CHAPTER 1

CONCEPTS OF SOCIAL NORMS

Social norms are basic rules that guide how people should behave in a group
or society. They can develop naturally through social interactions and are
studied by different fields. Anthropologists look at norms in various cultures,
sociologists examine how norms influence behavior, and economists study
how norms affect market actions. Legal scholars see norms as useful
alternatives to laws, as they can handle problems without extra costs.

Social norms are fundamental guidelines that dictate acceptable and

appropriate behavior within a group or society.

Legal scholars see that social norms, or unwritten rules of behavior, can
sometimes work better than laws to solve problems. These norms can help
reduce harmful effects without the extra expense or effort of enforcing
formal laws.

Study.com (2019) – defines social norms as widely accepted behaviors that

individuals are expected to conform to in specific groups, communities, or
cultures. Such norms are the foundation of correct behaviors that enable
individuals to anticipate and prepare for specific situations, reducing stress
and uncertainty.

Social norms remain stable mainly because of socialization, where individuals

are taught to follow them willingly.

Even if someone doesn’t want to follow a social norm, strong social pressure
often leads them to do so. Deviating from these norms is more noticeable,
emphasizing their role in guiding and regulating behavior in groups or
society.
Examples of social norms

Everyday social convention Norms:

- Shaking hands when greeting someone.

-Saying “please” and “thank you”

-Apologizing when one makes a mistake.

-Standing up when someone enters the room.

-Making eye contact during a conversation.

-Listening when someone is speaking.

-Offering help when someone is struggling.

-Respecting personal space.

SAMPLE SCENARIO:

In a small, tight-knit community that values punctuality and efficiency, there

is a neighborhood watch program where members take turns patrolling the
streets at night to ensure safety and security. The members have established
a social norm of reporting any suspicious activity they observe during their
shifts to the police and each other to keep everyone informed and to
maintain a sense of accountability. One night, a new member of the
neighborhood watch program decided to break the norm by not reporting an
unfamiliar car parked in an empty lot. The following day, one of the residents
discovered a car theft had occurred and reported it to the police. The police
investigation revealed that the stolen car was the same one the new
member had withheld from reporting. When confronted about not following
the social norm, the member explained that he felt it was unnecessary to
draw attention to the car and thought it would not matter if he did not report
it. However, he realized that his actions were wrong and violated the
community’s social norm of being vigilant and observant in their
neighborhood watch program. He apologized and learned the importance of
adhering to social norms to promote social order and maintain a safe and
secure community.

OTHER CONCEPTS OF SOCIAL NORMS

Estefanik (2016) provided insightful explanations of social norms and their
different concepts.

Social norms are unwritten rules about how we should act in a group, based
on what we think others are doing and expect us to do. For example, we
stand in line because others are doing it, and we believe they’d disapprove if
we skipped ahead. These norms are reinforced by our expectations of others’
reactions.

The influence of our reference group on norm-setting is essential since they

shape our conduct. Our reference group comprises individuals within our
societal or situational surroundings who matter to us and whose actions
affect our way of doing things. This includes peers, neighbors, opinion
makers(chsimosa), parents, etc. Furthermore, norms are dependent on
various cultural and social contexts.

We often guess what others are doing or thinking, but we can be wrong. If we
change what people expect from others, we can also change how they act.

FUNCTIONS OF SOCIAL NORMS

Social norms significantly influence human behavior as they serve as shared

standards. People conform to these norms because they anticipate
punishments or rewards from other members of society. According to Mundal
(n.d.), social norms fulfill several main functions, classifications, and
characteristics:

1. They direct, regulate, and control human behavior. This process,

called socialization, helps turn these rules and expectations into a
natural part of our personality.
2. Social norms satisfy our social needs.
3. They help establish social order by mitigating societal tensions
and conflicts.
4. They act as a yardstick for evaluating social behavior.
5. They serve as ideals and objectives in certain situations.
6. Social norms can accurately predict human behavior.
CLASSIFICATIONS OF SOCIAL NORMS

Prescriptive Norm – Is positive in form and spells out forms of behavior

that role-players are expected to follow. It involves behavioral degrees of
conformity.

