This course teaches writing in a straightforward manner, using a step-by-step approach.

Clear, relevant examples illustrate each step, and varied practices reinforce each chapter.
By the end of instruction, students will be able to:

- List several features of effective academic writing.

- Avoid sentence problems.

- Use parallel structures.

- Know and implement the five key stages of the writing process.

- Write more coherent and unified paragraphs.

- Use some writing aspects to ameliorate their writing style.

Pre-requisites Test:

Write (with the correct use of punctuation) two

- Complex sentences

- Compound sentences

- Compound complex sentences

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Table of Contents

- Introduction

- Chapter1: Punctuation (mainly the use of comma and semi-colon)

- Chapter 2: Sentence Problems

1. Run-on Sentences

2. Comma Splices

3. Fragments

4. Stringy Sentences

5. Choppy Sentences

6. Unparallel Structures (Parallelism)

- Chapter 3: Coherence and Unity in Writing

- Chapter 4: The Writing Process

- Chapter 5: Patterns of Organization

- Chapter 6: Getting Ready to Write

- Chapter 7: Types of Paragraphs

1- Compare Contrast Paragraph

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 2- Cause Effect Paragraph

3- Argumentative Paragraph

- Summative Assessment

- References

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Introduction

Academic writing is clear, concise, focused, structured and backed up by evidence.

Its purpose is to aid the reader's understanding. It has a formal tone and style, but it is not
complex and does not require the use of long sentences and complicated vocabulary. Each
subject discipline will have certain writing conventions, vocabulary and types of
discourse that you will become familiar with over the course of your degree. However,
there are some general characteristics of academic writing that are relevant across all
disciplines.

Academic writing is:

- Planned and focused: answers the question and demonstrates an understanding

of the subject.

- Evidenced: demonstrates knowledge of the subject area, supports opinions and

arguments with evidence, and is referenced accurately.

- Formal in tone and style: uses appropriate language and tenses, and is clear,
concise and balanced.

- Structured: is coherent, written in a logical order, and brings together related

points and material.

Coherence in academic writing is achieved through a number of criteria.

Understanding sentence structure, for instance, helps in identifying and correcting
sentence problems such as run-on sentences and sentence fragments which weaken the
quality of writing. A computer's spell checker, for example, does not typically catch these
common mistakes, so do not rely on the spell checker to correct grammar for you. Be sure
to carefully proofread your writing before handing it out to the teacher. This course
defines various sentence structures, presents sample sentences, and provides strategies for
correcting run-ons, comma splices, stringy sentences, choppy sentences, unparallel

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 structures, and fragments. Practice activities are included to help build skills in sentence
clarity and variety.

Writing a paragraph is not a random process. There are some key stages that
students must go through in order to produce precise, concise, coherent and unified pieces
of writing.

Chapter 1: Punctuation

Commas often (though not always) signal a minor break or pause in a sentence.
Each of the six pairs of sentences below illustrates one of six main uses of the comma.
Read each pair of sentences aloud and place a comma wherever you feel a slight pause
occurs. Then choose the rule that applies from the box at the bottom of the page, and write
its letter on the line provided.

1. You can use a credit card write out a check or provide cash.

The old house was infested with red ants roaches and mice.

2. To start the car depress the accelerator and turn the ignition key.

Before you go hiking buy a comfortable pair of shoes.

3. Leeches creatures that suck human blood are valuable to medical science.

George Derek who was just arrested was a classmate of mine.

4. Our professor said the exam would be easy but I thought it was difficult.

Wind howled through the trees and rain pounded against the window.

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 5. Emily asked “Why is it so hard to remember your dreams the next day?”

“I am so tired after work” Lily said “that I fall asleep right away.”

6. Bert has driven 1500000 accident-free miles in his job as a trucker.

The Gates Trucking Company of Newark New Jersey gave Bert an award on
August 26 2009 for his superior safety record.

a. separate items in a list

b. separate introductory material from the sentence
c. separate words that interrupt the sentence
d. separate complete thoughts in a sentence
e. separate direct quotations from the rest of the sentence
f. separate numbers, addresses, and dates in everyday writing
Commas between Items in a Series
Use a comma to separate items in a series.
- Magazines, paperback novels, and textbooks crowded the
shelves.
- Hard-luck Sam needs a loan, a good-paying job, and a close
friend.
- Pat sat in the doctor’s office, checked her watch, and flipped
nervously through a magazine.
Commas after Introductory Material
Use a comma to set off introductory material.
- Fearlessly, Jessie picked up the slimy slug.
- Just to annoy Steve, she let it crawl along her arm.
- Although I have a black belt in karate, I decided to go easy
on the demented bully who had kicked sand in my face.
- Mumbling under her breath, the woman picked over the
tomatoes.
Commas around Words Interrupting the Flow of Thought
Use a comma before and after words that interrupt the flow of

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thought in a sentence.
- The car, cleaned and repaired, is ready to be sold.
- Martha, our new neighbor, used to work as an actress in
Hollywood.
- Taking long walks, especially after dark, helps me sort out
my thoughts.
Commas between Complete Thoughts Connected by Joining
Words
Use a comma between two complete thoughts connected by
and, but, for, or, nor, so, or yet (joining words).
- My parents threatened to throw me out of the house, so I
had to stop playing the drums.
- The polyester bed sheets had a gorgeous design, but they
didn’t feel as comfortable as plain cotton sheets.
Commas with Direct Quotations
Use a comma or commas to set off a direct quotation from the
rest of a sentence.
- “Please take a number,” said the deli clerk.
- Chris told Sophia, “I’ve just signed up for a course on Web-
page design.”
- “Those who sling mud,” a famous politician once said,
“usually lose ground.”
- “Reading this book,” complained Stan, “is about as
interesting as watching paint dry.”
Commas with Everyday Material
Use commas to set off certain everyday material, as shown in
the following sections.
Persons Spoken to
- I think, Bella, that you should go to bed.
- Please turn down the stereo, Mark.
- Please, sir, can you spare a dollar?
Dates
- Our house was burglarized on June 28, 2009, and two weeks

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 later on July 11, 2009.
Addresses
- Robyn’s sister lives at 342 Red Oak Drive, Los Angeles,
California 90057.
- She is moving to Manchester, Vermont, after her divorce.

Task 1: Insert commas where they belong in the following sentences. If a

sentence is correct without commas, write C.

- Example: This magazine features articles about the leaders Nelson Mandela,
Ghandi, and Martin Luther King.

- Fishing snow skiing and scuba diving are my favorite sports

- They wanted to ride horses go hiking and explore the cave.

- Our reading list includes books by Gary Soto Julia Alvarez and Amy Tan.

- The four principal islands of Japan are Honshu Shikoku Kyushu and
Hokkaido.

- Photographers reporters and tourists got off the plane.

- An infestation of insects damaged crops chewed lawns and harmed fruit trees.

- Something flashed and sparkled and darted across the sky.

- The grass trees and flowers glowed in the evening light.

- We had a telephone electricity and even hot water in our cabin.

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- This restaurant serves breakfast lunch and dinner.

- The engineer admired the smooth workings of the large complex shiny gears in
the machinery.

- The man had a long narrow and sad face.

- Her floor was covered with bright colorful balloons twisted into fanciful hats
and delightful animals.

- I need pineapple and carrots and bananas for the salad.

- Mom eats lunch in a restaurant in the park or sometimes at her desk.

- We recently studied the Maya Aztec and Inca civilizations.

- Iris wanted to be a lawyer an employment counselor or a teacher.

- We need to warm the pita bread slice the tomatoes and wash the lettuce before
we make the sandwiches for our picnic.

- Mrs. Lewis told the baby sitter where she would be how to contact her and
when she would return.

