rd and 4th ribs.
• Partially surrounded by serous sac, the pericardium which:
o prevents over dilation of the heart
o provides a smooth surface for hearts’ action
o holds the hearts in a fixed position
o assist in the relaxation of the heart
• Layers of the heart
o Epicardium
o Myocardium
o Endocardium
• Chambers of the heart – separated by a septum
o Right and left atria
o Right and left ventricles
• Valves of the heart
o Atrio-ventricular (A-V) valves
o The left is bicuspid
o The right is tricuspid
o Semilunar (S-L) valves – prevents blood from
returning into the ventricles

Project WRITE XI: An Easy Guide for Course Pack making and Module Development 40
 o Aortic S-L valve
• Pulmonary S-L valve
• Systole – the contraction of a chamber of the heart in the
process of partially emptying the chamber.
• Diastole – the relaxation of the chamber of the heart just
before and during the filling of that chamber.

The Blood Vessels

a. Arteries and arterioles – carry blood away from the heart
b. Veins and venules – carry blood toward the heart
c. Capillaries – tiny tubes acting as selective membranes that lie
between the arteries and veins.

The Blood
• Composed of the following:
a) Plasma – the fluid portion of the blood
b) Corpuscles – the red and white blood cells, blood platelets

Red blood cells (erythrocytes)

• Non-nucleated
• Biconcave circular disc
• Contains hemoglobin, a complex iron-containing conjugated
protein that transport oxygen
•
White blood cells (Leukocytes)
• Nucleated
• Independent movement
• Classified as:
o Granulocytes - Neutrophils
- Eosinophils
- Basophils

o Agranulocytes - Monocytes
- Lymphocytes

Blood Platelets (Thrombocytes)

• Small oval disk-like granulated bodies 2-4 microns in
diameter
• Liberate thromboplastin which aids in blood clotting and they
play a role in clot reactions

Project WRITE XI: An Easy Guide for Course Pack making and Module Development 41
 Fig. 7. Types of blood cells
Source: https://www.sciencefacts.net/wp-content/uploads /2019/11/
Types-of-Blood-Cells.jpg

Functions of blood:
a) Conveys nutrient to the
tissues
b) Carries oxygen from
the lungs to tissues and
carbon dioxide from
tissues to the lungs
c) Carries waste products
to excretory organs
d) Transports hormones
to target organs
e) Helps control body
temperature
f) Helps maintain water
balance
g) Helps maintain
constant pH in
tissues/fluids
h) Aids overcome
diseases

Project WRITE XI: An Easy Guide for Course Pack making and Module Development 42
 Blood Clotting Mechanism

The stages in blood clotting are shown below:

Fig. 8. Stages in blood clotting

Source: https://ib.bioninja.com.au/standard-level/topic-6-human-
physiology/63-defence-against-infectio/clotting.html

The Pulse
• Pulse is a wave of dilatation of an artery as blood flows into
it.
• Pulse rate is determined by:
o Pressing superficial artery with thumb
o Use of Stethoscope
• Factors affecting pulse rate:
o Age
o Excitement
o Muscular exercise
o High environmental temperature
o Digestion of food
o Sleep
o Disease/illness
• Take pulse rate at:
o External maxillary artery – for horse, cattle, and
carabao
o Femoral artery – for sheep, goat, dog, and cat
• The pulse rate of farm animals:
Horse 38/min
Carabao and Cattle 54/min
Goat 78/min

Project WRITE XI: An Easy Guide for Course Pack making and Module Development 43
 Chicken 200-400/min

• Tachycardia - a considerable increase in pulse rate/heart rate

• Bradycardia - considerable decrease in pulse rate/heart rate
• Blood groups and types
• There are four major blood groups (A, B, AB, O) and eight
different blood types (A+, A-, B+, B- etc.).
• The groups are based on whether you have two specific
antigens: A and B
o Group A has the A antigen and B antibody.
o Group B has the B antigen and the A antibody.
o Group AB has A and B antigens but neither A nor B
antibodies.
o Group O does not have A or B antigens but has both A
and B antibodies.
• There is also a third kind of antigen called the Rh factor. You
either have this antigen (“Rh+” or “positive”), or you do not
(“Rh-” or “negative”).

B. The Lymphatic System

• The lymphatic system is composed of:

o Lymphoid tissues
o Lymph vessels

Lymph vessels or Lymphatics

• Carry tissue fluid and lymph
• Consist of:
o Longer lymph vessels (thoracic duct and right lymphatic
duct)
o Lymph capillaries

The Lymph glands

• Filtration of lymph fluids and production of lymphocytes
o It is also made up of the following:
a) Lymph - a liquid between the tissues and the
blood vessels (capillaries)
- few red corpuscles and lymphocytes
- low protein content
- high in bicarbonates and chlorides
- slightly higher pH than plasma
- colorless fluid with specific gravity of
1:015.
b) Lymph nodes - a lymph gland through which the
lymph passes; it produces lymphocytes and filters extraneous
bodies

Project WRITE XI: An Easy Guide for Course Pack making and Module Development 44
 Functions of the lymphatic system
a) For draining tissue fluids
b) Assists in the control of interstitial fluid pressure
c) Acts as a defense mechanism against noxious materials.

Application Trace the flow of oxygenated blood from the lungs to the liver
and the unoxygenated blood from the liver back to the lungs.
Identify all blood vessels and organs involved. Submit your
illustration or diagram in an A4 size bond paper.

Closure How did you find the activities in Lesson 5? Can you relate the lesson
to your everyday life? Next, we will proceed to Lesson 6 on the
Respiratory System, which is also a very interesting topic.

Module No. Module 2: Anatomy and Physiology I

and Title
Lesson No. Lesson 6. The Respiratory System
and Title
Learning At the end of this lesson, you are expected to:
Outcomes • Trace the passage of air in and out of the lungs
• Differentiate internal and external respiration
• Describe the different forms of respiration
Time Frame 1.5 hours
Introduction Have you ever wondered why you need to breathe? Well, breathing is
central to life because it allows the body to obtain the energy it needs
to sustain itself and its activities. But how does it work? Lesson 6 on
the respiratory system will lead to a deeper understanding of its
function.

Activity Perform the following task:

• First exercise: Breathe normally for 60 seconds and record your
respiratory rate (equivalent to one inspiration and one expiration)
• Second exercise: Hold your breath for 30 to 45 seconds, once the
breath has been released, start recording your respiratory rate for 60
seconds.
• Record your data on the table below.

Holding of Breath

Before After

Project WRITE XI: An Easy Guide for Course Pack making and Module Development 45
 _______ breaths / minute _______ breaths / minute
Answer the following questions:
Analysis 1. What is the difference in respiratory rate between before and
after the holding of breath?
_____________________________________________
2. What do you think is the reason for the difference in the rate of
respiration?
_______________________________________________
_______________________________________________
_______________________________________________
3. Why can’t you hold your breath for a long time?
_____________________________________________
_____________________________________________
_____________________________________________

The Respiratory System

Abstraction
Respiration is the process of exchanging gases between the blood and
the external environment. Most of the respiratory system is concerned
with what we think of as breathing: moving air into and out of the
lungs. Oxygen enters the body from the air and carbon dioxide is
usually eliminated from the same part of the body. This process is
called gas exchange.

Importance
➢ Involves the exchange of gases between the blood and
the external environment
➢ Animals may survive for days without food but only for
minutes without oxygen.

Breathing - is usually an unconscious activity that takes place whether

you are awake or asleep, although, humans at least, can also control it
consciously.

Control of Breathing

Two regions in the hindbrain called the medulla oblongata and pons
control the rate of breathing. These are called respiratory centers.
They respond to the concentration of carbon dioxide in the blood.
When this concentration rises during a bout of activity, nerve impulses
are automatically sent to the diaphragm and rib muscles that increase
the rate and the depth of breathing. Increasing the rate of breathing also
increases the amount of oxygen in the blood to meet the needs of this
increased activity.

Project WRITE XI: An Easy Guide for Course Pack making and Module Development 46
 The respiratory organs/apparatus
1. Nostrils/nares
➢ external openings of air passages
2. Nasal cavity
➢ opens externally at nostrils and communicates with
pharynx thru posterior nares
➢ divided into right and left by the cartilaginous nasal
septum
3. Pharynx
➢ A common passage for air and food
4. Larynx or voice box
➢ Consist of five cartilages:
o cricoid
o arytenoids (2)
o thyroid
o epiglottis
5. Trachea or windpipe
➢ connects larynx with lungs
➢ divides into bronchi which form smaller branches
(bronchioles)
6. Lungs
➢ situated in the pleural cavities of the thorax
➢ cone-shaped structure with the base resting against the
cranial side of the diaphragm and the apex within or
close to the thoracic inlet.
➢ Divided into lobes:
o apical (cranial)
o cardiac (middle)
o diaphragmatic (caudal)
o intermediate lobe (right lung)

[NOTE: Lungs of horses have no subdivisions, except for

intermediate lobe]

Regulation of respiration
➢ Involves both external and internal respiration

External respiration - the thin membranes of the alveolar wall

and capillaries facilitate the movement of oxygen into the blood
and movement of carbon dioxide into the alveolar air (exchange
of gases between the environment and the lungs).
Internal respiration - oxygen from the blood is diffused to
the tissues for cellular oxidation and the resulting carbon dioxide
diffuses into the blood (exchange of gases between the blood and
tissues).

Project WRITE XI: An Easy Guide for Course Pack making and Module Development 47
 The process involves the following:

Inspiration
➢ the taking in of O2 into the lungs accomplished by
enlargement of the thorax
➢ Inspiration occurs when muscle contraction causes the
ribs to move up and out and the diaphragm to flatten.
➢ These movements increase the volume of the pleural
cavity and draw air down the respiratory system into the
lungs.
➢ The air enters the nasal cavity and passes to the pharynx
and larynx where the epiglottis closes the opening to the
lungs during swallowing. the air passes down the
trachea kept open by rings of cartilage to the bronchi
and bronchioles and then to the alveoli.
➢ The rate of breathing is determined by the concentration
of carbon dioxide in the blood. As carbon dioxide
makes the blood acidic, the rate of breathing helps
control the acid/base balance of the blood.
➢ The cells lining the respiratory passages produce mucus
which traps dust particles, which are wafted into the
nose by cilia.

Expiration
➢ the outflow of air from the lungs
➢ it is a passive process requiring no energy as it relies on
the relaxation of the muscles and recoil of the elastic
tissue of the lung

Forms of respiration
➢ Apnea - no respiration
➢ Eupnea - normal quiet respiration
➢ Dyspnea - difficult respiration
➢ Hyperpnea - increased depth or rate of breathing or both
➢ Polypnea - rapid, shallow breathing
➢ Coastal/Thoracic breathing - considerable movement of
ribs.
➢ Abdominal/diaphragmatic breathing - the visible
movement of the abdomen.

Diffusion and Transport of Gases

Oxygen diffuses from high concentration to low concentration. It,

therefore, crosses the narrow barrier between the alveoli and the
capillaries to enter the blood and combine with the hemoglobin in the
red blood cells to form oxyhemoglobin.

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 Blood entering the lung capillaries is full of carbon dioxide that it has
collected from the tissues. Most of the carbon dioxide is dissolved in
the plasma either in the form of sodium bicarbonate or carbonic acid.
As the blood enters the lungs the carbon dioxide gas diffuses through
the capillary and alveoli walls into the water film and then into the
alveoli. Finally, it is removed from the lungs during breathing out.

Breathing in Birds

✓ The lungs are fixed and do not change shape.

✓ Birds have air sacs that reach into the bones and have no
diaphragm
✓ Air is moved in and out of the respiratory system through
pressure changes in the air sacs.
✓ In the avian lung, the gas exchange occurs in the walls of
microscopic tubules, called ‘air capillaries.’
✓ The bird’s respiratory system takes up 20% of a birds’ volume
(our respiratory system takes up only 5% of our volume).
✓ Birds’ respiratory efficiency gives them enough oxygen for
flight.

• Trace a molecule of oxygen from the external nares to the

Application pulmonary capillaries of the lungs
• Trace a molecule of CO2 in the liver until it reaches the
alveoli of the lungs
Congratulation! You are now halfway through the amazing creation
Closure called the body. Although complex and mind-boggling, yet this
module is so interesting. To understand completely, you must proceed
to Module 3 for more astounding discoveries on how the body works
and functions.

MODULE SUMMARY
▪ The skin consists of two layers: the thin outer epidermis and under it the thicker
dermis.
▪ Various skin structures formed in the epidermis are made of keratin that include
claws, nails, hoofs, horns, hair, and feathers.
▪ The skeleton maintains the shape of the body, protects internal organs, and makes
locomotion possible.
▪ Bones articulate against each other at joints.
▪ Three different kinds of muscle tissue exist that include smooth muscle found in
the walls of the blood vessels and guts; cardiac muscle in the heart and skeletal
muscle attached to the skeleton.

Project WRITE XI: An Easy Guide for Course Pack making and Module Development 49
 ▪ The muscle contributes to the maintenance of constant body temperature by
producing heat during muscle contraction.
▪ The neuron is the basic unit of the nervous system which consists of a cell body
with a nucleus, filaments known as dendrites and a long fiber known as the axon
often surrounded by a myelin sheath.
▪ The nervous system is divided into the central nervous system, consisting of the
brain and spinal cord and the peripheral nervous system consisting of cranial and
spinal nerves and the autonomic nervous system.
▪ The brain consists of the cerebrum, cerebellum, and the brain stem containing the
medulla oblongata and pons.
▪ The main functions of blood are the transport of oxygen, food, waste products, etc.,
the maintenance of homeostasis and defending the body from disease.
▪ Blood consists of fluid, plasma, in which platelets, red and white blood cells are
suspended.
▪ Blood is carried away from the heart via the arteries. They have thick elastic walls
that stretch and carries oxygenated blood. Capillaries are small, thin-walled vessels
that facilitate exchange of gases between the blood and the cells of the tissues.
Veins return unoxygenated blood to the heart and have thinner walls than arteries.
▪ The air enters the nasal cavity and passes to the pharynx and larynx where the
epiglottis closes the opening to the lungs during swallowing. The air passes down
the trachea kept open by rings of cartilage to the bronchi and bronchioles and then
to the alveoli of the lungs.
▪ Oxygen diffuses from the alveoli into the red blood cells in the capillaries. Carbon
dioxide, at high concentration in the blood, diffuses into the alveoli to be breathed
out.
▪ The rate of breathing is determined by the concentration of carbon dioxide in the
blood.

REFERENCES
Animal Science and Dairy Cluster. Lecture Syllabus in Animal Science 1: Introduction to Animal
Science. University of the Philippines Los Baños, College, Laguna.
Frandson, R.D., W.L. Wilke, A. Fails. 2009. Anatomy and Physiology of Farm Animals. 7th
edition. Wiley-Blackwell.
Scanlon, Valerie C., and Tina Sanders. Essentials of anatomy and physiology. 5th ed.2007. F. A.
Davis Company. Philadelphia, PA 19103
Rhoades, Rodney A. and George A. Tanner, Medical Physiology. 2nd ed. 2003. Lippincott
Williams & Wilkins. Philadelphia, PA.
https://www.proprofs.com/quiz-school/upload/yuiupload/973979470.jpg
https://www.entwellbeing.com.au/skincare/skin-basics/layers-of-skin/Source: Mayo Foundation
for Medical Education Research

Project WRITE XI: An Easy Guide for Course Pack making and Module Development 50
Long bone. Provided by Wikipedia. Located at: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long_bone. License:
CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
Hans-vander-lubbe@pixel.com
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-ap/chapter/introduction-to-bone/
https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/321617#five-fun-facts
https://www.sciencefacts.net/wp-content/uploads/2019/12/Parts-of-a-Neuron-Diagram.jpg
https://www.sciencefacts.net/wp-content/uploads/2019/11/Types-of-Blood-Cells.jpg
https://ib.bioninja.com.au/standard-level/topic-6-human-physiology/63-defence-against-
infectio/clotting.html
https://open.umn.edu/opentextbooks/textbooks/anatomy-and-physiology-of-animals/

Module No. 3 Module 3: ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2

Module Overview This module is the second part of the Anatomy and
Physiology of Farm Animals. It covers 5 lessons which
introduces you to the basic concepts and principles in the
physiology of the endocrine, reproductive, respiratory,
digestive system and body temperature regulation. This
module shall be delivered 5 weeks.
Module This modules will enable you to:
Objectives/Outcomes 1. Identify the organ systems of the endocrine,
reproductive, excretory, and digestive systems;
2. Describe the overall function of the endocrine,
reproductive, excretory, and digestive systems;
3. Identify the glands/organs involved in the
endocrine; and the parts/organs of the
reproductive, respiratory, and digestive systems;
4. Describe the functions of the organs or parts in
each of the organ system.
5. Identify the organs involved in body temperature
regulation; and
6. Describe the mechanism of body temperature
regulation.

Lessons in the module Lesson 1: The Endocrine System

Lesson 2: Body Temperature Regulation
Lesson 3: The Reproductive System
Lesson 4: The Excretory System
Lesson 5. The Digestive System

Project WRITE XI: An Easy Guide for Course Pack making and Module Development 51
Module No. 3 Anatomy and Physiology 2

Lesson No. 1 The Endocrine System

Learning After this lesson, you will be able to:

Outcomes 1. Describe the function of the endocrine system;
(Objectives) 2. Relate the function of the pituitary gland to the hypothalamus;
3. Identify the glands of the endocrine system;
4. Identify the hormones secreted by an endocrine organ or gland
and describe its function to the target organ; and
5. Explain how hormones reach their specific target organ
Time Frame The lesson can be completed in one (1) day
Introduction This topic will enable you to understand the role of the brain in
regulating and coordinating the functions of the different body
organs through chemical substances called hormones. You will also
learn that there is a chemical communication happening in the
different parts of an animal body and that these chemicals are able to
travel away from its origin to the specific organs where their action
or effect happens.
Examine the illustration below taking into consideration that there
Activity are 3 levels (1- high, 2 - middle, 3 - low) in this communication line.
The highest part appears to have domination over the structures at
the middle level which in turn influences the function of the
structures or organs at the low level.

Project WRITE XI: An Easy Guide for Course Pack making and Module Development 52
 Credit to 2015 Wiley Periodicals

1. What structure in the Nervous System looks like the while

colored anatomic structure in the illustration above located at the
highest level (number 1)?
_________________________________________________
_________________________________________________

2. What do you think is the name of the purple structure located in

the hypothalamus that can be seen also to connect to the posterior
pituitary gland at the middle level (2) of the illustration?
___________________________________________________
_______________________________________________

3. In the circulatory system, what do you think is this branched blue

structure located both at the anterior and posterior pituitary glands
close to the purple structures from the hypothalamus?
___________________________________________________
_______________________________________________

4. How is the target organs related to the nervous system?

__________________________________________________

What I What I want to What I Learned?

know? know?
About: About: (fill this column after
Endocrine system Endocrine system you have studied the
function function contents of this
module including its
readings)

Endocrine glands Endocrine glands

Hormone
Hormone

Project WRITE XI: An Easy Guide for Course Pack making and Module Development 53
Analysis 1. What could be the reason for the involvement of the nervous
system in the function of the endocrine system?
_________________________________________________
_________________________________________________
2. How will be endocrine system affect the function of other
organs?
_________________________________________________
_________________________________________________
3. How will the hypothalamus in the brain influence the function of
the mammary gland? Kidney?
_________________________________________________
_________________________________________________
4. What will happen to the reproductive function if the
hypothalamus is unable to produce releasing hormones?
_________________________________________________
_________________________________________________

Abstraction What is Endocrinology?

It is the study of hormones produced by ductless glands or endocrine

glands.

What is the role of the brain?

The brain houses the hypothalamus and the pituitary gland.

The Endocrine System

Main Function: It is a system that regulates bodily functions in

order to maintain homeostasis through the influence of chemical
substances (hormones) released by an endocrine organ. Its role in
homeostasis complements with the nervous system function.

Homoestasis is the process or dynamics to maintain a steady state

condition of the internal environment for an organism to survive. It
includes physiologic adjustments that enable the animal to adopt to
external environment including changes in temperature, water, salt,
sugar, protein, fat, calcium, oxygen in the blood and others.

What is a hormone?

Project WRITE XI: An Easy Guide for Course Pack making and Module Development 54
 A hormone is a chemical substance produced in one endocrine gland
that regulates the function of a target organ. These are classified
based on composition:
a. Polypeptides – insulin
b. Amines – epinephrine and norepinephrine
c. Steroids – estrogen, testosterone, corticosteroid,
progesterone
d. Glycoproteins – FSH and LH

Main Glands of the Endocrine System

Hypothalamus and
Pituitary Gland are the 2
primary organs located at
the base of the brain that
regulates the endocrine
function. A
Hypothalamic Pituitary
(HPA) axis is involved in
the overall coordination
of these 2 glands through
specific group of neurons
located in the hypothalamus.

• Hypothalamus is the mastergland that produces chemicals

called Releasing/Inhibiting Hormone (RH) through its cells
(neurosecretory) for release into the bloodstream to reach
its target organ.

• Pituitary Gland (PG) or the Hypophysis is composed 2

parts that releases its hormones to the target organs through
the blood circulation.

a. Anterior Pituitary Gland (APG) or Adenohypothysis –

produces specific hormones after being influenced by
the specific hormones from the hypothalamus

b. Middle Lobe of the Pituitary Gland – produces

melanocyle stimulating hormone.

c. Posterior Pituitary Gland (PPG) or Neurohypohysis -

does not produce hormones but receives only those 2
hormones Oxytocin and Vasopressin produced by the
hypothalamus through long neuronal axons.

Project WRITE XI: An Easy Guide for Course Pack making and Module Development 55
 Figure 1. Hypothalamic Hormonal Regulation

Other Endocrine Glands:

• Thyroid Gland are paired organ located at the animal’s
neck region that produces hormones :
o Thyroxine & triiodothyronine – increase metabolism
o Calcitonin – reduce calcium level in the blood

• Parathyroid Gland are small paired organs embedded in

the thyroid gland that produces parathyroid hormone
(parathormone) essential for calcium and phosphorus
metabolism in the bone and the intestines. It increases the
level of calcium in the blood by mobilization of Ca from the
bone, and enhancement of Ca and P absorption from the
intestinal tract

• Gonads are the basic reproductive organs in males (testes)

and females (ovary) that produces:
o testosterone in males; and
o estrogen & progesterone in females

• Adrenal Gland – is an organ located at the anterior part of

the kidney producing 2 hormones in each of the divisions:
o Glucocorticoids (cortex) – elevate blood glucose
o Mineralocorticoids/Aldosterone (cortex) - the
reabsorption of sodium by the kidney tubules and
thus decreases its excretion in the urine
o Epinephrine and Norepinehrine (medulla) –
emergency hormone released from the medulla that

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 increases blood glucose as a source of energy
thereby increasing heart rate and blood pressure

• Placenta – temporary endocrine gland in pregnant animals

that produces progesterone to maintain pregrancy

• Pancreas is located close to the small intestine composed of

the Islets of Langerhans producing 2 hormones:
o Insulin comes from the beta cells that stimulates entry
of glucose into the cells for metabolism, thus,
lowering the blood glucose levels (hypoglycemic)
o Glucagon from the alpha cells stimulating
glycogenolysis, thus, increasing blood glucose levels
(hyperglycemic).

• Pineal Gland – is a small gland located in the brain that

produces melatonin, a hormone that regulates sleeping
patterns.

TABLE 1. INFLUENCE OF HYPOTHALAMIC HORMONES

TO THE TARGET ORGANS

Hypoth Target Action on Target Action on

alamic Organ 1 the Organ 2 the Target
Hormon Target Organ 2
es Organ/gl
and 1
Growth Anterior Productio Bone and • Stimulates
Hormon Pituitary n and muscle cells bone and
e Gland Secretion (somatotrop body
Releasin of Growth hs) growth
g Hormone (protein
Hormon (GH) synthesis,
e stimulates
(GHRH) lipolysis)
• Secretion
Growth Anterior Inhibits
of IGF-1
Hormon Pituitary secretion
• Inhibits
e Gland of Growth
action of
Inhibitin Hormone
insulin on
g (GH)
carbohydrat
Hormon
es, and

Project WRITE XI: An Easy Guide for Course Pack making and Module Development 57
 e lipid
(GHIH) metabolism
Corticotr Anterior Productio Adrenal • Stimulates
opin Pituitary n and gland cortex production
Releasin Gland Secretion (corticotrop of
g of es) glucocortic
Hormon Adrenoco oids and
e (CRH) rticotropic mineraloco
Hormone rticoids;
(ACTH) • Maintains
size of zona
fasciulata
and zona
reticularis
of the
cortex
Tyrptrop Anterior Secretion Thyroid • Stimulates
in Pituitary of gland production
Releasin Gland Thyroid (thyrotropes of thyroid
g Stimulatin – thyroid hormones
Hormon g follicular (thyroxine,
e (TRH) Hormone cells) and
(TSH) triiodothyro
nine),
maintains
size of
follicular
cells,
increase in
metabolism
Gonadot Anterior Stimulate Ovary • Induces
ropin Pituitary s (Female) ovarian
Releasin Gland secretion gonadotrope follicle
g of FSH s growth &
Hormon and LH developme
e (GRH) nt (FSH)
• Induces
ovulation
and
formation
of the
corpus
luteum,

Project WRITE XI: An Easy Guide for Course Pack making and Module Development 58
 production
of estrogen
and
progestero
ne (LH)
Testicle • Regulates
(Male) spermatog
gonadotrope enesis
s (FSH)
• Stimulates
testosteron
e
production
by the
testis (LH)
Prolactin Anterior Inhibits Mammary Stimulates
Inhibitin Pituitary secretion gland milk
g Factor Gland of PRL by production
(PIF) lactotrope
s
Interme Melanocy Skin Skin
diate te (Melanocyte pigmentation
Lobe of Stimulatin s) (melanin)
the gH
Pituitary (MSH)/
Gland Intemedin
/
Melanotro
pin
Oxytoci Oxytocin Mammary • Milk
n gland ejection or
Uterus release
• Stimulates
contraction
of the
uterus at
parturition
for fetal
expulsion
Anti- Anti- Kidney Maintenance
diuretic diuretic of water
Hormon Hormone balance
e (ADH) through

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 (ADH)/ reabsorption
Vasopre by the kidney
ssin thus
increasing
blood
pressure

TABLE 2. HORMONES OF THE ADRENAL GLAND

Adrenal Hormones Functions

Gland Produced
Cortex Glucocorticoids Glucose metabolism
(cortisol)
Mineralocortocoids Regulates mineral
(Aldosterone) metabolism and water
balance
Adrenal Epinephrine Emergency hormone,
Medulla (adrenalin) increase heart rate,
vasoconstriction
Norepinephrine Maintenance of blood
pressure

TABLE 3. HORMONES OF THE GONADS

GONAD Hormones Functions

Produced
Ovary Estrogen/Estradiol Enhance female receptivity
during estrus, development
of accessory sex glands
(mammary gland)
Progesterone (from Maintenance of pregnancy,
the corpus luteum) development of alveoli of
the mammary gland
Relaxin Relaxation of cervix at
parturition
Testis Testosterone Development of male
characteristics

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 Regulation of the Endocrine System:
Negative Feedback Mechanism - the effect or action of an organ
due to the release of a hormone will tend to shut-down the release
of that hormone

Positive Feedback Mechanism – the presence of a stimulus

activates or turns-on the release of a hormone to cause an effect or
action.

Application 1. Based on the above concepts and principles, choose a picture of

an animal in a certain life cycle, situation or activity showing how
hormones have influenced such condition. Describe the specific
endocrine gland and organs involved in that condition and identify
the specific hormones influencing such situation. Describe the
mechanism of action of the identified hormone in the target organ.

2. Identify the endocrine glands in each number indicated in the

picture and write the hormones produced by the gland.

3. Complete the KWL Table

Project WRITE XI: An Easy Guide for Course Pack making and Module Development 61
Closure Congratulations! Job well done! You now have learned that there
are hormones at work in specific organs. These lesson will enable
you understand that other organs are being regulated by the
endocrine system though the release of hormones including
reproduction, excretion, digestion and metabolism and even body
temperature regulation.

Module 3 Anatomy And Physiology 2

Lesson No. 2 Body Temperature Regulation

Learning B. Differentiate homeotherms from poikilotherms

Outcomes C. Describe the effect of cold and hot environment to animal
(Objectives) performance
D. Describe mechanisms for heat loss and heat gain
E. Identify the different parts and organs involved in temperature
regulation
F. Describe the mechanism of body temperature regulation.
Time Frame The lesson can be completed in one (1) day
Introduction This topic enables you to understand how the animal regulates its body
temperature in order to cope with the unpredictable changes of the
environment. It will also allow you to understand the physiological changes
happening in the different anatomical structures and eventually its behavior
enabling the animals to survive in body temperatures lower and higher than the
normal range.
In this picture, the hen is sitting on the chick/s to keep herself close to them.
Activity This usually starts from the day of hatching but ends only after a certain period
of time. Other chicks may also be observed to be sitting farther from the hen
but still a little closer to her.

Source: https://morningchores.com/disclosure/

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 1. In this behavior, what do you think is the purpose of the hen maintaining a
sitting position?
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
2. Is this a normal behavior of the chicken?
_________________________________________________________

3. What do you think will happen to the chick/s, if the hen will not sit on them
from hatching up to about 2 weeks or more?
___________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
4. Do you know of any management practices done in case the hen is not
available to sit on the chicks?
___________________________________________________________

What I know? What I want to know? What I Learned?

About: About: (fill this column after
Thermoregulation Thermoregulation you have studied the
contents of this
module including its
readings)
Hormones in Hormones in
Thermoregulation Thermoregulation

Mechanism of Heat Mechanism of Heat

Loss Loss

Mechanism of Heat Mechanism of Heat

Gain Gain

Analysis 2. Why do you think the hen sits on the chicks?