• For example, a prescriptive norm may be that you should shake their
hand when introduced to someone. Another example is that you should dress
professionally during a job interview.

Proscriptive Norm – This one directs a role-player to avoid or abstain from

specific types of activity. It tends to be more inflexible when behavior is
defined as compliant or deviant.

• A proscriptive norm may be that you should not cheat on exams. Another
example is that you should not steal or lie.

Formal Norms – are usually written down as rules or laws.

• For instance, a law prohibiting drinking and driving is a formal norm.

Another example is that breaking the speed limit is a formal norm, and
drivers can be fined or penalized for violating it. Laws are an example of
formal norms.

Informal Norms – are unwritten rules that are widely understood. Those
which are not written or codified and just generally understood by the
society in which they exist

• For example, talking with food in your mouth is considered impolite in

some cultures. Another example is that in some workplaces, you are
expected to arrive early to work and leave only after your boss leaves.

CHARACTERISTICS OF SOCIAL NORMS:

Social norms have several defining characteristics that can be observed

across different societies. These characteristics are:
 1. Universality: Social norms are found in every society and are
essential for keeping order and helping people interact with each other.

Examples of universal social norms – include respecting elders, sharing

resources, and being polite to others.

2. Value-judgment: Social norms are the common rules that a group

agrees on for how to behave. These rules are based on what the group
thinks is right or wrong, good or bad, and what’s expected or not.

For example, honesty, punctuality, and kindness norms reflect the group’s
values and beliefs about what constitutes desirable behavior.

3. Relativity: Social norms can vary across different societies and even
within the same society between different groups.

For instance, norms related to dress, language, and gender roles can differ
significantly between different cultures and subcultures.

4. Importance: Social norms vary in how strict they are and how
seriously they punish rule-breakers. Some norms, called mores, are
very important and can lead to severe punishments if broken. Others,
known as folkways, are less important and usually result in only minor
consequences.
5. Internalization: People learn social norms through their interactions
with family, friends, and others. Once they understand these norms,
they become a natural part of who they are and influence how they
behave in social situations.

TYPES OF NORMS

Sociologists typically recognize four types of norms: folkways, mores,

taboos, and laws (Crossman, 2014).

- Folkways – are Socially approved customs and conventions, like

how we dress or eat, aren’t always about right or wrong.

• For instance, in America, burping loudly after a meal is considered a

minor social mistake.
 - Mores, however, strict norms that control moral and ethical
behavior are based on right and wrong definitions. Violating “more”
can result in solid disapproval.

• For example – going to church without clothes or living with a partner

when your parents don’t approve of it.

- Taboos – These norms are so important to society that breaking them

can cause strong disgust and may lead to being shunned or seen as
unfit.

• Examples of taboos include – eating pork in some Muslim Exitures or

engaging in incest and cannibalism in most countries.

- Finally, laws – are written norms enforced by official law

enforcement agencies and typically have consequence such as fines
or jail time for violations.

• Examples of laws include – driving under the influence of liquor/alcohol,

theft, murder, and trespassing.

THE SOCIAL NORMS THEORY

Social norms theory – is the idea that people’s behavior is influenced by

their perceptions of what is normal or acceptable within their group or
society. It suggests that individuals often conform to what they believe
others are doing or approving of, even if those perceptions are inaccurate. By
providing accurate information about actual norms, it’s possible to change
people’s behavior and encourage more positive actions.

In 2015, researchers at the University of Virginia used social norms theory to

prevent sexual assault on college campuses. They discovered that students
often think sexual assault is more common and acceptable than it really is.
By giving accurate information about sexual assault rates and behavior, they
reduced both the belief that such behavior is acceptable and the actual rates
of assault.
A 2016 study by Haines and others did something similar for drinking habits.
They found that when students learned the true drinking habits of their
peers, their own alcohol consumption and related problems decreased.