- Example: Snakes cannot hear very well, but their bodies are quite sensitive to
the movements of others.

- Snakes are both legless and armless yet muscles attached to movable ribs
allow them to swim and crawl.

- All snakes have forked tongues and they use their tongues to smell their prey.

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- Snakes can raise their body temperature by lying on a rock in the sun and they
can cool themselves by seeking shade.

- Rattlesnakes do not always rattle before striking so you should not expect this
warning sign.

- You can determine the age of a tree by the number of its rings but you cannot
tell the age of a rattlesnake by the number of its rattles.

- A rattlesnake usually gains a new rattle after shedding its skin so it may gain
two to four rattles a year.

- A rattlesnake usually does not have more than ten rattles for additional rattles
often fall off.

- Cobras can form a hood by expanding the movable ribs behind the head and
these snakes often do so when they are ready to strike.

- People may fear snakes because of superstition or they may fear snakes
because some species are poisonous.

- Some countries are free of snakes but the United States is not one of them.

- The salad that she made for the potluck dinner was a colorful mix of tomatoes,
artichoke hearts, carrots, and black olives.

- Hercules whose picture can be found on many ancient Greek pottery pieces
was the son of Zeus.

- In Mexico City, a man hoping for a sale wore hats stacked one on the other.

- Why is it do you think that she always slept with the doll lying by her side?

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- The bride Satori who was from Osaka chose a traditional wedding garment.

- That new ad you saw which appeared in this morning’s paper is bringing in
many new customers.

- Have I introduced you to Mr. Perkins our kind and generous neighbor?

- Example: My mother, I think, is preparing vegetable soup for dinner.

- How many gold medals did Carl Lewis who was an Olympic sprinter and long
jumper win?

- Alfred Woodard in my opinion deserved the award.

- Will you Angelica return my book when you go to the library?

- Ireland the Emerald Isle lies west of Britain.

- In fact Octavio Paz won the Nobel Prize in literature in 1990.

- Just at twilight the finest hour of the day the moon rose.

- , ,
Example: The return address is 631 Chatham Lane Houston Texas 77027.

- On Wednesday January 21 1998 Pope John Paul II traveled to Havana Cuba.

- My friend is traveling here from Providence Rhode Island.

- Enrique lives at 287 Austin Street Duluth Minnesota 55803.

- Since Friday August 13 1999 Jiro has been taking piano lessons.

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 - Mail the letter to 25 Foster Lane Billings Montana 59102.

Chapter 2: Sentence Problems

In chapter one, we are going to deal with six sentence problems which are run-ons,
fragments, choppy sentences, stringy sentences, comma splices and parallelism. It is quite
important to address these writing problems in order to improve writing quality and style.

1- Run-on Sentences

When writing long sentences, students fall in the trap of writing two or more
independent clauses without appropriately linking them. In doing so, students write run-
on sentences that demonstrate problems at the level of using coordinators.

1. What are Run-on Sentences?

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Definition: Definition of Run-on Sentences:

A run-on sentence either has too many independent clauses or two independent
clauses that are not linked correctly. In simple terms, it is a sentence in which two or more
independent clauses are written one after another with no punctuation.

Examples of Run-on Sentences:

- My family went to Australia then they immigrated to Canada.

- His head hurts he took some aspirin.

- She bought a new novel she read it in less than three days.

2. How to Fix Run-on Sentences?

To correct run-on sentences, you can:

- Add a full stop (period): Eg: My family went to Australia. Then they
immigrated to Canada.

- Add a semi colon: Eg: She bought a new novel; she read it in less than a
week.

- Add a coordinator: Eg: His head hurts, so he took an aspirin.

- Add a subordinator: Eg: My family went to Australia before they immigrated

to Canada. / After my family went to Australia, they immigrated to Canada.

3. Coordinators and Subordinators:

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 One way is to join the two independent clauses with a COORDINATOR. There
are seven coordinators. The acronym FANBOYS is the easiest way to remember them.
The other way is to join an independent clause and a dependent clause with a
subordinator. Here are a few common subordinators. (More about run-ons, check the
following link) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5hLmqqAu8h4

4. Practice

- Task 1: Fix the sentence if it needs it:

1- I am going to make spaghetti, but I am all out of pasta.

2- Let’s go to the park after the movie, we can then watch the sunset.

3- Alex needed to finish a paper he stayed at the library all night.

4- Ashley worked for more than eight hours a day she did not receive the
overtime pay she deserved.

5- You can go to the park, after you do your homework.

- Task 2: Correct the following run-on sentences by using the strategies

previously discussed.

- I moved to the United States when I was young it was easy to learn English, my parents
were already here, they knew English already.

- Juan and David recognized each other they had been in the first grade together.

- Her car would not start she was late for class.

- The parents ate the baby slept in her stroller.

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- Eli wants to quit smoking this habit is too expensive.

2- Comma Splices

When writing long sentences of two or more independent clauses and when liking
thethem with a comma (or commas) instead of a coordinator or a semi-colon, students
produce comma splices.

1. What is a Comma Splice?

Definition: Definition of Comma Splices: A comma splice consists of two or more

independent clauses that follow one another and are incorrectly linked together
only with a comma (or commas). The coordinating conjunction is missing.
Examples of Comma Splices:

- She writes the music, he plays the guitar. (In this sentence, a comma separates
the two independent clauses, but a coordinating conjunction is also necessary.)

- My family went to Canada, then they immigrated to America. (In this

sentence, there a comma preceding a coordination conjunction)

2. How to Fix Comma Splices?

- Insert a coordinating conjunction to create a compound sentence: Eg1:

She writes the music for Coldplay, but he plays the guitar for that band. Eg2:
She writes the music for Coldplay, and he plays the guitar for that band.

- Note: Remember, the coordinating conjunction appears after the comma.

Again, consider meaning before joining sentences. If the sentences are not
closely connected, it may be best to keep them separate. Think about these two
independent clauses: Today I was late for class. I will have a burrito for dinner
tonight. Since these ideas are distinct, keep the sentences separate.

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 - Insert a semi-colon: Eg1: She writes the music for Coldplay; he plays the
guitar for that band. Again, to join two independent clauses with a semi-colon,
be sure that their meanings are closely connected. (More about comma
splices, check the following link) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eC-
CSmOIUBA

3. Practice

- Task1: Please attempt the following sentences by yourself without a tutor.

Identify whether or not the sentence is a run-on. If it is, rewrite the correct
way using one of the methods given above.

- I can’t wait I have to get to school now I’m going to be late.

- Let’s go to the park after the movie, and then we can watch the sunset.

- I’m going to make spaghetti, but I’m all out of pasta.

- Please stop bothering me you are really getting on my nerves.

- Ashley worked for more than eight hours she didn’t receive the overtime pay
she deserved.

- Sarah asked the teacher if she could bring her pet frog to school, but the
teacher said no.

- You can go to the park, after you put on your shoes.

- I didn’t want her at the party, so we asked her to leave.

- Alex needed to finish a paper he stayed at the library all night.

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 - The professor reminded her students of the importance of studying for the
final she did not want her students to fail.

3- Fragments

While writing paragraphs or essays, and in order not to lose the track of ideas that
rush through the writer's mind, students tend to write incomplete sentences that lack an
entire clause. In doing so, students fall in the trap of fragments.

1. What is a Fragment?

Definition: Definition of Fragments

Fragments are sentences that are incomplete. A sentence can be considered a

fragment if it begins with subordinators.

Time After, as long as, before, since, until, when, while

Place Where, wherever
Reason As, because, since
Manner As if, as though
Contrast Although, despite the fact that, even though, though,
while
Condition As long as, given that, provided that, unless
Purpose In order that, so that
Esult So, so that

Examples of Fragments

- If I go to school today. (Correction: If I go to school today, then I will take the

test.)