Project WRITE XI: An Easy Guide for Course Pack making and Module Development 63
 ____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
3. Is this sitting behavior observed in other farm animals? Give Example and
explain
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
4. How do you understand thermoregulation in the above picture?
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
5. How is temperature being regulated in your mammals and birds?
___________________________________________________________

Abstraction Key Points:

• The overall performance of farm animals is highly dependent on its ability
to adjust to changes in environmental temperature.
• All typical farm mammals and birds are homeotherms or endotherms
(warm-blooded) characterized to regulate their body temperature through
physiological mechanism aside from the use of use behavioral
thermoregulation. They regulate body temperature via negative feedback
mechanisms.
• In general reptiles and fishes are poikilotherms or ectotherms (cold-
blooded) (cold blooded) that regulate their body temperature primarily
through behavioral thermoregulation since their body heat or temperature is
dependent on their external environment.

Hypothalamus in the Brain

The "thermostat" for vertebrates resided in the hypothalamus, which
triggers physiological responses to ambient temperatures above and below set
points (Cabanac 2006). It is the central coordination center for temperature
regulation where information from various body parts is delivered to the
hypothalamus for appropriate response, thus, keeping the body from
overheating or overcooling.

Thermoregulation:
Both the nervous and endocrine systems control the thermoregulatory
physiology. Hormones involved in thermoregulation:
• Melatonin (produced by the pineal gland) is implicated in temperature
regulation in many ectotherms
• Thyroid hormone has a thermogenic effect in endotherms

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 Two thermoregulating areas:
• Heating Center that raise the body temperature. It causes blood vessels near
the surface of the body to contract, thus preventing heat loss. It also causes
fur to stand erect and become more insulating. It causes shivering by
muscles that produce heat when they contract, and it stimulates hormonal
production.
• Cooling center that bring about a temperature drop. It causes surface blood
vessels to expand thereby releasing heat. It brings about sweating or panting.

Comfort Zone or Thermoneutral zone is defined as a range of temperatures

at which an animal can perform its normal physiologic function thus resulting
to its maximum production performance. However, this varies depending on
animal species, breed, age, sex, degree of acclimatization, feeding, and time of
day.

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 Normal Temperature Ranges of Different Animals
Animals Range oC Average
Horse (Adult) 37.2 - 38 37.6
Foal 37.5 – 38.5 38
Ox 37.8 – 39.2 38.5
Calf 38.5 – 39.8 39.2
Sheep 38.9 – 40 39.5
Goat 38.6 – 40.2 39.5
Pig (adult) 37.8 – 38.9 38.3
Piglet 38.9 – 40 38.4
Chicken 40.6 – 41.7 41.15

At temperatures below the lower end (critical temperature), the animal responds
by an increased appetite and feed intake, increased heat production, and in
extreme cases, the act of shivering. Beyond the upper limit of the comfort zone,
heat stress intensifies and evaporative cooling becomes imperative. Animals
also respond by reduced feed intake and lowered performance. By lowering the
feed intake, an animal can effectively lower their internal body temperature
(digestion causes an elevation in heat), but this consequently lowers
performance.

Regulatory Mechanisms in Cold Stress (Cold Ambient Temperature):

1. Shivering thermogenesis – is the contraction of skeletal muscles to

produce additional heat at the thoracic part of the body
2. Non-shivering thermogenesis - is a metabolic process in which brown
adipose tissue undergo metabolism for heat production
3. Vasoconstriction – is the reduction of peripheral blood capillary
diameter to reduce heat loss from the skin
4. Others:
• Increased appetite – in order to increase metabolic heat
• Hormonal output: epinephrine and norepinephrine increase basal
heat production; thyroxin – in prolonged cold

Regulatory Mechanisms in Heat Stress (High Ambient Temperature):

1. Sweating– is the release of water from the sweat glands to keep the
body surface cool (evaporative cooling). In other animals, panting
releases body body heat through the mouth cavity.
2. Vasodilatation - is the increase in the blood capillary diameter in order
to promote heat loss from the body to the environment through the
surface blood vessels.
3. Others:

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 • Reduced appetite – for reduction in metabolism that will result to
increase in body heat
• Hormonal Output - Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) is released to
increase water re-absorption from kidneys; and Aldosterone -
released to increase the re-absorption of sodium

Supplementary Reading on Temperature Homeostasis

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zcdGJDGXxgs

Supplementary Reading on Negative feedback

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bfuOljRU1nk

Thermoregulation in Heat:
1. Radiation is movement of heat between 2 objects that are not in contact from
warm to cold.
2. Conduction is direct transfer of heat through a liquid, solid, or gas from one
molecule to another. The heat flows from warm to cold objects that are in
contact through kinetic energy transfer.
3. Convection is the flow of heat from a warm area to a cooler area through air
or water movement. Warm air blowing over an animal may provide
convective heat gain to the animal.
4. Evaporation is the vaporization from the respiratory passages and skin
surface continually thereby transfering heat to the environment

As environmental temperature approaches body temperature of the animal, heat

losses by radiation, conduction, and convection become less and the animal
must dissipate heat via moisture evaporation (panting and/or sweating)

Hormones in Heat Stress:

• Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) is released to increase water re-
absorption from kidneys.
• Aldosterone is released to increase the re-absorption of sodium

GENERAL MECHANISMS IN TEMPERATURE REGULATION

DESIRED EFFECT MECHANISM
STIMULATED BY COLD
Decrease Heat Loss 1. Vasoconstriction of skin vessels
2. Behavioral Mechanisms (reduction of
surface area, choice of surrounding and
clothing in human)
3. Piloerection

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 Increase Heat 1. Shivering thermogenesis
Production
2. Non-shivering thermogenesis
3. Others ( increase voluntary activity)
STIMULATED BY HEAT
Increase Heat Loss 1. Vasodilation of skin vessels
2. Sweating, panting, etc.
3. Others ( behavioral response)
Decrease Heat 1. Decreased voluntary movement
Production
2. Inhibition of shivering

Supplementary Reading on Temperature Homeostasis

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zcdGJDGXxgs

Supplementary Reading on Negative feedback

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bfuOljRU1nk

Application Using this picture, apply the

thermoregulatory mechanisms
discussed in this lesson.

In order to maintain a
thermoneutral zone, prepare a flow
chart on the movement of body heat
to prevent heat stress or cold stress
using the 2 conditions below:

1. Prolonged exposure of animals

to a very cold environment; and

2. Critically hot pasture area

Source:https://www.biologyonline.com/tutori
where the animals graze during
als/temperature-regulation-in-animals
summer.

Label and explain each of the illustrations made in 1 and 2.

Complete the KPL Table

Closure Congratulations! You have just learned how the animal body maintains a
temperature range that allows it to perform to the maximum. This
maintenance happens due to the coordinative role of the Nervous and
Endocrine system. As an effect, this thermoneutral zone will provide an
environment that allows normal function of the reproductive, respiratory,
urinary, digestive and other systems as well.

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Module No. 3 Anatomy And Physiology 2

Lesson No. 3 The Reproductive System

Learning G. Differentiate the functions of the male and female reproductive

Outcomes system;
(Objectives) H. Identify the different parts and organs of the male and female
reproductive system and describe its function;
I. Explain how the hypothalamus and pituitary gland influence
the function of the testes, ovary, uterus and mammary gland;
J. Explain the fertilization process
Time Frame The lesson can be completed in one (1) day
Introduction This topic will enable you to understand and appreciate the role of the
male and female reproductive system in the creation of new individual.
It also introduces you to the male and female organs that produce and
convey the gametes (sperm and egg cell); and the organ that house a
fertilized egg cell including the hormones that influence its activity until
a new organism is produced.
a. In the picture below, the rooster is on top of the hen. This is a usual
Activity observation in chicken which happens anytime of the day.

What is this activity called?

____________________________________________________

What is the expected product of this activity?

____________________________________________________

What do you think is the purpose of this action?

____________________________________________________

What female and male organs are seen to establish connection due
to this action?
____________________________________________________

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 b. Study the illustration below and imagine how this 2 pictures are
related.

1. What is the calf doing?

_________________________________________________
2. What is the reason why milk is produced?
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
3. Where do you think is the sperm produced? What about the egg,
where is it produced?
________________________________________________________
4. How and where will the gametes meet?
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
5. After the 2 gametes will successfully unite, what happens to the ova?
What happens to the sperm?
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________

6. What do you think is the stage that is lacking in the picture before a
calf is seen to be separated from the cow?
______________________________________________________
____________________________________________________

Analysis 6. What is the purpose of copulation?

_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
7. What hormone in the pituitary gland influences male
characteristics? Female behavior?
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________

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 8. What is a castrate? What is a capon?
______________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
9. What hormone maintains pregnancy and what endocrine gland
produces it?
______________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
10. What hormone simulates production of milk in the mammary gland?
______________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
11. What is the role of the male animal in reproduction?
______________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
12. What is the role of the female animal in reproduction?
______________________________________________________
________________________

Abstraction THE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

Overall Function:
The main function is for the perpetuation of species thus prevent
extension by producing sex cells or gametes (ovum and spermatozoa)
from the gonads of female (ovary) and male (testes) of male animals;
and conveying these gametes to the appropriate environment for
fertilization and implantation.

Male Reproductive Organs

Functions:

1. Production of viable sperm

2. Production of accessory gland fluids
3. Act of copulation

• Testicles are paired gonads contained in a scrotum for mammals

where the sperm are produced and stored prior to ejaculation. The
scrotum is involved in temperature regulation since the testicles
should be 3-5 degrees cooler than the body temperature, unlike in
birds where these are internally located in the thoracic cavity. The
temperature regulation of the testicles is through the movement of the
scrotum closer to the body during cool weather and away during the
hot season. The muscles involved in this movement are Cremaster
muscle, tunica dartos, and pampiniform plexus.

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 • Duct System is located
inside the testicles
composed of the small
tubes below:

Seminiferous tubules are coiled tubes where sperm development or

spermatogenesis occurs at its Sertoli Cells (nurse cells) as well as
hormone testosterone production at the Leydig Cells.

Epididymis is the site for storage, maturation and passageway of the

spermatozoa into the vas deferens and urethra.

• Penis – the male copulatory organ

• Accessory sex glands is the source of seminal fluids. Semen is the
mixture of sperm and accessory gland fluids. Below are the male
accessory glands:
1. Seminal vesicles - viscous and contains fructose (energy),
prostaglandins (mobility and viability) and proteins that cause
slight coagulation reactions in the semen after ejaculation.
2. Prostate Gland - produce thin, milky colored, and alkaline
secretions to enhance sperm motility
3. Bulbourethral or Cowper's gland - secrete an alkaline mucus-like
fluid that neutralizes the acidity of the urine residue in the urethra,
helps to neutralize the acidity of the vagina, and provides some
lubrication during mating.

Female Reproductive Organs

Functions:

1. Maturation of follicles and ovulation of female sex cell, ovum

or egg cell
2. Development of appropriate environment for fertilization,
implantation and embryonic growth
3. Synthesis of reproductive hormones

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 Ovary is a paired female gonad that produces egg cells (ova) as well
as the hormone estrogen and progesterone needed for reproductive
function. It receives stimulation from the brain directly through the
pituitary gland hormones follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) and
luteinizing hormone (LH). The ovum/ova is primarily consist of a
shed nucleus of a mature follicle surrounded by few layers of follicle
cells and a tough membrane called the zona pellucida that protects its
contents.

In birds, only one ovary is present showing various yolk

developments. The left ovary and its oviduct functions in the
production of the egg (specifically the ovum within the yolk).

The ovary undergoes cyclic structural and physiologic changes

(ovarian changes) from the start of follicle development to
maturation and ovulation evidenced by behavioral changes in the
Estrous Cycle. With these cycle is a period of female non-receptivity
to receptivity that allows mating to happen which is greatly
influenced by hormonal levels of estrogen and progesterone. Estrous
cycle is not a characteristic of poultry but once sexual maturity is
reached almost continuous daily egg production occurs.

Ovulation results to the formation of Corpus luteum in mammals that

act as act as temporary endocrine gland to produce progesterone in
order to maintain pregnancy.

• Oviduct is the site of fertilization. It is a paired tube that conveys the

ova released from the ovary to the uterus for possible implantation in
cases of successful fertilization. It has a funnel-shaped structure
called infundibulum surrounding the ovary that picks up the ova upon
ovulation.

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 In birds, the oviduct is composed of different sections such as the
infundibulum, magnum, isthmus, uterus, vagina, cloaca, and vent.
This is involved in the formation and conveyance of egg which
includes fertilization in the infundibulum, albumen addition in the
magnum, membranes added in the isthmus, shell formation in the
uterus (shell gland), and egg rotation in the cloaca.

• Uterus is the site of embryo implantation and fetal development up

to gestation. It is composed of the uterine horn attached to the body
of the uterus.
• Cervix (neck of the uterus) is a short passageway that connects the
uterus and the vagina; and it protects the uterine contents during
pregnancy by its closure. It also acts as sperm receptacle in some
animals.
• Vagina is the organ of copulation and part of the birth canal
• Vulva is the external genitalia of the female where urine and
reproductive products passes though.

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 Estrous Cycle is the interval from the beginning of one heat period
(estrus) to the start of another heat period divided into four stages:

• Proestrus - the period between regression of the corpus

luteum (CL) and estrus, when follicular development is
occurring and estrogen production is increasing; (about the
eighteenth to twentieth days of the bovine cycle).

• Estrus - the period of sexual receptivity, due to high levels of

estrogen; depending upon the species, length of estrus ranges
from about twelve hours to several days; estrogen levels bring
about a surge of LH and FSH).

• Metestrus - the phase following estrus when the CL, forms and
begins to produce progesterone

• Diestrus - the phase when the CL is highly active in its

production of progesterone.

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 Fertilization, Gestation and Parturition

Fertilization is the meeting, fusion and combination of the haploid

genetic materials of the sperm (spermatozoa) and egg (oocyte) to
form a diploid cell called zygote (fertilized ovum).

Source: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TWAoGQJsC6c

Source: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TWAoGQJsC6c

Gestation is the period from conception to birth of the offspring. It

is described as the period when a fertilized ovum or zygote is
implanted in the uterus for its full development into a fetus until
the time of its delivery or birth.

Source: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TWAoGQJsC6c

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 During pregnancy or gestation, the Corpus Luteum is maintained
to produce progesterone, thus, further estrus is inhibited.
Progesterone is considered as the hormone of pregnancy.

Average lengths of pregnancy of species differ in each animal species.

Hormonal changes occur during gestation and parturition.

Parturition is the act of giving birth to an offspring.

Other Parturition link:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XRT4to6frrU
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ahg-KSbFkr0&feature=share

Application 1. Based on the above concepts and principles, prepare flow chart
showing how a apermatozoa from male reproductive tract reaches
the ova in the reproductive tract of a female animal. Indicate the
structures/cells where the spermatozoa passes through while on its
way to the female tract.

2. Prepare a tabulated list of all hormones involved in the reproductive

funtion of male and female domestic animals from gamete
production up to parturition in females. This should also nclude
hormones from the hypothalamus and the pituitary gland that
influences the reproductive function.

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Closure Congratulations! You have successfully completed lesson number 3.
You are now ready to study the Urinary System.

Module No. 3 Anatomy and Physiology 2

Lesson No. 4 The Excretory (Urinary) System

Learning K. Describe the excretory (urinary) system and its overall

Outcomes function;
(Objectives) L. Identify the different parts and organs of the excretory system
and describe each function;
M. Explain how the hypothalamus and pituitary gland influence
the function of the kidney;
N. Explain how urine is formed and excreted.
Time Frame The lesson can be completed in one (1.5) hours
Introduction This topic will enable you understand how urine is formed and the
organs involved in its formation, storage and excretion.

Activity The picture below shows kidney A and kidney B. Study the peculiar
differences between the two. Kidney A is normal while B has
hydronephrosis. These organ conditions has an implication in its
function.

1. What is the structure found in B that is absent in A?

_________________________________________________

2. What part is enlarged in B and what could have caused it?

_________________________________________________
_________________________________________________

3. Think of a possible solution so that B will return to its normal

condition as A.

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 __________________________________________________
__________________________________________________

4. Give possible reasons why kidney B is not normal.

__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________

What I know? What I want to know? What I Learned?

…about Urinary …about Urinary System (fill this column after
System you have studied the
contents of this
module including its
readings)
Kidney function Kidney function

Urine formation Urine formation

Analysis 13. What do you think is the function of the kidney?

14. In what part if the kidney is urine formed?

15. What is a kidney stone and what is its effect to urine formation?

16. If one kidney is lost or defective, will urine formation still happen?
Explain.

17. Why are some patients undergoing dialyis?

Abstraction URINARY SYSTEM

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 The system is responsible for the
excretion of waste products circulating in
the blood through the formation of urine.
This will regulate water balance, pH,
osmotic pressure, electrolyte level, and
substance concentration. The process
includes filtration, reabsorption, and
secretion of substances in the blood.

Organs:
1. Kidneys – are the main organs of the
urinary system composed of nephron.
These paired organs, the site of urine
formation, are located at the dorsal
abdominal cavity of the animal.
2. Ureter – a tube that conveys urine from
the kidney to the urinary bladder
3. Urinary Bladder – a reservoir that stores urine with a capacity more
than double its size. This is absent in chicken or birds.
4. Urethra – is a tube that conveys urine from the urinary bladder for
excretion

Urination or micturition – is the act of releasing of urine externally

KIDNEY

Parts of the Kidney

1. Cortex
2. Medulla
3. Pelvis

Nephron
The nephron is the
basic functional unit
of the kidney
composed of the
following:
1. Glomerulus –
is group of blood capillaries from the renal blood vessels that
carries blood containing waste products for filtration at the
Bowman’s capsule
2. Bowman’s capsule – is an expanded part of the nephron that
surrounds the glomerulus where the initial filtrate from the
blood passes through
3. Renal tubules – are small tubes that vary its permeability to
different substances and water, hence, the composition of urine:

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 a. convoluted tubules (proximal and distal)
b. loop of Henle (descending and ascending)
c. collecting tubules

Urine Formation

The formation of urine

involves 3 processes:
1. Filtration
(Glomerular
filtration). The
first step in urine
formation occurs
in the
glomerulus,
hence, called
glomerular
filtration. Blood
is filtered in this
site through the
Bowman’s
capsule due to its selective permeability
2. Reabsorption. This is the 2nd step in urine formation
a. Sodium and glucose found in the filtrate may be returned
to the body reabsorption through the capillaries
surrounding the proximal convoluted tubules
(peritubular capillaries) by active transport.
b. Water reabsorption may also follow through osmosis at
the loops of Henle which is done by countercurrent
mechanism of NaCl flow influenced by aldosterone, a
hormone released
from the adrenal
gland.
c. Soduim reabsorption
may also occur at the
distal convoluted
tubules through active
transport. Osmotic
reabsorption of water
from them occurs
when ADH
(vasopressin from the hypothalamus) is present.

3. Secretion. Ammonia and hydrogen present in the blood can be

secreted by the peritubular capillaries into the distal convoluted
tubules through active transport.

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 The urine formed is collected by the collecting tubule for
conveyance to the to the pelvis of the kidney which eventually
is funneled to the ureter.

A. Identify a friend or a relative who is undergoing a regular dialysis

Application session in a hospital or clinic. In the absence of dialysis, changes in
the physical features will be observed as a result of the condition.
1. Describe the details of how a dialysis machine works.
2. What is the purpose of the dialysis?
3. What organ in the body functions like a dialysis machine?
4. What will happen to the person if dialysis session is not
undertaken? Explain.
5. What is the part of the body being attached to the dialysis
machine? Why.
B. Complete the KWL Table

Closure Congratulations! You have learned the excretion of wastes found in

the blood.

Module No. Anatomy and Physiology 2

3
Lesson No. The Digestive System
5
Learning
Outcomes O. Describe the overall function of the digestive system;
(Objectives) P. Identify the different parts and organs of the digestive system
and describe each function;
Q. Differentiate the structures and function of the stomach of
ruminants, non-ruminants and poultry;
Time Frame The lesson can be completed in one (1) day
Introduction This topic will enable you to understand the functions of the different
organs and structures involved in digestion of feedstuffs including the
enzymes and chemicals that they produce.

Activity

Cattle feeds mainly on grasses and other vegetation. However, this pasture
appears to be so dry and is seemingly lifeless.

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 1. Do you think this pasture area is in the Philippines? Why or why
not?
_______________________________________________________
2. What could be the possible reason that these animals are raised in this
type of vegetation?
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
3. Are the animals healthy looking or not? What to do think is the reason.
_________________________________________________
_________________________________________________
4. What could be in the grasses that makes the animal survive?
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
5. For how long do you think these animals will live if the grasses are
dry?

What I know? What I want to What I Learned?

know?

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 …about: …about: (fill this column after
Digestive System Digestive System you have studied the
contents of this
module including its
readings)
Function? Function?

Organs involved in Organs involved in

digestion digestion

Ruminants and non- Ruminants and

ruminant stomach non-ruminant
stomach

Analysis 1. What is the reason why cattle, carabaos, goats and sheeps can subsist
mainly on grasses?
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
2. Why are pigs, dogs, chicken and cats unable to digest grasses thus
relying mainly on non-grass food?
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
3. Is there are difference between the digestive system organs and
function of cattle, pigs and chicken?
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
4. Are there chemicals released in the digestive system that helps in
breaking down of feedstuffs eaten by animals? Give at least 2.
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
5. What do you think is the role of the stomach in digestion?
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________

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Abstraction THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
• is composed of organs that enable food or feedstuff to enter the
body and transform these into small molecules (digestions) that
could enter the circulatory system (absorption).
• these structure or organs varies in animal species

Basic Digestive Structures:

1. Mouth
2. Esophagus
3. Stomach (simple or complex)
4. Small intestine (duodenum, jejunum and ileum)
5. Large intestine (cecum, colon and rectum)

Accessory Digestive Structures:

1. Salivary glands
2. Liver
3. Pancreas

Classification of Animals Based on Type of Stomach

a. Simple (Monogastric/non-ruminant) – stomach with no divisions
or compartments e.g pigs, horses, dogs, cats, chicken. These are
adapted to high concentrate rations, thus, mostly carnivores and
omnivores

b. Complex (Ruminant) – stomach is divided into compartments,

each having a unique function e.g. ruminants like cattle, carabao,
goats, deer and sheep. Animals are adapted to high fiber
(roughage) ration or herbivores.

The type of feed to be given to the animals depend on this

classification

Digestive Tract of Simple Stomached or Non-ruminant Animals:

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 1. Mouth – is a cavity
for ingestion,
lubrication and
mechanical break
down of food
particles to reduce the
size thereby
increasing its surface
area to initiate
chemical digestion.
• Teeth – for cutting, tearing, grinding
• Beak – in birds, this is used for mechanical digestion
particularly prehension and mastication
• Tongue – highly muscular structure that moves and
manipulated food for ease is grinding and swallowing.
This is very rigid in birds

2. Pharynx – is a common passage of food and air

3. Esophagus
• a tube that transports food
from mouth to stomach
through peristaltic movement
• In birds, there is an enlarged
area or pocket called the crop
for storage, moistening and
softening of food with
minimal digestion if any
breakdown of carbohydrate
by amylase and some
fermentation will take place

4. Stomach
• Is a reservoir of food for a controlled movement to the
small intestine

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 • Used for mechanical breakdown of food including mixing
with the digestive or gastric juices like Hydrochloric acid
and enzymes pepsin for protein thereby converting food
to chyme, a liquid form

• In birds, the glandular or

true stomach is called
proventriculus attached to the
gizzard which is highly muscular
for mechanical digestion and
grinding of grits and other solid
objects and even metals

• Secretions:
a. Mucous (mucin)
b. Hydrochloric acid – from the parietal cells
c. Enzymes – pepsin from pepsinogen zymogen – from
chief cells

5. Small Intestine
• Is a digestive tube where final digestion and absorption
takes place.
• It is composed of epithelial cells (enterocyte) with ciliated
border (brush border) that increases the surface area for
absorption.
• Is similar to birds except that there are no lacteals
• Composed of 3 segments:
a. Duodenum – is the first part of the small intestine. It is
the active site of digestion where bile and pancreatic
secretions are released. In addition, intestinal enzymes
are also produced and secreted to aid in final digestion
b. Jejunum – is the second part of the small intestine
where absorption takes place
c. Ileum – is the third and final segments for absorption
of water, minerals and vitamins
6. Large Intestine
• is the terminal digestive tube where microbial
fermentation, water absorption and feces formation occurs

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 • It is the site for absorption of the remaining liquid/water,
and including volatile fatty acids (VFAs) produced
through fermentation
• Site for fecal formation
• Composed of 3 segments
a. Cecum –contains microorganisms for fermentation of
cellulose and hemicelluloses. This is paired in birds
b. Colon
c. Rectum – for storage of the digestive wastes and mass
movement of fecal matter during defecation.

• In birds, the cloaca is the terminal part of the digestive

system. This is also where the urinary, and reproductive
tracts open. In normal cases, the opening and closing of
these systems is regulated so that only one system opens
while the others are closed, thus, preventing mixture of the
products of these 3 systems which includes feces, urine
and egg.

7. Accessory Glands
a. Liver – is the main metabolic organ which is the source of bile
and bile acids stored in the gallbladder for fat digestion in the
small intestine
b. Pancreas – is an endocrine organ attached in the small intestine
that secretes digestive enzymes for carbohydrates, proteins
and fat digestion.
c. Salivary Glands – produce fluid (water and mucous) and
enzyme amylase for starch digestion in the mouth. It is
composed of parotid, sublingual, and mandibular glands

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 Digestive Tract of Ruminants
• All other structures/organs
and functions are similar to
monogastric except the
stomach which is large and
divided into 4 compartments –
rumen, reticulum, omasum
and abomasum
• Adapted to high fiber
(roughage) ration
• Rumination or the belching
up of feed, chewing and reswallowing
• Cud is the regurgitated feed that appears like a ball like mass of
feed from the stomach for rechewing.

Stomach Divisions:
1. Rumen
• is the first and largest stomach
compartment with short projections
like shag “carpet”
• function as a fermentation vat due
to the presence of Protozoa, bacteria,
fungi and yeasts converting
roughages into Volatile Fatty Acids
(VFAs)
• Undergo regular contractions that
leads to:
a. Mixing of stomach contents
b. Release of gases through eructation
c. Movement of gases and fermented contents into the
omasum
• Provide source of protein (microbial) and Vitamins K & B
Complex
• Site of VFA Absorption

2. Reticulum
• Appears like a “honeycomb”
• May catch ingested metals or hardware
resulting to hardware disease
• Contains some microorganisms that made
this as additional fermentation area
• Moves the digested materials to the next
compartment, the omasum

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 3. Omasum

• Described as “many-folds” due to the

leaflike structure inside the compartment
assumed to grind foodstuffs
• May absorb VFAs

4. Abomasum
• “Glandular or true stomach” with functions similar to
monogastric stomach
• Secretes lysozyme that breaks down bacterial cell walls
passing from the rumen

Digestive Tract Pathway

1. Non-Ruminant (Monogastric):
(start) mouth - esophagus -
stomach - small intestine
(duodenum, jejunum,
Ileum) - large intestine,
(and cecum) - rectum –
anus (end)
2. Birds (Poultry):
(start) mouth - esophagus -
crop - proventriculus
(stomach) - gizzard - small
intestine - large intestine,
(and ceca) - cloaca – vent
(end)
3. Ruminants:
(start) mouth - esophagus -
reticulo- rumen - (processes
of regurgitation, rechewing,
reinsalivation, and
reswallowing) - reticulo-
rumen - omasum -
abomasum - small intestine - large intestine (and cecum ) - rectum
– anus (end)

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 SUMMARY OF THE DIGESTIVE FUNCTION
ORGANS FUNCTION/S PRODUCT/S
Mouth Prehension Softened
Mastication Reduced size
Lubrication feedstuff
Release of enzyme Partially digested
(amylase) starch
Teeth Cutting, tearing,
grinding
Beak, birds Prehension and
mastication
Tongue Feedstuff movement and
manipulation
Salivary Glands Saliva production with Mucous and
mucous and enzyme enzyme amylase
amylase (ptyalin) (ptyalin)
Esophagus Peristaltic contractions Movement of feed
to the stomach
Crop, in birds Storage Partially digested
Lubrication feed mixture
Minimal fermentation
Stomach, non- Peristaltic contraction Partially digested
ruminant Storage of food protein
Release of hydrochloric Production of
acid and enzyme chyme
Proventriculus, (pepsin) for partial
in birds protein digestion
Gizzard, birds Grinding Reduced size of
grits
Stomach, ruminant Storage and Volatile Fatty
Fermentation Acids
Absorption of VFAs Partially digested
Peristaltic contraction protein
Release of hydrochloric Production of
acid and enzyme chyme
(pepsin) for partial
protein digestion
Liver Bile & bile acid Bile and bile acids
production and storage
Small Intestine Peristaltic contractions Absorbable
Release of intestinal molecules
enzymes (monosaccharides,
amino acids and
fatty acids)

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 Entry of pancreatic
enzymes; and bile & bile
acids from the liver
Final digestion
Absorption of digested
feed
Pancreas Production of pancreatic Pancreatic
enzymes and zymogens enzymes
Large Intestine Fermentation Volatile fatty acids
Absorption water and Feces
liquids
Feces formation
Anus Contraction Release of feces
Cloaca, birds Contraction

Application A. Let us do a simple experiment on the Digestive System.