These studies show that correcting misconceptions about how others behave
can lead to healthier choices and behaviors among young people.

ETHICS

Ethics, according to Singer (2019), determines what is morally good and evil,
right and wrong. It is concerned with practical decision-making at all levels
and involves standards by which human actions can be judged. The BBC
(2014) defines ethics as a system of moral principles and a branch of
philosophy that determines what is good for individuals and society. These
concepts apply to various issues, including abortion, human rights, and
professional conduct.

Uses of Ethics:

Ethics significantly influences human behavior. However, ethics also helps

individuals reflect on their actions, especially when emotions lead them to
disregard moral principles.

Ethics and People:

Ethics focuses on how individuals should act toward others and society,
promoting the well-being of society and considering the interests of others
beyond self-interest. However, ethics can sometimes be misused as a
weapon against individuals or groups, leading to disrespect and
dehumanization.

SAMPLE SCENARIO:
A company has been accused of unethical practices in its supply chain,
particularly in using child labor. The company faces backlash from consumers
and activists calling for a boycott of its products.

Example 1: Ethics as a Source of group strength

Consumers and activists have formed a coalition to fight against the

company’s unethical practices. They use ethics as a source of strength by
highlighting the importance of caring for the well-being of the children
affected by the company’s actions. They argue the company’s moral
obligation is to ensure its child-labor-free supply chain. The group bands
together to boycott the company’s products, effectively conveying that
unethical practices will not be tolerated.

Example 2: Good people as well as good actions

The company’s CEO publicly apologizes for the unethical practices and vows
to change the supply chain. However, consumers and activists are skeptical
of the company’s commitment to change. They argue that a company
engaged in unethical practices must demonstrate a moral character
committed to doing better rather than simply making promises. The group
calls for the company to invest in programs that promote education and
training for the children through their actions, showcasing their commitment
to building a better world.

Example 3: Searching for the source of right and wrong

As consumers and activists continue to discuss the company’s unethical

practices, philosophical questions arise about determining what is right and
wrong. Some argue that a religious or spiritual approach, focusing on
principles of compassion and justice, is the best way to guide ethical
decision-making. Others argue that a more pragmatic and utilitarian
approach, focused on the greatest good for the most significant number, is
more appropriate. The group debates these questions and ultimately
concludes that, regardless of the approach or philosophy, it is essential for
individuals to take responsibility for their actions and do what is right based
on their moral compass.

Ethics and Ideology:

Some philosophers argue that ethics is a codification of political ideology and

serves to enforce and preserve political beliefs. They suggest that dominant
political elites use ethics to control others, applying ethical codes selectively
to maintain power while exempting themselves.

Ethical Perspective in Crime Causation:

The ethical perspective emphasizes personal responsibility in crime

causation. It stresses that individuals must take ownership of their actions
and acknowledge the harm they cause. This perspective also considers
societal values and norms, recognizing that cultural differences can influence
ethical behavior and decision-making.

Ethical Theories:

Moral Realism: Believes in objective moral truths.

Subjectivism: Considers moral judgments as expressions of personal

feelings.

Emotivism: Views moral statements as expressions of approval or

disapproval.

Prescriptivism: Sees ethical statements as instructions or

recommendations.

Types of Ethics:
God-Based Ethics: Links ethics with religion, as seen in the Ten
Commandments.

Intuitionism: Asserts that good and evil are objective properties detected
through an intuitive moral sense.

Consequentialism: Bases morality on the consequences of actions.

Non-consequentialism: Focuses on the inherent rightness or wrongness of

actions.

Virtue Ethics: Emphasizes moral character over specific actions.

Situation Ethics: Advocates for decisions based on the unique context of

each situation.

Ethics is a critical tool for navigating moral dilemmas, guiding individuals and
society in making informed decisions based on various ethical principles. It
underscores the importance of personal responsibility, the influence of
societal values, and the complexity of moral discourse.