- Unless love finds me. (Correction: Unless love finds me, I will always be
unhappy.)

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- After you leave. (Correction: After you leave, I will be sad.) (More about
fragments, check the following link) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=
66HewSHioAo

2. How to Fix Fragments?

It is missing a subject or verb

Here are a few fragments that are missing the subject or the verb

-Plays in the dark === The theater puts on plays in the dark.

If the noun is followed by the words who, which, or that

Here are a few examples of fragments that have the words which, that or who
following the noun

A dancer who steals. === A dance who steals the show will impress the audience.

How can one turn a fragment into a complete sentence?

One may simply add to the sentence what is lacking. For example:

- As long as I have you ===As long as I have you, nothing can stand in our way.

This fragment can be fixed by adding an INDEPENDENT CLAUSE. An

independent clause is a sentence that can stand alone because it has a subject and a
verb and conveys a complete thought. Independent clauses are basically regular
sentences. We can fix this fragment by adding what it is lacking, a subject. In the
corrected sentence, the subject is Sam.

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- Papers from the office === Please put away these papers from the office. (This
fragment can be fixed by adding what is lacking. In this example, a verb is
what is lacking. In the corrected sentence, the verb is put.)

3. Practice

Task1: Fix these fragments

- Lilies from the valley.

- Children that sing.

- Pumpkins in the grass.

- Running in the streets.

- People that laugh.

Task2: Correct these sentences

- The dog loved his new toys. Especially the ones that squeaked.

- Maggie remembered her childhood. Her mother making pancakes for dinner in the
small apartment.

- She decided to meet her new friend in a public place. That they had arranged over
e-mail.

- Because she met him on MySpace. She thought it was a good idea to be cautious.

- I cannot wait until Workers’ Day. Finally, a day off.

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4- Stringy Sentences

Students think that writing long compound complex sentences shows their writing
abilities. However, students fall in the trap of writing many independent clauses attached
together. This sentence problem is known as Stringy Sentences.

1. What are Stringy Sentences?

Definition of Stringy Sentences: A stringy sentence is a sentence with too many

clauses, usually connected with and, so, but and sometimes because. It often
results from writing the way you speak, going on and on like a string with no end.

Examples of Stringy Sentences:

- Many students attend classes all morning, and then they work all afternoon,
and they also have to study at night, so they are usually exhausted by the
weekend.

- First -born children in a family often have more responsibility than their
younger siblings, and they feel pressure to set a good example, so they often
become super-achievers.

2. How to Fix Stringy Sentences?

To correct stringy sentences, divide it/ or recombine the clauses, remembering to

subordinate when appropriate.

- Many students attend classes all morning, and then they work all afternoon,
and they also have to study at night, so they are usually exhausted by the
weekend. (Corrected: Many students attend classes all morning, and then they
work all afternoon. Since they also have to study at night, they are usually
exhausted by the weekend.) or (Corrected: Because many students attend

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 classes all morning, work all afternoon, and study at night, they are usually
exhausted by the weekend.)

- First -born children in a family often have more responsibility than their
younger siblings, and they feel pressure to set a good example, so they often
become super-achievers. (Corrected: First -born children in a family often
have more responsibility than their younger siblings. Because they feel
pressure to set a good example, they often become super-achievers.)

3. Practice

Task1: Improve these stringy sentences.

- He enrolled in an intermediate calculus class, but he found it too easy, so he

dropped it, and he signed up for the advanced class.

- First-born children in a family often have more responsibility than their

younger siblings, and they feel pressure to set a good example, so they often
become super achievers.

- Last-born children, on the other hand, often have little responsibility, and they
may be pampered as the "baby" of the family, but they are the smallest, and
they have to get people to like them, so they often develop superior social
skills.

- The students in my engineering class could not do the homework, so we got

together and worked for several hours, and we finally solved all the problems.

- The lack of rainfall has caused a severe water shortage, so people have to
conserve water every day, and they also have to think of new ways to reuse
water, but the situation is improving.

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 5- Choppy Sentences

In addition to writing long sentences that contain many clauses joined by so, and,
but or because, students write short simple sentences following one another. These are
known as choppy sentences. This case results into dull unsophisticated writing style.

1. What are Choppy Sentences?

Definition Choppy Sentences:

Choppy sentences are sentences that are too short. Short sentences can be effective in
certain situations. For instance, when you want to make an impact, use a choppy sentence.

Eg: Despite countless doctors' warnings, news stories, and magazine articles about eating
a nutritious and balanced diet, many people resist developing healthy eating habits. Some
people just like junk food. (A sentence of 15 words is followed by a sentence of 6 words.
The second one has greater impact)

However the overuse of short sentences is considered poor style in academic English.

Examples of Choppy Sentences:

- Wind is an enduring source of power. Water is also an unlimited energy

source. Dams produce hydraulic power. They have existed for a very long
time. Windmills are relatively new.

- We must find new sources of energy. Natural sources of energy are decreasing.
Solar energy is a promising source of energy. Solar energy is energy from the
sun.

2. How to Fix Choppy Sentences?

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 Choppy sentences are easy to correct. Just combine two or more sentences to
make one compound or complex sentence. Your decision on whether to make short
sentences compound or complex should be based on whether ideas in short sentences are
equal or one is dependent on the other.

Similar or equal idea and

Negative equal ideas nor
Alternative possibility or
Surprising continuity yet
Expected result so
Reason for
Opposite ideas but

- Wind is an enduring source of power. Water is also an unlimited energy

source. Dams produce hydraulic power. They have existed for a very long
time. Windmills are relatively new. (Corrected: Both wind and water are
enduring sources of power. Dams have produced power for a long time, but
windmills are relatively new.)

- We must find new sources of energy. Natural sources of energy are

decreasing. Solar energy is a promising source of energy. Solar energy is
energy from the sun. (Corrected: We must find new sources of energy because
natural sources of energy are dwindling. Solar energy, which energy from the
sun, is a promising source of energy.)

3. Practice

Task1

1- (a) Electric cars are powered solely by batteries. (b) The new hybrid vehicles
switch between electricity and gasoline.

- Equal / Not equal?

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 - Main idea?

- Relationship:

- Combined sentence:

2- (a) Government and private agencies have spent billions of dollars advertising the
dangers of smoking. (b) The number of smokers is still increasing.

- Equal / Not equal?

- Main idea?

- Relationship:

- Combined sentence:

3- (a) Some students go to a vocational school to learn a trade. (b) Some students go
to college to earn a degree.

- Equal / Not equal?

- Main idea?

- Relationship:

- Combined sentence:

Parallelism

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 Apart from choppy, stringy, fragment, comma splice and run-on sentences,
students commit mistakes at the level of organizing parts of a sentence. Parts of the
sentence which could have the same grammatical structure should written using the same
structure. This is what's known as Parallelism.

1. What is Parallelism?

Definition of Parallelism: Words, phrases and clauses that are joined by and, or, and
but are written in parallel form.

Examples of Parallelism:

- The state regulates the noise created by motor vehicles but by commercial air-
crafts.

- Pesticides cannot be sold if they have harmful effects on humans, on animals

or on the environment.

- Note: Use parallelism with correlative conjunctions:

- both..................and

- either...................or

- neither...............nor

- not only.....but also. (More about parallelism, check the following link)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qvDNvS2M3QA

2. Practice

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Task 1: Two or more items in each of the following sentences are written in parallel
grammatical form. Underline the items or ideas that are parallel, and circle the word or
words that connect the parallel structures. The first one has been done for you as an example.

- An ideal environment for studying includes good lighting, a spacious desk, a

comfortable chair.