Identify only one (1) animal in your household that you will use
for the activity. Put the animal in a cage for the experiment. Fast the
animal for 24 hours starting at 8 AM on day 1 but provide clean and
potable drinking water at all times. At 8AM on day 2, feed the animal
only once during the day with the appropriate kind and amount. Do not
give additional feed but continue to provide enough water until the day
3 or when the animal defecates. Observe the amount and texture of the
feces and answer the following:
1. What animal did you use for feeding? Describe the weight, age,
and sex and number of animals.
2. Write the date and time you started fasting your animal.
3. Enumerate the food or feedstuff that you give and include the
source (animal, plants) and its preparation (cooked or fresh)
including the quantity (grams, cups or other measurements)
4. What is the date and time of feeding?
5. Describe the action of the animal in order to put the feed into its
mouth.
6. Was there chewing of food that you observed? If not, what could
have happened to the food after its entry to the mouth cavity? If
yes, for how long was the chewing done?
7. What date and time did you observe the animal defecate?
8. For how long did it take the food to be processed from feeding to
defecation?
9. What parts of the digestive tract of this animal was involved in the
whole process of digestion? Start to finish.
10. Make a summary and conclusion of your experiment.
B. Answer column 3 of the KWL table
Congratulations! Good job! You have successfully learned this lesson
Closure which will enable you to understand the topic on nutrition.

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MODULE ASSESSMENT

MODULE SUMMARY
You have completed the 3rd module of Animal Science 1, the Anatomy and Physiology 2.
These are the key points of this module:
• The endocrine system is regulated by the brain particularly the hypothalamus and
the pituitary gland which are the considered master glands due to their influence
in the functioning of the target organs in the body. This regulation is due to the
hormones released from the different endocrine glands.
• In order to survive, homeotherms make physiological adjustments to the changes
in ambient temperature. This is because the normal body temperature of animals
should only be within a specific range for a normal physiologic function. Hence,
beyond or below the given range which is set in the hypothalamus, there should
be physiologic adjustments for heat loss or heat gain.
• The replication of species is a function of the male and female reproductive
system which includes different organs and structures with specific functions. The
hypothalamus and pituitary gland are indirectly influencing the function of the
male and female gonads and other reproductive structures to enable successful
fertilization, implantation and pregnancy. In all these stages, hormones play an
important role for the success of reproduction.
• The waste products of metabolism circulating in the blood of an animal require
regular filtration which is a function of the urinary system. The formation of urine
is a necessary step to excrete these wastes outside the body.
• The different parts of the digestive system functions so that large particles of feed
can be converted into small molecules that can be absorbed by the cells for
distribution and metabolism. However, there are differences in these structures
depending on the animal species particularly the stomach of ruminants, non-
ruminants and poultry resulting to differences in feed type for each animal.

REFERENCES
Akers, R. M., and D. Michael Denbow (1983). Anatomy and Physiology of Domestic
Animals, 2nd Edition. Wiley-Blackwell.
Aspinall, V. and M. Cappello (2015). Introduction to Animal and Veterinary Anatomy
and Physiology 4th Edition
Colville, T. P., and J. M. Bassert. Clinical Anatomy and Physiology for Veterinary
Technicians - E-Book 3rd Edition, Kindle Edition

Project WRITE XI: An Easy Guide for Course Pack making and Module Development 93
Dukes, H.H., M. J. Swenson, W. O. Reece (1993). Dukes' Physiology of Domestic
Animals Comstock
Reece, W. O., H.H. Erickson, JP. Goff, E.E. Uemura (2015). Dukes' Physiology of
Domestic Animals John Wiley & Sons
Sjaastad, O. V., K. Hove, and O. Sand (2010). Physiology of Domestic Animals Scan.
Vet. Press.
William O. Reece (2013). Functional Anatomy and Physiology of Domestic Animals.
John Wiley & Sons

Module No. & Title MODULE 4: ANIMAL NUTRITION

Module Overview
Basic concepts in animal nutrition will be defined and
discussed in this module. These livestock learning are also
applicable to human food. In the spirit of class integration, it
is hoped that these learnings help the students develop a
deeper understanding of their own nutritional needs by
learning about those of animals. Furthermore, many of these
concepts can be applied to those they will be working within
the industry. Many of the ideas and concepts covered in this
module relate to health and nutrition in core classes and
nutrition in crop/vegetable training.

Module After completing this module, you are expected to:

Objectives/Outcomes 1. Make a concept map of feeding, digestion, absorption to
the utilization of nutrients, and nutrient limitations to
improve productivity.
2. Formulate basic ration of animals

Lessons in the Lesson 1: Introduction to Animal Nutrition

module Lesson 2: Classes of Nutrients, Functions, and Deficiency
Symptoms
Lesson 3: Digestion, Absorption & Metabolism
Lesson 4: Nutrient Requirements of Farm Animals, Feeds,
and Feed Formulation

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Module No.
and Title Module 4: Animal Nutrition
Lesson No.
and Title Lesson 1: Introduction to Animal Nutrition

Learning At the end of the lesson, you are expected to:

Outcomes 1. Discuss the basic terms in animal nutrition
2. Contrasting concepts of Proximate analysis and gross
chemical composition of plant and Animals

Time Frame
3 hours of reading and interactive activities.
Introduction
This lesson will bring you to the different basic processes of how
nutrients are being measured and utilized. Nutrition is defined as a
series of methods by which an organism takes in and assimilates
food to promote growth and replace worn-out or injured tissues. It
encompasses several fields of discipline like biochemistry,
chemistry, physiology, endocrinology, microbiology, genetics.
While understanding the concepts on how to determine nutrient
content, chemical reaction, and body utilization will help us further
manage our animals.

Let us Play! Find the nutrition-related words in the box.

Activity:

Familiarize
with 1. __________
nutrition 2. __________
terminologie
s 3. __________

4. __________

5. __________

6. __________

7. __________

Analysis 1. Why do we need to understand nutrition in animal management?

______________________________________________________

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 ______________________________________________________
2. Why do we need to get the proximate analysis of nutrients?
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
3. Differentiate the composition of animals versus plants.
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
4. Which nutrient humans/animals depend on for energy sources?
_____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
_

Abstraction Let us Do Memory Mining!

• Nutrition – refers to the study of various physical and chemical
processes that transform food elements into body elements and the
influence of different feed additives to multiple methods. It involves
ingestion, digestion, and absorption of various nutrients from the
food, the transport of absorbable nutrients to all body cells, its
metabolism, and the removal of the unusable nutrients and waste
products of metabolism
- It is also defined as the series of processes by which
an organism eats and metabolizes food to replace worn-
out or injured tissues and promote growth.
- Nutrition encompasses several fields of discipline like
biochemistry, chemistry, physiology, endocrinology,
microbiology, genetics.
• Nutrients refer to any feed constituents or a group of feed
constituents of the same general chemical composition that aids in
support life.
- May include synthetically produced vitamins, chemical
action, enzyme activity.
- Nutrients are substances or elements found that are very
necessary to support the animals' life processes. These are
carbohydrates, fats, proteins, vitamins, minerals, and
water.
• Food/feed – a term given to any material that embraces both
plants and animals, including the by-products prepared from
them. Ex: corn, rice bran, fish meal,
• Feedstuff – the term refers to any stuff both prepared
synthetically or natural in origin when properly used, will
provide nutritional value in the diet. Ex: Corn, DL-methionine,
feed supplements, some vitamin premixes, etc
• Digestion – The breaking down of feed particles into suitable
products for absorption; may include mechanical forces,
chemical action, and enzyme activity.

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 • Absorption – transfer of a substance from the gastrointestinal
tract (GIT) to the circulatory (blood, or
• Metabolism refers to the combination of anabolic and
catabolic reactions occurring in the body with energy
liberation.
• Enzymes – refers to a complex protein produced in cells that
will result in changes in some substances within the body
without changing its structure (organic catalyst).
• Metabolic water – refers to the water produced from the
nutrients( carbohydrates, fats, and proteins) when
metabolized.
• Ration is defined as the animals' food with a weigh nutrient
balance for the animals' needs within the day feed requirement.
• Diet – refers to the kind of food given to the animals regardless
of whether unbalance or balance of nutrient requirements
needed by the animals

II. The Gross Chemical Composition of Plant and Animal Tissues:

Proximate analysis (PA) – a standard set of laboratory procedures to

quantify components of tissues and feeds. The different nutrients
quantified and their corresponding methods are:

1. Proximate composition of plant and animal tissues

Typical tests in a feed analysis laboratory and their technical

requirements
Component Plants Animals Procedure Measure/Fo
rmula
Dry matter Oven drying % DM =
oven-dry
wt./fresh
weight x
100
Water High High Oven drying % moisture
(moisture) = 100 - %
DM
Inorganic Ignition/bur % ash = wt.
matter (ash) ning, muffle of residue
furnace after
ignition/sa
mple
weight x
100

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 Minerals Low- High
0.5%
Vitamins High High
Protein Low- High Kjeldahl % CP = %
high(3- procedure N x 6.25
45%) (digestion,di
stillation,titr
ation)
Low – 3- High – Ether % EE =
Fat 10% 20%(fats extraction sample wt –
( pseudo ) (soxhlet oven dry
fats) apparatus) weight/sam
ple
wt. x 100
Carbohydra Very Zero - Refluxing % CF
tes high-75% negligibl (digestion in =Sample
e acid and weight after
base), refluxing –
ignition residue
weight after
ignition/sa
mple
weight x
100
% Nitrogen
free extract
(NFE) =
100 – (%
Ash + %CP
+ % CF + %
EE)
Source: http://www.fao.org/3/i3535e/i3535e.pdf

Parameter Description

Sample preparation
➢ Description: Sample preparation is essential for the sub-
sampling of the material before a determination.
➢ Activities Drying and grinding.
➢ Equipment: Low-temperature oven dryer (60–70 °C) or freeze
dryer; splitter; mill; sieves.
➢ Facilities: Require Two or three phases of electric power;
exhaust system.
➢ Personnel: Basic analytical skills.

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 Dry matter analysis
➢ Description: Dry matter is, by definition, the part of the sample
that remains after drying at 103 °C.
➢ Activities Weighing and drying.
➢ Equipment: will use Analytical balance (0.1 mg), forced-air
drying oven (at least 110 °C), desiccator.
➢ Facilities: require Granite (or similar) table for balance
stability, an oven connected to an exhaust system.
➢ Personnel: Basic analytical skills.

Crude ash

➢ Description: Crude ash is, by definition, the part of the sample

that remains after incineration at 550 °C.
➢ Activities: Weighing and incineration.
➢ Equipment Analytical balance (0.1 mg); desiccator; muffle
furnace.
➢ Facilities: Connection to exhaust ventilation system for muffle
furnace; granite (or similar) table for balance stability.
➢ Personnel: Basic analytical skills.

Ash insoluble in acid (sand)

➢ Description: Ash insoluble in acid is the ash that remains after

boiling in strong acid.
➢ Activities: are Weighing, boiling, and incineration.
➢ Equipment: Analytical balance (0.1 mg); desiccator; muffle
furnace; heating and reflux equipment.
➢ Facilities: Require granite (or similar) table for balance
stability, a fume hood connected to an exhaust system.
➢ Personnel: Basic analytical skills.

Crude protein
➢ Description: The term 'crude protein' refers to measuring the
total nitrogen content and measuring the protein content using
the conversion factor of Nx6.25. If an alternative method,
such as the summation of amino acids, the term 'crude protein'
should not be used.
➢ Two ways, Kjeldahl and Dumas, are available for nitrogen
determination.

Kjeldahl method
➢ Description: Nitrogen is converted into ammonia absorbed in
boric acid and titrated against a standard acid.
➢ Activities: Weighing, digestion, distillation, and titration.

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 ➢ Equipment: Analytical balance (0.1 mg); digestion unit;
distillation unit; titration unit.
➢ Facilities: Require granite (or similar) table for balance
stability; fume hood connected to an exhaust system.
➢ Personnel: Medium-level analytical skills.

Dumas method

➢ Description: With complete combustion of the sample

materials at 950 °C within the presence of oxygen, nitrogen
will be converted to a gaseous state and reduced to N2,
followed by measurement in a thermal conductivity cell.
➢ Activities: are weighing, combustion to N2, and measurement.
➢ Equipment: Analytical balance (0.1 mg); Dumas apparatus.
➢ Facilities: Granite (or similar) table for balance stability;
helium and oxygen gas supply (high purity; 5.0).
➢ Personnel: Medium- to high-level analytical skills.

Crude fat

➢ Description: Crude fat refers to the non-polar extractable

fraction of the sample materials. Performed extraction with or
without prior acid hydrolysis, both being complementary
methods. The laboratory should offer both options.
➢ Activities: Weighing, hydrolysis, filtration, extraction, and
drying.
➢ Equipment: Analytical balance (0.1 mg); units for heating,
filtration, extraction, and refluxing; forced-air drying
➢ oven or vacuum oven (preferable).
➢ Facilities: Granite (or similar) table for balance stability; fume
hood connected to an exhaust system.
➢ Personnel Medium-level analytical skills.

Fiber analysis

➢ Description: Fibre analysis is done based on the sample's

boiling in a particular detergent solution and measurement of
the remaining organic fraction. There are two methods
available; both are base on the digestion of feeds in detergent
solution:
• metabolism of feed directly in the detergent solution
and filtration using crucibles (this is the official
standard method); and
• digestion of the sample in a nylon bag, and to make it
detergent-free, washing was done to the bags
containing the digested sample.

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 Crucible-based filtration method

➢ Description: Digestion of feed directly in the detergent

solution and filtration using crucibles (this is the official
standard method).
➢ Activities: Weighing, boiling, filtration, drying, and
incineration.
➢ Equipment: Analytical balance (0.1 mg); hot plate; reflux and
filtration unit; forced-air drying oven; muffle furnace;
crucibles.
➢ Facilities: Granite (or similar) table for balance stability; fume
hood connected to an exhaust system.
➢ Personnel: Medium-level analytical skills.

Nylon bag-based method

➢ Description: Digestion of sample while in a nylon bag and then

washing it containing the digested
➢ sample to make it detergent free.
➢ Activities: Weighing, boiling, washing, drying, and
incineration.
➢ Equipment: Analytical balance (0.1 mg); ANKOM apparatus;
forced-air drying oven; muffle furnace.
➢ Facilities: Granite (or similar) table for balance stability; fume
hood connected to an exhaust system.
➢ Personnel: Medium-level analytical skills.

Starch

➢ Description: Starch can be measured by the classical Ewers

method or with an enzymatic process. The enzymatic method
can be used for all sample types and is therefore preferable.
➢ Activities: Weighing extraction, incubation, dilution, and
spectrometric measurement.
➢ Equipment: Analytical balance (0.1 mg); temperature-
controlled water bath; autoclave (optional); suction unit;
volumetric equipment; spectrometer.
➢ Facilities: require Granite (or similar) table for balance
stability; fume hood with a vacuum system.
➢ Personnel: Medium-level analytical skills.

Parameter Description

Reducing sugars

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 ➢ Description: Reducing sugars contain the essential sugars, including
glucose, fructose, and sucrose. The determination done is based on
the Luff-Schoorl principle.
➢ Activities: Weighing, incubation, dilution, and titration, or
spectrometric measurement.
➢ Equipment: Analytical balance (0.1 mg); temperature-controlled
water bath; volumetric equipment; titration unit or a
spectrophotometer (depending on method).
➢ Facilities: Granite (or similar) table for balance stability.
➢ Personnel: Medium-level analytical skills.

Gross energy

➢ Description: Gross energy represents the total energy value of the

sample and measured by bomb
➢ calorimeter.
➢ Activities: Weighing, instrumental measurement, and titration.
➢ Equipment: Analytical balance (0.1 mg), bomb filling system, bomb
calorimeter, titration unit.
➢ Facilities: Granite (or similar) table for balance stability; oxygen
supply; fume hood connected to an exhaust
➢ system.
➢ Personnel: Medium-level analytical skills, with some experience.

Minerals

➢ Description: Spectrometric methods following incineration and

hydrolysis generally measure minerals.
➢ Activities: Weighing, incineration (optional), acid digestion,
dilution, spectrometric measurement, and Atomic Absorption
Spectroscopy (AAS) or Inductively Coupled Plasma-Atomic
Emission Spectroscopy (ICP-AES) instrumental measurement.
➢ Equipment: Analytical balance (0.1 mg); muffle furnace (550 °C)
with connection to an exhaust system (optional); heating plate or
digestion unit (250 °C); volumetric equipment; AAS and
spectrometer or ICP-AES.
➢ Facilities: Granite (or similar) table for balance stability; fume hood
connected to vacuum system; acetylene and air supply for AAS, or
argon supply and three-phase current for ICP-AES; high purity
water.
➢ Personnel: requires Medium- to high-level analytical skills.

Amino acids (excluding tryptophan)

➢ Description: Standard method for the determination of amino acids

is based on the process of hydrolysis of protein to amino acids by a
strong acid with or without previous oxidation, followed by
chromatographic separation and detection after derivatization.
➢ Activities: Weighing, oxidation (optional), hydrolysis, evaporation,
and chromatographic measurement.

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 ➢ Equipment: Analytical balance (0.1 mg); hydrolysis unit; oven
(110 °C); evaporation equipment; HPLC or dedicated amino acid
analyzer.
➢ Facilities: Granite (or similar) table for balance stability; fume hood
connected to an exhaust system; cold water supply; compressed air
for autosampler (optional); helium supply for degassing buffer
solutions; high purity water.
➢ Personnel: High-level analytical skills.

Amino acids – tryptophan

➢ Description: Determination of tryptophan based on alkaline

hydrolysis followed by chromatographic separation.
➢ Activities: Weighing hydrolysis and chromatographic
measurement.
➢ Equipment: Analytical balance (0.1 mg); air-forced oven dryer;
HPLC system attached to a UV- or fluorescence
detector.
➢ Facilities: Granite (or similar) table for balance stability; fume hood
connected to an exhaust system; compressed air for autosampler
(optional); helium supply for degassing buffer solutions; high purity
water.
➢ Personnel: High-level analytical skills.

Fatty acids

➢ Description: The standard method for fatty acids based on isolation

and derivatization, followed by gas chromatographic separation.
➢ Activities: Weighing, derivatization, and chromatographic
measurement.
➢ Equipment: Analytical balance (0.1 mg); air-forced oven dryer; GC
system attached to a Flame Ionization Detector (FID).
➢ Facilities: Granite (or similar) table for balance stability; fume hood
connected to an exhaust system; cold water supply; compressed air
for autosampler (optional); helium supply as carrier gas; hydrogen
and compressed air for the FID detector.
➢ Personnel requires Medium- to high-level analytical skills.

Vitamins

➢ Description: Determination of individual vitamins based on

extraction, followed by clean up, concentration if needed, and
chromatographic measurement.
➢ Activities: Weighing, extraction, purification, and chromatographic
measurement.
➢ Equipment: Analytical balance (0.1 mg); temperature-controlled
water bath; unit for solid phase extraction; volumetric equipment;
HPLC system including UV- or fluorescence detector.

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 ➢ Facilities: Granite (or similar) table for balance stability; fume hood
connected to an exhaust system; compressed air for autosampler
(optional); helium for degassing elution solution; high purity water.
➢ Personnel: High-level analytical skills.

Mycotoxins

➢ Description: Mycotoxins are undesirable substances produced by

fungi (molds). These result in potential danger to human and animal
body health—the different methods based on extraction,
purification, chromatographic separation, and detection.
➢ Activities: Weighing, extraction, purification, and chromatographic
measurement.
➢ Equipment: Analytical balance (0.1 mg); temperature-controlled
water bath; unit for solid phase extraction; volumetric equipment;
HPLC system including the possibility for pre- or post-column
derivatization and fluorescence detection.
➢ Facilities: Granite (or similar) table for balance stability; biological
safety cabinet; fume hood connected to an exhaust system;
compressed air for autosampler (optional); helium for degassing
elution solution; high purity water.
➢ Personnel: High-level analytical skills

Pesticides

➢ Description: Pesticides are undesirable substances whose maximum

levels were defined in the regulation of national and international
communities. These regulations demand a low detection limit and
identification of the pesticides using mass spectrometric detection—
the methods based on extraction, purification, derivatization,
chromatographic separation, and identification.
➢ Activities: Weighing, extraction, purification, derivatization, and
chromatographic measurement.
➢ Equipment: Analytical balance (0.1 mg); temperature-controlled
water bath; unit for solid-phase extraction; volumetric flasks; GC-
MS, including a databank to identify the individual components.
➢ Facilities: Granite (or similar) table for balance stability; fume hood
connected to an exhaust system; compressed air for autosampler
(optional); helium as a carrier gas.
➢ Personnel High-level analytical skills.

Some Common laboratory Equipment used in Proximate analyses

1. Oven drying - A drying oven is low-temperature convection or

forced air oven used primarily in laboratory settings. Specimens,
tools, and temperature-sensitive chemicals are placed inside a drying
oven to remove moisture slowly.

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 Biobase Bov-30V Lab High-
Temperature Vacuum Dryer
Drying Oven Equipment

2. Ignition/ burning, muffle furnace-

where feed analysis for Crude ash,
crude ash is by definition the part of the
sample that remains after incineration at
550 °C.

Muffle furnace LMF-B33

3. Kjeldahl procedure (digestion,

distillation, titration) -Nitrogen converted
into ammonia, absorbed in boric acid, and
titrated against a standard acid.

Six-Place Kjeldahl Distillation

Apparatus, 115V, 50-60Hz,
Labconco Corporation

4. Ether extraction (soxhlet apparatus)

5. Refluxing (digestion in acid and base), ignition

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 250 Deg. Cel. Borosilicate
Glass Soxhlet Extraction
Apparatus, Capacity: Up
to 5ltrs

Application Reflective writing:

• Do some browsing at www.youtube.com link on proximate

analysis:

✓ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_xrUzcHyko8
-MOISTURE & ASH ANALYSIS - FOOD
ANALYSIS TUTORIAL

✓ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=g48_UEGC2q
E VELP Automatic Kjeldahl Distillation Unit
UDK 149

✓ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TWaPfYqAt4c
-The Kjeldahl method - automatic digestion,
distillation and titration with KJELDATHERM® /
VAPODEST®

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 ✓ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4inJ_cpdDR4
- Fibre Determination BEGER

✓ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6VbNyFuYQ
MU - The Benefits of Refluxing - Demonstration

• Have a Reflection in writing on the processes and importance of

determining nutrient composition to animal nutrition and human
nutrition.

Congratulations! You’ve just finished the first lesson of the module.

Closure You have learned the basic terminology for nutrition, the concept of
diet, and the nutrient composition of animals and plants. Also,
oriented on how nutrients are determined and its processes in the
laboratory. For the next lesson, you will be exploring the classification
of nutrients, functions, and deficiency symptoms.

Module No. Module 4: Animal Nutrition

and Title
Lesson No. Lesson 2: Classes of Nutrients, Functions, and Deficiency
and Title Symptoms

Learning At the end of the lesson, you are expected to:

Outcomes • Classify different types of nutrients
• Map each function of nutrients and its deficiency

Time Frame 3 to 6 hours

Introduction
These lessons will bring you on details of the different nutrients found in the
food or feeds. This food provides nutrients to help our body perform
properly. It is vital to enjoying a well-balanced, healthy diet by consuming
various foods to provide all our body needs. Some nutrients are water-
soluble, which means the material can be dissolved in aqueous solutions.
Other nutrients are fat-soluble, meaning they are dissolved in fatty tissues
and oils.

Activity

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Analyze the
displayed Let’s have fun! What kind of nutrients can you get from the photos
pictures of below?
different
nutrient source

Source: https://sc-s.si/joomla/images/Nutrients%20.pdf

Analysis 1. How can we provide the necessary nutrients our body needs?
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
2. How many nutrients needed in the body?
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
3. Which event could happen if we didn't consume such nutrients?
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
4. What will happen if we lack certain nutrients in our bodies?
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________

Reading Further!
Abstraction
Classes of nutrients and their composition

Water

Water - commonly defined as the cheapest and most abundant nutrient.

A colorless and odorless compound containing two molecules of

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 hydrogen and one mole of oxygen, an essential nutrient considering
that it is the universal solvent in the body and that a cell is almost 90
% water.
- water makes up to 65-85% of animal body weight at birth and 45-
60% of body weight at maturity. The percentage of body water
decreases with animal age and has an inverse relationship with body
fat. Accounts for 90-95 of blood and many tissues contain 70-90%
water.
Found in the animal body as:
- intracellular water – mainly muscles and skin
- extracellular water – mostly interstitial fluids, blood
plasma, lymph, synovial and cerebrospinal fluids.
- Water present in the urinary and gastrointestinal tract.
Sources of water for animals include moisture from feeds, spring,
streams, rivers, and piped and metabolic water. Production of
metabolic water from nutrients and its estimation showed below:

C6H12O6 -------------→ ATP +CO2 + H2O

Carbohydrates ------→ 60 % metabolic water

Protein --------------→ 40 % metabolic water
Fats ---------------→ 100% metabolic water

Water requirement for maximum tolerance in feeds for storage

Feeds % Water Required

Ground Feeds 11% water
Small grains 13% water
Shelled corn 15% water
Grass hay 20% water
Molasses 40% water
Silage 70% water

A. Functions and Deficiencies

a. Functions- transport of nutrients and excretion, chemical reactions
and solvent properties, body temperature regulation, maintain the
shape of body cells, lubricates, and cushion joints and body cavity
organs.

b. Deficiencies or restrictions
-reduced feed intake and reduced palatability, weight loss due to
dehydration, increased secretions of nitrogen and electrolytes such as
Na and K

A. Sources of Water in Animal

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 a. Drinking water – consumption affected by many
factors
b. Water contained in or on feed – about 8 to 30% water
c. Metabolic – may account for 5-10% total water intake
B. Water Losses from the Animal Body
a. Urine, Feces, Vaporization from lungs, Sweat from
the sweat glands

Carbohydrates

Carbohydrates - Very high in plants in the form of starch (stored food)

and cellulose (75% of fiber) but very minimal in animals (glycogen in
the liver and muscles). Chemically, carbohydrates are aldehydes and
ketones with carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen and classified as:
• Monosaccharides (simple sugars) – sugars utilized in the body
without undergoing hydrolysis, i.e., glucose, galactose,
fructose, mannose, xylose, arabinose
• Disaccharides contain two moles of monosaccharides that
undergo hydrolysis with specific enzymes before being
absorbed and utilized in the body.
Examples are: Maltose --maltase------------→ glucose + glucose
Lactose ---lactase ---------→ glucose + galactose
Sucrose --- sucrase -------→ glucose + fructose

• Polysaccharides – carbohydrates contain several simple sugars

that should undergo hydrolysis with the substrate's specific
enzymes before it is absorbed and utilized in the body.
Examples are:
Starch – are reserve or stored food of plants. There are two
types of starch, namely amylase (straight-chained) and
amylopectin (branched chain). Starch comprises glucose units
linked through alpha 1,4 glycosidic bond for the straight-chain,
while an alpha 2,6 linkage is seen in every 2nd glucose in the
straight chain.
Glycogen – are stored carbohydrates in animal tissues, mainly
in the liver and muscles. These are composed of 12 glucose
units in an alpha 1,4 linkage.
Cellulose – are carbohydrates found in the cell wall serving as
structural entities of the plant. These consist of glucose units
with a beta 1,4 glycosidic linkage. A monogastric animal
digestive system cannot break down these beta 1,4 glycosidic
linkage structures due to a lack of the enzyme cellulase.
However, there are bacteria in the 1st three stomach
compartments of ruminants that produce cellulose; thus,
cellulose is readily hydrolyzed by this group of animals.

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 Hemicellulose is a complex, heterogeneous mixture of some
different polymers of monosaccharides, including glucose,
galactose, mannose, arabinose, and xylose with a beta 1,4
linkage of glucose and the terminal branch of an alpha 1,6
linkage to xylose units.
Gums are substances formed at the site of injury or done by
deliberate incision on the plant's bark. There is a viscous fluid
that becomes hard when dry. Not a food nutrient but used
commercially as thickening agents or stabilizers for emulsion
and paste.
Pectins – a polymer of an alpha 1,4 linkage of D-galacturonic
acid units found primarily between plant cell walls at middle
lamella. It can be extracted with hot or cold water and readily
forms into a gel.
Lignin – not a carbohydrate but is a component of the plant cell
wall. Its nutrition role is on its being a gauge for digestibility
of feed or food; that is, the higher the lignin content there is,
the lower will be the digestibility because lignin is non-
digestible. Only the termites and the white fungus
Trichoderma produce the enzyme for the breakdown of lignin.
A. General
-Made up of C (40 percent ), H (7 percent), and O (53
percent ) by molecular weight, Include sugar, starch,
cellulose, and gums, Very little occurs as such in the
animal body, CHO makeup approximately 75% of
plant dry weight and thus the most significant part of
animals food supply
-Formed by photosynthesis in plants
B. Structure
a. The structure consists of C atoms arranged in chains
to which and O are attached.
b. May contain an aldehyde or ketone group in their
structure.
C. Functions and Deficiencies
a. Functions in the animal body
-source of energy, source of heat, building stores
for other nutrients and stored in the animal body
by converting to fats
b. Deficiencies of abnormal metabolism
1. ketosis
2. diabetes mellitus

Fats/Lipids

These substances that are insoluble in water but only in organic

solvents like ether. These are derived from plants and animal sources

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 that yield fatty acids and glycerol upon hydrolysis. Similarly, with
carbohydrates, they contain carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen with an
alcohol group, but they are concentrated sources of energy (2:25
more). They are classified into:
Simple lipids –esters of fatty acids and alcohol
• Fats and oils –fatty acids and glycerol
• Waxes – esters of long-chain sterols or a monohydric alcohol
Compound lipids – the esters of fatty acids and alcohol in
combination with other compounds
• Phospholipids –fatlike compounds containing phosphoric and
a nitrogen base
• Glycolipids – compounds containing a fatty acid, a
carbohydrate complex, and a nitrogen base but no
phosphorous.
Fatty Acids in Lipids/Fats
Name Formula Occurrence/Source
Saturated Fatty
Acids
Butyric C3H7COOH butter
Caproic C5H11COOH butter
Caprylic C7H15COOH Coconut
Capric C9H!9 COOH Palm Oil
Lauric C11H23COOH Laurel and Coconut
Myristic C13H27COOH Nutmeg oil
Palmitic C15H23COOH Palm oil and Lard
Stearic C17H35COOH Tallow
Arachidic C19H39COOH Peanut
Behemic C21H43COOH Bean oil
Lignoceric C23H47COOH Peanut
Cerotic C25H51COOH Waxes
Melissic C29H29COOH waxes
Unsaturated Fatty
Acid
Oleic C17H33COOH (1=) Olive oil
Linoleic C17H31COOH (2=) Corn oil
Linolenic C17H29COOH (3=) Linseed oil
Arachidonic C19H31COOH (4=) Lecithin & Cephalin
Clupanodonic C21H33COOH (5=) Fish oil

Saturated fatty acids are FAs whose carbon skeleton is filled up with
hydrogen. In contrast, unsaturated fatty acids carbon skeleton is not
filled up with hydrogen; these carbons have double bonds. Stability in
these fatty acids is facilitated thru hydrogenation (attachment of
hydrogen at the double bond) or thru halogenation (filling up of

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 halogens such as iodine, chlorine, or bromine) in the double bonds.
One of the causes of rancidity in feeds is the ease of unsaturated fatty
acids breakdown and should be prevented so as not to lower feed
quality.