GENERAL CONCEPT OF THEORY

The concept of theory is a fundamental aspect of various fields, including

science, social sciences, and business. Manwong (2013) defines a theory as a
system of ideas that produce general principles to increase our
understanding and provide explanations for phenomena. Business Dictionary
(2019) expands upon this definition by stating that a theory attempts to
explain cause-and-effect relationships among observed phenomena through
assumptions, propositions, or accepted facts. PFP Thoughts (2012) adds that
a theory is a set of interrelated concepts, propositions, or definitions that
specify relationships among variables and represent s systematic view of
specific phenomena.

In essence, theories are mental models of reality that aim to explain

observed phenomena. These models should have several characteristics, as
Manwong (2013) mentioned. First, they should focus on a specific
phenomenon that requires explanation. Second, they should fit the
knownfacts about the phenomenon in question. Third, they should contribute
to scientific paradigms by expanding our understanding of the underlying
principles. Fourth, they should provide a way to test or falsify their claims.
Pinh, they should establish boundaries and domains by which laws and truth
statements can be generalized. Lastly, they should enable propositions to be
added or compared to other theories.

Theories are essential for understanding our world, developing new ideas,
and solving problems. They provide a systematic view of specific phenomena
and can lead to breakthroughs in understanding the world around us with
further testing and enhancements.

IMPORTANCE OF A THEORY

The importance of a theory cannot be overstated, as it serves as a

framework for organizing and giving meaning to facts and observations. As
stated by the National Science Foundation, “Theories provide a framework
for explaining and predicting phenomena. Without theories, there could be
no basis for predicting what might happen in the future or for evaluating
whether an observation is important or just a coincidence (National Science
Foundation, 2019). “This means that a theory allows researchers to make
sense of the data they collect by providing a structure for understanding
relationships between variables.

Moreover, theories are essential in explaining findings within the context of

existing knowledge. Researchers inevitably encounter new data that must be
reconciled with what is already known as researchers investigate a
phenomenon. Theories help researchers understand how new findings fit in
with what is already known and help generate new hypotheses to test.
According to Dr. Linda Nilson, “A well-developed theory makes it easier to
interpret empirical data, and it suggests new questions to be investigated
(Nilson, 2010). Thus, theories help guide research and provide a foundation
for discoveries.

In addition to organizing and explaining observations, theories are essential

for predicting future outcomes. A theory helps researchers anticipate what
might happen in future experiments based on what has been observed. This
future researchers to design experiments that test specific hypotheses and
provide empirical support for the theory.

Finally, theories stimulate the development of new knowledge by providing

motivation and guidance for new questions. According to the American
Psychological Association, “Discoveries often arise from attempts to test
theories or to identify and explore anomalous observations that existing
theories cannot explain (American, Psychological Association, 2020).
Consequently, the development of new theories is essential for driving
scientific progress.

In conclusion, the importance of a theory must be considered. Theories

provide a framework for organizing and giving meaning to facts and
observations, explain findings within the context of existing knowledge,
serve as a basis for predicting future outcomes, and stimulate the
development of new knowledge by guiding the direction of research and
generating new questions to be investigated. Thus, theories are essential for
scientific progress and understanding

THREE STAGES OF THEORY DEVELOPMENT

The development of theories can be divided into three stages: Speculative,

Descriptive, and Constructive. This theory development highlights the
incremental progression of scientific knowledge. As more data becomes
available, theories are refined, and new theories are developed, resulting in a
deepening understanding of a particular phenomenon.

 The Speculative Stage – Is characterized by attempts to explain

what is happening in a particular phenomenon. This stage is often
marked by initial observations, intuitions, and hunches about a
particular topic.

For example, in psychology, the speculative stage of the theory development

process for studying social anxiety disorder might involve researchers
formulating hypotheses based on their observations of certain behaviors in
people who experience social anxiety. One hypothesis could be that social
anxiety is caused by early childhood experiences that result in low s self-
esteem and sensitivity to social evaluation.