- You know you are truly fluent in another language when you can calculate in it
and when you begin to dream in it.

- People often spend as much time worrying about the future as planning for it.

- You can learn a second language in the classroom, at home, or in a country

where the language is spoken.

- My new personal computer is both fast and reliable.

- My old typewriter is neither fast nor reliable.

- Ann is growing older but unfortunately not wiser.

- Young people buy computers not only to do schoolwork but also to play
games.

- If industrial nations continue to bum fossil fuels and if developing nations

continue to bum their rain forests, the level of CO2 in the atmosphere will
continue to increase.

- Before the judge announced the punishment, he asked the murderer if he

wanted to speak either to the victim's family or to the jury.

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Task 2: Rewrite the following sentences in parallel form. Underline the part of the sentence
that is not parallel and correct it. Remember that you do not have to repeat all the words in the
second item. The first one has been done for you as an example.

- The disadvantages of using a credit card are overspending and you pay high
interest rates.

- Credit cards are accepted by department stores, airlines, and they can be used
in some gas stations.

- You do not need to risk carrying cash or to risk to miss a sale.

- With credit cards, you can either pay your bill with one check, or you can
stretch out your payments.

- You can charge both at restaurants and when you stay at hotels.

- Many people carry not only credit cards but they also carry cash.

- Many people want neither to pay-off their balance monthly nor do they like
paying interest.

Chapter 3: Coherence and Unity in Writing

1. What is paragraph unity?

Definition

An important element of a good paragraph is unity. Unity means that a paragraph

discusses one and only one main idea from beginning to end. For example, if your
paragraph is about the advantages of owning a compact car, discuss only that. Do not

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discuss the disadvantages. Furthermore, discuss only one advantage, such as gas
economy, in each paragraph. If you begin to discuss another advantage, start a new
paragraph. Sometimes it is possible to discuss more than one aspect of the same idea in
one paragraph if they are closely related to each other. For example, you could discuss gas
economy and low maintenance costs in the same paragraph because they are closely
related, but you should not discuss both gas economy and easier parking in the same
paragraph because they are not closely related. The second part of unity is that every
supporting sentence must directly explain or prove the main idea. For example, in a
paragraph about the high cost of prescription drugs in the United States, you could
mention buying drugs from pharmacies outside the United States as an alternative, but if
you write several sentences about buying drugs outside the United States, you are getting
off the topic, and your paragraph will not have unity.

2. What is coherence?

Definition

Another element of a good paragraph is coherence. The Latin verb cohere means
"hold together." For coherence in writing, the sentences must hold together; that is, the
movement from one sentence to the next must be logical and smooth. There must be no
sudden jumps. Each sentence should flow smoothly into the next one. There are four ways
to achieve coherence:

1. Repeat key nouns.

2. Use consistent pronouns.

3. Use transition signals to link ideas.

4. Arrange your ideas in logical order.

1/ Repetition of key nouns

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 The easiest way to achieve coherence is to repeat key nouns frequently in your
paragraph. Read the model paragraph about gold to see how it uses this technique to
smooth the flow of sentences. The key noun in this paragraph is gold. Circle the word
gold and all pronouns that refer to it.

Example of a paragraph with coherence

1Gold, a precious metal, is prized for two important characteristics. 2First of all,
gold has a lustrous beauty that is resistant to corrosion. 3Therefore, it is suitable for
jewelry, coins, and ornamental purposes. 4Gold never needs to be polished and will
remain beautiful. 5For example, a Macedonian coin remains as untarnished today as the
day it was made centuries ago. 6Another important characteristic of gold is its usefulness
to industry and science. 7For many years, it has been used in hundreds of industrial
applications, such as photography and dentistry. 8The most recent use of gold is in
astronauts' suits. 9Astronauts wear gold-plated heat shields for protection when they go
outside spaceships in space. 10In conclusion, gold is treasured not only for its beauty but
also for its utility.

Explanation of the Example

- You should have circled the noun gold seven times, the pronoun it twice, and
the pronoun its three times. (The word it in sentence 5 refers to coin, not gold,
so you should not have circled it.)

- There is no fixed rule about how often to repeat key nouns or when to
substitute pronouns. You should repeat a key noun instead of using a pronoun
when the meaning is not clear.

- Throughout the following paragraph, the word gold has been replaced by
pronouns, making the paragraph much less coherent.

Example of a paragraph with no coherence

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 Gold, a precious metal, is prized for two important characteristics. First of all, it
has a lustrous beauty that is resistant to corrosion. Therefore, it is suitable for jewelry,
coins, and ornamental purposes. It never needs to be polished and will remain beautiful
forever. For example, a Macedonian coin remains as untarnished today as the day it was
made 25 centuries ago. Another of its important characteristics is its usefulness to
industry and science. For many years, it has been used in hundreds of industrial
applications, such as photography and dentistry. Its most recent use is in astronauts' suits.
Astronauts wear heat shields made from it for protection when they go outside spaceships
in space. In conclusion, it is treasured not only for its beauty but also for its utility.

Note: Important

If you do not wish to repeat a key noun again and again, you can use synonyms or
expressions with the same meaning. For example, in sentence 8 of the first paragraph
about gold, the writer substituted the noun use as a synonym for application in sentence 7,
thereby smoothing the flow of thought from one sentence to the next.

2/ Consistent Pronouns

When you use pronouns, make sure that you use the same person and number
throughout your paragraph. Don't change from you to he or she (change of person) or
from he to they (change of number). Notice the changes the writer made for consistency
in the following example.

3/Transition Signals

Transition signals are expressions such as first, finally, and however, or phrases
such as in conclusion, on the other hand, and as a result. Other kinds of words such as
subordinators (when, although), coordinators (and, but), adjectives (another, additional),
and prepositions (because of, in spite of) can serve as transition signals. Transition signals
are like traffic signs; they tell your reader when to go forward, turn around, slow down,
and stop. In other words, they tell your reader when you are giving a similar idea
(similarly, and, in addition), an opposite idea (on the other hand, but, in contrast), an

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 example (for example), a result (therefore, as a result), or a conclusion (in conclusion).
Transition signals give a paragraph coherence because they guide your reader from one
idea to the next.

Note: Important

Read your paragraph aloud and pay attention to your own language. Are you using
too many transition signals? Too many can be distracting rather than helpful. There is no
rule about how many to use in one paragraph. Use them only when they will help your
reader follow your ideas.

4/ Logical Order

In addition to using transition signals and repeating key nouns and pronouns, a
fourth way to achieve coherence is to arrange your sentences in some kind of logical
order. Your choice of one kind of logical order over another will, of course, depend on
your topic and your purpose. You may even combine two or more different logical orders
in the same paragraph. The important point to remember is to arrange your ideas in some
kind of order that is logical to a reader accustomed to the English way of writing. Some
common kinds of logical order in English are chronological order, logical division of
ideas, and comparison/contrast.

- Chronological order is order by time-a sequence of events or steps in a

process.

- In logical division of ideas, a topic is divided into parts, and each part is
discussed separately.

- In a comparison/contrast paragraph, the similarities and/or differences between

two or more items are discussed.

Practice:

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The three paragraphs that follow all discuss the same topic. Only one of them shows unity.
First read the paragraphs. Then answer these questions.