There are fatty acids that are called essential fatty acids or EFA.
Because they are called such, their absence in the diet would lead to
untoward events in an animal like having scaly skin, blood in urine,
and even diseased kidneys, which may cause mortality. As such,
linolenic, linoleic, and arachidonic fatty acids should be found in the
diet in adequate amounts.
A. Functions and Deficiencies
a. Functions
1. dietary supply
2. the source of heat, insulation, and protection for
animal body
3. source of essential fatty acids, linoleic, linolenic
and arachidonic acid
4. serve as a carrier for the absorption of fat-soluble
vitamins
b. Deficiency and abnormal metabolism
1. skin lesions, hair loss, and reduced growth rate
2. ketosis – catabolism of body fat
3. fatty liver – abnormal metabolism of liver

B. Location and Natural Sources of Fat

a. Animal Body
1. Subcutaneous
2. surrounding internal organs
3. Marbling and milk
b. Natural sources – most feeds have less than 10% fat
except oil seeds of 20%

Proteins

This nutrient is the principal constituent of organs and soft structures

in the animal's body. In addition to carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, they
contain 16% Nitrogen, sulfur, phosphorus, and iron.

The end product of protein, when digested or hydrolyzed, is amino

acids which are classified into essential and non-essential amino acids.
Essential amino acids are needed by the body but could not be
synthesized by the animal; thus, these should be supplied in the diet.
There are ten EAAs, and these are:
• Phenylalanine -Threonine
• Valine -Histidine

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 • Methionine -Isoleucine
• Arginine -Leucine
• Tryptophan -Lysine
The limiting amino acid in swine is lysine, while for poultry, it is
methionine.

Non-essential amino acids (NEAAs) are needed by the body but can
be readily synthesized by the animal thus may not be supplied in the
diet. These are:
• Proline -glutamine
• Hydroxyproline -alanine
• Aspartate -asparagine
• Glycine -Tyrosine
• Serine -Cystine
Proteins could be classified into:
1. Simple proteins like:
• Albumin- egg white and blood serum
• Globulins – seed protein, myosin in muscle, antibodies
• Glutelins – cereal grain proteins
• Prolamines – common in most seeds
• Protamines – nucleic acids, sperm cell of fish
• Histones – globin of hemoglobin
• Scleroproteins or albuminoids –fibrous protein like
those in the hairs, nails
2. Conjugated proteins- yields materials other than amino acids
on hydrolysis
• Phosphoproteins – casein, pepsin contains phosphorus.
• Glycoprotein – gonadotrophic hormones with a
carbohydrate moiety
• Lipoprotein – animal tissue in blood, eggs, and brain;
contains lipids.
• Chromoproteins – pigments and enzymes
• Nucleoprotein- contains nucleic acids
A. Protein terminology
a. True protein – composed of amino acids
b. Non-protein nitrogen (NPN) – compounds that are
not true protein in nature
c. Crude protein – composed of true proteins and any
nitrogenous products; crude protein = %N x 6.25
d. Essential amino acids – those amino acids which are
essential to the animal and must be supplied in the
diet because the animal cannot synthesize them fast
enough to meet its requirements:

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 e. Non-essential amino acids – amino acids that are
essential to the animal but are normally synthesized
or sufficient in the diet and need not be supplemented.
f. Protein quality – refers to the amount and ratio of
essential amino acids present in the protein.

B. Functions and Deficiencies

a. Functions
1. The animal body's basic structural unit are
proteins, i.e., collagen, elastin, contractile
protein, keratin proteins, and blood proteins.
2. Body metabolism – enzymes, hormones,
immune antibodies, hereditary transmission
b. Deficiencies and abnormalities
1. Symptoms of protein deficiencies reduced
growth rate and fed efficiency, anorexia,
infertility.
2. Amino acid deficiency – a lack of important
amino acid which results in deamination

Minerals

Minerals - These are the inorganic component of any tissues.

Classification of the nutrient is either macro or major minerals or
micro or trace minerals. Minerals function as cofactors, coenzymes,
or as major components of the skeletal system. These are Inorganic
solid, crystalline chemical elements. The total mineral content of
plants or animals is often called ash. Makeup to 5% of the animal body
on a dry weight basis
A. Classification
a. Major minerals/ Macro minerals – normally
present at a greater level in the animal body or needed
in relatively large amounts in the diet. Include
Calcium (Ca), Phosphorus (P), Sodium (Na),
Chlorine (Cl), Potassium (K), Magnesium (Mg),
Sulfur (S).
b. Trace minerals/Minor minerals are normally
present at low levels in the animal body or needed in
a very small diet. Includes Copper (Cu), Zinc (Zn),
Cobalt (Co), Fluorine (F), Iodine (I), Iron (Fe),
Manganese (Mn), Selenium (Se), vanadium, nickel,
Boron, Chromium, Molybdenum and are toxic at
large quantities.

B. General Functions

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 a. Skeletal formation and maintenance – Ca, P, Mg, Cu,
Mn
b. Function in protein synthesis – P, S, Zn
c. Oxygen transport – Fe, Cu
d. Fluid balance (osmotic pressure) - Na, Cl, K
e. Regulating the acid-base balance of the entire
systems – Na, Cl, K
f. Activators and/or components of enzyme systems –
Ca, P, K, Mg, Fe, CU, Mn, Zn
g. Mineral – vitamin relationship – Ca, P, Co, Se

Macro Minerals
Sodium and Chlorine

Functions:
1. Formation of digestive juices
2. Control of body fluid concentration
3. Control of body fluid pH
4. Nerve and muscle activity
Deficiency:

Under ordinary feedlot conditions, there are no specific

deficiency symptoms – just unthrifty appearance and impaired
performance. With heavily perspiring animals, an acute salt deficiency
may develop, resulting in disrupted nerve and muscle function and
possible nervous prostration.

Calcium

Functions:
1. Bone and teeth formation – 99% of body calcium in the bones
and teeth
2. Nerve and muscle function
3. Acid-base balance
4. Milk production – also egg production

Deficiency symptoms:

1. Rickets in young animals. Joints become enlarged. Bones

become soft and deformed.
2. Result to Osteomalacia or osteoporosis in older animals. Bones
become porous and weak.

Phosphorus

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 Functions:
1. Bone and teeth formation – about 80% of body phosphorus is
in the bones and teeth.
2. Phosphorus is a component of protein in the soft tissues.
3. Milk production – also egg production
4. Presence in various metabolic processes.

Deficiency:

1. Phosphorus deficiency showed in rickets in young animals and

2. Osteomalacia or osteoporosis in older animals similar to
calcium deficiency.
3. Poor appetite, slow gain, lowered milk production, low blood,
and chew on nonfeed objects are not specific for phosphorus
deficiency.

Magnesium

Functions:
1. Necessary for many enzyme systems
2. Plays a role in carbohydrate metabolism
3. Necessary for the proper functioning of the nervous system

Deficiency:
Hypermagnesemic tetany – hyperirritability of the
neuromuscular system producing hyperexcitability, incoordination.

Potassium

Functions:
We are required by livestock for a variety of body functions such
as osmotic relations, acid-base balance, rumen digestion, and the
primary intracellular cation in the neuromuscular activity.

Deficiency:
Most unlikely under ordinary conditions. Symptoms of
deficiency rather nonspecific include decreased feed consumption,
lowered feed efficiency, slow growth, stiffness, and emaciation.

Sulfur
Functions:
1. As a component of the amino acid cystine and methionine
and the vitamins, biotin, and thiamine.
2. Sulfur functions in the synthesis of sulfur-containing amino
acids in the rumen

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 3. as well as in the formation of various body compounds.

Deficiency:

Seldom experienced under ordinary conditions. The deficiency

will express itself as a protein deficiency – a general unthrifty
condition and poor performance.

Micro Minerals
Iron

Functions:
1. Necessary for hemoglobin formation
2. Essential for the formation of certain enzymes related to
oxygen transport and utilization
3. Enters into the formation of certain compounds that serve as
iron stores in the body – especially ferritin, found primarily in
the liver and spleen and hemosiderin, located mainly in the
blood.
Deficiency:
Most livestock rations are more than adequate in iron content,
and an iron deficiency seldom occurs with older animals.

Iron deficiency in the young pig is characterized by:

• Low blood hemoglobin
• Labored breathing
• Listlessness
• Pale eyelids, ears, and nose
• Flabby, wrinkled skin
• Edema of heat and shoulders
Iodine

Functions:
In the production of thyroxine by the thyroid gland.
Deficiency:
1. Goiter at birth or soon thereafter.
2. Dead or weak at birth
3. Hairlessness at birth
4. Infected navels – especially in foals

Cobalt
Functions:
1. As a component of the vitamin B12 molecule
2. In the rumen synthesis of vitamin B12
Deficiency:

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 General malnutrition symptoms – poor appetite, unthriftiness,
weakness, anemia, decreased fertility, slow growth, and reduced milk
and wool production.

Copper
Functions:
1. In iron absorption
2. In hemoglobin formation
3. In the synthesis of keratin for hair and wool growth
4. In various enzyme systems
Deficiency:
Symptoms not specific and may include any of the following:
- low blood and liver copper
- bleaching of hair in cattle
- abnormal wool growth in sheep
- abnormal bone metabolism
- muscular incoordination
- weakness at birth
- anemia
Fluorine
Functions:
1. Copper Reduces the incidence of dental caries in humans and
possibly other animals.
2. Possibly retards osteoporosis in mature animals.
Deficiency: In children – excessive dental caries.

Manganese
Functions:
In enzyme systems influencing estrus, ovulation, fetal
development, udder development, milk production and growth, and
skeletal development.

Deficiency symptoms take the form of:

- Delayed estrus
- Reduced ovulation
- Reduced fertility
- Abortions
- Resorptions
- Deformed young
- Poor growth
- Lowered serum alkaline phosphatase
- Lowered tissue manganese
- "knuckling over" in calves.
Molybdenum
Functions:

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 1. As a component of enzyme xanthine oxidase – especially
crucial to poultry for uric acid formation.
2. Stimulates the action of rumen organisms.

Selenium
Functions:
1. In vitamin E absorption and utilization
2. The essential component of enzymes – glutathione
peroxidase, which functions to destroy toxic peroxides in the
tissue, thereby having a sparing effect in the vitamin E
requirement.
3. Other compounds of selenium seem to work in concert with
vitamin E to maintain healthy cell functions and membrane
health.
Deficiency:
The following selenium deficiency symptoms in many respects
are similar to those of vitamin E deficiency:

Nutritional muscular dystrophy (white muscle disease) in

lambs and calves

- Retained placenta in cows

- Heart failure
- Paralysis
- Poor growth
- Low fertility
- Liver necrosis
- Pancreatic fibrosis in chicks
Zinc
Functions:
1. Prevents parakeratosis
2. Promotes general thriftiness and growth
3. Promotes wound healing
4. Related to hair and wool growth and health
5. Deficiency impairs testicular growth and function
Deficiency:
Seldom occurs in cattle and sheep in normal rations.
Frequently experienced in growing and fattening swine being fed on
concrete with rations containing recommended levels of calcium.

Deficiency symptoms include:

- Parakeratosis
- General unthriftiness
- Poor growth
- Unhealthy looking hair or wool
- Slow wound healing

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 “Deficiency in carbohydrates is termed as Marasmus, protein
deficiency is Kwashiorkor, and complete lack of dietary vitamins is
Avitaminosis."

Vitamins are organic substances essential for animals' metabolic

processes, although these are only needed in minute quantities.
Vitamins serve as cofactors, coenzymes in many metabolic processes.
Its classification is based on solubility such that there are two groups
of vitamins:
Fat-soluble vitamins:
• Vitamin A ( retinal) – for normal vision, a deficiency is
xeropthalmia.
• Vitamin D (ergocalciferol, cholecalciferol) – Anti rachitic
vitamin, rickets in young animals, osteomalacia in older
ones, osteoporosis in human beings
• Vitamin E (tocopherol) – Anti-sterility vitamin,
antioxidant; white muscle disease, reproductive problems
• Vitamin K (menadione) – Blood clotting factor, deficiency
leads to hemorrhage.
Water-soluble vitamins:
• Vitamin B1 (thiamine)-, Vitamin B2 (riboflavin),
Vitamin B6 (pyridoxine), Vitamin B 12
(Cyanocobalamine)
• Vitamin H (Biotin), Choline, Folic Acid
(Pteroylglutamic acid), Vitamin C (Ascorbic acid)
• Pantothenic Acid, Niacin (Nicotinic Acid), Para Amino
Benzoic Acid (PABA)
A. General
a. Organic components of natural food but distinct from
carbohydrates, fat protein, and water
b. Present in foods in minute amounts and effective in
the animal body in small amounts
c. Essential for the development of normal tissue
necessary for metabolic activity but do not enter into
the structural portion of the body.
d. When absent from the diet or not properly absorbed
or utilized, it results in a specific deficiency disease
or syndrome.
e. Cannot be synthesized by the animal
f. Related substances
1. Provitamins or precursors, i.e., carotene
2. Antivitamins, vitamin antagonists or
pseudovitamins
B. Functions and Deficiencies

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 a. Play a role as a regulator of metabolism; necessary
for growth and maintenance
b. Vitamin requirements may also increase in old age
due to difficulties in absorption and utilization.

Vitamins

Fat-Soluble Vitamins
1. Vitamin A (Retinol)

Abbreviation A
Modes of Action: Promotes the development of visual pigments.
Indispensable for the formation and protection
of epithelial tissues. Improved resistance to
infections.

Natural Occurrence in Feed and Food:

Feed: only as provitamin A in green crops; fish liver oil
Food: liver, egg yolk, milk, dairy products.
2. Vitamin D (Calciferol)

Abbreviation D
Modes of Action: Regulates the incorporation of Ca and P into the
bone matrix and Ca absorption from the
intestinal lumen.

Natural Occurrence in Feed and Food:

Feed: sun-dried green forage, fish liver oil
Food: eggs, milk, dairy products
3. Vitamin E (Tocopherol)

Abbreviation E
Modes of Action: Works as a biological antioxidant, a detoxifying
agent, and participates as a component of the
respiratory chain—functions in nucleic acid
metabolism and endocrine glands.
Natural Occurrence in Feed and Food:
Feed: green crops, cereal germs, milling by-products
Food: leafy vegetables; some animal organs, milk butter
4. Vitamin K (Menadione)
Abbreviation: K
Modes of Action: Functions in the blood coagulation system. Acts
in the maturation of the bone structure.

Natural Occurrence in Feed and Food:

Feed: green forage; liver oils

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 Food: green vegetables; potatoes, fruits; (tomatoes and
strawberries)

Water-Soluble Vitamins

1. Vitamin B1 (Thiamin)
Abbreviation: B1
Modes of Action: Participates in the process of carbohydrates
metabolism

Natural Occurrence in Feed and Food:

Feed: cereal germs, milling by-products, oil cakes, yeast
Food: cereals, vegetables, potatoes, fruits, animal organs,
egg-yolk, milk.

2. Vitamin B2 (Riboflavin)
Abbreviation: B2
Modes of Action: Acts in the respiratory chain as constituents of
the flavin enzymes concerned with hydrogen
transfer.
Natural Occurrence in Feed and Food:
Feed: some oilseeds, yeast, brewery by-products, vegetables,
fish meal, meat and bone meals, skimmed milk.
Food: liver, kidney, eggs, milk, dairy products

3. Vitamin B6 (Pyridoxine)
Abbreviation: B6
Modes of Action: Active in amino acid metabolism as a
coenzyme of several enzyme systems.

Natural Occurrence in Feed and Food:

Feed: grains, milling by-products, oil cakes, yeast
Food: cereals, green vegetables; red meat, liver, egg yolk,
milk

4. Vitamin B12 (Cyanocobalamin)

Abbreviation: B12
Modes of Action: Essential in the reduction of one-carbon
compounds in fat and protein metabolism.

Natural Occurrence in Feed and Food:

Does not occur in plants.
Feed: skimmed milk powder, fish and meat meals
Food: liver, kidney, eggs yolk

5. Biotin (Vitamin H)

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 Abbreviation: H
Modes of Action: Necessary for gluconeogenesis and fatty acid
synthesis where it acts in carboxylation
reactions.
Natural Occurrence in Feed and Food:
Feed: occurs in feeds of vegetable and animal origin, but only
in partly available form.
Food: vegetables, yeast, mushrooms, liver, kidney, meat, egg
yolk, milk
6. Folic Acid
Abbreviation: Fol.
Modes of Action: Acts in the one-carbon metabolism where it is
indispensable in the formation of amino acid
and nucleic acids
Natural Occurrence in Feed and Food:
Feed: Lucerne meal, extracted soybean meal; fish meal
Food: dark leafy vegetables; liver, kidney, muscle, milk, dairy
products.
7. Nicotinic Acid (Niacin)

Abbreviation: PP
Modes of Action: Acts as an active group of different coenzymes
related to the citric acid cycle.

Natural Occurrence in Feed and Food:

Feed: brans, dried green crops, yeasts, vegetable, and animal
proteins
Food: liver and meat of hoofed animals

8. Pantothenic Acid

Abbreviation: Pant.
Modes of Action: Part of coenzyme A, which occupies a central
position in the intermediary metabolism by
activating weakly active acids

Natural Occurrence in Feed and Food:

Feed: dried green crops, milling by-products, oil cakes, yeast
Food: cereals, legumes, liver, kidney, egg yolk, milk products

9. Vitamin C (Ascorbic Acid)

Abbreviation: C
Modes of Action: Essential in the formation and maintenance of
skeletal tissues participates as an oxidation-

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 reduction system in cellular oxidation
processes. Involved in defensive mechanisms.

Natural Occurrence in Feed and Food:

Feed: beef, green plants, skimmed milk powder
Food: potatoes, cabbage, lettuce (and other vegetables),
citrus, tomatoes (and other fresh fruits)

SOURCE: F. Hoffman – La Rohe & Co. AG

General Symptoms Indicative of Marginal or Advanced Vitamin

Deficiencies in
Poultry, Pigs, and Ruminants

Poultry

1. Nervous disorders, such as convulsions - A, E, B1,

B2, B6, and
Fol.
2. Skin or mouth lesions - A, B2, B6,
H, PP, and
Pant.
3. Discharge from eyes or swollen, pasted eyelids - A and
Pant.
4. Reduced resistance to infectious diseases - A, E, B2,
B6, Pant,
and C.
5. Poor feathering - A, D, B6,
H, Fol., PP,
and Pant.
6. Bone abnormalities - A, D, H,
Fol. and PP
7. Leg weakness or paralysis - A, D, E, B2,
B6, and H.
8. Egg production reduced or below full potential - A, D, E,
K, B2, B6,
and B12.
9. Retarded growth - A, E, K, B1,
B2, B6, B12,
H, Fol., PP,
Pant., and
C.

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 10. Hatchability reduced or below full potential - A, D, B2,
B6, B12, H,
Fol., and
Pant.

Pigs

1. Muscular incoordination or other nervous signs - A, D, B6,

B12, and Pant.
2. Reduced feed intake - A, D, B1,
B2, B6, B12,
H, Fol., PP,
and Pant.
3. Impaired vision or blindness - A, B2 and
B6
4. Scours and/or vomiting - B1, B2, B6,
B12, and
PP.
5. Hair, skin, and claw problems - A, B2, B6,
B12, H, PP,
and Pant.
6. Anemia - E, K, B6,
B12, Fol.,
PP, and
Pant.
7. Impaired feed conversion - B1, B6, B12,
H, PP, and
Pant.
8. Lameness or unsteady gait - A, D, E, B2,
B6, and
Pant
9. Poor reproduction - A, E, B2,
B12, H,
Fol., and
Pant.
10. Retarded growth - A, D, E, B1,
B6, B12, H,
Fol.

Ruminants

1. Muscular incoordination or other nervous signs - A and B1

2. Reduced feed intake - A, D and

PP
3. Impaired vision or blindness - A

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 4. Digestive disturbances - A and B1
5. Rough hair coat - A
6. Degeneration of heart and skeletal muscle - E
7. Poor reproduction - A, D and
8. Retarded growth - A, D, and E
9. Bone deformities or swollen joints - A and D

Question and answer/Concept mapping!

Application
Answer the following question and have a concept map in paragraph
form what you have learned in this lesson.

1. Explain the term essential amino acids.

_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
________________________

2. Differentiate between simple and complex carbohydrates?

_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
3. Explain the terms soluble and insoluble fibre.
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
________________________
4. List 3 different ways of vitamin intake.
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
____________
5. Vitamins are needed in minute amounts – what problems may
occur?
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
____________
6. Explain the term essential fatty acids.
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________

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 _______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_________________
7. Discuss the terms major and trace minerals and name them.
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
8. Explain the importance of water in human body.
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
________________________________________________________

Supplemental videos! You may browse this to understand our

lesson further.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jQi84TnstI4 - Carbohydrates
& sugars - biochemistry

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BVxeeiR7JB0 - Fats -
biochemistry
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HSCUAjZQhXI- Proteins
https://www.youtube.com/c/osmosis/search?query=vitamins
https://www.youtube.com/c/osmosis/search?query=minerals

Write your concept map here!

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Closure Great Job! We are done with your lesson 2, hoping for your knowledge
and understanding of nutrients will be applied to your animal
management and personal health. The next lesson will be on
metabolism, digestion, and absorption. With this, we will further, and
deeper understand how our nutrients are utilized towards productivity
output.

Module No. Module 4: Animal Nutrition

and Title
Lesson No. Lesson 3: Digestion, Absorption And Metabolism
and Title
Learning R. Describe the process of digestion of carbohydrates, protein and
Outcomes fats including the chemicals and enzymes involved in the process
(Objectives) S. Explain how carbohydrates, protein and fats are absorbed
T. Describe the metabolism of carbohydrates, proteins and fats
U. Differentiate ruminant from non-ruminant digestion.
V. Differentiate catabolism from anabolism
Time Frame The lesson can be completed in one (1) day
Introduction This lesson will enable you to understand how carbohydrates, protein and
fats from feeds are broken down into absorbable forms. It will the lead
you to appreciate how these small molecules will undergo metabolic
reactions inorder to generate energy (ATP) for transport, motion, growth,
repair and other physiologic functions.

Activity These cattle are being fed with a colorful feed. Closely look at these
feedstuff and try to identify the composition of the feed.

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 1. List down the feed ingredients that you identified
_________________________________________________
_________________________________________________

2. Why are cattle generally fed with grasses?

_________________________________________________
_________________________________________________

3. What is unique in the cattle that enable them to subsist mainly on

forages?
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________

What I know? What I want to What I Learned?

know?
…about about (fill this column after
you have studied the
Digestion Digestion contents of this
module including its
readings)

Absorption Absorption

Metabolism Metabolism

Hormones Involved Hormones

Involved

Analysis 1. What are the components of the feed that needs fermentation?
2. What will happen to the grasses 3 hours after it is being swallowed by
the cattle?
3. After 10 hours what happens to the feed being ingested?

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 4. Do you think there are chemicals necessary for digestion?
5. Why will digested feed be absorbed?
6. What to you think will happen after absorption?
7. How will the absorved nutrient be used as a source of energy?

Abstraction Key Terminologies:

Digestion – is the breakdown of food or feedstuffs into smaller molecules
in the digestive tract through mechanical and chemical process.
Absorption – is the entry the product of digestion (small molecules) into
the intestinal tract for circulation and metabolism.
Metabolism – is the process of breaking down molecules for the release
and utilization of energy (catabolism) and the building up of molecules to
store energy (anabolism).
Ruminant digestion – is the process of breaking down food into smaller
molecules involving fermentation in animals with stomach compartments.
Non-ruminant digestion – is the process of breaking down food into
smaller molecules in simple stomached animals

DIGESTION PROCESS

Mechanical Digestion
• Prehension is the act of putting food or feedstuffs to the mouth
cavity through the lips, teeth, tongue or beak in birds
• Rumination is consist of regurgitation, re-insalivation, re-chewing,
and re-swallowing which is necessary for digestion of forages
• Mastication is the mechanical breakdown of feed or food into
smaller particles by chewing through the teeth or dental pad of the
upper incisor in ruminants. This occurs during rumination in
ruminants. Breaking the food into smaller pieces increases the
total surface area of the feed to enable enzymes to effectively
break it into smaller units.
• Peristaltic contraction is a muscular action that mixes the food or
feed with the chemicals and enzymes inside the digestive tract ;
and causes the bolus to move to the next segment of the digestive
tube.

Chemical digestion

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 This is completed primarily by enzymes, though the hydrolysis of the
carbohydrate, fats and proteins. This enables the smallest or simplest
units to be absorbed. Most of these enzymes are produced in the
pancreas, where a large number of varied enzymes are released into the
small intestine to aid in the "chemical digestion" of products. Following
the breakdown of nutrients from enzymes and acids, the smallest units
can be absorbed into the body. For example, fats need to be reduced to
free fatty acids and glycerol molecules before they pass through the
gastrointestinal wall. Once these nutrients have passed through the
gastrointestinal wall, they enter the lymphatic system, where they begin
circulating throughout the body to deposit nutrients to cells needing
energy or structural elements like amino acids.

• Salivation is the lubrication of feed bolus by addition of mucous

from the salivary glands containing small amounts of enzyme
amylase for initial starch digestion. This also changes the pH of
food in preparation for the action of enzymes or bacteria in case
of ruminants.
• Chemical secretion is the release of chemicals or substances
involved in digestion from the stomach (hydrochloric acid), liver
(bile) and pancreas (bicarbonate).
a. Hydrochloric acid is produced and secreted by the
stomach to denature the proteins and activate pepsinogen
to become pepsin, the active protein enzyme.
b. Bile is produced by the liver, and stored and secreted by
the gall bladder (not present in the horse) at the small
intestine. It emulsifies fat particles to increase the surface
area for eventual enzyme action.
c. Bicarbonates are released by the pancreas that changes the
acidic pH of the chyme from the stomach into high pH at
the small intestine for optimum catalytic action of the
enzymes involved in final digestion.
• Enzyme action is the breakdown of food molecules through the
action of different enzymes released from the salivary glands,
stomach, small intestine and pancreas. The breakdown is through
the hydrolysis of the carbohydrate, fats and proteins. This enables
the smallest or simplest units to be absorbed. Enzymes are
catalysts that enhance the rate at which covalent bonds that link
subunits together to form polymeric biomolecules are broken.

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 Enzyme Action
Location Enzymes Substrate Product
Mouth Salivary amylase Starch Amylose or
(ptyalin) amylopectin
Stomach Pepsin Protein Peptides and/or
(glandular) (polypeptide) some amino acids

Rumen, Microorganisms Cellulose and Volatile Fatty

Reticulum, (Fermentation hemicelluloses Acids (Propionic,
Omasum, enzymes) butyric and Acetic
Cecum, Acid)
Colon
Small Pancreatic proteases Peptides Amino Acids
Intestine • trypsin
• chymotrypsin
• carboxypeptidase
Pancreatic amylase Starch, Amylose or
Amylose amylopectin,
maltose,
disaccharides
Pancreatic lipase Monoglycerides Fatty acids
Diglycerides Glycerol
Intestinal maltase Maltose Glucose
Intestinal sucrase Sucrose Fructose &
Glucose
Intestinal lactase Lactose Galactose &
glucose
Intestinal peptidases Dipeptides Amino Acids
Nucleotidases Nucleotides Ribose and bases

Carbohydrate Digestion

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 a. The release of salivary amylase initiates the chemical digestion of
starch in the mouth. Forages composed of cellulose and
hemicelluloses cannot be digested by this enzyme, thus, it should
undergo fermentation.
b. Fermentation of forages occurs at the stomach of ruminants as well
as the cecum of simple stomach animals where bacteria, fungi and
protozoa are abundant. The final product of fermentation is not
glucose but Volatile Fatty Acids which will serve as their source of
energy.
c. The amylopectin and amylose from starch will continue digestion
only when it enters the small intestine due to the presence of the
pancreatic amylase and other carbohydrate intestinal enzymes. The
final product of digestion is glucose and other monosaccharide.

Microbial Fermentation Products:

a. Volatile fatty acids (Propionic, Butyric and Acetic Acids) as sources
of energy
b. Microbial protein as source of essential amino acids
c. Vitamin K and B-Vitamins

Protein Digestion

a. The initial digestion of protein starts at the stomach due to enzyme pepsin
released by the chief cells of this organ. It catalyzes the break down protein
into shorter peptide chains and some amino acids.