 The Descriptive Stage – This involves gathering descriptive data to

describe what is happening in a particular phenomenon. In the case of
social anxiety, researchers may conduct surveys, interviews, or
experiments to gather data that supports or rejects the initial
hypotheses about the causes of social anxiety. The data gathered in
this stage is an empirical foundation for the theories about social
anxiety.

 The Constructive Stage – Involves revising and developing new

theories based on continuing research. Researchers use descriptive
data in this stage to refine or revise earlier theories. For example,
researchers reviewing the descriptive data on social anxiety may find
that contrary to their initial hypothesis, genetics plays a crucial role in
developing social anxiety.

One example of this theory development process in action is the many

studies conducted of the effects of violent video games on behavior. The
speculative stage involved hypotheses like “violent video games lead to
aggression,” while the descriptive stage involved gathering data through
experiments and surveys to determine the effects of violent video games on
different groups of individuals. The constructive stage involved refining these
initial hypotheses based on continuous research, with some studies finding
that the relationship between violent video games and aggression is more
complex than previously thought.

COMPONENTS OF A THEORY

Understanding the different components of a theory is essential for

conducting research and generalizing about the natural world. These
components can guide researchers in defining variables, making predictions,
analyzing data, and interpreting research findings.
According to PFP Thoughts (2012), a theory comprises several components.
These are Concepts, Constructs, Propositions and Models.

1. CONCEPTS – Are abstract ideas that classify natural phenomena. They

could be existing things such as a tree, chair, table, computer, or
distance. For instance, researchers conducting studies on the effects of
distance on friendship could classify distance into short and long
categories.

2. CONSTRUCTS – Represent behaviors or events that can’t be directly

observed or measured. Such constructs are often names for variables
that cannot be seen but are inferred by measuring related or correlated
things. In research, constructs are treated as independent or
dependent variables Examples of constructs include democracy,
learning, and freedom. For instance, researchers interested in studying
the relationship between democracy and economic growth could
measure the level of democracy in different countries and the
corresponding economic growth rates.

3. PROPOSITIONS – This comprises concepts and constructs, present

generalizations that indicate relationships among variables. For
instance, a proposition could be made that distance affects people’s
friendship level.
 4. MODELS – This simplifies complex reality for easy understanding of a
phenomenon. These models are often analogies for “real” phenomena,
behaviors, systems, etc. Several common types of models include
physical models, animal models, computer models, process models,
and quantitative models. For instance, to understand the behavior of
atoms, a solar system can be used to represent the atom

CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD THEORY

The characteristics of a good theory include testability, explanatory power,

predictability, and parsimony. Testability refers to the ability of the theory to
be subjected to empirical testing and verification. For instance, Albert
Einstein’s theory of general relativity was testable when scientists observed
the bending of light during a solar eclipse in 1919 (Pradhan, 2020).

Explanatory power refers to the theory’s ability to account for most available
data. For example, Darwin’s theory of evolution explains the diversity of life
on Earth through natural selection, which has been supported by numerous
observations and experiments (Guliuzza, 2018).

Predictability is another essential characteristic of a good theory. A theory

should be able to predict future experiments, observations, or events. For
example, quantum mechanics has remarkably accurately predicted
subatomic particles’ behavior (The European Physical Journal D, 2014).

Finally, the principle of parsimony, or simplicity, is a criterion for deciding

among scientific theories or explanations. According to this principle, one
should always choose the simplest explanation of a phenomenon, which
requires the fewest leaps of logic. For example, Occam’s razor, a well-known
application of parsimony, states that “entities should not be multiplied
without necessity” (Hacking, 2014).
A good theory is testable, explanatory, predictive, and parsimonious. These
characteristics ensure that a theory is grounded in empirical evidence, can
make accurate predictions, and is the simplest explanation for a
phenomenon.