1. Which paragraph has unity?

2. Which paragraph does not have unity because it discusses two different topics?

3. Which paragraph does not have unity because it has sentences that are
notrelated to the main topic?

Paragraph 1

Effects of Color

Colors create biological reactions in our bodies. These reactions, in turn, can
change our behavior. In one study, prisoners were put in a pink room, and they underwent
a drastic and measurable decrease in muscle strength and hostility within 2.7 seconds. In
another study, athletes needing short bursts of energy were exposed to red light. Their
muscle strength increased by 13.5 percent, and their electrical activity in their arm
muscles increased by 5.8 percent. Athletes needing more endurance for longer
performances responded best when exposed to blue light. Other studies have shown that
the color green is calming. Green was a sacred color to the Egyptians, representing the
hope and joy of spring. It is also a sacred color to Moslems. Many mosques and religious
temples throughout the world use green (the color of renewal and growth) and blue (the
color of heaven) to balance heavenly peace with spiritual growth. To sum up, color
influences us in many ways.

Paragraph 2

Effects of Color

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 Colors create biological reactions in our bodies. These reactions, in turn, can
change our behavior. In one study, prisoners were put in a pink room, and they underwent
a drastic and measurable decrease in muscle strength and hostility within 2.7 seconds. In
another study, athletes needing short bursts of energy were exposed to red light. Their
muscle strength increased by 13.5 percent, and their electrical activity in their arm
muscles increased by 5.8 percent. Athletes needing more endurance for longer
performances responded best when exposed to blue light. Other studies have shown that
the color green is calming. After London's Blackfriars Bridge was painted green, the
number of suicides decreased by 34 percent. These and other studies clearly demonstrate
that color affects not only our moods but our behavior as well.

Paragraph 3

Effects of Color

Colors create biological reactions in our bodies. These reactions, in turn, can
change our behavior. In one study, athletes needing short bursts of energy were exposed
to red light. Their muscle strength increased by 13.5 percent, and their electrical activity
in their arm muscles increased by 5.8 percent. Athletes needing more endurance for
longer performances responded best when exposed to blue light. Blue is not a good color
for dinnerware, however. Food looks less appetizing when it is served on blue plates,
perhaps because very few foods in nature are of that color. Other studies have shown that
the color green is calming. After London's Blackfriars Bridge was painted green, the
number of suicides from it decreased by 34 percent. It is clear that color affects not just
our moods, but our behavior as well.

In the following paragraph, the key noun is never repeated. Replace the pronoun it with
the key noun English wherever you think doing so would make the paragraph more
coherent.

English

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 1English has almost become an international language. 2Except for Chinese, more
people speak it than any other language. 3Spanish is the official language of more
countries in the world, but more countries have it as their official or unofficial second
language. 4More than 70 percent of the world's mail is written in it. 51t is the primary
language on the Internet. Bin international business, it is used more than any other
language, and it is the language of airline pilots and air traffic controllers all over the
world. 7Moreover, although French used to be the language of diplomacy, it has displaced
it throughout the world. 8Therefore, unless you plan to spend your life alone on a desert
island in the middle--of the Pacific Ocean, it is a useful language to know.

In the following passage about dolphins, replace some of the pronouns with appropriate
singular or plural nouns.

Dolphins

1Dolphins are interesting because they display almost human behavior at times.
2For example, they display the human emotions of joy and sadness. 3During training,
when they do something correctly, they squeal excitedly and race toward their trainer. 4
When they make a mistake, however, they droop noticeably and mope around their pool.
5Furthermore, they help each other when they are in trouble. 6If one is sick, it sends out a
message, and others in the area swim to help it. 7They push it to the surface of the water
so that it can breathe. 8They stay with it for days or weeks until it recovers or dies. 9They
have also helped trapped or lost whales navigate their way safely out to the open sea.
10They are so intelligent and helpful, in fact, that the U.S. Navy is training them to
become underwater bomb disposal experts.

Both of the following paragraphs break the rule of unity because they contain one or more
sentences that are off the topic.

Step 1 Locate and underline the topic sentence of each paragraph.

Step 2 Cross out the sentence or sentences that are off the topic.

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 Paragraph 1

Adventure travel is A hot trend in the tourism industry. Ordinary people are no
longer content to spend their two weeks away from the office resting on a sunny beach in
Florida. More and more often, they are choosing to spend their vacations rafting down
wild rivers, hiking through steamy rain forests, climbing the world's highest mountains, or
crossing slippery glaciers. People of all ages are choosing educational study tours for
their vacations.

Paragraph 2

Daredevil sports are also becoming popular. Young people especially are
increasingly willing to risk life and limb3 while mountain biking, backcountry
snowboarding, or high-speed skateboarding. Soccer is also popular in the United States
now, although football is still more popular. One of the riskiest new sports is sky-surfing,
in which people jump out of aeroplanes with boards attached to their feet. Sky-surfing
rivals4 sky diving and bungee jumping for the amount of thrills and risk.

The following paragraph has too many transition signals. Which ones are helpful to the
reader? Which transition signals are un-necessary distraction?

Step 1 Improve the paragraph by deleting some transition signals. You may want
to rewrite sentences, and you may have to change the capitalization and punctuation.

How to Grow an Avocado Tree

After you have enjoyed the delicious taste of an avocado, do not throw out the
seed! You can grow a beautiful houseplant or even your own tree by following these
simple steps. First, wash the seed. Second, dry it. Third, insert three toothpicks into its
thickest part. Then fill a glass or empty jar with water. After that, suspend the seed in the
water with the pointed end up and the broad end down. The water should cover about an
inch of the seed. Next, put the glass in a warm place, but not in direct sunlight. Add water
when necessary to keep the bottom of the seed under water at all times. In two to six

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 weeks, you should see roots begin to grow. Furthermore, the seed will crack open, and
then a stem will emerge from the top. However, wait until the stem is 6 to 7 inches long.
Then cut it back to about 3 inches. Now wait until the roots are thick and the stem has
leafed out again. Then fill an 8- to 10-inch diameter clay pot with enriched potting soil.
Plant the seed, leaving the top half exposed. Then water it well. After that, water
frequently but lightly; also give the plant an occasional deep soaking. However, do not
overwater your little tree. Yellow leaves are a sign of too much water. Then place the
potted plant in a sunny window and watch it grow. The more sunlight, the better; Then,
when the stem is 12 inches high, cut it back to 6 inches to encourage the growth of
side branches. In just a few more weeks, you will have a beautiful indoor
plant. In conclusion, enjoy your new plant, but do not expect it to bear fruit. Avocados
grown from seed occasionally flower and bear fruit; however, first you will have to plant
it outside and then wait anywhere from five to thirteen years.

Chapter 4: The Writing Process

Once you select a topic and complete enough research to commit yourself—at
least tentatively—to your stance toward that topic, you are ready to begin writing. Or are
you? Stop for a moment to consider the writing process we recommend.

- Pre-writing: Analyzing your audience, determining your purpose in writing,

limiting the scope of what you will cover, and generating potential content.

- Drafting: Making a case and structuring your evidence for that case.

- Revising: Putting yourself in the place of the reader, rethinking your approach,
and making changes that will improve your case.

- Polishing: Editing and proofreading to eliminate errors and improve the

coherence and readability of your presentation.

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 The recursive, rather than linear, nature of the writing process helps writers
produce stronger, more focused work because it highlights connections and allows for
movement between research and the phases of writing. Writing doesn't have to be a one
way path.

1. Stage 1: Pre-Writing

Pretend that you have time and finances to visit a country you've never visited and
know little about. Although you could hop a plane and figure out what to do when you get
there, you would probably do some Google searches, browse guidebooks, buy a map,
make a few reservations for lodging, and chat with others who have made the trip. If you
were thorough, you would sketch a complete itinerary, book all your hotels, and read
extensively about your destination. Then, as a last step, you would pack your clothing and
gear after consulting your packing list.

Writing is like taking a trip. Planning and preparation will usually result in a
smoother voyage and give you confidence and energy to complete the trip. We'd like to
introduce you to a process that should make your writing journey successful.