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 b. Final digestion of protein will occur at the small intestine where pancreatic
proteases catalyze the breaking down of polypeptides and peptide chains
into amino acids.

c. Rennin, found in the gastric juice of young ruminants, converts casein to

calcium paracaseinate resulting to milk coagulation.

Fat Digestion
a. Digestion of fats occurs at the small intestine. It starts only after the release
of bile from the gallbladder of the liver. Bile will emulsify the fat droplets
to break it into smaller droplet which can be acted upon by the lipases in the
small intestine. These lipases are released by the pancreas to catalyze the
breakdown of emulsified fat droplets into fatty acids and glycerol.

ABSORPTION

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 Absorption is the process of transporting small molecules from the
lumen of the digestive tract (small intestine) into the blood circulation or
lymphatic vessel. These may be accomplished through:

o Simple diffusion
o Facilitated diffusion
o Active transport
o Endocytosis
o Paracellular transport

The final products of digestion is absorbed primarily in the small intestine

through the villi. Villi greatly increase the surface area of the intestinal
wall. However, considerable absorption of the volatile fatty
acids produced by microbes occurs via the papillae in the rumen wall. In
some instances, certain compounds may interfere with absorption, such as
the presence of phytin that reduces phosphorus absorption, and oxalates
that can tie up calcium.

The following are the absorbable molecules from feedstuffs:

Carbohydrates:

• Galactose and glucose -

ctive transport using Na-K
pump
• Fructose - facilitated
transport

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 Proteins:

• Whole protein and small

peptides – endocytosis
• Amino Acids and
dipeptides – Na-dependent
active transport

Fats and Oils

a. Fatty acids and

monoglycerides – simple
diffusion
b. Fat-soluble vitamins along
with fat, water-soluble
vitamins - simple diffusion.

Volatile Fatty Acids (VFA’s):

a. Propionic Acid – simple

diffusion; converted to glucose
through gluconeogenesis
b. Butyric Acid - simple
diffusion
c. Acetic Acid - simple
diffusion

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 Fat-soluble vitamins are absorbed along with fat, water-soluble
vitamins by diffusion.

Nutrients Absorbable form Site of Distribution

Absorption Chanel
Carbohydrates
Starch & Simple sugars Duodenum of Blood
other (glucose, galactose, the small Circulation
disaccharides fructose, ribose, etc) intestine
Cellulose and Volatile Fatty Rumen and Blood
hemicelluloses Acids(Propionic, Cecum circulation
Butyric and Acetic
Acid)
Proteins Amino Acids Duodenum of Blood
the small circulation
intestine
Fats Fatty Acids and Duodenum of Lymphatic
glycerol the small system
intestine

METABOLISM

Metabolism – is the sum of all chemical reactions that breaks down

(catabolism) or synthesizes substances to be used by the cell.

3 Metabolic Processes:
1. Anabolism – synthesis or building up of large molecules
(polymers) from simple molecules (monomers). This occurs
during growth, pregnancy and healing through translation or protein
synthesis. Gluconeogenesis is an anabolic pathway that synthesize
glucose from non-glucose sources
2. Catabolism – breaking down of large molecules (polymers) into
small molecules which generally is accompanied by release of
energy in the form of Adenosine triphosphate (ATP). Examples
are Glycogenolysis (breakdown of glycogen) and Lipolysis (breakdown
of fats)

ATP – is the energy currency of the cell

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 The absorbed molecules after digestion are the sources of high-energy
adenosine triphosphate (ATP). Amino acids, monosaccharides and fatty
acids will be metabolized to produce a 2-carbon compound, acetyl
coenzyme A which could enter into the central metabolic pathway called the
citric acid cycle (Kreb's cycle, Tricarboxylic acid cycle). In this cycle, acetyl
coenzyme A is broken down to carbon dioxide, water, Nicotinamide
Adenine Dinucleotide (NADH), Flavin Adenine Dinucleotide (FADH) and
high-energy molecule guanosine triphosphate (GTP) which may be
converted to ATP.

Metabolic pathways of the absorbed molecules for its conversion to acetyl

coenzyme A:
a. Amino acids will be deaminated (removal of the amino group) so that
the carbon skeleton can be metabolized into acetyl coenzyme A. The
removed amino group will be metabolized through the Urea Cyle to
become Urea for excretion in the urine.
b. Monosaccharides will undergo glycolysis (breaking down of 6-carbon
monosaccharide into 2 molecules of 3-carbon pyruvate). Pyruvate will
then be converted into Acetyl Coenzyme A.
c. Fatty acids will undergo beta-oxidation to produce acetyl coenzyme A.

Fates of the Kreb’s Cyle Products:

• Carbon dioxide (waster product) is released from the body through
exhalation
• Water may be re-used by other metabolic processes

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 • NADH and FAHD2 will enter the electron transport chain in the
mitochondria to be converted into ATP, the energy currency of the cell.
• GTP will be converted into ATP.

Hormones involved in Metabolism:

1. Insulin – an anabolic hormone released when there is high blood
sugar after a meal. It stimulates the entry of glucose and amino acids
into the cell for glycogen, fat and protein synthesis.
2. Estrogen – for fat synthesis and deposition
3. Glucagon – is a catabolic hormone released in case of low blood
sugar or during starvation.
4. Epinephrine or adrenalin - is a catabolic hormone released in case of
low blood sugar or during starvation.
5. Growth hormone - is a catabolic hormone released in case of low
blood sugar or during starvation. This stimulates the breakdown of
glycogen and fats to be used as a source of energy.

1. Prepare a process flow of what happens to each of the following

Application nutrients upon entry into the mouth until the time it is converted into
energy to be used for animal activity.
a. Proteins
b. Carbohydrates
c. Fats

2. Complete the KWL Table

Closure Congratulations! You have successfully finished and learned about how
food is digested, absorbed and metabolized.

Module No. Module 4: Animal Nutrition

and Title
Lesson No. Lesson 4: Nutrient Requirements of Farm Animals, Feeds and Feed
and Title Formulation

Learning At the end of the lesson, you must be able to:

Outcomes 1. Discuss the different nutrient requirements of farm animals

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 2. Identify common feedstuff/ feed materials and their nutrient
contents.

3. Calculate feed ration with consideration of the requirement in

the formulation

Time Frame These lessons will require 3 to 6 hours to read, analyze, and additional
time to calculate some sample ration.
Introduction
The evolution of feed as an art and as science has challenged nutritionist,
formulators, quality control practitioners, and the purchaser of raw
materials. References on nutrient requirements of various farm animals
are necessary to look into for the nutritionist in formulating diets to meet
the animals' maximum potentials. A comprehensive and accurate
database is essential, likewise the reference of the 4th edition book of
PHILSAN, which confidently claim for about 5 years of raw data
analyses. While good knowledge, classification, and identification of
various feed ingredients used feed milling operation will help further
decision-making in formulating a feed ration.

Activity Match the picture!

Match the appropriate stage or age of animal were these feed materials is
best given. Write the letter of your answer on the space provided before
each number.

____1. Corn and wheat grains A. Lactating sow/ creep

piglets

____2. Copra meal B. Weaned pigs

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 ____3. Skimmed milk C. Breeding stage

____4. Fish meal D. Brooding stage

____5. Soya meal/Soybean meal E. Laying hens

____6. Rice bran F. Broilers

____7. Sorghum G. Ducks

____8. Green peas H. Cockfighting rooster

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 ____9. Limestone I. Goat kids

___10. Napier grass J.Cows

1. Identify raw materials that are not limited to consumption in a

Analysis particular production stage.
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
2. Why are such raw materials not suited for that particular production
stage? Site based on your answer to number 1.
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
3. Differentiate nutritional needs between a young animal, grower, and
breeder animals.
________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________

Abstraction Let us Review!

Classification of Feeds

Concentrates – low moisture, high total digestible nutrient (TDN), low

fiber, relatively highly digestible.
Subclassification:
• Basal or carbonaceous concentrates: rich in energy, lower than
20% CP
Examples: cereal grains- yellow corn, rice bran, sorghum
Root crops/tubers – cassava meal
Oil/fats – coco oil, fish oil, tallow, lard
Molasses –sugarcane
• Proteinaceous concentrates: CP is 20% or higher

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 Examples: Animal/Marine sourced – Fish meal, meta and bone
meal
Plant-sourced – soya meal, copra meal
Non protein nitrogen – urea, biuret
• Feed additives – Examples: vitamin/mineral premixes, enzymes,
probiotics, prebiotics, acidifiers

Roughages - contains a higher proportion of fibers (more than 18%),

relatively low digestibility. These are classified into:
• Succulent : silage, soilage, haylage, pasture
• Dry: hay, crop residues like rice straw, corn stover

Scientific names of some grasses, legumes

Native grasses:
Cogon Imperata cylindrica
Bagocboc Themeda triandra
Misamis grass Cappilipedium parviflorum
Amor Seco Chrysopogon
aseculatus
Carabao grass Paspalum conjugatum
Improved grasses:
Guinea grass Panicum maximum
Napier grass Pennisetum
purpureum
Signal grass Brachiaria
decumbens
Paragrass Brachiaria mutica
Star grass Cynodon plectostachyus
Gamba grass Andropogon gayanus
Naturalized legumes:
Cento Centrosema pubescens
Calopo Calopogonium
muconoides
Siratro Macroptilium
atropurpureum
Kudzu Phaseolus javanicum
Fodder tree legumes:
Rensonii/Cinerea Desmodium cinerea or
rensonii
Flemengia Flemengia macrophylla
Indigofera Indigofera anil
Madre de cacao Gliricidia sepium
Other legumes:
Pintoi peanut/mani manihan Arachis pintoi
Stylo Stylosanthes
guianensis

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 Weeds in Pasture:
Hagonoy Chromolaena odorata
Kanding2x Lantana camara
Giant Bulonsari Mimosa invisa
Bahobaho Ageratum conyzoides
Makahiya Mimosa pudica
Aguingay Rottboellia cochichiensis

Requirements for balancing a ration:

a. Feeding standard or Nutrient Requirements of the animals. The animals'

nutrient requirements are dependent upon a number of factors: body
size, levels of production or growth, stress conditions, temperature, and
sex.

b. Nutrient composition of the feeds

c. Economical – price per unit basis
d. Availability and quality of the feedstuff
e. Palatability (acceptability of the animal) – measured by the amount
consumed or enough to facilitate intake.
f. Digestibility – nutrients in the feed to be digested and released into the
GIT to be utilized by animals; rations with high fiber content cannot be
tolerated by poultry and swine
g. The toxic substance in the feed

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 The common toxic substance found in feeds:

Ration/Feed Formulation

A process where different ingredients are mixed in the right proportion

to satisfy the nutrient requirement of animals for which the ration is
intended for. Factors for consideration when formulating a ration
includes the nutrient requirement of the animal, the feeds available, its
nutrient composition and cost, palatability, presence of anti-nutritional
factors (ANFs).

Methods:
• Pearson square: Uses two ingredients at a time in satisfying the desired
nutrient level; thus, it is very easy to use. Its limitation lies in the fact
that it could not provide varied feeds. Sample computation is found
below:

A hog ration containing 16% CP will be formulated using ground

yellow corn (8.5 % CP) and soya meal (43 % CP). If there will be
150 hogs consuming 2 kg a day, how much of each will be needed if
this ration will be fed for 15 days?

Solution: Parts by
Weight (PBW)

Corn,8.5 % CP 27 27/34.5X100 = 78.3% corn

16% CP
Soya Meal, 43% CP 7.5 7.5/34.5x100 = 21.7%soya
34.5

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 Amounts:

Total amount to be formulated: 150 hogs x 2 kg/hd/day x 15 days = 4,500 kg

Amount corn = 4,500 kg x 78.3 % = 3,523.5 kg
Amount soya = 4,500 kg x 21.7% = 976.5 kg
4,500.0 kg
Price:
If corn costs PhP12/kg and soya meal PhP29/kg, what will be the cost per kg ration?
Corn: 3,523.5 kg x PhP12 = 42,282.00
Soya: 976.5 kg x PhP29 = 28,318.50
Total PhP 70,600.50
Cost/kg = 70,600.50
4,500 kg
= 15.69 PhP/kg

• Trial and Error Method: This is a tedious method of formulating

rations, but this also allows the provision of the animals' requirements.
In this formulation method, the parts by weight are allocated to the
carbonaceous, proteinaceous, and the additives or supplement
groups. The bulk of the parts by weight (PBW) is with the
carbonaceous (about 50 to 60%), proteinaceous (about 45 to 35 %),
and feed additives (3 to 5%). The crude protein, metabolizable energy,
available phosphorus, calcium, lysine, and methionine are satisfied
with the cost per kg ration determined after the PBW has been
finalized.

• Simultaneous X and Y method: this satisfies two nutrients at a time

(CP and TDN for example) through the application of the algebraic
method particularly the equation X + Y = 1

• Exact Method: This is the formulation ideal for ruminants because one
can satisfy the dry matter intake, total digestible nutrient, protein,
calcium, and phosphorus requirements of these animals.

Maintenance
1. Each animal has a maintenance requirement for feed/ration on the
various nutrients for the following purposes:

a. To maintain body weight or size (no gain or loss)

b. To support the essential life processes, i.e., respiration,
circulation, normal muscular activity, etc.
c. To maintain body temperature.
d. To maintain the different body secretions.

2. Basal metabolism or Fasting Catabolism – refers to the minimum

energy expenditure to maintain essential life processes. It is the
starting point in determining the maintenance requirement for the

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 energy of an animal. Basal metabolism (BM) is measured in
kilocalories and can be estimated using the following formula derived
from experimental data:
BM (kilocalories) = 70 Wkg0.75

Where, Wkg = is the animal’s body weight in kg

Wkg0.75 = is the bodyweight raised to the ¾ power.

It has been established that each animal has a fairly constant

BM per unit metabolic body size (MBS), which is equal to 70 kcal.
The portion of body weight and corresponding MBS
(Maynard et al., 1979)
Wkg M.B.S.

1.0 13.0
10.0 5.62
50.0 18.80
100.0 31.62
150.0 42.86
200.0 53.18
300.0 72.08
400.0 89.44
500.0 105.74
1000.0 177.80
3. The energy requirement for maintenance is related to the body surface
area or metabolic body size, i.e., ¾ power of the live weight. It is made
up of the net energy (for Basal metabolism) and a so-called "activity
increment." The "activity increment" refers to the energy expenditure
due to normal body movements and associated activities, e.g., for
chicken, + 50%; cattle and swine, + 20-30%; grazing cattle, another
+ 40%.

4. Protein requirement for maintenance is made up of two portions:

a. Endogenous urinary nitrogen (EUN) refers to the normal wear and
tear of the body organs and tissues. On an energy-adequate, N-
free diet, EUN is about 2 mg N per basal kilocalories.
b. The “adult growth” functions – i.e., feathers, hairs, hoofs, nails,
etc.

Growth
1. Growth is the correlated increase in the body's mass to reach the size
at maturity fixed by heredity.
In practical terms, growth is reflected in increased weight and
size. It is characterized by:
a. Increase in the number of cells

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 b. Increase in size of the cells. It consists primarily of the
build-up of the skeletal structure, the muscle and organs,
and fat tissue.

Nutritionally, it means a large increase in minerals (mainly Ca

and P) and protein.
2. Protein requirement for growth
High protein levels and good protein quality (essential amino
acid makeup) are needed for optimum growth. These may gradually
be lowered with age. For example, broiler starter and pig starter mash
may require more than 20% protein (with good quality protein feeds
like fish meal, meat meal, soybean meal, skim milk powder, etc.). In
contrast, the hog/finisher mash may contain only 14% protein (with a
little amount of the good quality protein in feeds).

3. Energy requirement for growth

Energy 9coming mainly from carbohydrates; also provided by
fats and proteins), is the driving force for tissue synthesis or
anabolism. Even with adequate amino acids, minerals, and vitamins,
growth cannot take place at the optimal rate without sufficient energy
(measured either as kilocalories of gross energy, digestible energy,
metabolizable energy, or net energy; or as TDN, total digestible
nutrients).

4. Ways of energy restriction – to limit the energy intake of an animal,

either or both of these ways may be followed:
a. Limits the total feed intake
b. Lower the energy content or density of the ration – i.e., make
the ration bulky.

The first method would also lower the intake of the other
nutrients relative to the animal's requirements. In the second method,
you may still enable the animal to consume adequate levels of the
other nutrients despite the energy restriction up to a certain point.
The energy: protein ratio is an important factor in the
efficiency and economy of growth.

5. Growth rates and feed efficiency

The practical measure of farm animals' growth performance is
the average daily gain in weight (ADG) and feed efficiency (F/G).
The values are greatly affected by two major factors:

a. Hereditary (particularly the breed or strain of the animal)

b. Environment (particularly by nutrition and management).
Under Philippine conditions, following are the normal
values for reasonably good rations:

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 F/G kg feed/k
ADG (kg)
live weight ga
Growing pigs (improved crossbreds) 0.4 – 0.6 2.5 – 3.5
Growing cattle (native) 0.4 – 0.5 11.0 – 12.0
Growing cattle (native-Zebu grades) 0.5 – 0.7 10.0 – 11.0
Broiler (modern strains) 1.5 – 1.8 2.0 – 2.3
(6-7 weeks)

Reproduction

1. The nutrient requirements for reproduction represent the additional

amounts of the various nutrients needed for:
a. The female’s coming into estrus, subsequent conception and
adequate development of the fetus until birth;
b. The male’s maintenance of the integrity of the reproductive
organs and its sperm cells and sex hormones.
2. The substantial requirement, especially of energy, protein, calcium,
and phosphorus, is for the development of the fetus (this is technically
"pre-natal growth" but considered part of the reproduction
requirement of the dam), particularly during the last quarter of the
gestation period.
3. Too severe nutrients deficiencies for a long period can lead to
permanent sterility. However, the usual cases are those of not severe
nutrient deficiencies giving rise to a low level of fertility manifested
by the following symptoms:
a. Cessation of estrus
b. Resorption of fetus
c. Abortion
d. Birth of dead or weak young

The principal nutrient deficiencies involved in these

symptoms are protein, calcium, phosphorus, vitamin A.

Milk Production
1. Lactation in any species requires substantial nutrients for the synthesis
of an adequate amount of milk to nourish the young. This additional
requirement above those for maintenance and possibly growth in the
case of still growing breeding females is much more pronounced in
the dairy animal, especially the dairy cow. Dairy type animals
produce milk for human consumption and are relatively much less for
the nourishment of their young.
2. Good dairy cows in the temperate countries such as the US yield about
25-30 kg milk daily in a 305-day lactation period. Relatively good

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 dairy cows in the Philippines and most tropics correspondingly yield
only about 8-12 kg daily. Genetics and climate (direct and indirect
effects) have very much to do with this difference.
3. Commercial dairying would generally need intensive grazing
management or intensive forage production, compared with extensive
pasture or range grazing in cattle ranching for beef production. Dairy
cows need improved forages for efficient and economical production
as much of good quality forage that a dairy cow can and should
consume would generally be able to meet only the requirements for
maintenance and the production of not more than 5 kg milk daily in
the Philippines. Energy rather than crude protein seems to be the more
critical problem in meeting the adequate needs of the dairy cow in the
Philippines. The concentrate would be needed to provide that energy
deficit. A common "rule of thumb" is to feed one kg of reasonably
good concentrate mixture for every 2.5 kg of milk in excess of 5 kg if
the forage is of good quality.
4. Milk constituents and blood sources:

Casein blood amino acids

Immune globulins blood globulins
Fat fatty acids; acetate
Lactose glucose
Minerals in blood
Vitamins in blood

Egg Production
1. The major factors affecting nutrient requirements are:
a. Rate of egg production
b. Egg size or weight
c. Eggshell thickness
d. Body size of the layer

2. The principal factor affecting eggshell quality is dietary calcium.

Eggshell quality can be measured by the specific gravity of egg, shell
thickness, shell smoothness, breaking strength, percentage of cracks,
or shell appearance.

Low dietary calcium levels, less than 2.0 percent, decrease eggshell
quality in chickens.

3. The portion of nutrient requirements of egg-type chicken

Nutrient 0-6 6-14 24-30 Laying

Weeks Weeks Weeks
Crude protein, % 19 16 14 17
Metabolizable energy 2800 2750 2700 2750

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 Lysine, % 0.85 0.60 0.45 0.65
Methionine, % 0.30 0.25 0.20 0.32
Methionine+ Cystine, 0.60 0.50 0.40 0.55
%
Calcium, % 0.80 0.70 0.60 3.40
Avail. Phosphorus, % 0.40 0.35 0.30 0.32

Calculations? Bring it on!

Application
1. A hog gestating ration containing 17% CP will be formulated
using ground yellow corn (8.3 % CP) and soya meal (41.5 % CP). If
there will be 110 sows consuming 2 kg a day, how much of each will
be needed if this ration will be fed for three months?

2. Supplemental activities: Identify available raw materials in your

locality (minimum of 30 samples)

Name of the Type of materials Classification: protein

Raw material (by product, source, Energy
(With Picture) grains, liquid, source(carbohydrates or
mash/meal, fats), vitamins, minerals
powder,
etc.)Concentrate
or roughages
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19

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 20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30

3. Have a reflection on the lesson pertaining to nutrient

requirements, raw materials, and calculating rations.

Closure Congratulation, you made it in the last session for an introduction to

Animal nutrition. Used your knowledge wisely in sharing and improving
the animal industry.

MODULE ASSESSMENT

MODULE SUMMARY

These modules highlighted the learning on the basics of animal nutrition started with
the introduction of technical terminologies, the composition of plants and animals, and
their interrelationship. It was introduced how techniques and processes in evaluating
different feed materials which determine crude protein, fiber, fat, ash, and other parameters.
Classification, functions, and deficiency of nutrients were also highlighted in this module
students able to connect and identify nutrients source. Mapping metabolism of nutrients in
the body, digestion, and absorption was done until students ready to practice to calculate
and proportionate formulation.

REFERENCES:

BASTIAN, CT USEP, ALUMNI, Animal Nutrition Licensure Review Materials

CONEJOS, JR UPLB-CA, Animal Nutrition Division, Animal Nutrition Lecture Notes
CULLISON and LOWREY Feeds and Feeding. 4th Edition
F. HOFFMAN – LA ROHE & Co. AG
INTONG R. CMU, College of Agriculture Alumni Association Licensure Review Materials
MAYNARD, L. A. et al., 1979. Animal Nutrition, Seventh Edition.
PCAARRD, 2010 Philippine Recommends in Livestock Feed Formulation
PHILSAN, 4th edition, 2010, Philsan Feed reference standards

Project WRITE XI: An Easy Guide for Course Pack making and Module Development 153
PEPITO, J. CMU, CMU, College of Agriculture Alumni Association Licensure Review Materials
RIVAS, ET, CMU, College of Agriculture Alumni Association Licensure Review Materials
SANCHEZ, SL, LSU (VISCA), University Review Center, PRC Agriculture Licensure
Examination Review Materials
SORIANO, ML, CMU, College of Agriculture Alumni Association Licensure Review Materials
US NRC 1984. Nutrient Requirements of Poultry, 8th revised edition. National Research Council,
Washington, D.C

Module No. & Title Module 5. Genetics and Livestock Improvement

Module Overview Advances in genetics, animal breeding, and genomics are

facilitating a more efficient industry. This was largely possible
because genetic advancements led better animal feed
efficiency, which is critical to improving livestock production
and lowering costs for producers. Animal geneticists have
identified elements within genes that can enhance health,
animal growth, and ability to utilize nutrients. These genetic
advances can increase production while reducing
environmental impacts. To have a better understanding on how
genetics help improve livestock production, let us discuss the
principles involve in this module.
Module
Objectives/Outcomes • Explain a gene and its role in livestock improvement.
• Demonstrate the mechanism of inheritance and calculation
of gene in a population.
• Discuss the different methods in animal breeding.
• Describe the different reproductive technologies.

Lessons in the module

Lesson 1. Genes and their Role in the Animal Productivity
Lesson 2. The Mechanics of Inheritance
Lesson 3. Gene in Population
Lesson 4. Animal Breeding
Lesson 5. Reproduction and Genetic Improvement of
Animals

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Module No. Module 5. Genetics and Livestock Improvement
and Title
Lesson No. Lesson 1. Genes and their Role in the Animal Productivity
and Title
Learning
Outcomes After you have studied this lesson, you should be able to explain a gene
and its role in livestock improvement.
Time Frame 3 hours
Introduction
Welcome to the first lesson of module 5! This lesson introduces some
animal genetics-related terms, phenotypic expression and gene action.
This helps student understand the application of genetics in animal
improvement.

Activity Arrange the following jumbled words into animal genetics-related terms.
Answer
1. N P O H Y E T E P
2. L E L A E L
3. D I I T V A E D
4. U O O E M A T S
5. N O I N D C A E M
6. O O R M C S M O E H
7. E O E Y N G T P
8. T E N C G S I E
9. E E G N S
10. I N N E R O V T N M E

Analysis 1. What factors affect the phenotypic expression of an organism?

Discuss each factor.
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
2. Compare additive vs. non-additive gene action.
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________

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 3. What are the six components of DNA?
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________

Abstraction A. Genes and Their role in Animal Productivity

Genetics - a branch of biology that deals with heredity and

variations of organisms.

Gene -smallest unit of inheritance, found as segments of DNA

on a chromosome

DNA- found in the nucleus of cell, and forms the backbone of

chromosome; spiral or double helix structure composed of
nucleotides (3 parts: deoxyribose sugar, phosphate, and N base).
The N bases are adenine (A), thymine (T), guanine (G), and
cytosine (S).

Chromosomes -slender, thread-like strands that contain the units

of inheritance (genes); occur in pairs (homologous) of similar
size and shape in body cells, and have genes that code for similar
information.

Genes on the same locus controlling a trait in the same

way are called “homozygous”, and if they contrast in controlling
the trait, they are called “heterozygous genes”.

Alleles -are genes occupying corresponding loci on homologous

chromosome that affectthe same trait but in a different way.

A.1. Functions of Genes:

1. Act as backbone of the chromosome, as part of DNA molecule.

2. Replicate when new cells are produced.
3. Carry genetic code for the formation of polypeptide chain of a
protein.
4. Synthesize specific proteins and enzymes (structural genes).
5. Regulate the activity of the structural genes and the amount of
protein synthesized (regulator genes).

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 • Different species of animals have different pairs of
homologous chromosomes. Within a species, the number of
pairs is constant regardless of breed.

A. Species 2n Chromosomes No. of pairs

Human 46 23
Cattle, bison 60 30
Sheep 54 27
Swine 38 19
Goats 60 30
Horse 64 32
Donkey 62 31
Mule 63 31+ 1n
Turkey 82 41
Dogs 78 39
Chicken 78 39

• Each body cell contains one pair of sex chromosome. All

chromosomes other than sex chromosomes are called
“autosomes”.

• In mammals, female has XX and male has XY; in poultry,

female has ZW and male has ZZ. An individual receives
one member of each pair from the male parent & the other
from the female parent.

A.2 Role of Genotype and Environment on Phenotypic

Expression of Genes:

• Genotype = the genetic make-up of individuals; fixed at

conception and expressed death (except for possible
mutation)

o It reflects the action of genes in different

combinations within the individual.
• Environment = causes variations other than heredity (e.g.
disease, nutrition climate, housing, water, management,
injury and others).

o It affects the phenotypic expression of quantitative

traits (e.g. production and reproduction performance).

Note: Genotype and environment interaction is a source of

phenotypic variation

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 Phenotype = expression of genotype; visible or measurable
traits; differences in individuals which are measured by means of
senses (e.g. litter size, color).

o The phenotype may not disclose fully the genotype.

Often, environment greatly masks the phenotype. The
time when heredity and environment exert their
influences is shown in the following figure.

o Genetic potential is determined at the time of conception,

but the degree to which the potential is reached during the
animal’s life is determined by environment.

A.3 Gene Action:

A. 3.1 Non-additive gene action

1. Dominance and recessiveness

▪ A gene is dominant when it covers the expression of its
allele (gene occupying the same loci but have different
effects).

Example: Coat color in Angus cattle

▪ B – for black is dominant over b – for:

Genotype (3) Phenotype (2)

BB Black
Bb Black
Bb Red

▪ Homozygous black will produce black offsprings.

Kinds of Matings Genotype of Phenotype of

Offsprings Offsprings
BB x BB BB Black
BB x Bb BB, Bb (1:1) Black
BB x bb Bb Black

▪ Heterozygous black (Bb) individuals do not always breed

true.

Kinds of Matings Genotype of Phenotype of

Offsprings Offsprings
Bb x BB BB, Bb (1:1) Black
Bb x Bb BB, Bb, bb (1:2:1) 3 Black, 1 Red

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 Bb x bb Bb, bb (1:1) ! Black, 1 Red

▪ Red (bb) individuals always produce red offspring, but do

not breed true when mated to black.

Kinds of Matings Genotype of Phenotype of

Offsprings Offsprings
bb x BB Bb Black
Bb x Bb Bb, bb (1:1) 1 Black, 1 Red
bb x bb Bb, bb (1:1) Red

Some dominants & recessive traits in farm animals:

Species Dominant Traits Recessive Traits

Cattle Black hair coat Red hair coat
Cloven hooves Mule foot
Normal size Dwarfism
Polled Horns
Red Yellow
Horses Bay Non-bay (black)
Black hair coat Chestnut or sorrel
Normal hair Curly hair
Poultry Barred plumage Non-barred
Broodiness Non-broodiness
Feathered shank Clean shanks
White skin Yellow skin
Sheep Wooly fleece Hairy fleece
White wool Black wool
Swine Cloven hooves Mule foot
Erect ears Dropping ears
White belt No belt
(Hampshire)

2. Lack of dominance

▪ Two alleles are not dominant to each other, and each

expresses itself in the phenotype.