THE CRIMINOLOGICAL THEORY AND ITS PERSPECTIVES

The discussion by Lilly et al. (2002) about the complexity of crime calls for a
multifaceted approach to combatting it. Crime context, content, and
consequences should be comprehensively studied to develop tailored and
effective interventions. Understanding the theoretical view of crime is crucial
to understanding criminal behavior discrepancies and customizing
prevention measures.

CRIMINOLOGICAL THEORY: UNDERSTANDING THE CAUSES OF CRIME

Criminological theory is a field of study focused on understanding the causes

of crime and its related factors

According to Okada (2015), criminological theories strive to explain the

unexplained and explore the cruelty, oppression, and evil that some
individuals visit upon others. These theories are based on scientific
examination of a particular phenomenon and aim to provide accurate
predictions and simple explanations for criminal behavior.

In conclusion, criminological theory is a crucial field of study for

understanding the complex causes of criminal behavior. Through scientific
examination and accurate predictions, criminological theory provides
valuable insights that can inform policies and programs promoting public
safety and social justice.

THE NATURE OF CRIMINOLOGICAL THEORY

The nature of criminological theory is a complex and multifaceted subject

matter that borrows from numerous disciplines and fields of study.
The nature of criminological theory draws from various disciplines and fields
of study to comprehend the complex and multifaceted phenomenon of
criminal behavior. Criminological theories provide a foundation for
understanding criminal behavior and are essential in developing effective
strategies to control and prevent crime

TWO MAJOR TYPES OF THEORIES OF CRIME

According to Sheldensays.com (n.d), there are two significant types of crime

theories: people theories and all kinds of environmental theories.

These two types of crime theories focus on different aspects of crime:

individual motivation and crime rates. The development of theories is
essential for explaining criminal behavior and provides a foundation for
evidence based crime prevention and intervention strategies.

SUPERNATURAL PERSPECTIVE TO CRIME

The supernatural perspective on crime was a prevalent belief before the

development of more scientific theories of criminal behavior. Hagan (1990),
as cited by Manwong (2013), describes the demonological theory or
demonology as one of the most popular explanations for criminal behavior
during this time. This theory, also known as spiritualism, emphasizes the
conflict between absolute good and evil. According to the demonological
theory, people who committed crimes were thought to be possessed by evil
spirits or demons, who were often blamed for their actions. The catchphrase,
“The devil made me do it,” was used to explain away criminal behavior.

The demonological theory goes beyond just the idea of possessing spirits, it
also extends to influencing spirits. Individuals were thought to be possessed
or controlled by good or evil spirits, which caused them to exhibit either
excellent or evil behavior (Manwong, 2013). Thus, criminal behaviors were
believed to result from evil spirits, demons, or some natural force that could
control a person’s behavior. In this theory, terms like demons, witches, and
windigo were used to describe people who had turned to a life of crime, as it
was thought to happen due to the influence of evil forces.

The supernatural perspective held that supernatural powers best explain

crime and sin. It was believed that people did not commit crimes of their own
free will but were

Chapter I: Preliminary Concepts and Principlehighly severe penalties,

including whipping, branding, maiming, and execution, which were thought
to deter others from committing similar crimes.

In conclusion, the supernatural perspective of crime emphasizes the role of

evil spirits or demons in criminal behavior. Though today’s scientific
explanations move beyond this perspective, it remains a fascinating
historical account of crime and punishment.

In the past, legal systems often relied on supernatural methods to establish

guilt or innocence. Lilly et al. (2002) explain that one such method was trial
by battle, where the victim or their family member would fight the accused
or their family member. The victory was thought to belong to the innocent
who trusted in God. However, this system had flaws, as skilled warriors could
continue to commit crimes and rely on their strength to win battles instead of
relying on their innocence. Another method of determining guilt or innocence
was trial by ordeal, which involved subjecting the accused to life-threatening
or painful situations.

