Leadership

Chapter 4 – Motivational approach

2023–2024
Michaël Parmentier
Defining motivation
Motivation refers to the processes that account for an individual’s intensity,
direction, and persistence of effort toward attaining a goal

The level of motivation varies both between individuals (i.e., individual

differences) but also within individuals over time
Defining motivation
The three key elements of motivation are:

1. Intensity – how hard a person tries

Defining motivation
The three key elements of motivation are:

1. Intensity – how hard a person tries

2. Direction – in which direction the effort is conducted
Defining motivation
The three key elements of motivation are:

1. Intensity – how hard a person tries

2. Direction – in which direction the effort is conducted
3. Persistence – how long a person maintains effort
What motivates us?
Classic motivation theories
Hierarchy of Needs theory
The Hierarchy of Needs theory suggests that

• We have different needs

• The search for satisfying these needs

creates tension, motivation

• We have different hierarchized levels (i.e., we need to achieve lower levels first)

Maslow (1943), Skelsey (2014)

Hierarchy of Needs theory
These different needs are
Maslow hierarchy

1. Physiological
› Hunger, thirst, shelter, and other bodily needs

2. Safety
› Security and protection from other physical and emotional harm

3. Social-belongingness
› Affection, love, acceptance, and friendship

4. Esteem
› Internal factors such as self-respect, autonomy, recognition, achievement, status

5. Self-actualization
› Drive to become what we can become: growth, achieving potential, self-fulfillment

Maslow (1943), Skelsey (2014)

Hierarchy of Needs theory
Maslow’s need theory has received wide recognition, particularly among practitioners
and managers
• It is intuitively logical and easy to understand

• But most research does not validate the model!

› The needs are not hierarchized
› The needs are not sequential, we need them to be satisfied simultaneously
› Motivation does not only proceed from unsatisfied needs
› Risks of classifying workers according to their level of needs achievement

• Psychological needs are essential to motivation but provide only an incomplete picture of
what it is

Maslow (1943), Skelsey (2014)

Two-factor Theory
As a starting point, the two-factor theory takes a different view of satisfaction
and suggests that:

• Dissatisfaction and satisfaction are not part of a single continuum

• The factors that relate to dissatisfaction or satisfaction are different
› Hygiene factors – Extrinsic factors
- The strict minima at work that, when unmet, lead to dissatisfaction

› Motivating factors – Intrinsic factors

- The bonus at work that, when met, leads to satisfaction

Herzberg (1967)
Two-factor Theory
 Motivator Factors: Hygiene Factors:
Quality of Education: The quality of education, including engaging lectures, challenging coursework, and Quality of Facilities and Resources: The availability of well-equipped classrooms, libraries, computer
opportunities for intellectual growth and development, serves as a motivator factor. Students are motivated labs, and other educational resources serves as a hygiene factor. Students expect access to
by the opportunity to learn and acquire knowledge in their chosen field of study. adequate facilities to support their learning experience.

Opportunities for Research and Innovation: The chance to engage in research projects, collaborate with Administrative Processes and Procedures: Efficient and transparent administrative processes,
faculty members on academic research, and contribute to innovation within their field can serve as motivator including course registration, academic advising, and grading procedures, are essential hygiene
factors for students who are passionate about advancing knowledge and making meaningful contributions. factors that contribute to a smooth and satisfactory student experience.

Recognition and Achievement: Opportunities for academic achievement, such as receiving awards, Supportive Learning Environment: A supportive and inclusive learning environment, characterized by
scholarships, or recognition for outstanding performance, can motivate students to excel in their studies and respectful interactions among peers and faculty members, serves as a hygiene factor by promoting a
strive for excellence. sense of belonging and well-being among students.

Career Prospects and Networking: Access to career development resources, internship opportunities, and Quality of Teaching and Faculty Support: The quality of teaching, availability of faculty support, and
networking events that connect students with industry professionals and potential employers can serve as responsiveness to student inquiries and feedback are hygiene factors that contribute to a positive
motivator factors by providing a clear pathway to future career success student experience. Students expect competent and supportive faculty members who are dedicated to
their academic success.