Example: Coat color in Shorthorn cattle

R – gene for red, W – gene for white

Genotype Phenotype
RR Red
WW White
RW Roan

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 3. Partial dominance
▪ Genes are not completely dominant to their alleles.
Example: Comprest gene in Hereford cattle

Genotype Phenotype
CC Dwarf
Cc Comprest (midway between Dwarf &
Normal)
cc Normal

4. Overdominance

▪ Heterozygote is superior in phenotype to the homozygote.

Example: Sickle-cell anemia in African blacks

AA – normal hemoglobin
SS – sickle-cell (they die of anemia)
AS – heterozygote (highly resistant to anemia than either
AA or
SS)

5. Epistasis

▪ Phenotype expression due to the interaction of two or

more pairs of genes that are not alleles.

Example: Color in Collie dog

at – gene for tricolor At – gene for white
M – gene for merle m – gene for normerle

C. Genotype Phenotype
atat mm Black, tan and white (tricolor)
atat Mm Blue merle
atat MM White merle

• Thus, gene M influences the way the tricolor gene that

expresses itself phenotypically even though the M and a+
genes are not alleles.

A.3.2 Additive gene action

▪ The effect of each gene that contributes to the phenotype

of an individual for a certain trait adds to the phenotypic
effect of another gene that contributes something to the
same phenotype.

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 Example: Skin color in human
Genotype Phenotype
Aabb White Each
Aabb or aaBb Light contributing
Aabb, aaBB, or Medium Gene A or B
AaBb makes
AABb or AaBB Dark
The skin color
AABB Black darker

Application 1. Illustrate and discuss the genotype x environment (GxE)

interaction.
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
2. What is the difference between dominance and epistasis?
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
3. What does hybrid sterility mean? Give at least two example of
hybrid sterility.
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________

Closure Well-done! You have successfully completed the activities and tasks for
this lesson. It is expected that you have learned about gene and its role in
livestock improvement. Now, you are already prepared to move to the
next lesson.

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Module No. Module 5. Genetics and Livestock Improvement
and Title
Lesson No. Lesson 2. The Mechanics of Inheritance
and Title
Learning
Outcomes After you have studied this chapter, you should be able to demonstrate the
mechanism of inheritance.
Time Frame 3 hours
Introduction
Welcome to the lesson 2! This lesson demonstrates the Mendelian and
Non-Mendelian inheritance. This helps student understand the nature of
inheritance.

Activity Illustrate the process of spermatogenesis and oogenesis in livestock.

Spermatogenesis Oogenesis

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 Reference:
________________________________________________________

Analysis 1. Give at least three differences between spermatogenesis and

oogenesis.
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
2. What is a monohybrid and dihybrid cross? Which of the
Mendel’s Law is illustrated in a monohybrid cross? What
about the dihybrid cross?
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________

Abstraction B. The Mechanics of Inheritance

Gametogenesis = a process involving the production of gametes, the

sperm cells (spermatogenesis) and the egg cells (oogenesis).

Fertilization = the union of male and female gametes to form a zygote.

The Mendelian (Qualitative) Inheritance

• It involves 2 basic parts: the segregation of genes in the gametes,

& the recombination of genes in the zygote

1. Law of Segregation

▪ Two genes paired in body cells segregate each other in the

gametes & recombine in the zygote.

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 ▪ Dealing with any trait in a population that is controlled by
2 alleles (or one pair of genes), A & a, 3 genotypes are
possible: AA, Aa & aa, which can be united in 6 possible
ways:

Parents Progeny
AA x AA AA
AA x aa Aa
aa x aa Aa
Aa x AA ½ Aa, ½ AA
Aa x aa ½ Aa, ½ aa
Aa xAa ¼ AA, ½ Aa, ½ aa

o Mating between any two homozygous will produce

only one kind of genotype.
o Mating heterozygote with homozygote will produce
progeny one-half of which is heterozygous & one-half
is homozygous.
o Mating of 2 heterozygotes will produce genotypic ratio
of 1:2:1 in an individual heterozygous for one pair of
genes (Aa) is called “monohybrid”.

2 . Law of Independent Assortment

▪ Two or more pairs genes & the traits they control will
show up in the succeeding generations in the same
proportion as if they were acting alone.
▪ Example: Angus (dominant black BB) x Hereford
(recessive red bb, dominant white face HH) cross.

Angus (BBhh) x Hereford (bbHH)

(solid, black) (white-face, red)

BbHh
(White-faced black)

• The offsprings, heterozygous for 2 sets of alleles are called “

dihybrids”.

• The “Punnett Square Method” of illustrating the segregation &

recombination of genes (at F2):

Female Gametes
Male BH Bh bH bh
Gametes

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 BH BBHH BBHh BbHH BbHh
Bh BBHh BBhh BbHh Bbhh
bH BbHH BbHh bbHH bbHh
bh BbHh Bbhh bbHh bbhh

Genotype ratio = 1:2:1:2:4:2:1:2:1

Phenotype = ratio
9 white-faced black (2 dominant traits)
3 white-faced red (dominant, 1 recessive)
3 solid black (1 recessive, 1 dominant)
1 solid red (2 recessive traits)

The “Algebraic Method”:

Visualize it as 2 monohybrid crosses: Bb x Bb and Hh x Hh.

(3 black: 1 red) x (3 white-faced : 1 solid) =

9 white-faced black
3 white-faced red
3 solid black
1 solid red

16 total possible combinations

Or:
Or, 3 white-faced 9 white-faced, black
3 black
1 solid 3 solid, black
3 white-faced 3 white-faced, red
1 red
1 solid 1 solid, red

• The traits involved have been the kind where phenotypes were
rather easily distinguished one from another (qualitative).
Cows were either black or red or white, spotted or not, had
horns or not. Hogs have white belt or not, have droopy ears or
erect. These traits are controlled by either only one of few
pairs of genes.

• The interaction between the genes involved varying degrees of

dominance and epistasis.

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 The Non-Mendelian (Quantitative) Inheritance

▪ Quantitative traits are controlled by many pairs of genes

(polygenic), each having only a small effect. The relationship
among alleles is usually of “codominance” or “lack of dominance”.
These polygenes increase the magnitude of the value of the trait and
are called additive genes which cause “additive gene action’, in
contrast to ‘dominance” and epistasis which cause “nonadditive
gene action”. It should be noted that polygenes segregate
independently and have specific effects, just as do genes with
dominant and epistatis effects.

▪ The variation observed among large groups of animals is

continuous, and differences among separate phenotypes may be so
small that they cannot be distinguished by causal observation.

Example: Weight gain in beef cattle, milk production in dairy cows,

rate of speed in racehorses.

▪ The phenotype ratio of a cross among hybrids for n number of

genes can be represented by the coefficient of the binomial
expanded to the nth power (p + q)n, where p and q are
probabilities of the two alternative outcomes of the events (e.g.
dominant or recessive) and n is the number of offspring as
follows:

Number of Size of F2 needed for Number of Chance of

Pairs of All Combinations Phenotype Obtaining
Alleles Classes Either Extreme
1 4 (1:2:1) 3 ¼
2 16 (1:4:6:4:1) 5 1/16
3 64(1:6:15:20:15:6:1) 7 1/64
4 256 9 1/256
5 1024 11 1/1024
6 4096 13 1/4096

Application 1. Discuss the non-Mendelian inheritance. What are the types

of non-Mendelian inheritance?
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 _________________________________________________________
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2. In pigs, white color (W) is dominant and black (w) is recessive.

Using the Punnett square, show and give the genotypic and
phenotypic ratios of the following crosses.
a. Two heterozygous pigs are mated

b. A heterozygous pig is mated with a pure white pig

3. In rabbits, gray hair is dominant to white hair. Also in rabbits, black

eyes are dominant to red eyes. These letters represent the genotypes
of the rabbits:

GG – gray hair BB – black eyes

Gg – gray hair Bb – black eyes
gg – white hair bb – red eyes

a. What are the phenotypes of rabbits that have the following

genotypes?

Ggbb________________________________________________
ggBB_______________________________________________
ggbb________________________________________________
GgBb_______________________________________________

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Closure Good job! You have successfully completed the activities and tasks for
this lesson. It is expected that you have learned the mechanism of
inheritance. Now, you are already prepared to move to the next lesson.

Module No. Module 5. Genetics and Livestock Improvement

and Title
Lesson No. Lesson 3. Genes in Population
and Title
Learning • After you have studied this chapter, you should be able to calculate
Outcomes genes in population.
Time Frame 3 hours
Introduction Welcome to the lesson 3! This lesson introduces the Hardy-Weinberg
theory and the estimates gene and genotypic frequencies in population.
This helps students measure the amount of genetic variation in a
population.

How many words can you find in this puzzle using the word bank below?
Activity The words appear ( ), ( ), ( ), ( ), ( ), ( ), ( ) and ( ).

F S A S S O R T A T I V E I Z
R M P O P U L A T I O N S N E
E A M A T I N G R A N N D O N
Q L I R S E L E C T I O N M M
U L N E E D P N I N G I S Y A
E C B C N Y D E I V I T T S T
N R R H T O I T A L Y A E M I
C O E O I N M I G R A T I O N
Y S N A N G E P O P U U D S G
B E Q U I L I B R I U M R A H
G S E D I N G W E I N B E R G

Mutation Gene Selection

Equilibrium Mating Assortative
Genotype Frequency Migration

Analysis 1. Enumerate the five basic assumptions of Hardy-Weinberg Theory.

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_________________________________________________________
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_________________________________________________________
2. Differentiate between gene frequency and genotypic
frequency.
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 _________________________________________________________
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C. Genes in Population
Abstraction
C.1. Genetic composition of animal population

The Hardly-Weinberg Law:

p2+ 2pq+ q2 = 1.0

• “After one generation of random mating in a population

where the frequencies of two alleles are p and q, the genes
will segregate to produce p2, 2pq, and q2 whose sum is equal
to 1.0 provided that no migration, mutation, or selections
occur”.

Example: Random mating in Shorthorn cattle with regard to

the red (RR), roan (Rr), and white (rr) colors where frequency of red
gene is 0.7.

Genotype Phenotype Genotypic Frequency/

Percentage
RR Red p2 = 0. 72 = 0.49 = 49%
Rr Roan 2pq = 2(0.7)(0.3) = 0.42 = 42%
Rr White q2= o.32 = 0.09 = 9%
1.0 = 100%

How is gene frequency determined?

Example: In a flock of 150 chickens, 95 are black (BB), 50 are blue

(Bb), and 5 are white (bb). Each black chicken carries 2 genes for black
(2 x 95 = 190), and each blue chicken carries one gene for black (1 x 50
= 50). Total number of genes is 2x number of birds (2 x 150 = 300).

Frequency of B = 190 + 50 =240/300 = 0.8

Frequency of b = 1.0 – 0.8 = 0.2 or 20 %

C.2. Factors affecting changes in gene frequencies

1. Selection = either natural or artificial; choosing some individuals

to leave more offsprings than others.

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 Example:
F1 Aa x Aa
F2 1AA, 2Aa,1aa Freq. A = 0.5, a = 0.5

Culling homozygous recessive individuals (aa) would make the

frequency of a = 0.33 and A = 0.67

2. Mutation = a chemical change in a gene resulting to the

formation of an allele. The gene no longer expresses its
phenotype.

If u = mutation rate of A ---> a

v = mutation rate of a ---> A

the change in frequency of q is:

q = -uq+ v (1-q)

• The balance between the two rates makes for a decrease,

increase, or a stable gene frequency in the population

3. Migration = movement of a population sample from one location

to another. It introduces new genes into a population.

• The amount of change in gene frequency depends on the

proportion of immigrants in the population & the difference
in gene frequency between immigrants & natives.
Example:
▪ Zebu cattle were introduced to provide resistance to tick fever, &
the ability to gain on poor pasture.
▪ Red Sindhi cattle were introduced for heat tolerance.
▪ Danish Landrace were introduced to improve bacon qualities &
litter
size.

If qo = freq of natives, qm = freq of immigrants

m = proportion of immigrants in the pop’n
1-m = proportion of natives in the population

The resulting gene frequency is:

q1 = mqm + (1-m)qo

and the change in gene frequency q is:

q = q1 – qo= m (qm – qo)

4. Chance or Genetic Drift

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 = a change in gene frequency due to random fluctuations caused by
chance in mating patterns or sampling errors.

Example:
In a population, A = 0.5 and a = 0.5. if a small group of individuals
leave this population and interbred among themselves, the frequency of
A and a would be 0.7 and 0.3 or any other frequency depending upon
chance. Therefore, the frequency of genes A & a in the new population
would be different from the original population from which they came.
▪ Line drift apart as variation between lines increases.
▪ Variation within the line decreases.
▪ Number of heterozygotes in the whole population declines
but gene frequency does not change. The populations no
longer obey the Hardy-Weinberg Law because mating is no
longer completely random but occurs only within lines.

5. Non-random mating
= occurs when some individuals do not have the same chances of mating
with individuals of the opposite sex. Important forms of non-random
mating are assortative and disassortative mating.

Application The two alleles in a gene pool have the following frequencies: 0.21 (A)
and 0.79(a). Determine the genotypic frequency/ percentage of the
following:
• Assumption: The population is in Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium.

a. Calculate the percentage of heterozygous individuals in the

population.

b. Compute the percentage of homozygous recessive individuals in the

population.

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Closure Good job! You have successfully completed the activities and tasks for
this lesson. It is expected that you have learned how to calculate genes in
population. Now, you are already prepared to move to the next lesson.

Module No. Module 5. Genetics and Livestock Improvement

and Title
Lesson No. Lesson 4. Animal Breeding
and Title
Learning • After you have studied this chapter, you should be able to discuss the
Outcomes different methods in animal breeding.
Time Frame 3 hours
Introduction
Welcome to the lesson 4! This lesson introduces the different methods of
animal breeding. This helps students understand and apply these methods
in the genetic improvement of animals.

Activity Complete the crossword puzzle by filling in the word that fits each clue.
6 3 2
8
4
1

Across Down
1. Selection based on the 2. Selection based on individual
performance of the individual’s merit.
progeny.
3. Selection based on the 4. A breed developed from
performance of brothers or sisters. Berkshire x Jalajala native pigs
5. The successive crossing of 6. The mating of individuals that are
progeny to the common ancestor. more closely related

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 7. Selection due to natural forces 8. Selection based on individual’s
records of inheritance

Analysis 1. What is animal breeding?

_________________________________________________________
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2. Enumerate the four general objectives of animal breeding.
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Abstraction D. Animal Breeding

Men Behind Animal Breeding:

• Robert Bakewell (1870) – breeding work on horses, sheep and
cattle
• William Bateson (1902) – demonstrated Mendelian inheritance
• Hardy and Weinberg (1908) –HW theorem
• Ronald Fisher (1918) – correlation between relatives using
ANOVA
• Sewall Wright (1921) – mating systems and path coefficient
• L.N. Hazel (1943) – selection index
• Jay Lush (1945) – population genetics for animal breeding
• Malecot (1948) – approach to genetics through mathematics of
probability

Breeds Developed In The Philippines:

• Berkjala; Berkshire x Jalajala native pigs (1916)
• Los Banos Cantonese; selection and inbreeding of chickens from
Canton China (1916)
• Philamin; 4/8 Ongole, 3/8 Ongolean 1/8 Batangas cattle (1930)
• Miracle Pig (upgraded pig) (1960’s)
• CEBS (College Experimental Broiler Strain) Vantress x Arbor
Acre
• Laguna Duck – a three-way cross among Pekin, Phil. Mallard and
Muscovy (1994)

Philippine Native Animals

• Dadiangas goat

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 • Batangas cattle
• Red Kaman
• Paraoakan chicken
• Darag chicken
• Banaba chicken
• Camarines (Egon) chicken
• Bolinao chicken

Heritability of some economically important traits

High heritability: Body weight

Growth rate (feed conversion rate)
Rate of feathering
Egg weight
Moderate heritability: Egg production
Shell thickness
Age at sexual maturity
Breast width
Keel length
Low heritability: Hen housed egg production
Hatchability
Viability

Methods in Animal Breeding

A. Selection Methods

A process in which certain individuals in a population are preferred to

others for the production of the next generation. Individuals possessing
superior genotypes or genetic potentials for maximum efficiency of
production are used as parents to improve the herd.

Kinds of Selection

1. Natural selection - that due to natural forces. In nature; the

main force responsible for selection is the survival of the fittest in a
particular environment.

2. Artificial selection - that due to the efforts of man. Thereby,

man determines to a great extent which animals will be used to produce
the next generation.

*Marker assisted selection (MAS) refers to the selection for

specific alleles using genetic markers.

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 Below are some of the bases/methods of selection used by
livestock men.

1. Individual selection - selection is based on individual merit or

performance, which is strictly phenotypic.

• Individual selection is important when the heritability of the

trait is high, indicating that the trait is greatly affected by
additive gene action.
• The greatest disadvantage of selection on the basis of
individuality is that environment and genetic effects are
sometimes difficult to distinguish.

Individual selection has also the following limitations:

(1) Some important traits are expressed only in females, hence cannot be
Breeding males cannot be based on their own performance.

Example:a. Maternal abilities of cows, ewes and sows

b. Milk production in dairy cattle
c. Egg production in poultry

(2) When animals to be selected are too young that their merits
cannot be ascertained, e.g. milk and egg production record are available
only after sexual maturity is reached.

2. Family selection - the whole families are selected or rejected

according to the mean phenotypic value of the family.

There are several forms of family selections, namely:

• Sib selection - based on the values of their relatives:
brothers or sisters. Selected individuals do not
contribute to the estimate of the family mean.

• Progeny testing - based on the performances of the

individual’s progeny.

• Within family selection - selection is based on the deviation

of each individual from the mean value of the family to which
it belongs. Those that exceed their family mean by the greatest
amount are regarded as most desirable and are the ones
selected.

• Combined selection - this is a combination of the above

methods, that is; selection based on the family average and
individual performance in the family.

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 The circumstances under which family selection is preferred
include the following:
(1) Traits with low heritability
(2) Little variation due to environment, and
(3) Large family size

3. Pedigree selection - is done on the basis of individual’s records

of inheritance; it includes the performance record of immediate
parents and also grandparents.

The important uses of pedigree selection are:

(1) Used in making selection before the individual expresses the

trait.
(2) Useful in sex-limited traits, e.g. milk yield of diary cows and
sow
productivity
(3) Useful in selection of males prior to progeny test.

4. Independent culling method

a. Minimum standards are set of several traits. A failure of any

animal to meet the minimum standard for any trait result in
the removal from the herd.
b. The performance in one trait is considered entirely
independent of the performance in other traits.
c. Effective if only few traits are considered at a time.

Disadvantage - if standards are too high and too many traits are
involved, the level of culled could be too high to leave sufficient animals
to work with.

5. Selection Index

a. Evaluates important traits and combines them into one figure or

score. Higher scores mean more valuable animal are selected for
breeding purposes.
b. The weight assigned to each traits included in the INDEX depend
on its economic importance, its heritability, and its genetic
linkage to other purposes.
c. Formula (Swine): Index (1) = 270 + 100 ADG – 150 BF – 35 FE

Where: 270 - constant

ADG - average daily gain in pounds
BF - average backfat thickness

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 FE - feed efficiency (lb. of feed per lb. of gain)

Example: ADG BF FE lndex

Gilt A 1.5 1.0 2.6 179

Gilt B 1.6 1.2 3.0 145

Advantage: Slightly substandard performance in one trait can be

offset by excellence in another trait.

Disadvantage: (1) not suited when too many traits are included,
and (2) progress is attempted on characters of low heritability or
of little economic importance.

6. Tandem selection

a. Selection is practiced for only one trait at a time until

satisfactory improvement has been made. Selection efforts for
this trait are then relaxed, and efforts are directed toward the
improvement of a second, then a third, and so on.
b. The efficiency of this method depends on the genetic
association of traits, so that improvement in one by selection
results in improvement in the other.

B. Breeding Methods

Breeding– mating of animals to produce its kind; or simply defined as

procreation.

Outbreeding – the mating of animals of different species or breed but are

further related to each other; synonymous to crossbreeding.

1) Intraspecific hybridization – crossing animals

subspecies within a species.

Muscovy x Mallard duck

Mule duck/Bitik

2) Interspecific hybridization – mating animals from different

species within the same genus.

Donkey x Horse = Mule (from a male donkey and female

horse)

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 or Hinny ( from a male horse and female
donkey)
Zebra x Donkey = Zeedonk or Zonkey
Lion x Tiger = Liger or Tigon

3) Intergeneric hybridization – mating between animals in

different genera.
Example: between sheep and goat

C. Breeding System

Livestock improvement can be effected through utilization of any of the

following breeding schemes:

1. Inbreeding – this is the mating of individuals that are more

closely related than the average of the breed or population. The
primary effect is to fix hereditary qualities and bring about
homozygosity or purity for certain characters. There are two
types of inbreeding, namely:

• Close breeding – the mating of closely related individuals

such as brother to sister, sire to daughter, or son to dam.
• Line breeding – the mating of animals related to a lesser
degree, like between cousins, half-brother to half-sister,
grandparents to grandchildren.

Inbreeding also brings about abnormalities as recessive genes are

purified.

2) Crossbreeding – a system of mating animals of different breeds,

varieties, strains, or species of animals, completely unrelated to each
other to obtain hybrid vigor or heterosis for traits of great economic
importance such as growth rate, or milk production. The hybrid vigor
attained is due to the presence of many dominant genes is heterozygous
condition.

• Hybrid vigor is defined as the superiority of crossbreed

offspring over the average of the parental purebreds. This may
be expressed as follows:

Crossbred average-purebred average

Percent Hybrid Vigor = Purebred average
x 100

• Crossbreeding takes various forms, to include:

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 1) One-way or single cross – the mating of 2 different breeds

Alpine x Saanen

Alpine 50%
Saanen 50%

2) Three-way or triple cross – mating of three breeds, or

crossbred to another breed.

Duroc x Hampshire

Duroc 50% x Landrace

Hampshire 50%

Duroc 25%
Hampshire 25%
Landrace 50%

3) Four-way cross – the mating of four different breeds, or

two single crosses.

Rhode Island Red x White Leghorn

F1 R.I.R 50% W.L 50% x New Hampshire

F2 R.I.R. 25% W.L. 25% N.H. 50% x Vantress

F3 R.I.R.12.5% W.L.12.5%N.H.25% Van50%

4) Crisscrossing – mating back of crossbred of progeny to

parents, alternately.

Simmental x Brahman

F1 Sim 50% Brah 50% x Red Sindhi

F2 Sim 75% Brah 25% x Brahman

F3 Sim 37.5% Brah 62.5%

5) Backcrossing – the successive crossing of progeny to the

common ancestor.

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 Simmental x Brahman

Sim 50%
F1 x Brahman
Brah 50%

Sim 25%
F2 x Brahman
Brah 75%

Sim 12.5%
F3
Brah 87.5%

3) Grading – the mating of a purebred male to a mongrel/native or

unimproved female.

Murrah Buffalo x Native Carabao

M.B. 50%
F1 x Murrah Buffalo
N.C 50%

M.B 75%
F2
N.C 25%

4) In-cross breeding – the creation of inbred lines from the same or

different breeds and the subsequent mating of the selected lines. This is
one of wide application in producing the commercial strains of broilers or
egg-type chickens.

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 Bro. x Sis. Bro. x Sis. Bro. x Sis. Bro. x Sis.
Bro. x Sis. Bro. x Sis. Bro. x Sis. Bro. x Sis.
Bro. x Sis. Bro. x Sis. Bro. x Sis. Bro. x Sis.
Inbreed A Inbred B Inbred C Inbred d

AB CD

ABCD
(Commercial Hybrid)

When mated among themselves, the hybrids produce a wide range

of variation in their progeny, hence their offspring are not good for
breeding purposes.

Application Plan a mating system (either livestock or poultry) using one of the different
crossbreeding schemes.

Closure Congratulations! You have successfully completed the activities and

tasks for this lesson. It is expected that you have learned the different
methods in animal breeding. Now, you are already prepared to move to
the next lesson.

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Module No. Module 5. Genetics and Livestock Improvement
and Title
Lesson No. Lesson 5. Reproduction and Genetic Improvement of Farm Animals
and Title
Learning
Outcomes After you have studied this chapter, you should be able to describe the
different reproductive technologies.

Time Frame 3 hours

Introduction
Welcome to the last lesson of module 5! This lesson introduces the
different reproductive technology. This helps students understand and
apply these technologies for efficient breeding programs.

Illustrate the reproductive system of the following:

Activity
a. Hen

b. Cow

Analysis 1. Why is it important to have a clear understanding of animal

reproductive anatomy and physiology before doing artificial
insemination (AI)?
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 _________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________

2. What is the difference between animal breeding and animal

reproduction?
_________________________________________________________
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_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________

3. What is the role of reproductive biotechnology in animal

improvement?
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________

Abstraction Animal Reproduction

A. Reproductive Cycle

Puberty & Sexual Maturity

▪ Puberty is the age at which sperm or egg cells start to be

produced; sexual maturity is the age when production of sperm
and egg cells is at maximum.
▪ Spermatogenesis is stimulated by FSH from anterior pituitary;
the LH stimulates the production of testosterone by the
interstitial cells (sometimes called ICSH).
▪ Oogenesis is stimulated by FSH, then estrogen is produced by
the ovary which induces estrous cycle & ovulation.
▪ Varying age of puberty & sexual maturity can affect rate of
genetic improvement:

SPECIES PUBERTY ESTROUS DURATION SPERM

(months) CYCLE OF HEAT PRODUCTION
(days) (hr) Vol. (ml)
Million/ml

Cattle 8-12 21 12-18 2-10 300-

2000

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 Sheep 5-8 16-17 24-36 0.7-2 2000-
5000
Goat 4-8 19-20 34-39 0.6-1 2000-
3500
Swine 4-8 20-21 48-72 150- 25-300
500
Horse 12-24 19-23 90-170 30-300 30-800
Chicken 4-5 0.2-1.5 0.5-60

Ovulation & Fertilization

▪ Ovulation is the process of release of ovum from ovary. The

interval for “spontaneous ovulation” (in cow, ewe, mare,
sow) depends on estrous cycle and duration of heat, but the
“non-spontaneous” (in rabbit) is dependent on copulation.
Thus, rate of genetic improvement can also be affected by
estrous cycle & ovulation type.

▪ Multiple ovulation (in swine & sheep), or by superovulation

technique (administration of gonadotropins containing FSH
during proestrus) can increase rate of improvement.

▪ Fertilization is the union of male & female gametes to form a

zygote or new individual. Only one sperm is required to
fertilize each ovum. Many sperm may enter the zona
pellucida but only one penetrates the vitelline membrane to
unite with the nucleus of the ovum.This membrane creates a
“fertilization block” to prevent entrance of other sperms.
However, in delayed copulation leading to fertilization of
aged ova, “polyspermy” (multiple sperm fertilization) can
occur which can lead to “polyploidy” (3n chromosomes)
which cause embryonic death losses & consequently slows
the rate of genetic progress.

Pregnancy/Gestation

▪ It is period from conception to birth of offspring.

Cow = 282 days
Sow = 114 days
Mare = 336 days
Ewe/doe = 150 days
Caracow` = 316 days

In poultry, they lay egg every 23 hours & incubate:

Chicken = 21 days
Ducks = 28 days

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 Turkey = 28 days
Muscovy = 35-37 days
Guinea fowl = 26-28 days
Goose = 28-34 days
Bobwhite quail= 23-24 days
Japanese quail = 17-18 days

▪ The rate of genetic progress, therefore, can also be affected

by the duration of gestation or incubation period.

Parturition

▪ It is the act of giving birth.

▪ Delayed parturition (3-4 weeks late) has been observed to be
controlled by recessive genes in the fetus, and can delay the
rate of genetic improvement; induced parturition” can
increase it.
▪ Twinning or multiple births (in sheep or swine) can increase
rate of improvement, nut “free martin” in cattle (heifer born
twin with a bull calf, where development of the reproductive
system of female is affected by the production of twin’s
male hormone) can reduce such rate.

B. Artificial Insemination

• Commercially used in the US in 1938, primarily in dairy cows.

• Popular in turkey (because of difficulties in natural mating), in
swine (using fresh semen), and in dairy cattle; less in beef cattle,
sheep and horses.

➢ Advantages
▪ More rapid genetic improvement through use of superior
sires
▪ Reduction of cost & risk of maintaining a sire for small herd
or flock
▪ Reduced risk of spreading certain reproductive diseases

➢ Semen collection
▪ “Artificial vagina & a dummy” (or electro-ejaculator) in
cattle.
▪ “Gloved hand technique & a dummy” in pigs.
▪ “Stroking & milking technique” in poultry.

➢ Semen evaluation
▪ Concentration or density
▪ Motility

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 ▪ Morphology (structure)
▪ pH
▪ Color

➢ Semen storage
▪ Fresh semen stored at 40oF or under CO2 at
roomtemperature.
▪ Frozen semen stored in plastic straw, chilled slowly to 00 C,
then rapidly frozen in liquid N vapor (-196oC or -320oF).
▪ Use of extenders (glycerol, egg yolk, milk, chemical
buffers).

➢ Semen deposition
▪ Frozen semen in thawed in 32-350C water bath for 30
seconds.
▪ Deposited beyond cervix or body of uterus by means of
insemination syringe or gun.
▪ Poultry semen does not stand freezing & thawing, so it is
used within 2 hours after collection. Extended boar semen
can be used up to 72 hours.

SPECIES SEMEN Millions of Potential Number of

VOL. Sperm/ml Matings/Ejaculator
(ml)
Cattle 2-10 300-2000 100-600
Sheep 0.7-2 2000-5000 40-100
Goat 0.6-1 2000-3500 15-40
Swine 150-500 25-300 15-20
Horse 30-300 30-800 8-12
Chicken 0.2-1.5 0.5-60 8-12
Turkey 0.2-0.8 0.7 30

C. Embryo Transfer

1. Advantages/Benefits
▪ More offspring from outstanding females
▪ Opportunity for genetic testing of males suspect as
carries of undesirable traits
▪ World movement of embryos (rather than animals) made
easier, less costly, & less disease risk.
▪ Increased diversity of germplasm available from many
sources.
▪ Long-time storage provided by cryopreservation
(freezing).