Compurgation was a standard trial method in medieval Europe, where the

accused could call upon reputable individuals to swear an oath of his or her
innocence. The belief behind this method was that no one would risk eternal
damnation by swearing a false oath before God. This practice was used in
various legal contexts, including criminal trials and civil litigation (Lacey,
2018).
For example, in England during the 13th century, compurgation was still
widely used in criminal trials, particularly for serious offenses such as
murder, where the accused might need to gather as many as 20
compurgators to vouch for his or her innocence. However, this method was
gradually phased out as the use of juries became more common in the late
Middle Ages (Jury and Justice, 2018).

On the other hand, trepanation was a medical practice that involved drilling
or cutting a hole in the skull. This procedure was believed to have various
medical benefits, such as relieving pressure on the brain after head injuries.
Some historical records suggest that trepanation may have also been used
as a form of anesthesia or as a treatment for chronic headaches (Hurst,
2018).

THEORIES OF CRIME CAUSATION

However, some researchers theorize that trepanation may have also been
used for spiritual purposes. In some cultures, it was believed that specific
ailments were caused by evil spirits that needed to be expelled from the
body. Trepanation may have been used in rituals designed to release these
spirits from the individual, who was believed to have been possessed due to
committing a crime or otherwise falling out of favor with the divine (Borrell,
2014).

In conclusion, in medieval Europe, compurgation, and trepanation were

historically significant practices with different purposes and contexts. While
compurgation was used as a means of trial and legal defense, trepanation
was a medical and spiritual practice with varying degrees of effectiveness
and controversy.

EFFECTS OF SPIRITUAL EXPLANATIONS

The effects of spiritual explanations on human behavior have been

researched and analyzed. Studies have shown that religious beliefs and
practices influence people’s behavior and decision-making processes. For
example, fearing God’s punishments has deterred people from committing
crimes or immoral acts. One study found that individuals who attended
religious services regularly were less likely to engage in criminal behavior
(Johnson et al., 2013).

Similarly, the development of penitentiaries in the 19 th century was based on

the belief that offenders could be rehabilitated through religious teachings
and practices. These facilities were seen as places for “penitents who were
sorry for their sins” and aimed to reform criminal behavior through spiritual
guidance (Rothman, 2002).

Moreover, individuals caught for criminal acts have turned to religion and
spirituality as a means of redemption and behavior change. Studies have
shown that participation in religious programs can improve offenders’ sense
of moral responsibility and decrease their likelihood of re-offending (Brazzell
& Watkins, 2016).

The public's Interest in spiritual explanations for human behavior has also
grown alongside population growth. This is evidenced by increased church
memberships and attendance over the years (Pew Research Center, 2015).

Chapter I: Preliminary Concepts and Principle

In summary, the effects of spiritual explanations on human behavior are

complex and multifaceted, and further research is needed to understand
their impact fully.

The Influence of Spirituality on Human Behavior: A Summary

This document explores the impact of spiritual explanations on human

behavior, drawing upon research and analysis from various sources. The
primary focus is on how religious beliefs and practices shape individual
actions and decision-making.

Deterrence and Rehabilitation: The Role of Fear and Redemption

One key effect of spiritual explanations is the deterrence of criminal

behavior. The fear of divine punishment, often associated with religious
beliefs, can act as a powerful deterrent against immoral acts. Research has
demonstrated that individuals who regularly attend religious services are less
likely to engage in criminal behavior [1]. This suggests that religious beliefs
can influence moral decision-making and promote prosocial behavior.

The concept of redemption also plays a significant role in the spiritual realm.
The development of penitentiaries in the 19th century was rooted in the belief
that offenders could be rehabilitated through religious teachings and
practices [1]. These facilities were envisioned as spaces for “penitents who
were sorry for their sins,” aiming to reform criminal behavior through
spiritual guidance [1]. This historical example highlights the potential of
spirituality to foster moral transformation and promote positive change in
individuals.

Furthermore, studies have shown that participation in religious programs can

improve offenders’ sense of moral responsibility and decrease their likelihood
of re-offending [1]. This suggests that spiritual practices can offer a path to
personal growth and rehabilitation, even for individuals who have committed
serious offenses.