Try to identify Motivators and Hygiene factors as a student at the

HEC/University of Liège
Two-factor theory

Herzberg (2003)
Two-factor Theory
Again, the two-factor theory became quite popular in scientific and industrial fields but is
also poorly validated due to several limitations

• Overreliance on self-reports

• Methods with low reliability and low replicability of empirical results

• Concerns about the measures of satisfaction

• It seems that both hygiene and motivating factors contribue both to satisfaction and
dissatisfaction

• But, the theory is still useful in illuminating independent aspects of motivation and
satisfaction at work
McClelland’s theory of Needs
As Maslow’s theory, McClelland’s theory focuses on psychological needs:

1. Need for achievement (nAch) is the need to excel or achieve to a set of

standards

2. Need for power (nPow) is the need to make others behave in a way they
would not have otherwise

3. Need for affiliation (nAff) is the need to establish friendly and close
interpersonal relationships
McClelland’s theory of Needs
Compared to the previous theories, McClelland’s theory of needs has received
better empirical support

• But, it has less practical impact than the others

• The needs are theorized as subconscious – measurement is therefore difficult
• These needs are observed over time and behaviors – they have low practical
value in knowing how to motivate people
Contemporary motivation
theories
Self-determination theory
Self-determination theory (SDT) is a major meta-theory of well-being and
performance, composed of several fundamental components:

• Autonomy
• Intrinsic motivation
• Extrinsic motivation
• Satisfaction of psychological needs

Deci & Ryan (2000)

Self-determination theory
The theory suggests that:

• People strive for growth and development

• People prefere to feel that they have control over their actions

• This is possible through the satisfaction of three basic needs:

› Need for autonomy

› Need for competence

› Need for relatedness

Self-determination theory
SDT considers three different types of motivation : amotivation, extrinsic, and intrinsic
motivation composed of 6 distinct regulations:
1. Amotivation
› Lacking any motivation, neither intrinsic nor extrinsic. The individual does not value the activity
and does not believe that their effort will lead to meaningful outcomes
› Example: An employee feels disengaged and puts minimal effort into tasks, feeling that their
work makes no difference, or they do not see any connection between their effort and any
potential outcomes
Self-determination theory
SDT considers three different types of motivation : amotivation, extrinsic, and intrinsic
motivation composed of 6 distinct regulations:
1. Amotivation
2. External regulation
› Motivation is driven by external rewards or punishments. The behavior is not self-determined but
rather influenced by external factors
› Example : An employee works on a task only because it is required for a performance review, or
because there is a financial bonus tied to its completion
Self-determination theory
SDT considers three different types of motivation : amotivation, extrinsic, and intrinsic
motivation composed of 6 distinct regulations:
1. Amotivation
2. External regulation
3. Introjected regulation
› Motivation comes from internal pressures, such as the desire to feel valued or to avoid guilt. This
motivation is partially internalized but still influenced by external factors
› Example: An employee stays late to finish a project not because they find it important or
enjoyable, but to avoid feeling guilty or to gain approval from their supervisor
Self-determination theory
SDT considers three different types of motivation : amotivation, extrinsic, and intrinsic
motivation composed of 6 distinct regulations:
1. Amotivation
2. External regulation
3. Introjected regulation
4. Identified regulation
› This motivation involves recognizing and accepting the importance of a behavior because it leads
to valued outcomes, even if the behavior itself isn’t inherentaly enjoyable or interesting. The key
aspect here is the conscious valuing of the outcome of the behavior
› Exemple: An employee who participates in a company-sponsored development course. They
might nof find the coures itself engaging or enjoyable, but they recognize its importance in
improving their skills and advancing their careers
Self-determination theory
SDT considers three different types of motivation : amotivation, extrinsic, and intrinsic
motivation composed of 6 distinct regulations:
1. Amotivation
2. External regulation
3. Introjected regulation
4. Identified regulation
5. Integrated regulation
› This motivation represents a deeper internalization of extrinsic motivation, where the behavior is
in harmony with one’s other values, needs, and identity. The task might not be inherently
enjoyable, it is aligned with one’s goals and values
› Exemple: An employee who works on a sustainability project for the company. They don’t just
recognize the importance of sustainability for their career but they also deeply value
environmental responsibility as part of their personal identity
Self-determination theory
SDT considers three different types of motivation : amotivation, extrinsic, and intrinsic
motivation composed of 6 distinct regulations:
1. Amotivation
2. External regulation
3. Introjected regulation
4. Identified regulation
5. Integrated regulation
6. Intrinsic regulation
› Motivation stems from the inherent satisfaction and enjoyment it brings, not from some external
reward or outcome
› Exemple: An employee works on a project that they find particularly interesting and challenging,
deriving enjoyment from the task itself, without any additional external incentives
tirant profit
Self-determination theory
The SDT posits that all humans have inherent growth tendencies and psychological needs that are the
basis for self-growth and for the internalization and integration of motivation:

1. Autonomy
› This refers to the need to feel in control of one’s own behaviors and goals
› When employees perceive their actions as originating from themselves and aligned with their interests
and values, they are likely to be more motivated, perform better, and experience greater psychological
well-being
Self-determination theory
The SDT posits that all humans have inherent growth tendencies and psychological needs that are the
basis for self-growth and for the internalization and integration of motivation:

1. Autonomy

2. Competence
› This need involves feeling effective and capable of achieving desired outcomes. It is not just
about being successful, but also having opportunities to exercise, expand, and express one’s
abilities
› In environments that nurture competence, employees are more motivated and persistent, even
when facing challenges
Self-determination theory
The SDT posits that all humans have inherent growth tendencies and psychological needs that are the
basis for self-growth and for the internalization and integration of motivation:

1. Autonomy

2. Competence

3. Relatedness
› This needs reflects the desire to feel connected to others. This also involves the feeling of being
valued, recognized, and that the contributions to the team really matter.
› In environments where people experience a sense of belonging and connectedness, they are
more likely to thrive
Self-determination theory
Albeit different dimensions have been delineated, it is important to consider them as a
whole and interdependent dimensions:
DéPENDANCE RéCIPROQUE

Howard et al. (2016)

How are we motivated?
Expectancy-value theory
Contrary to previous theories which focused on the content of motivation,
expectancy-value theory focuses on the process which creates motivation

In his expectancy-value theory, Vroom suggested that:

• We act because (1) we expect specific beneficial outcomes in the future and
(2) we value the task

Vroom et al. (2015)

Expectancy-value theory
The theory focuses on three relationships:

Robbins & Judge (2023)

Expectancy-value theory
The theory focuses on three relationships:

1. Expectancy : the effort–performance relationship

› The degree to which the individual believes exerting a given amount of effort will lead to
performance

Robbins & Judge (2023)

Expectancy-value theory
The theory focuses on three relationships:

1. Expectancy : the effort–performance relationship

2. Instrumentality : the performance–reward relationship

› The degree to which the individual believes performing at a particular level will lead to the
attainment of a desired outcome

Robbins & Judge (2023)

Expectancy-value theory
The theory focuses on three relationships:

1. Expectancy : the effort–performance relationship

2. Instrumentality : the performance–reward relationship

3. Valence : the rewards–personal goals relationships

› The degree to which organizational rewards satisfy an individual’s personal goals or needs and
the attractiveness of those potential rewards for the individual

Robbins & Judge (2023)

Goal-setting theory
Exerting an effort is always directed toward a goal, an objective

In their seminal theory, Locke & Latham revealed the impressive motivating effects of
goals and their influence on performance

Goal-setting theory suggests that goals do four different things:

1. They direct attention

2. They mobilize effort
3. They encourage persistence
4. They facilitate the development of strategies
Goal-setting theory
Over the studies conducted on goal-setting theory, five characteristics have been most
linked with performance:
1. Goal clarity
› Goals need to be clearly stated
2. Challenge
› Goals have to be challenging – that is, difficult, but not too difficult
3. Goal commitment
› Expectations for success and overall motivation are critical
4. Feedback
› Feedback that is both related to the outcomes, but most importantly the process
5. Goal complexity
› Goals and tasks need to be specific and not too complex to understand
Goal-setting theory

Locke & Latham (2002)

Goal-setting theory

indeed.com (2023)
Social-cognitive theory
The social-cognitive theory is one of the major psychological theories and suggested that:
• People are motivated when they believe that they are capable of achieving
the task, i.e., self-efficacy

Self-efficacy refers to the individual’s belief of being

capable of a task

Albeit simple, this mechanism is one of the most powerful drivers of behavior and is
widely validated
Social-cognitive theory
Self-Efficacy
Social-cognitive theory
Self-efficacy beliefs are an important mechanism that managers can leverage with
employees by:

1. Giving relevant experiences with the task – enactive mastery

2. Enable them to have relevant models – vicarious modeling

3. Reassure them that they have what it takes – verbal persuasion

4. Energizing them with the positive emotions that can result from the task – arousal
Social-cognitive theory

Locke & Latham (2002)

Do others influence our motivation?
Equity theory
According to equity theory, employees engage in two main comparisons at work:

1. They compare what they get from their job (their « outcomes », such as pay, promotions,
recognition, etc.) to what they put into it (their « inputs », such as effort, experience, and
education)

2. They compare this first ratio to those of their coworkers

O/I: outcomes/inputs

Robbins & Judge (2023)

Organizational justice
These comparisons and the notion of equity at the workplace resonates with one of the
most studied and prevalent organizational behavior phenomenon

Organizational justice refers to the overall

perception of what is fair in the workplace,
composed of distributive, procedural, and
interactional justice
Organizational justice
Equity and justice outcomes
When treated unfairly, employees are more likely to:

1. Change their inputs – exert less effort

2. Change outcomes – strategies designed to maximize outcomes
3. Distort perceptions of self – attitudinal change
4. Distort perceptions of others – attitudinal change
5. Choose a different referent – changes in social comparison
6. Leave
Equity and justice outcomes
Furthermore, ensuring equity and fairness is not only important to avoid
negative outcomes but also to foster positive ones

When treated fairly, employees are more likely to:

1. Perform better at their job

2. Engage in citizenship behaviors
3. Lower counterproductive behaviors
4. Have better mental health at work
5. Feel more committed to the organization and be proud of being a member
Motivating through the design of the job
Motivating by Job Design: The Job
Characteristics Model (JCM)
Job design refers to the content and organization
of one’s work tasks, activities, relationships, and
responsibilities (Parker, 2014, p. 662)

The Job Characteristics Model (JCM) suggests that the way elements in a job are
organized can influence:

› Employee efforts
› The persistence in their goals
› Their job performance
Motivating by Job Design: The Job
Characteristics Model (JCM)
The way work is structured has a bigger impact on an individual’s motivation than most
generally think

It is no surprise that the question of how to design jobs have received so much attention
from managers and researchers since the beginning of the 20th century:

• Taylorism – Theory of scientific management

• Fordism and assembly lines

• Fayol’s and Weber’s organizational theories

• The Hawthorne Studies – Human relations movement

Motivating by Job Design: The Job
Characteristics Model (JCM)
The Job Characteristics Model (JCM) describes jobs in terms of five dimensions:

1. Skill variety
› The degree to which a job requires a variety of activities using different skills

2. Task identity
› The degree to which a job requires completion of a whole and identifiable piece of work
see the beginning and the end

3. Task significance
› The degree to which a job affects the lives or work of other people

4. Autonomy
› The degree to which a job provides the worker freedom, independence, and discretion in scheduling work and
determining the procedures for carrying it out

5. Feedback
› The degree to which carrying out work activities generates direct and clear information about your own
performance
Motivating by Job Design: The Job
Characteristics Model (JCM)

(𝑆𝑘𝑖𝑙𝑙 𝑉𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑡𝑦 + 𝑇𝑎𝑠𝑘 𝐼𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑦 + 𝑇𝑎𝑠𝑘 𝑆𝑖𝑔𝑛𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒)

𝑀𝑜𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑃𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑆𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒 = × 𝐴𝑢𝑡𝑜𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑦 × 𝐹𝑒𝑒𝑑𝑏𝑎𝑐𝑘
3
Motivating by Job Design: The Job
Characteristics Model (JCM)
Later on, Morgeson and Humphrey (2006) enlarged the number of characteristics linked
to motivation and satisfaction

Task characteristics Social characteristics

Work scheduling autonomy Social support
Decision-making autonomy Initiated interdependence
Work methods autonomy Received interdependence
Task variety Interaction outside organization
Significance Feedback from others
Task identity
Feedback from job
Knowledge characteristics
Job complexity
Information processing
Problem solving
Skill variety Work context
Specialization Ergonomics
Physical demands
Work conditions
Equipment use
The double edge-sword effect of work
characteristics
Of course, poorly designed jobs can transform job characteristics into stressors and have a
detrimental effect on employees’ motivation, satisfaction, and health
The double edge-sword effect of work
characteristics Interpersonal relationships at work