2. Costly procedure

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 ▪ Administer hormones to superovulate the honor (PMS &
chorionic gonadotropin)
▪ Administer hormones to synchronize recipients
(prostaglandin F2a or Lutalyze, and progestins).
▪ Specialized skill to harvest, sort, store, and implant embryos.

D. Cloning

➢ The splitting of embryos for the production of identical twins or

triplets, made possible through advances in microsurgery &
micromanipulation.

1. Advantages
▪ Quickly increases a herd of flock productivity.
▪ Use of identical animals reduces the number needed in
experimentation.

2. Cloning, like ET, does not produce offspring of the same

genotype as the donor animal

E. Sexed Semen

➢ semen that has been prepared to produce all male or all female
offspring.

F. Genetic engineering
➢ is removing, modifying, or adding genes to DNA.
➢ Genetic engineering using gene-splicing or recombinant DNA,
along with other reproductive technology, will have a great deal
of impact on future animal production.

Application Give at least 3 molecular/genetic technologies used in breeding and

reproduction of farm animals. Describe each technology.

_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________

Closure Congratulations! You have successfully completed the activities and

tasks for this lesson. It is expected that you have learned the different

Project WRITE XI: An Easy Guide for Course Pack making and Module Development 187
 reproductive technologies. Now, you are already prepared to move to
the next module.

MODULE ASSESSMENT
MODULE SUMMARY
You have completed the module covering genetics and livestock improvement.
• Gene is a smallest unit of inheritance, found as segments of DNA on a
chromosome.
• The mechanics by which the gene is able to synthesize protein in the cell underlies
among the genotype, and the environment in the formation of the phenotype of the
organism.
• The action of genes as they influence genotypic values may be of the following
types: additive and non-additive (dominance and epistatis).
• Mendel formulated the two laws of inheritance, i.e., Law of segregation and law of
independent assortment.
• From the Hardy-Weinberg principle, there are several factors that may tend to
change the genetic composition of a population.
• Animal breeding could affect genetic improvement in farm animals by controlling
the factors affecting the genetic characteristics of animal populations which may
include selection and mating systems.
• Animal reproduction determines the rate of genetic improvement and the survival
of animal populations.

REFERENCES
Bondoc, O.L.2008. Animal breeding: principles and practices in the Philippines. UP Press

Falconer, D.S. 1989. Introduction to quantitative genetics. 3rd ed. Hongkong: Longman
Group.

Lambio, A. 2010. Poultry Production in the Tropics. The University of the Philippines
Press, Quezon City.

Lasley, J.F. 1978. Genetics of livestock improvement. 3rd ed. Englewood Cliffs, New
Jersey Prentice-Hall, Inc.

Lush, J.L. 1945. Animal breeding plans. Facsimile ed. Ames, Iowa: Iowa State University
Press

Pirchner, F. 1983. Population genetics in animal breeding. New York: Plenum Press.

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Module No. & Title MODULE 6: SLAUGHTER, PROCESSING, AND
MARKETING OF FARM ANIMALS

Module Overview
Hooray! Welcome to module 5, you are about to engage in the
slaughtering and fabrication of farm animals purposely used as
food. Feel free to discover new things on the necessities in
assessing the qualification of the different products obtained
from live animals to make it sound and safe for human
consumption. May you deal with the importance of food: it is
always quality and availability in consensus for the safety of
the consumer and the welfare of the animals. Keep your
attention to this matter and enjoy your learning journey!
Module
Objectives/Outcomes After accomplishing this module, you are expected to:
• Discuss the principles of slaughtering and meat
fabrication
• Describe the composition of animals and animal products
(meat, milk, and egg)
• Demonstrate the proper handling and processing of animal
products.
• Describe the principles of marketing of livestock and
livestock products

Lessons in the module

Lesson 1: Slaughtering and Fabrication
Lesson 2: Composition of Meat, Milk, and Eggs
Lesson 3: Basic Principles of Proper Handling and Processing
of Meat and Milk
Lesson 4: Marketing of Livestock and Livestock Products

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Module No. Module 5: Slaughter, Processing, and Marketing of Farm Animals
and Title
Lesson No. Lesson 1: Slaughtering and Fabrication
and Title
Learning LO 1. Discuss the difference in principles of slaughtering and meat
Outcomes fabrication
LO 2. Explain the importance of antemortem activities
Time Frame 3 hours

Introduction Hello, how are you doing? Are you ready to start your first lesson 5 in
module 1? If it is yes, begin to study your lesson this will give you
sufficient information on the principles of slaughter and fabrication, its
importance and purpose concerned with humane practices and the
attainment of a good quality product which is safe and wholesome for
human use. May you have the best time and you can start right here!

Activity Identify the domestic animal slaughtered fit for human consumption. Tick the
blank provided where they belong.

Species FIT UNFIT

1. Goat
2. Sheep
3. Duck
4. Dog
5. Carabao
6.Cat
7. Hogs
8.Cattle
9. Snake
10. Chicken
TOTAL
GRAND TOTAL /10

Analysis Will you able to answer the following question based on your own
perception, experience, and knowledge. Try to assess on the best way
you can so that it will become easier for you to deal with every situation
given.

1. Can you explain why are animals being killed? And the
purpose of doing so?
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
______________.
2. In a situation where animals are slaughter, how do you feel
about it?
_______________________________________________

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 _______________________________________________
______________.
3. Describe a good and healthy animal.
_______________________________________________
_______________________________________________
______________.
4. What do you think will happen if the animals are not
properly handled prior to slaughter?
_______________________________________________
_______________________________________________
_____________.
5. Describe the appearance of your highly favored meat
available in your local market.
_______________________________________________
_______________________________________________
_____________.

Abstraction
BASIC PRINCIPLES OF SELECTING ANIMALS FOR
SLAUGHTER

Slaughter is defined as the act of killing the animal to obtain carcass such as meat

fit for human consumption coming from food animals; free from disease or defect.

Should be duly inspected and passed by meat inspectors.

The primary consideration in slaughtering and fabrication:

▪ Purpose of the meat- fabrication and parts identification for
different cooking purposes.
▪ Cost of the end product- not all parts of the carcass commends
the same value
▪ Characteristics of the meat- its suitability for comminuted
products
▪ Traditional preference- younger animals are prohibited for
some culture (tabooed from diets)
▪ Food preparation practices and eating habits- the property of
which tough muscle fibers are desired than tender meat.

Criteria for Selection

Some guidelines are considered in selecting livestock for slaughter to

achieve maximum utilization and save labor. To produce wholesome
and good quality meat, the physical quality and health condition of the
animals must first be observed so that it will become safe and sound to
consume. To qualify the animals following the legislations governing
the safety of the consumer and the welfare of the animals before and

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 during handling stages. These considerations appear to be the general
qualification in selecting animals to slaughter, namely:

❖ Sex considerations
The physiological difference between male and female animals
sometimes leads to a differed comparison on the quality of the
product and its total acceptability such as the boar taint apparent
to males this stinky odor affects the overall quality of the meat.
It is said that castrated males deposit more adipose tissue (fat)
than females. Bull has 38% less fat and 8% more fat than its
counterpart.

❖ Age considerations
The maturity of an animal indicated by its full development and
does not necessarily very old. Some specifications provided
based on the prime ages of choice for the animals based on the
species. From place to place butchers investigate the full-grown
weight as determined by the market as well as the confirmation
on the build and shape of the species. This is to assess the quality
of the meat and the quality of the carcass. Old animals have a
higher tendency to produce darker, tougher, fatter, and
considered poorer in quality than coming from young animals.
The meat from old animals sometimes preferred due to its strong
flavor, high water holding capacity, high emulsion capacity, the
juicy and high degree of marbling that are necessary for a
specific purpose. The ideal age of animals to slaughter is 6-12
months for swine, 2-3 years for cattle and carabao, and 1 year
old for goats.

.
❖ Class considerations
Barrows and gilts (swine) and steers and heifers (carabao and
cattle) possess similar meat characteristics. Beef/ Carabeef-
heifers and steers, cows, bulls, and bullocks. Meats from cows
and stag meats have high water holding capacity.

❖ Size consideration
The advantages of slaughtering large animals are seemed so
possible to produce the meaty and bigger cut. This means size
matters where the recovery of more lean meat and lesser fat can
be obtained compared to smaller ones. The ideal slaughter
weight of Hog- 80-110 kg., cattle/carabao- 300-400 kg., and no
standard size for goats; the bigger the better

❖ Health Considerations

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 The soundness of the animals’ condition is remarkably visible
on its underlying appearance and considered substantially
healthy if the animal is active, smart appearance, and reflexes its
body well, if not so suspicion of unsound condition will be
noted. Pregnant animals, emaciated, and extremely weak must
be spared due to their possible deteriorating effects due to
harmful waste associated with their conditions. These conditions
should be put into one’s selection making. High breathing rate,
high temperature, foamy mouth, various discharges from the
body, diarrhea, and fever are among the ordinary signs of ill-
health. This is usually under the service of a professional
veterinarian or a trained animal health inspector.

❖ Finish Considerations
A well-fattened animal is heavier and tends to produce high
dressing recovery unless the animals’ body is heavily covered
by thick skin, pelt, or heavy hair. Butchers are more acquainted
with the fact on the key criteria of animal selection by choosing
the better percentage of lean fat with at least 8-12 % fat for lean
meat and 30-40% fat for comminuted products. Good marbling
is the top choice of consumers. The amount of “fill” for
ruminants’ animals lowers the carcass yield the s
ame with the offals or non-carcass components of the animals’
body decrease the yield.
.

Handling Prior to Slaughter

▪ Gently Handle the Animals

Handle the animals in a humane way, were whipping, kicking,
and boxing the animals might cause pigmentation (red spots) or
discoloration (blood clots) of the skin/surface. The part of an
animal whipped, kicked, or boxed before slaughter develops
blood clots and red spots in meats. Microorganisms proliferate
rapidly in areas where this blood clot and hastens the spoilage of
the meat due to its off-taste and souring. It is also unappealing to
the consumers. Must see the Animal Welfare Act RA 8485.

▪ Relax the animal

Overwork and fatigue to animals affect the meat quality from
slaughter resulted in a reduction in quality. At this time,
sufficient rest is given to animals to recover Excitement during

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 this rest must be restricted. One to three-day relaxation in the
holding pen is enough to recover the effects of stress on the
animals depending on the level. Injured and compromised
animals are quarantined in holding pens.
Stress-related effects on the meat quality include the following:
loss of muscle glycogen, high temperature of the carcass, low
water-holding/ binding capacity of resulting meat, low aroma,
flavor, texture, and juiciness scores. Pale, soft, and exudative
(PSE) is visible to animals with not very severe stress while dry,
firm, and dark (DFD) is for severe cases.

▪ Fast the animal

Feeds are restricted during this period, but fresh and clean ample
amounts of water will be given in ad libitum. For simple stomach
animals, 12-24 hours is enough for fasting and 24-48 hours for
compound stomach animals. Among the advantages of fasting
includes feed saving, fast cleaning of entrails and eviscerating
carcass, minimize contamination, well-bled carcass, bright-
colored carcass, long shelf life, and low shrinkage of meat. For
this reason, it is of a great deal to empty the stomach to increase
the efficiency in cleaning the visceral organs and minimize the
spilling of the contents that possibly contaminate the meat.

*Note: during this period Ante-mortem inspection can be

made.

▪ Clean the animals

Keeping the animals free from dirt (soil, fecal material, urine
stains) and possible contaminants make the animal clean. This
qualifies for the fitness of the animal to be healthy and
physiologically acceptable for slaughter.

Steps in the Slaughtering of Animals

1. Ante-Mortem Inspection. An inspection made to food animals

before slaughtering, this examination is done through ocular
and clinical qualifications by qualified veterinary personnel or
trained personnel. The two stages:
a. General Examination (Stage-I). Animals will be
assessed if they are healthy, unhealthy (diseased), or
apparently healthy (doubtful case). An ocular
examination is performed while the animals are at rest
and in motion to observe the gait (staggering), posture,
fatigueness, and abnormal behaviors such as discharge
from natural orifices. At the end of the first stage of

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 examination, healthy animals are cleared as fit for
slaughter.

b. Clinical examination (Stage-II). The animals classified

as unhealthy (diseased) are subjected to further
examination to correctly diagnose the illness while the
animals placed in group three (Apparently healthy or
doubtful cases) are examined to ascertain whether these
animals are really sick and if so what could be the nature
of the illness.
Judgment decisions at ante-mortem inspection
• Passed/Accepted/ Fit for slaughter
• Rejected/ Condemned/ Unfit for slaughter
• Suspect

2. Stunning. It is a process of making the animals unconscious

for some time. This is to make sure the minimal movement of
the animal and it is a required process with large animals. The
procedure eliminates pain, discomfort, and stress. Methods of
stunning include striking on the head, electrical stunning, and
anesthetization.

3. Sticking/ Bleeding. This is a way of draining the blood by

cutting the jugular vein in the neck and carotid artery leading
to the death of the animal. The knife must be sharp enough
for a precise incision to avoid damages of blood vessels that
might delay the flow of blood, rupture the vessels and
hemorrhages of the muscle. For poultry and small ruminants,
slitting is placed just behind the jaw on the throat. Thorough
bleeding is achieved in 3 to 5 minutes if properly executed.
.
4. Cleaning of Carcass

• Scalding- is submerging the carcass in hot water before

scrapping or removing the hairs and scurf. 130-180 ‘F is
the prescribed temperature range of the scalding water to
loosen the skin surface for easy scalding.
• Flaying- is the removal of the hides (large ruminants); by
cutting the skin along the middle line from the sticking
wound to the tail and it is also known as dehiding.
Skinning is a term mostly used for small ruminants and
the skinned materials are called as skins. The most
valuable by-product economically is the skin (small
ruminants).

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 • Singeing- is the application of burning torch or flame to
remove and burn the remaining hairs. It also decreases
the number of microorganisms on the skin surface.
Locally, the burning of wood and newspaper is applied
to remove fine hairs.

5. Evisceration is the removal of entrails that includes the

stomach, intestines, gall bladder, liver, heart, and lungs. It should
be performed carefully to avoid damages to internal organs.
Gastro-intestinal tract might contaminate the carcass that
contains microorganisms. In eviscerating, cutting, and tying the
bung or rectum is the most priority and removed from its
attachments. Organs that contain possible contaminants are
carefully removed to avoid spilling out of the contents. Then the
carcass is then washed and carried for a manual or mechanical
inspection.

6. Splitting/Washing. Splitting is cutting at the backbone of the

carcass into the equal parts with the tail normally goes with the
left side if it is not removed. Right after splitting, the carcass is
washed very thoroughly to remove visible soiling and blood
stains and to improve appearance after chilling, and the parts
with blood clots are trimmed and other visible growth like cysts.
This is. Washing is no substitute for good hygienic practices
during slaughter and dressing.

7. Post- Mortem Inspection refers to the inspection of carcass and

organs for its fitness to human consumption usually by qualified
veterinarians.

Judgments
• Condemned
• Passed
• Passed for sterilization
• Passed for refrigeration
• Passed for rendering
• Retained.

8. Shrouding is the process of wrapping the carcass with warm

cheesecloth after being soaked in lukewarm water. This is to
absorb remaining blood at the carcass, smoothen external fat
covering, causes fat to appear white and dense, and prevents
excessive shrinkage and oxidation.

9. Chilling. This is when the carcass is placed after slaughter

should in a cold storage facility with a temperature of 0-4 C (32-

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 40F). Chilling is necessary to firm up the carcass, allow rigor
mortis to passed and inhibit the growth of microorganisms.48
hours are required for beef, carabeef, and horse carcasses while
goat mutton and other small carcasses should be chilled for 24
hours.

10. Aging is holding the meat for 7-14 at 36 ‘F to improve the

tenderness and flavor of the meat. All the meat can be subjected
to aging to achieve tenderness except pork because it gets rancid.

11. Fabrication of Carcass is cutting carcass into standard

wholesale and retail cuts and differs from species to species.

Importance of proper fabrication procedure

• Minimizes cutting losses

• Makes consumer’s preferences
• Gives confidence to producer and consumers

Basic principles of cutting the carcass

• Separate the thick portion from the thin

• Tender parts must be separated from less tender
• Sort high priced cuts from less valued cuts.
• Cuts must be made across the muscle fiber.

Meat Terms

Abattoir or slaughterhouse - premises that are approved and registered

by controlling authority such as National Meat Inspection Service
(NMIS) in which food animals are slaughtered and dressed for human
consumption.

Carcass- the body of any slaughtered animal after bleeding and dressing.

Fabrication- the process of cutting carcass into standard wholesale and

retail cuts.

Food animal- all domestic animals slaughtered for human consumption

such as but not limited to cattle, carabaos, buffaloes, horses, sheep,
goats, hogs, deer, rabbits, ostrich, and poultry.

Meat- the carcass or carcass parts coming from the animals sufficiently
mature and healthy.

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 Beef- meat from cattle more than one-year-old.

Veal- meat from cattle less than one-year-old.

Carabeef- meat from carabaos more than one-year-old.

Chevon- meat from goats.

Lamb- meat from lambs.

Lapan- meat from a rabbit.

Mutton- meat from sheep.

Pork- meat from swine.

Venison- meat from deer.

For additional information, please open the file online:

RA 929 6 (Meat Inspection Code of the Philippines)
RA 8485 (Animal Welfare Act of 1998)drive/.

Application Finally, you are on the stage of self-checking. Answer the activities
provided below, and you are reminded to follow the instructions
carefully. Enjoy your learning application! Do your best and be honest.

Exercise A.

Instruction: Match column A(species) and column B (meat’s name).

Write the letter of the correct answer on the space provided before the
number item.

Column A Column B
___1. Goat a. Mutton
___2. Hog b. Lapan
___3. Sheep c. Veal
___4. Young Cattle d. Pork
___5. Rabbit e. Chevon

Exercise B.

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 Instruction: Encircle the letter of the correct answer.

1. The term that refers to the body of any slaughtered animal after
bleeding and dressing:
a. Sex b. Finish c. Age d. Class
2. The best age consideration in slaughtering cattle is;
a. 6-12 months b. 2-3 years c. 1 year old d. 35 days
3. The term that refers to the body of any slaughtered animal after
bleeding and dressing;
a. Meat b. Carcass c. Abattoir d. Food
4. The leanness of meat with a firm and evenly distribution of fat is under
this consideration is;
a. Sex b. Finish c. Age d. Class
5. In cattle species aside from cows, what is the other class contains high
water holding capacity?
a. Stag b. Bullock c. Steer d. Heifer
6. The term that describes the intermingling of fat and in meat:
a. Marbling b. Shrouding c. Fabrication d.
Stunning
7. The inspection made to animals before slaughter through ocular and
clinical qualification:
a. Ante-mortem b. Post-Abbatoir c. Post- Mortem d. Clinical
8. It refers to the process of slaughtering by making the animals
unconscious for some time.
a. Sticking b. Slitting c. Restraining d. Stunning
9. The process of cleaning the carcass by submerging in a hot water
before scrapping or removing the hairs:
a. Flaying b. Scalding c. Singeing d.
Evisceration
10. It is the cutting of carcass into standard wholesale and retail cuts:
a. Chilling b. Aging c. Fabrication d. Trimming

Closure Congratulations! You hurdle lesson 1 successfully. You may proceed

to the last task given below. Keep your enthusiasm!

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Module No. Module 5: Slaughter, Processing, and Marketing of Farm Animals
and Title
Lesson No. Lesson 2: Composition of Meat, Milk, and Eggs
and Title
Learning Describe the composition of animals and animal products (meat, milk,
Outcomes and egg)

Time Frame 3 hours

Introduction Hello! How are you doing? Are you ready to start your lesson 2?
Begin to study this lesson that will give you an overview of the
composition of meat, milk, and egg. It is relevant for you to
understand for easy handling to maximize its utilization for whatever
purposes that may it serve you best. May you begin your activity!

Activity Identify the products commonly obtained from domestic animals

enumerated below commonly used by man. Tick on the space provided
where they have originated.

Species Meat Milk Egg

1. Cattle

2. Duck

3. Goat

4. Carabao

5. Chicken

6. Ostrich

7. Camel

8. Quail

9. Sheep

10. Horse

Total

Grand Total /20

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Analysis Answer the following questions below so that you can have a good start
and connect with your lesson very well. Good luck!

6. What is your primary consideration in raising poultry and

livestock? And explain its importance in your diet?
____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
______.
7. Can you describe an animal product that you like the most?
____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
_______________.
8. Cite your sentiments on considering egg and meat to be
“perfect” food from nature.
____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
_______.

Abstraction
MEAT

General Characteristics

- Is a high quality, concentrated, and easily digested source of

nutrients? It is well-balanced in terms of the relative amount of
nutrients it contains. It is an excellent source of protein, vitamin
of the B-complex, and of certain minerals. (PCAARRD, 2011)
- is muscle tissue. It is the flesh of domestic animals (cattle, hogs,
and lambs) and wild game animals (such as deer). It also refers
to the fresh, chilled, or frozen edible carcass including offal
derived from food animals. (Natad, et.al)
- Provides satiety unequaled by other food items. It can be
prepared in several ways and its nutrients are almost in the
proportion and amount needed by the human body. Nutritious
food like meat is attacked by microorganism, hence, it spoils
rapidly at ordinary room temperature. (PCARRD, 2011)

Components of Meat

Meat composed the lean muscle, fat, bones, connective tissues, and
other similar elements of essential nutrients. The 3 major components
of meat are lean, fat, and bone, while lean (muscle) is the most
important portion of meat concerning human nutrition that possesses
almost all necessary nutrients needed to support human diet, due to
the nutritional quality of food protein but by that of essential amino

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 acid contents supported for growth and physiological function of
man.

Table 1. Proximate composition of meat from different animal

species.
Proximate Composition
Species Moisture Crude Crude Ash (%)
Protein Fat (%)
(%)
Beef 74.24 19.70 4.71 1.08
Chevon 75.34 21.27 2.87 1.10
Pork 72.96 21.52 3.42 1.10
Carabeef 75.15 19.26 3.20 1.00
Chicken 75.30 20.60 3.10 1.00
Rabbit Meat 76.20 19.80 2.80 1.20
Goose Meat 72.30 23.40 3.20 1.10
Turkey Meat 72.60 19.20 3.90 1.40
Duck Meat 68.60 20.50 9.90 1.00
Quail Meat 70.20 21.10 7.70 1.00
Lamb 74.10 20.20 4.70 1.00
Deer Meat 76.10 21.90 0.20 1.20
Source: FAO

Meat can supply enough B-vitamins, phosphorus, iron, and potassium

but insufficient in calcium. It can also provide essential fatty acids, but
it can also be a source of non-beneficial cholesterol that limits its
consumption for a daily intake.

Table 2. Average cholesterol content of some animal products (in

mg/100g food material)

Food Material Cholesterol Content

Beefb 70
Porkb 70
Poultryb 75
Vealb 90
Muttonb 70
Gameb 110
Heartb 130
Kidneysb 320
Liverb 300
Brainsb 2200
Milkb 12

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 Butter 240
Cream 102
Hen’s Egg (whole) 470
aSeuss, I.1991
bRaw Material

Meat is of utmost importance despite the possible losses during

cooking that generates 75% of the muscle tissue yield. Lean or muscle
is the main component of that contained a high nutritive value,
palatability, covered the 50-65% bulk of the carcass, and a carcass wt.
of 35-40% of LW, and some factors to utilize the carcass.

Protein is an essential nutrient and the highly abundant solid material

in meat that comprised about 20% of muscle tissue. This means
protein becomes firmer when loses moisture, to the doneness of the
meat when applied too much heat it toughens the meat due to
coagulation of protein.

Fat constituted 5% of muscle tissue. For beef carcasses, it covers as

much as 30% fat this indicates the more fat may surround the muscles.
Nevertheless, a certain amount of fat is desirable for juiciness,
tenderness, and flavor. Well-marbled containing as high as 17% fat.
1. Juiciness
Marbling is the intermingling of fat when deposited within
the muscle tissue. The juiciness in a well-marbled beef is due
to fat content not by that of moisture.
2. Tenderness
Marbling separates muscle fibers, making them easier to
chew.
3. Flavor
Fat is perhaps the primary source of flavor in the meat.

Moisture found in meat varies with age and the fatness degree of
animals. The younger the animal the higher the moisture content of
veal with 72% than that of beef lowly contained 45% moisture.

Bone comprised 17% of the carcass, this serves as a frame that holds
the muscles. An excellent age indicator of the animals and a reliable
indicator to standardize meat’ cut.

Minerals found in meat are 1-3% chiefly iron that helps in the
formation of the red corpuscles and phosphorous a main component
of body cells necessary for the metabolism of C, H, O, protein, and
fat. The small amount of Cu, Na, Cl, K, Cl, and Ca and a minute
amount of Fl, Mn, Zn, Co, Mg, I and Al constitute the meat.

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 Other Components
• Non-Nitrogenous extractives- lactic acid
• Nitrogenous extractives or water-soluble proteins which are
end products of protein metabolism
- have little nutritive value
-physical and chemical stimulant of the flow of gastric juice
-provide aroma and flavor together with fat
examples: creatine, creatinine, and purines

Factors affecting the number of nitrogenous extractives in meat:

❖ age, exercise, nutrition, species
❖ Pigments
• Myoglobin is the major color pigment in meat
• A small amount of hemoglobin
• Older animals have a greater amount of myoglobin
-Beef- 4-10 mg/g meat
-Veal- 1-3 mg/g meat
-Pork- same as veal
❖ Organic substances in addition to protein fat and CHO
❖ Enzymes- proteolytic, amylolytic, and lipolytic
❖ Vitamins
-Organic substances in addition to protein fat and CHO
-Meat if there is an excellent source of soluble vitamin B-
complex

Factors affecting the amount of vitamin in meat

o Species
o Age
o Degree of fatness
o Type of feeding
o Kind of cut
o Carbohydrates
- Less than 1.0% in meat
-Mostly glycogen and lactic acid

Relationship of the physical structure and chemical composition

to the eating qualities of meat
o Kind of protein
o Amount of fat specifically marbling
o Carbohydrates
o Moisture content
o Nitrogenous extractives
o Connective tissues
o Muscle fiber bundle

Factors affecting the chemical composition of meat

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 a. Species
b. Nutrition
c. Age
d. Sex
e. Specific Cuts
f. The extent of cutting and trimming
g. Processing treatment
h. Methods of packing and storing

Essential and non-essential amino acid composition of meat is a unique

constant regardless of species or cut except meats containing large
amounts of connective tissues. Connective tissue proteins have a high
amount of proline, hydroxyproline, and glycine, and has low
tryptophan and tyrosine. Excellent source of the B complex
phosphorous and iron nut relatively low in calcium.

Average Chemical Composition (%) of Meat

Edible Portion Lean Meat
Protein 17 20
Fat 20 9
Moisture 62 70
Ash 1 1
Calories 250/100g. 160/100g.

Other terminologies are presented to easy understanding:

1. Fresh Meat- meat that has not yet been treated in any way other
than by modified atmosphere packaging or vacuum; packaging to
ensure its preservation except that if it has been subjected only to
refrigeration, it continues to be considered as fresh.
2. Food Animal- all domestic animals slaughtered for human
consumption such as but not limited to cattle, carabaos, buffaloes,
horses, sheep, goats, hogs, deer, rabbits, and poultry.

Milk composition

Milk is a liquid secretion from female mammals through their

mammary glands. All the species nourishing their young through this
milk allows them to rely on this feed material from birth to weaning. It
is said to be complete from nature as it contains water, protein, fat,
sugar (lactose), vitamins A, C, and D, and some B vitamins, as well as
inorganic salts and minerals (calcium and phosphorus). During the
early stage of lactation up to the third day, a whitish liquid secretion in
milk contains colostrum, which the carrier of antibodies for the young

Project WRITE XI: An Easy Guide for Course Pack making and Module Development 205
 to fight against infection. An extremely perishable product that must
be cooled within two hours of milking and maintained in not more than
10 ‘C (50 ‘F).

Dairy animal species such as cattle, buffalo, goat, sheep, camels,

equines, and yaks produced different composition of milk-based on
their corresponding breed, age, and diet, along with the stage of
lactation, parity (number of parturitions), farming system, physical
environment and season. These give influence on the color, flavor, and
composition of milk and allow the production of a variety of milk
products to be developed based on their purpose, method, and form.

World Milk Produced by species.

Species Production (%)

Cattle 81

Buffaloes 15

Goats 2

Sheep 1

Camels 0.5

Equines and Yaks 0.5

India is the world’s largest milk producer, with 22 percent of global

production, followed by the United States of America, China, Pakistan,
and Brazil.

Milk processing

Originally, milk can be converted into products that are high-value,

concentrated, and easily transportable dairy products with prolonged
shelf-lives in the form of butter, cheese, and ghee. Milk is characterized
to be a valuable nutritious food that has a short shelf-life and requires
proper handling and storage techniques. Its high perishability is due to
the account of microorganisms as an excellent medium for their
growth, particularly bacterial pathogens. This caused spoilage and
diseases in consumers. Milk conversion by processing allows the
preservation of milk for days, weeks, or months and helps to reduce the
incidence of food-borne illness.

Project WRITE XI: An Easy Guide for Course Pack making and Module Development 206
 The extended usable life duration of milk can last for several days
through techniques such as cooling or fermentation (which are both
factors most likely to influence the quality of raw milk). The
transformation of raw milk into processed milk and milk-products
benefit communities in milk collection, transportation, processing, and
marketing throughout the world.