Growing Interest in Spiritual Explanations

The public’s interest in spiritual explanations for human behavior has been
steadily increasing alongside population growth. This is evidenced by the
growth in church memberships and attendance over the years [1]. This trend
indicates a growing recognition of the influence of spirituality on various
aspects of life, including behavior and decision-making.
Conclusion: The Multifaceted Influence of Spirituality

The effects of spiritual explanations on human behavior are multifaceted and

complex. From deterring criminal activity to promoting personal redemption
and rehabilitation, spirituality plays a significant role in shaping individual
actions and moral development. The growing interest in spiritual
explanations reflects a recognition of its potential to offer meaning, purpose,
and guidance in a rapidly changing world. Further research is needed to fully
understand the intricate relationship between spirituality and human
behavior, exploring its various applications and implications for individuals
and society as a whole.

ARGUMENTS AGAINST DEMONOLOGICAL THEORY

Demonological theory proposes that supernatural entities, such as demons

or devils, are responsible for criminal behavior. However, this theory faces
significant criticisms as it lacks empirical support. As a result, many scholars
argue that demonological theory has no place in modern criminology.

One of the primary criticisms of demonological theory is that it relies on

untestable assumptions. Because demons and other supernatural beings are
not visible or measurable, it is impossible to determine whether they are
causing criminal behavior. This problem makes it difficult to evaluate or
confirm the validity of demonological theory.

Moreover, scholars have proposed more plausible explanations for criminal

behavior that do not involve supernatural forces. For example, sociological
theorists suggest that social and economic factors, such as poverty,
inequality, and lack of opportunities, are the root causes of crime (Strain,
2002). In contrast, biological theories emphasize how genetic factors,
hormones, or brain abnormalities can contribute to criminality (Raine, 2013).
Furthermore, demonological theory has been heavily criticized for its
potential to stigmatize and criminalize individuals based on their religious
beliefs. Historically. Witch hunts and trials in Europe reinforced that demonic
possession was a plausible explanation of criminality. However, these beliefs
often targeted vulnerable groups, such as women, minorities, or people with
mental illness, leading to persecution and unjust convictions (Monahan,
1996).

In conclusion, while demonological theory may have been prominent in the

past, modern criminology requires empirical evidence and theoretical
coherence. The lack of empirical testing and the potential for discriminatory
practices make demonological theory an unscientific and outdated
explanation of criminal behavior.

THEORIES OF CRIME CAUSATION

SUMMARY

The supernatural perspective on crime was a widely held belief before

developing more scientific theories of criminal behavior. One of the most
popular explanations for criminal behavior during this time was the
demonological theory, also known as spiritualism. This theory emphasized
the role of evil spirits or demons in criminal behavior, and according to it,
people who committed crimes were thought to be possessed by these
entities. However, the lack of empirical support for this theory has led many
scholars to argue that it has no place in modern criminology.

Instead, sociological and biological theories provide more plausible

explanations for criminal behavior. Sociological theorists suggest that social
and economic factors, such as poverty, inequality, and lack of opportunities,
are the root causes of crime. Biological theories, on the other hand,
emphasize how genetic factors, hormones, or brain abnormalities can
contribute to criminality.
Furthermore, demonological theory has been criticized for its potential to
stigmatize and criminalize individuals based on their religious beliefs.
Historically, witch hunts and trials in Europe reinforced that demonic
possession was a plausible explanation of criminality. However, these beliefs
often targeted vulnerable groups, leading to persecution and unjust
convictions.

Despite its flaws, spiritual explanations for human behavior have an impact.
Studies show religious beliefs and practices influence people’s behavior and
decision-making processes. Participating in religious programs can improve
offenders’ sense of moral responsibility and decrease their likelihood of
reoffending. However, further research is needed to fully understand sp
spiritual explanations’ complex and multifaceted effects on human behavior.