Lack of social
support
Supervision and
Complex leadership
procedures Lack of recognition

Workload

Time pressure Employment & work organization

Physical demands

Job insecurity Toxicity

Job characteristics

Work schedule Noise

Role ambiguity
Work environment
The double edge-sword effect of work
characteristics
The Job Demands-Resources model (JDR) integrates these ideas and suggests that:

Both demands and resources contribute to performance through their distinctive effects on
strain and engagement
Effect on Strain: High job demands can lead to
strain, which encompasses stress, burnout, and
fatigue. When employees face excessive Impact on Performance: Strain negatively affects
demands without adequate recovery or support, performance. Stressed or burnt-out employees
it can result in physical and mental health often exhibit reduced productivity, lower quality
problems. pression of work, and higher absenteeism and turnover
rates.

+ affects negativelly performance

Demands Strain –
–
Performance
–
Resources Engagement +
+
Impact on Performance: High engagement enhances
performance. Engaged employees tend to be more
Effect on Engagement: Job resources are positively related to
productive, creative, and committed, resulting in better
work engagement, which is characterized by vigor, dedication,
overall job performance and organizational outcomes.
and absorption in work. Engaged employees are enthusiastic,
energetic, and fully involved in their work activities.

Bakker & Demerouti (2017)

 European Working
Conditions Survey (2021)
Profiles of job characteristics
• A cross-sectional study among 2,183 workers

• Measures:

• Job demands
› Workload
› Cognitive demands
› Meeting problems during work
Profiles of job characteristics
• A cross-sectional study among 2,183 workers

• Measures:

• Job demands
• Job resources
› Social relationships
› Possibility to learn new things
› Autonomy
› Possibility to participate to company’s decisions
› Precision in tasks
› Social utility
› Organizational utility
Profiles of job characteristics
• A cross-sectional study among 2,183 workers

• Measures:

• Job demands
• Job resources
• Burnout
› Emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, reduced efficacy
Profiles of job characteristics
• A cross-sectional study among 2,183 workers

• Measures:

• Job demands
• Job resources
• Burnout
• Engagement
› Vigor, dedication, absorption
Profiles of job characteristics
• A cross-sectional study among 2,183 workers

• Measures:

• Job demands
• Job resources
• Burnout
• Engagement

• Statistical analysis on groups or profiles of job characteristics and their influence on job burnout
and engagement
 Profiles of job characteristics
1.5

0.5

-0.5

-1
Profile 1 – 17.50% Profile 2 – 22.08% Profile 3 – 26.94% Profile 4 – 23.96% Profile 5 – 9.53%

Workload Cognitive demands Problems Social relationships Learning opportunities

Autonomy Participation Identity Social utility Organizational utility

1.5

0.5

-0.5

-1
Profile 1 – 17.50% Profile 2 – 22.08% Profile 3 – 26.94% Profile 4 – 23.96% Profile 5 – 9.53%
Workload Cognitive demands Problems Social relationships Learning opportunities
Autonomy Participation Identity Social utility Organizational utility

0.5

-0.5

-1
Profile 1 Profile 2 Profile 3 Profile 4 Profile 5
Engagement Burnout
An integrative model of job design : the
SMART model

Parker & Knight (2024)

 S
Stimulating
MMastery
A
Agency
R
Relational
T
Tolerable Demands

Varied, interesting, Clarity about your Autonomy over when, Social contact & support Having emotional,
meaningful work in which goals/responsibilities, you how, & where you do your from others, being part of cognitive, workload & other
you use and develop your receive feedback & know work a team, and making a demands that are
skills where your job fits in difference to others experienced as tolerable

e.g., Task Variety, e.g., Role Clarity, e.g., Decision-making e.g., Colleague support, e.g., Emotional load,
Problem Solving Feedback autonomy, Scheduling task significance workload
autonomy
An integrative model of job design : the
SMART model

Parker & Knight (2024)

An integrative model of job design : the
SMART model

Sharon & Jorritsma (2021)

An integrating and overarching model of
motivation
An integrated model of
motivation