Pre-Writing / Understanding the Assignment: Don't write a word until you are
certain you understand the assignment. Contact your instructor or dissertation advisor if
you have questions about any of these items:

- Purpose. The reason for the assignment (what you are supposed to accomplish
or demonstrate at the end).

- Preparation. Actions you should take before you begin (what you are supposed
to read, whom you are supposed to consult).

- Components. The required elements of the assignment (models or outlines that

you should follow or topics you should address)

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 - Evaluation. The criteria that your instructor or committee members will use to
determine if you have met their expectations (what the readers will be looking
for)

- Pitfalls. Common mistakes that others have made while completing the same
or similar writing projects (what your instructor and other students have
learned from similar experiences)

Pre-writing Strategies

Some strategies have proven to be much more efficient. Writers can rely on one or
a combination of the following strategies to sort out ideas and potential content.

- Brainstorming. Make a long list of ideas or content you could potentially use
in your paper. Write in phrases and resist the urge to make any corrections or
changes. You can also use Post-it notes to record single ideas. Later, you can
sort the Post-its into categories or groups of related ideas. You can then add
other Post-its to these groupings. This grouping of ideas is also known as
clustering.

- Idea Trees. This method appeals to visual thinkers. Start with an idea. Draw a
line and add the related idea. As one idea leads to another, record the
connections with simple lines. Before long, you will begin to see how various
groupings of ideas relate, and eventually you should be able to use the
groupings to devise a thesis statement and create an outline.

- Free-writing. Set a timer to ten minutes and start writing without stopping to
correct or change what you type. If you draw a blank, type "I can't think of
anything to say" until a relevant idea comes to mind. Don't consider this your
rough draft; instead, consider it a way to generate and connect ideas. You're
your free-writes for gems of ideas, and use them to start writing again.
Continue your ten-minute sprints until you have enough content to draft a
purpose statement and begin an outline.

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- Questions. Close your eyes until you conjure up the face(s) of your audience.
Then, put yourself into their place. Ask all the questions they might have about
your argument. Here are some examples:

1- What is your point?

2- Do you know that for a fact? Prove it.

3- Who in the field agrees with you?

4- Who in the field disagrees with you?

5- Who does this affect and how?

6- Have others done similar research or replicated yours?

7- What theoretical approach are you applying here? Why?

8- Why is this a new idea, model, theory, or tool?

9- What does this viewpoint add to a general understanding of your topic?

- Paragraph outlines. Write down the first sentence of every paragraph you think
you might write. Then you can add the evidence for each statement in the
drafting phrase.

- Mapping. A map begins with an initial idea and builds an argument, step by
step. In many ways it resembles outlining because it describes the function of
each step of a paper. Here is an example:

1- My initial idea is...

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 2- The problem that I want to address is...

3- The extent of the problem is...

4- Evidence for this problem includes...

2. Stage 2: Drafting

Pre-writing is like getting ready for a trip, gathering information, and making
preliminary decisions about your general direction. Drafting is the actual journey.
Sometimes you follow the itinerary you mapped out in the prewriting phase. However, the
process of writing can occasionally tempt you off the beaten track as you stumble onto
side roads you didn't know existed. Then you have to decide if you will stay with your
original plan, take an unexpected side trip, or revise the entire itinerary.

What is a draft?

Once you have completed pre-writing and decided upon a preliminary main idea
and outline, you should write a first draft of your course paper or assignment. In the
drafting phase, you fulfill the promise you make in the introduction where you state the
main idea. You dive in and present your arguments and evidence in full, remembering
that the first draft is rarely the last. The key in this stage of the writing process is to avoid
editing and proofreading until you have your ideas down. Stopping and starting and
making small changes as you go will interrupt your thinking. Understanding the
distinction between drafting and revising will also save time. Get as much down as you
can and then go back, both to rethink what you've written and to proofread. The legendary
baseball player, Yogi Berra, exclaimed, "I can't think and bat at the same time," when his
coaches urged him to think as he was batting during a serious slump. So too, you
shouldn't be trying to edit when you are getting your first draft down. Dealing with one
task, writing a draft, is enough simultaneous activity. This section will guide you through
this first attempt to commit your thoughts to paper—the drafting phase.

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 2. Stage 3: Revising

Bravo! You have completed your first draft. Now you are ready to revise. In the
chapters on pre-writing and drafting, you learned that these activities are similar to
planning a trip and then following through on your plan. Revision is like the recapping
and analysis of a trip after your travels have ended. If you could go back, what might you
have changed along the way? How could you have made the trip better? Unlike taking
vacations, writing does allow you to go back, retrace, or redo your path.

So what exactly is revision? Finding typos? Cleaning up punctuation problems?

Completing omissions in your citations? Actually, revision involves much more. As its
Latin roots reveal, revision means looking again at your entire work. Of course, you want
an error-free paper, but revision means much more than proofreading. See “Revising,
Editing, & Proofreading" a helpful table that contrasts the tasks of these three final phases
of the writing process—why, when, where, and how to approach each. For a more in-
depth look at revising, editing, and proofreading, visit our Revising for Results module.

Revision means looking at a paper like an outside critic and finding opportunities
for cutting, adding to, reordering, or rewording a draft. It requires writers to reconsider the
big picture of their drafts.

Be prepared when you revise to cut whole sections of what you have written.
Conversely, once you look again at your paper, you might want to add new sections.
Perhaps you decide to reorder previously written ones. In other words, revision means
rethinking everything and staying open to making significant changes, if necessary. As
you revise, you should consider your audience, the structure of your presentation, content,
logic, coherence, voice, style, tone, and the security of your files.

Before you panic or despair, consider the advice below that will guide you
systematically through the revision process. Think of revision as an intellectual post
mortem examination where you probe for the answer to the question, "Will this writing
project meet the needs of my immediate readers and the larger intellectual community?"

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 3. Stage 4: Polishing

The final stage in the writing process -Polishing- consists of editing and
proofreading. For this stage, your goal is not to make major revisions but simply to
smooth off the edges of your work for its final presentation—much like a sculptor
applying finishing touches to artwork before casting. The artist doesn't remold the clay at
this point but gently sculpts and shapes, making only slight alterations to his or her
masterpiece to achieve final form. Like the artist, then, your job in this final stage of
writing is to use your sculpting tools, editing and proofreading, to ready your paper for
presentation.

Editing

Although writers often use the term editing loosely, editing at the polishing stage
is more specifically defined: fine-tune the language. At this stage, writers review and
assess text by examining diction, tone, style, rhythm and flow. Intermingled, these
elements work together and not only express a writer's voice, but are also influenced by a
writer's intended audience.

- Diction has to do with the level of clearness and conciseness reflected in an

author's choice, usage and arrangement of words. Further, word choice and the
way in which a writer elects to put words, thus, sentences together determines
his or her tone, rhythm and style.

- Tone exposes attitude or mood, as expressed through the author's preferred

choice, usage and combinations of words as well as the writer's preferences of
sentence types, lengths and structures used.

- Style represents a writer's distinctive and unique form of expression. Like tone,
it also reveals the writer's attitude and mood, but more so, it allows the reader
to discover aspects of the author's personality or take on things. Writers often
intentionally change their style, depending on the format or type of message
being delivered and depending upon the intended audience.

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 - Rhythm further reveals a writer's tone and style just like a song uniquely
expresses feelings or emotions of a songwriter. Words and sentences move,
too, and their patterns deliver much of a writer's message.

- Flow means that your words and sentences evolve and proceed smoothly,
logically, consistently and continuously over time, much like a stream gently
running down the side of a quietly sloping mountain.

Practice

1- Devise questions about the following topic: should all high school students go
the university?