Pasteurization is a process of heat treatment that extends the usable life

of milk and reduces the number of possible pathogenic microorganisms
to levels that not significantly hazardous to health.

Milk Sterilization is aimed at killing all possible microorganisms

present in the medium including bacterial spores, this aims to extend
and store the packaged product for a long period without spoilage
caused by microorganism in ambient temperature.

Codex Alimentarius approved the two methods in raw milk

preservation by refrigeration and lactoperoxidase system.

In developing countries, their high milk losses are caused by high

ambient temperature, absence of or unreliability of refrigeration
facilities, and poor accessibility.

Composition of Egg

Egg, popularly a term used to describe animal eggs that deposited and
developed outside the body of female animals like in avian. It contains
food stored enclosed in a yolk produced by birds. A single egg consists
of shell, membrane, albumen, or white and yolk.

The potential quality of eggs determined by consumers and the

acceptability and stability heavily affected by storage, thus physical
structure and chemical composition attributed to the potential
customers. Therefore, egg handlers must be knowledgeable concerning
the characteristics of eggs in specific ways. The best consideration in
decision making in marketing on day by day basis. Best stored in a cool
dry place with 10 to 15 ‘C temperature and 70% relative humidity. In
the absence of a cold storage room, dispose immediately after
collection or within 3 days to maintain freshness.

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 Source: American Egg Board, www.aeg.org

Size Classification of Eggs

Size Term Weight Range
Extra Large and Jumbo 62 grams (g) and above
Large 55-61 g
Medium 48-54 g
Small 41-47 g
Very Small or Peewee Below 41 g

Source: Lambio, 2010

Nutritional value

Eggs are known to be a good source of high-quality protein and other

essential nutrients such as vitamins, iron, and phosphorus. Rank second
as a nutritional source of vitamin D, eggs next to fish liver oils. This
well-balanced source of nutrients supplies enough nutrients that sustain

Project WRITE XI: An Easy Guide for Course Pack making and Module Development 208
 the human diet of all ages. Eggs itself are low in calcium; however, the
shell contains abundantly but often discarded.

For additional information, please open the file name:

http://www.fao.org/3/Y4628E/y4628e04.htm#:~:text=The%20components%20of%2
0an%20egg,shell%20(9.5%25)%20%2D%205.6%20g

Application Good job, you make this far. Answer the activities provided below, and
you are reminded to follow the instructions carefully. Enjoy your
learning! Do your best and be honest.

Exercise A.

Instruction: TRUE or FALSE. On the space provided before the

number write True if the statement is correct and False if otherwise.
Underline the word/s that make the statement incorrect.

_____1. Meat is an excellent source of protein.

_____2. Bat is an example of a domesticated food animal.
_____3. Colostrum is the greenish secretion in milk that
contains antibodies.

_____4. Microorganisms slow down the spoilage of meat.

_____5. Meat is a flesh that contains
_____6. The process of heat treatment that extends the usable
life of milk is sterilization.
_____7. An egg is an animal egg that commonly deposited by
female livestock animals.
_____8. Chalazae is the yellow portion of the egg.
_____9. The liver contains the highest cholesterol content.
_____10. Tenderness is the primary source of flavor in the meat
_____11. Old animals have a greater amount of myoglobin.
_____12. Bone comprised 17% of the carcass.
_____13. The younger the animal the higher the moisture
content.
_____14. Peewee is the largest among egg classification.
_____15. Eggs rank first in the nutritional source of vitamin D.

You rock! You slew lesson 2 with ease. You may proceed to the next
Closure part of the lesson. I am impressed!

Project WRITE XI: An Easy Guide for Course Pack making and Module Development 209
Module No. Module 5: Slaughter, Processing, and Marketing of Farm Animals
and Title
Lesson No. Lesson 3: Basic Principles of Proper Handling and Processing of
and Title Meat and Milk

Learning LO 1. Demonstrate the proper handling and processing of animal

Outcomes products.

Time Frame 3 hours

Introduction Hi, this is another lesson that you must be in. This will give you
information on how to improve the animal-based products obtained
farm going to our table each day their guiding principles in extending
its life for future use. This is to adhere to these basic guidelines to
address the problem of food perishability, to help and promote the
production and consumption of safe, sound, and good quality products
such as meat, milk, and egg. Keep your attention always and you may
start by answering your activity from here!

Activity Identification. Listed below are the hazards that caused food
deterioration. Write the letter of your answer on the space provided on
each item.

Choices: A. Biological B. Chemical C. Physical

_____1. Liquid Soaps ______6. Bacteria

_____2. Improper Handling ______7. Wrong temperature
_____3. Alcohols ______8. Rats
_____4. Molds ______9. Wood pieces
_____5. Toxic metals ______10. Flies

Analysis Will you answer the following questions below, this is to ensure that
you have experienced these in your daily routines and your personal
self- check. I know you can do it. Good luck!

• Give an example in your kitchen that you considered as

“hazard”.
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
____________________
• Explain why there is a need to preserve perishable goods?
__________________________________________________

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 __________________________________________________
____________________.
• At home, what is the best-known food preservation
technique? And why?
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
___________________.
• Describe how deteriorated foods affect the following:
a. Quality of the product
_________________________________________________
_________________________________________________
________________
b. Your own health
_________________________________________________
_________________________________________________
________________

Abstraction Causes of Deterioration

Meat and other animal products such as milk and eggs are favored as
highly nutritious products. Being regarded, intelligent handling must
be the first line of priority to avoid spoilage and deterioration. One
must know some techniques in meat, milk, and egg preservation. An
effort that will extend the life and freshness of the products.

In the meat sector, there are three identified stages of activities in meat
handling, includes the slaughtering stage, fabrication stage, and
processing stage. If one missed and done faulty in one of the technical
operations then the following other stages of the operation might cause
a serious and unpleasant impact on the product itself, thus, avoidance
of doing so must be performed.

Meat preservation must be twinned with good handling practices so

that the maintenance of freshness or even minimize the loss of
freshness must be achieved. In contrary to the failure of doing so might
bring down the effort of preservation and cause hazard most likely the
proliferation of pathogens.

Hazard is defined as any substance that can cause illness or injury that
is found in food. This includes plant toxins, natural food components,
microorganisms, and pathogens. Pathogens are disease-causing
microorganisms; it does not leave any detectable odors or taste in food,
that’s why food should not be only detected through smell, taste, or
look alone.

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 The shortcoming in performing good hygiene might lead to causes of
deterioration through biological, chemical, and physical forces.
Notably, biological deterioration is the most destructive amongst.

Biological spoilages are caused by microorganisms, cockroaches,

flies, and even rodents. Among the biological hazard, 99.9% is
accounted for microbiological deterioration caused by a disease-
causing microorganism such as bacteria, molds, yeasts, viruses, and
fungi. Its severity leads to losses. Other forces, since they are bigger,
control is much easier by putting barriers to entry points.
Oxidation the most common chemical deteriorating meat.
Rancidity is the oxidation of fats on the other hand myoglobin
oxidation produces dark colors. Aside from oxidation, there are there
are other chemical deteriorations like cleaning agents, pesticides, and
toxic metals.
Dehydration and enzymatic these two are food deterioration
causing physical processes. The hardest to deal with and most
expensive to control and stop. Foreign matters such as glass chips,
metal shavings, and bits of wood are viable physical hazards.

To attain success in the preservation method, microbial loads must be

considered, and sound practices should be strictly followed. As food
spoilage demands cost. Practicality in food safety practices and proper
sanitation commends the value of the products as well as the handlers
without compromising the sensory quality, palatability, and
appearance of the product shall be the top priority.

For general hygienic rules in the meat industry, strict adherence to

guidelines can then be the most successful way to minimize food-borne
diseases and secure the general welfare of the consumers. The
campaign to keep food safe for families must adhere to these four basic
steps:

a. Clean; by washing the hands and surfaces often;

b. Sort; separate to avoid cross-contamination;
c. Cook; with the right temperature; and
d. Chill; refrigerate promptly.

(http://www.fao.org/3/T0279E/T0279E01.htm)

Milk processing

Originally, milk can be converted into products that are high-value,

concentrated, and easily transportable dairy products with prolonged

Project WRITE XI: An Easy Guide for Course Pack making and Module Development 212
 shelf-lives in the form of butter, cheese, and ghee. Milk is characterized
to be a valuable nutritious food that has a short shelf-life and requires
proper handling and storage techniques. Its high perishability is due to
the account of microorganisms as an excellent medium for their
growth, particularly bacterial pathogens. This caused spoilage and
diseases in consumers. Milk conversion by processing allows the
preservation of milk for days, weeks, or months and helps to reduce
the incidence of food-borne illness.

The extended usable life duration of milk can last for several days
through techniques such as cooling or fermentation (which are both
factors most likely to influence the quality of raw milk). The
transformation of raw milk into processed milk and milk-products
benefit communities in milk collection, transportation, processing, and
marketing throughout the world.

Pasteurization and Sterilization

Codex Alimentarius approved the two methods in raw milk

preservation by refrigeration and lactoperoxidase system.

Pasteurization is a process of heat treatment that extends the usable life

of milk and reduces the number of possible pathogenic
microorganisms to levels that not significantly hazardous to health.

Milk Sterilization is aimed at killing all possible microorganisms

present in the medium including bacterial spores, this aims to extend
and store the packaged product for a long period without spoilage
caused by microorganism in ambient temperature.

In developing countries, their high milk losses are caused by high

ambient temperature, absence of or unreliability of refrigeration
facilities, and poor accessibility.

Safe steps in food handling, cooking, and storage are essential to

prevent foodborne illness. Usually, they are not visible that hastens the
deterioration of meat, meat products, and milk. If this is not addressed
rightfully, losses are at stake and sometimes lead to discomfort and
worst fatal when taken in. But the devaluation of the quality is the
major concern of doing so. The meat processing involves the slaughter
of animals and fowl, processing of the carcasses into cured, canned,
and other meat products, and the rendering of inedible and discarded

Project WRITE XI: An Easy Guide for Course Pack making and Module Development 213
 remains into useful by-products such as lards and oils. Meat is exposed
to a series of a wide range of processes viz. curing or preserving
processes such as salting, wet pickling, drying, cooking, and canning,
sausage manufacture, ham curing. All these processing techniques are
aimed at inhibiting the microbial spoilage and increasing the shelf life
of the meat. Major principles involved in meat processing are the use
of heat, low temperature, smoking, modified atmosphere packaging,
and ionizing radiation. The methods of preservation are mainly
grouped in three categories i.e. control by temperature, by moisture and
by lethal agents (bactericidal, fungicidal, etc.)

Preservation of Meat

Dated from prehistoric times, the first-ever recorded processed product

was sun-dried meat that gave birth to meat preservation. This practice
aimed to prolong the shelf life of the meat for future use. In the same
way, salting and smoking were practiced in ancient times for the same
reason.
Meat processing defined as any mechanical, chemical, or enzymatic
treatment of meat that alters the form of its original occurrence.
Modification of fresh meat’s properties is through grinding or
chopping can, seasoning or addition of spices, alteration of color, or by
hot treatment. This is to extend the life storage of the meat through
these applications and delaying the spoilage caused by deteriorations
in microbial, chemical, and/or physical factors.
The success of meat preservation rallied on its fitness to human
consumption. Whether physical attributes, chemical composition, and
consistency might change. Serving the purpose is the highest
attainment of the meat processing methods. With the introduction of
the new preservation methods, brand new combinations of seasoning
to meat are added to the advancement of processed products. Flavor
and form are the most provisionary changes that made the product
more unique and a variety of preservation techniques.

Common meat preservation methods include:

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 A. Cold Storage
a. Chilling. The meat is stored and subjected to 0’- 4’C
temperature. It makes the meat cold but still soft.
b. Freezing. The on this storage is lower than -3 ‘C. Can
be through quick freezing that hardens the meat
within less than 30 minutes or by slow freezing that
hardens the meat in longer than 30 minutes period.
B. Dehydration. The conventional method of dehydration is by
sun-drying to eliminate excessive moisture to inhibit the
proliferation of microorganisms in a certain percentage of
moisture like bacteria, molds, and other fungi. This is a
reduction of available water content.
C. Salting. The application of different salts in the form of table
salt, hypochlorite of calcium that allows osmosis to work on
the meat that reduces the action of microorganism and retard
the rancidity of the meat.
D. Curing. The method where meat is being cured, its curing
flavor tends to become likable than being a preservative.
E. Smoking. This is generated by subjecting the meat into the
heat and smoke of burning woods or sawdust. Creosote’s
film covers the surface of the meat; thus, avoid the
penetration of microorganisms and insects. Drying during
smoking perceived to be very effective in killing
microorganisms in the product.
F. Canning. The most efficient type of meat preservation.
Performed by subjecting the meat and the meat product into
110 ‘C (sterilization) to kill all the microorganisms present.
The products are preserved in a long time with a significant
reduction of microbial growth. Thermal processes allow the
inactivation also of microorganisms.

Principles of meat hygiene

The three principles of meat hygiene, which are crucial for meat
processing operations.
• Prevention of microbial contamination during meat
product manufacture by adopting proper cleaning and
sanitation practices.

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 • Minimization of microbial growth in meat products by
storing them at a low temperature.
• Reduction or elimination of the risk of microbial
contamination by applying suitable heat treatment and
packaging systems at the final processing stage.

Control measures
Two useful schemes are usually adopted at various levels of meat
production:

a. Good hygienic practices in meat processing

Microbial meat spoilage or food poisoning through meat can be
prevented if the microbial load/bacterial contamination that occurs
during slaughtering and meat handling is kept as low as possible. The
main factor for achieving this is strict meat hygiene including
continuous and uninterrupted cold chain in the entire meat production.
Handling chain through personnel hygiene, hygiene during meat
processing, hygiene of meat processing premises (design and
construction), and equipment hygiene must be in the lines of
consideration.
b. Hazard analysis and critical control point scheme
(HACCP)

HACCP schemes remain to be strict sanitary control measures for

potential hazards that might occur in any stage of operation especially
in factory and product specification of measures to eliminate the risk
and danger of one’s health and welfare. The level of safety must be
sanitized with the proper identification, detection, prevention, and
control of points where possible occurrences of hazard must be
determined.

Project WRITE XI: An Easy Guide for Course Pack making and Module Development 216
 For additional information, please open the file name:
RA 9296 (Meat Inspection Code of the Philippines) in your flash
drive/online.

Application Finally, you are on the stage of self-checking. Answer the activities
provided below, and you are reminded to follow the instructions
carefully. Enjoy your learning application! Do your best and be
honest.

Identification. Identify the term/s being described and write your

correct answer on the space provided before the number.

_____________1. Milk preservation technique that aims to kill all

microorganism in a medium.
____________2. Other method of raw meat preservation aside from
lactoperoxidase system according to Codex Alimentarius.
____________3. The meaning of the acronym HACCP.
____________4. The most efficeint among meat preservation
techniques.
____________5. The most conventional method of dehydration.
____________6. The righful freezing temperature during cold
storage.
____________7. It is the meat’ component that is released during
hydration.
____________8. The film that covers the surface of the meat during
smoking.
____________9. A meat preservation technique that commonlu used
table salt.
____________10. An oxidation of this meat component under
chemical deterioartion resulted to dark color in the meat.
___________11. This meat preservation method is favored also for its
flavor.
___________12. The total account of microbial deterioration in meat.
___________13. It is defined as any substance that can cause illness
or injury that is found in food.
__________14. It refers to the disease causing microorganisms.
__________15. A cold storage technique that makes the meat cold but
still soft.

Project WRITE XI: An Easy Guide for Course Pack making and Module Development 217
Closure That was an amazing experience! You make this far of your lesson 3.
You may proceed to your final task. Do your best!

Module No. Module 5: Slaughter, Processing, and Marketing of Farm Animals

and Title
Lesson No. Lesson 4: Marketing of Livestock and Livestock Products
and Title
Learning LO 1. Describe the principles of marketing of livestock and livestock
Outcomes products

Time Frame 3 hours

Introduction Hello, how are you doing? Are you ready to start your lesson 1? You
may begin here, your lesson 1 this will give you sufficient information
on how the movements of animal and animal products in the market,
and the key players involved in making successful trading of sellers and
buyers. Good luck and may you have the best start!

Arrange the scrambled letters to form a word. Be careful so that you would
Activity not mess up. Write every letter on each blank.

1. r t k a e m - _a__e_

2. o r d v n e - _e__o_

3. t e r l e a I r - _e_ai_e_

4. r t p u d c o - __o_u__

5. l i g n s e l - _e__i__

6. h n c e l a n - __a__e_

7. y u e r b - _u_e_

8. e l r l s e- _ e _ _e _

9. r e d a t r - _ _ a _ _e

10. l a u v e - _a_ue

Analysis The following questions below will help you to express your thought
and opinion use your previous experience and knowledge to deal with
every situation with so much ease. Good luck!

Project WRITE XI: An Easy Guide for Course Pack making and Module Development 218
 1. What is the primary purpose of selling/marketing of live
animals?
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
____________
2. What is the most difficult stage in marketing a fresh product?
What you usually do to address the problem?
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
____________.
3. Describe the general characteristics/ qualities of a good food
product that you considered the most when you buy/purchase?
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
____________.

Abstraction
Marketing Channels for Live Animals, Meat, and
Meat Products

Marketing Practices

From the date of antiquity, the system of livestock marketing in the

Philippines has transformed the old and traditional way of trading into
an improved livestock auction system of marketing. Livestock markets
are commonly owned and operated by the local government, these
allow large animals and small animals went well for auction.

At present, there are three major identified marketing practices

intended as distribution outlets for meat and meat products in the
country that include the following:
e. Meat vendors/ retailers. They sell fresh (warm) meat and
meat products in public markets.
f. Cottage-level processors. They process and distribute home
cured/processed meat products.
g. Supermarkets and deli counters. They distribute fresh meat
(in chilled or frozen form) and processed meat products in
various forms (chilled, dried, fermented, canned, etc.) from
large scale meat processors.

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 Among these outlets, the vendors/retailers are considered the most
important because they cater to a huge majority of the meat consumers
in every household. Notably, several intermediaries or middlemen
operate at the expense of transporting meat and meat products before
reaching its final distribution outlets.

These intermediaries perform important marketing functions which

include moving live slaughter animals from the farms to
slaughterhouses (in big cities) where animals are dressed, and then the
clean carcasses are distributed to the fresh meat retailers or meat
processors.

FOUR MARKETING CHANNELS

Four marketing channels involving several intermediaries are

used in moving livestock from the farms to the final distribution outlets.
A schematic diagram on the market flow the livestock, meat, and meat
products. These channels offer options or alternative market outlets for
both small and large commercial livestock raisers near or distant from
major market centers in Metro Manila, Cebu, etc. The four channels are
the following barrio agents, viajeros/shippers, livestock “oksyon”
(auction) markets (LOMs), and processors.

Barrio Agents
These are usually employees of livestock viajeros/shippers. They go to
remote or less accessible areas to buy livestock mostly from backyard
farmers.
Barrio agents generally offer lower prices, however, many
farmers especially those in remote areas, sell their animals to them to
avoid the risks and problems associated with livestock marketing. The
problem includes unavailable or inefficient transport facilities, high
transport costs, losses due to weight shrinkages or death of the animals
on transit, and other transport-related problems. Small farmers prefer
barrio agents because they pay in cash.

Viajeros/Shippers
These are buyers/traders of livestock stationed in the provinces of the
Visayas, and Mindanao and other regions far from Metro Manila. They
collect livestock from barrio agents and commercial farms in the
provinces. Then, large volumes of this livestock are transported or
shipped from distant regions to the major distribution centers in Metro
Manila and other big cities. Like barrio agents, viajeros/shippers pay
their clients on a cash basis. They also offer relatively higher prices to
the farmers. However, they are not accessible to most of the backyard
farmers.

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 Livestock “Oksyon” (Auction) Markets (LOMs)
LOMs have been established through the marketing Development
Division of the Bureau of Animal Industry (MDD-BAI). At present,
there are 115 accredited LOMs throughout the Philippines.
These LOMs have facilities like shed, corals, and weighing
scales which allow proper livestock handling and objective
determination of the animal’s value.
The LOMs serve as a venue for a more efficient
trading/marketing of livestock usually from small-scale farms.
However, the LOM is available only to farmers living near the auction
market, and those who have access to transport facilities.

Processors
Processors are those who buy either live slaughter animals or meat and
process them to produce various meat and meat-based product lines.
Processors are grouped into large-, medium-, small scale. Generally,
they buy meat from either meat broker/dealers or wholesalers.
However, some large-scale processors, especially those who have
slaughter facilities buy slaughter animals directly from livestock raisers
(normally commercial scale).

Other Marketing Intermediaries

Other marketing intermediaries of live animals, meat and meat
products and their respective functions are as follows: meat
dealers/brokers, wholesale dealers, institutional buyers, and retailers.

Meat Dealers/Brokers
These are city-based livestock buyers who buy livestock in large
volumes from viajeros/shippers. They slaughter and distribute meat
carcasses to meat carcasses to meat wholesalers, processors, and fresh
meat retailers in the public market.

Meat dealers/brokers are the preferred sources of meat by both large-

and small scale-scale meat processors. They preferred by large scale
meat processors because of their capability to supply meat in the
desired volumes regularly. Small-and medium-scale meat processors,
on the other hand, prefer them because of their capability to supply
specialized cuts required for processing in the right quantities.

Meat dealers/brokers also supply fresh meat to retailers in public

markets on a consignment basis. These capabilities make meat
dealers/brokers more favored meat suppliers by both large and small
retailers and processors.

Wholesale Dealers

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 Wholesalers buy fresh meat and meat products from the meat brokers
and/or meat processors and then distribute them to the retailers on a
consignment basis.

Institutional Buyers
These include restaurants, hotels, hospitals, and the like who buy
specific cuts and kinds of meat in volumes so required by their
operations. Institutional buyers most often agree with meat wholesalers
to ensure regular supply of meat and meat products to their clientele.

Hotels and specialty restaurants normally pay a premium price

for the quality of the product they get. Generally, they pay their
suppliers on a cash on delivery (COD) basis.

Retailers
Retailers function as the final distribution outlets for both fresh (warm,
chilled, or frozen) and processed meat products. Generally, their source
of meat and meat products are the brokers/dealers or wholesalers. A
large percentage of retailers sell their products in public markets. Most
of them sell only a small volume of meat daily due to the insufficiency
of cooling or storage facilities. On the other hand, supermarkets also
serve as the final outlets of meat and meat products. Compared with
retailers, supermarkets sell large volumes of meat and meat products
because they have enough space and facilities for storage.

The functions of the different intermediaries in marketing livestock and

meat products are vital to the local market industry. However, it must
be noted that each intermediary involved in the flow of the commodity
from the farm to the final distribution outlets has spent his share of the
marketing costs and labor required by the activity. Hence, the
intermediaries are expected to impose a mark-up on the prices of the
commodity to recover their expenses and realize profit out of the
activity. Based on this premise, it would be expected that the addition
of one market intermediary in the marketing process would create a
longer flow channel which may cause more stress to the animals or
delay in the processing or utilization of the meat. This may result in
spoilage or rapid deterioration of meat and meat products. Thus, it is
recommended that whatever economically possible, a shorter
marketing channel should be considered.

The primary function of all markets is to facilitate the movement of

produce between producers and consumers. Although the development
of integrated marketing of produce through supermarket chains is
emerging in many countries, in the medium-term wholesaling will
likely continue to be important. Wholesale markets still account for 50-

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 80 percent of the overall trade in fresh produce in most developing
countries.

Some Marketing Tips

1. Know the prevailing market price.

2. Sell during periods when prices are most favorable or when
the demand is high.
3. Organize and plan your marketing strategy to do away with
unscrupulous traders.
4. Raise only good-quality animals to gain higher profits.
Upgraded animals have bigger body conformation and grow
faster than native animals; hence, the turnover of capital is
faster.
5. Dispose of all marketable animals readily. There is no
advantage in keeping disposable animals; they will just add up
to your expenses.
6. Do not market diseased and pregnant animals.
7. Know the buyer’s preference in terms of weight, sex, breed,
and age.
8. If possible, sell animals on a per-weight basis rather than on a
per head basis.

For additional information, please open the file name:

Application Finally, you are on the stage of self-checking. Answer the remaining
activity provided below, and you are reminded to follow the
instructions carefully. Enjoy your learning application! Do your best
and be honest.

Instruction: Encircle the letter of the correct answer.

1.A marketing practice that distributes home cured/processed meat

products:
a. Retailer b. Meat Vendor c. Cottage Level Processor d.
Supermarket

2. It is considered as the most important among distribution outlets:

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 a. Retailer b. Meat Vendor c. Cottage Level Processor d.
Supermarket

3. An intermediary that operate by transporting meat and meat products

before reaching to its final distribution outlets:
a. Middlemen b. Retailer c. Wholesaler d. Trader

4. The new form of trading from its old and traditional way:
a. Auction System b. Trader System c. Processing System d. Agricultural
System

5. One of the marketing channels that go to remote areas to buy

livestock is:
a. Barrio Agents b. Viajeros c. Wholesaler d. Middleman

6. The number of accredited LOMs in the Philippines:

a. 105 b. 115 c. 125 d. 135

7. The ones who collect livestock from barrio-agents and commercial

farms in the provinces is:
a. Viajeros b. Trader c. Middleman d. Retailer

8. The most efficient marketing channel for trading of livestock:

a. LOM b. Processor c. Trader d. Market

9. A marketing intermediary, serves as the final distribution for both

fresh and processed meat products:
a. Viajeros b. Trader c. Middleman d. Retailer

10. This marketing intermediary that buy specific cuts and kinds of
meat required by their operations:
a. Institutional Buyer b. Shippers c. Processor d. Wholesaler

Closure Way to go! You finally ended your last lesson of this module
successfully. Keep your enthusiasm for your last and final task!

MODULE ASSESSMENT

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MODULE SUMMARY
• Slaughter is defined as the act of killing the animal to obtain carcasses such as meat
fit for human consumption coming from food animals, free from disease or defect.
Should be duly inspected and passed by meat inspectors.
• For the production of wholesome and good quality meat, physical quality and health
condition of the animals must first be observed so that it will become safe and sound
to consume and qualify the animals in accordance to the legislation governing the
safety of the consumer and the welfare the animals prior and during handling stages.
• Slaughtering Procedure is as follows: ante-mortem inspection, stunning,
sticking/bleeding, cleaning the carcass, evisceration, splitting/washing, post-
mortem inspection, shrouding, chilling, aging, fabrication.
• Meat is muscle tissue. It is the flesh of domestic animals (cattle, hogs, and lambs)
and wild game animals (such as deer). It also refers to the fresh, chilled, or frozen
edible carcass including offal derived from food animals. (Natad, et.al)
• Meat is of utmost importance despite of the possible losses during cooking that
generates 75% of the muscle tissue yield. Lean or muscle is the main component
of that contained a high nutritive value, palatability, covered the 50-65% bulk of
the carcass, and a carcass wt. of 35-40% of LW, and some factors to utilize the
carcass.
• Egg, popularly a term used to describe animal eggs that deposited and developed
outside the body of female animals like in avian. It contains food stored enclosed
in a yolk produced by birds. A single egg consists of shell, membrane, albumen, or
white and yolk.
• The potential quality of eggs determined by consumers; acceptability and stability
heavily affected by storage, thus physical structure and chemical composition
attributed to the potential customers.
• Originally, milk can be converted into products that are high-value, concentrated,
and easily transportable dairy products with prolonged shelf-lives in the form of
butter, cheese, and ghee. Milk is characterized to be a valuable nutritious food that
has a short shelf-life and requires proper handling and storage techniques. Its high
perishability is due to the account of microorganisms as an excellent medium for
their growth, particularly bacterial pathogens. This caused spoilage and diseases in
consumers.
• Meat and other animal products such as milk and eggs are favored as highly
nutritious products. Being regarded, intelligent handling must be the first line of
priority to avoid spoilage and deterioration. One must know some techniques in
meat, milk, and egg preservation.
• Hazard is defined as any substance that can cause illness or injury that is found in
food. This includes plant toxins, natural food components, microorganisms, and
pathogens. Pathogens are disease-causing microorganisms.
• Common meat preservation methods include chilling, freezing, dehydration,
salting, curing, smoking, and canning.

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REFERENCES
Hilario, J., Tabuena, R., Leo Roque, N., and Catchillar, U. 2015. A Practical
Guide in Basic Cooking and Baking. Books Atbp. Publishing Corp. 707
Tiaga cor. Kasipagan Sts. Barangka Drive, Mandaluyong City.
http://www.fao.org/3/x6552e/X6552E04.htm
http://www.fao.org/dairy-production-products/processing/en/
Lambio, A. 2010. Poultry Production in the Tropics. The University of the
Philippines Press. Diliman, Quezon City.
PCARRD- DOST. 2011. The Philippine Recommends for Meat Processing

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THE CONTRIBUTORS
Contact Information

HYDE DURAN-NADELA SHIRLEY S. VILLANUEVA ANGIE POLIQUIT

Ph.D . Animal Science Ph.D. Animal Science Ph.D. Animal Science
USEP-Tagum Mabini USEP-Tagum Mabini USeP-Tagum-Mabini
Campus Campus Campus

Asso. Dean, CARS/Head, GSARS VP Research, Development and Instructor I

Asso. Prof. 3 Extension Animal Project-in-Charge
hyde.nadela@usep. edu.ph Asso. Prof. 5 ar.poliquit@usep.edu.ph
shirley.villanueva@usep.edu.ph

JONASH A. BUNDA FRYAN ALLEN SUBONG

MS An Sci MSA An Sci
USEP-Tagum Mabini Serapion C. Basalo
Campus Memorial Colleges, Inc.

Instructor 3 Program Head, Agriculture

jonash.bunda@usep.edu.ph Dept.
fryanallen@yahoo.com

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