2- Create an idea tree about the following topic: planning a family vacation

3- Create an outline of the following topic: An unforgettable trip

Chapter 5: Patterns of Organization

The link between clear, logical organization and effective communication is

powerful, both for the "sender" and the "receiver." For the writer, a well organized outline
of information serves as a blue print for action. It provides focus and direction as the
writer composes the document, which helps to ensure that the stated purpose is fulfilled.
For the reader, clear organization greatly enhances the ease with which one can
understand and remember the information being presented. People seek out patterns to
help make sense of information. When the reader is not able to find a pattern that makes
sense, chaos and confusion abound. Effective communication, then, begins with a clearly
organized set of ideas following a logical, consistent pattern. Thus, one of the most
important decisions a writer makes concerns the pattern of organization that is used to
structure and order information.

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 There are many patterns a writer can use to organize his/her ideas. The specific
pattern (or combination of patterns) chosen depends upon the particular topic and the
objectives the writer has identified for the document. There is no rule to follow in
choosing a pattern of organization; one must simply think carefully about which pattern
makes the most sense in helping the reader to better understand and remember the
information. There are many different ways of organizing the same information, and often
two or more different organizational patterns are combined to create a final outline of
information. The most commonly used patterns of organization are described below.

1. Chronological Pattern

A chronological pattern of organization arranges information according to a

progression of time, either forward or backward. When a topic is best understood in terms
of different segments of time, a chronological format works well. For example, topics of
an historical nature are best organized using this pattern.

When using a chronological pattern, each main section of information represents a

particular period of time, and the sub-points contained within each main section refer to
significant events that occurred within that time frame. A variation of this organizational
pattern involves dividing a topic into "past-present-future" or" before-during-after"
segments.

Example of Chronological Order:

1- 1895 - 1920

- Significant Event # 1

- Significant Event # 2

2- 1920 - 1945

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 - Significant Event # 1

- Significant Event # 2

3- 1945 - 1970

- Significant Event # 1

- Significant Event # 2

4- 1970 - 1995

- Significant Event # 1

- Significant Event # 2

2. Sequential Pattern

A sequential pattern of organization is similar to a chronological pattern, but

arranges information according to a step-by-step sequence that describes a particular
process. Using a sequential pattern, each main section of information represents a main
step that one would follow in the actual process. The points included within each main
section represent the sub-steps one would follow. When one wishes to describe a process
that follows a specific series of steps in a particular order, then, a sequential pattern works
well.

For example, suppose a writer's stated purpose is to explain how wine is made. A
sequential pattern would be effective in this case because it breaks the process down into
a specific series of steps which should be followed in a precise order. Notice that a series
of related smaller steps are grouped into one larger category. Thus, a process which
involves many specific steps can be simplified by highlighting the most fundamental
steps, which helps the reader understand the process and remember its key parts.

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Example of Sequential pattern

- Step One: Harvest the grapes

1- Harvesting procedure number one

2- Harvesting procedure number two

- Step Two: Prepare the grapes

1- Preparation procedure number one

2- Preparation procedure number two

- Step Three: Ferment the grapes

1- Fermenting procedure number one

2- Fermenting procedure number two

- Step Four: Press the grapes

1- Pressing procedure number one

2- Pressing procedure number two

- Step Five: Age the wine

1- Aging procedure number one

2- Aging procedure number two

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 3. Spatial Pattern

A spatial pattern of organization arranges information according to how things fit

together in physical space; i.e., where one thing exists in relation to another. This pattern
works well when a writer wishes to create a mental picture of something which has
various parts distinguished by physical location. Topics involving geography, for
example, are often best organized using a spatial pattern. For example, suppose a writer
wished to describe the forms of entertainment available to tourists visiting Seattle. He /she
could arrange the information according to "things to do" in the different districts or
geographic locations of the city. Notice how this pattern of organization aids the reader. It
makes sense for the writer to organize the information by physical location because the
information is easy to understand and use in this format, particularly for tourists who are
not familiar with the area.

Example of Spatial Pattern:

- Downtown Waterfront

1- Aquarium

2- Pike Place Market

- Seattle Center

1- Space Needle

2- Pacific Science Center

- University District

1- University of Washington campus

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 2- The "Ave" (shops on University Avenue)

4. Compare and Contrast pattern

A compare and contrast pattern arranges information according to how two or

more things are similar to or different from one another (or both). This is an effective
pattern to use when the reader can better understand one subject when it is described in
relation to another. If the reader is familiar with one topic, the writer can compare or
contrast it with another topic to shed insight on it. For example, suppose a writer's stated
purpose is to help the reader make an informed decision about whether to attend a two-
year college or a four-year university. One way to arrange the information is to compare
and contrast the two educational options along several important dimensions, such as cost,
quality of education, and variety of educational programs. In this case, the number of
main sections in the outline would depend on how many dimensions or factors were
considered (three in the case below). Another way to arrange the information would be to
create two main sections, one that describes similarities and one that describes differences
(as shown in example # 2). Notice that either format could be equally effective.

Example of Compare and Contrast Pattern:

- Cost of Tuition

1- Two-year

2- Four-year

- Quality of Education

1- Two-year

2- Four-year

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 - Educational Programs

1- Two-year

2- Four-year

5. Cause and Effect Pattern

This pattern is used to show the different causes and effects of various conditions.
This pattern is particularly effective when writing a persuasive document in which the
writer advocates some action to solve a problem, because it demonstrates important
relationships between variables. There are two major variations to this pattern; (a)
dividing the outline into two major sections comprised of causes and effects; or (b)
dividing the outline according to the different causes, with the effects of each cause
contained within the larger "causes" section. See the examples below.

Suppose a writer's stated purpose is to explain the causes of conflict escalation and
their effects. He /she could organize the information in one of the following two ways.
Again, notice that either method could work equally well.

Example One of Cause and Effect pattern:

- Causes of Conflict Escalation

1- Expanding the issues

2- Personal attacks

- Effects of these causes

1- Lose focus on original issue

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 2- Cycle of defensive responses

3- Win-Lose orientation

4- Negative emotions

Example Two of Cause and Effect pattern:

- Cause: Expanding the issues

1- Effect: Lose focus on original issues

2- Effect: Cycle of defensive responses

- Cause: Personal attacks

1- Effect: Negative emotions

2- Effect: Win-Lose orientation

Chapter 6: Getting Ready to Write

What Are the Steps to Writing Effective Paragraphs? To write an effective

paragraph, you should begin by making a point, and then go on to support that point with
specific evidence. Finally, end your paper with a sentence that rounds off the paragraph
and provides a sense of completion.

Step 1: Make a Point

It is often best to state your point in the first sentence of your paragraph, as Mike
does in his paragraph about working at a diner and truck stop. The sentence that expresses

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 the main idea, or point, of a paragraph is, called the topic sentence. Your paragraph will
be unified if you make sure that all the details support the point in your topic sentence. It
is helpful to remember that a topic sentence is a general statement. The sentences that
follow it provide specific support for the general statement.

- Understanding the Paragraph

Each group of sentences in the following activity could be written as a short

paragraph. Circle the letter of the topic sentence in each case. To find the topic sentence,
ask yourself, “Which is a general statement supported by the specific details in the other
three statements?” Begin by trying the following example item. First circle the letter of
the sentence you think expresses the main idea. Then read the explanation.

EXAMPLE

a. CNN.com provides market trading information.

b. CNN.com is a good source of national and world news.

c. CNN.com has a lot to offer its readers.

d. There are many video clips and podcasts available on CNN.com.

EXPLANATION

Sentence “a” explains one important benefit of CNN.com. Sentences “b” and “d”
provide other specific advantages of CNN.com. In sentence “c”, however, no one specific
benefit is explained. Instead, the words “a lot to offer” refer only generally to such
benefits. Therefore, sentence “c” is the topic sentence; it expresses the main idea. The
other sentences support that idea by providing examples.

- Understanding the Topic Sentence

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 An effective topic sentence does two things. First, it presents the topic of the
paragraph. Second, it expresses the writer’s attitude or opinion or idea about the topic. For
example, look at the following topic sentence: Professional athletes are overpaid. In the
topic sentence, the topic is professional athletes; the writer’s idea about the topic is that
professional athletes are overpaid.

- Breaking Down the Parts of a Paragraph

Each group of items below includes one topic, one main idea (expressed in a topic
sentence), and two supporting details for that idea. In the space provided, label each item
with one of the following:

T= topic

MI= main idea

SD= supporting details

Step 2: Back Up Your Point

To support your point, you need to provide specific reasons, examples, and other
details that explain and develop it. The more precise and particular your supporting details
are, the better your readers can “see,” “hear,” and “feel” them. Understanding General
versus Specific Ideas A paragraph is made up of a main idea, which is general, and the
specific ideas that support it. So to write well, you must understand the difference
between general and specific ideas.

It is helpful to realize that you use general and specific ideas all the time in your
everyday life. For example, in choosing a film to rent, you may think, “Which should I
rent, an action movie, a comedy, or a romance?” In such a case, film is the general idea,
and action movie, comedy, and romance are the specific ideas. Or you may decide to
begin an exercise program. In that case, you might consider walking, pilates, or lifting

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 weights. In this case, exercise is the general idea, and walking, pilates, and lifting weights
are the specific ideas. Or if you are talking to a friend about a date that didn’t work out
well, you may say, “The dinner was terrible, the car broke down, and we had little to say
to each other.” In this case, the general idea is the date didn’t work out well, and the
specific ideas are the three reasons you named.

The following activities will give you experience in recognizing the relationship
between general and specific. They will also provide a helpful background for the
information and additional activities that follow.

Recognizing Specific Details

Specific details are examples, reasons, particulars, and facts. Such details are
needed to support and explain a topic sentence effectively. They provide the evidence
needed for us to understand, as well as to feel and experience, a writer’s point. Below is a
topic sentence followed by two sets of supporting sentences. Write a check mark next to
the set that provides sharp, specific details.

Topic sentence: Ticket sales for a recent Rolling Stones concert proved that the
classic rock band is still very popular.

a. Fans came from everywhere to buy tickets to the concert. People wanted good
seats and were willing to endure a great deal of various kinds of discomfort as they waited
in line for many hours. Some people actually waited for days, sleeping at night in
uncomfortable circumstances. Good tickets were sold out extremely quickly.

b. The first person in the long ticket line spent three days standing in the hot sun
and three nights sleeping on the concrete without even a pillow. The man behind her
waited equally long in his wheelchair. The ticket window opened at 10:00 A.M., and the
tickets for the good seats -those in front of the stage- were sold out an hour later.

EXPLANATION

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 The second set (b) provides specific details. Instead of a vague statement about
fans who were “willing to endure a great deal of various kinds of discomfort,” we get
vivid details we can see and picture clearly: “three days standing in the hot sun,” “three
nights sleeping on the concrete without even a pillow,” and “The man behind her waited
equally long in his wheelchair.” Instead of a vague statement that tickets were “sold out
extremely quickly,” we get exact and vivid details: “The ticket window opened at 10:00
A.M., and the tickets for the good seats—those in front of the stage—were sold out an
hour later.”

More about Using Transitions

As already stated, transitions are signal words that help readers follow the
direction of the writer’s thoughts. To see the value of transitions, look at the two versions
of the short paragraph below. Check the version that is easier to read and understand.

a. There are several sources that you can use for your writing assignments. Your
own experience is a major resource. For an assignment about communication skills, for
instance, you can draw on your own experiences in college, at work, and in everyday life.
Other people’s experiences are extremely useful. You may have heard people you know
or even people on TV talking about communication skills. You can also interview people.
Books, magazines, and the Internet are good sources of material for assignments. Many
experts, for example, have written about various aspects of communication skills.

b. There are several sources that you can use for your writing assignments. First of
all, your own experience is a major resource. For an assignment about communication
skills, for instance, you can draw on your own experiences in college, at work, and in
everyday life. In addition, other people’s experiences are extremely useful. You may have
heard people you know or even people on TV talking about communication skills. You
can also interview people. Finally, books, magazines, and the Internet are good sources of
material for assignments. Many experts, for example, have written about various aspects
of communication skills.

Step 3: Write Clear, Error-Free Sentences

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 If you use correct spelling and follow the rules of grammar, punctuation, and
usage, your sentences will be clear and well written. But by no means must you have all
that information in your head. Even the best writers need to use reference materials to be
sure their writing is correct. So when you write your papers, keep a good dictionary and
grammar handbook nearby.

In general, however, save them for after you’ve gotten your ideas firmly down in
writing. You’ll find as you write paragraphs that you will make a number of sentence
errors. Simply ignore them until you get to a later draft of your paper, when there will be
time enough to make the needed corrections. Part 3 of this text focuses on sentence skills.

Important Considerations in Paragraph Development

Before you begin work on particular types of paragraphs, there are several general
considerations about writing to keep in mind. Knowing Your Subject Whenever possible,
write on a subject that interests you. You will then find it easier to put more time into your
work. Even more important, try to write on a subject that you already know something
about. If you do not have direct experience with the subject, you should at least have
indirect experience—knowledge gained through thinking, prewriting, reading, or talking
about the subject.

If you are asked to write on a topic about which you have no experience or
knowledge, you should do whatever research is required to gain the information you need.
Without direct or indirect experience, or the information you gain through research, you
may not be able to provide the specific evidence needed to develop whatever point you
are trying to make. Your writing will be starved for specifics.

Knowing Your Purpose and Audience

The three most common purposes of writing are to inform, to persuade, and to
entertain. Each is described briefly below.

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 • To inform —to give information about a subject. Authors who are writing to
inform want to provide facts that will explain or teach something to readers. For example,
an informative paragraph about sandwiches might begin, “Eating food between two slices
of bread—a sandwich—is a practice that has its origins in eighteenth century England.”

• To persuade —to convince the reader to agree with the author’s point of view on
a subject. Authors who are writing to persuade may give facts, but their main goal is to
argue or prove a point to readers. A persuasive paragraph about sandwiches might begin,
“There are good reasons why every sandwich should be made with whole-grain bread.”

• To entertain —to amuse and delight; to appeal to the reader’s senses and
imagination. Authors write to entertain in various ways, through fiction and nonfiction.
An entertaining paragraph about sandwiches might begin, “What I wanted was a midnight
snack, but what I got was better—the biggest, most magical sandwich in the entire
world.”

Your audience will be primarily your instructor and sometimes other students.
Your instructor is really a symbol of the larger audience you should see yourself writing
for—an audience of educated adults who expect you to present your ideas in a clear,
direct, organized way. If you can learn to write to persuade or inform such a general
audience, you will have accomplished a great deal.

Patterns of Development

Traditionally, writing has been divided into the following patterns of development:
In exposition, the writer provides information about and explains a particular subject.
Patterns of development within exposition include giving examples (exemplification),
detailing a process of doing or making something, analyzing causes and effects ,
comparing or contrasting , defining a term or concept, and dividing something into parts
or classifying it into categories. In addition to exposition, three other patterns of
development are common: description, narration, and argumentation. A description is a
verbal picture of a person, place, or thing. In narration, a writer tells the story of
something that happened. Finally, in argumentation, a writer attempts to support a

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 controversial point or defend a position on which there is a difference of opinion. Each
pattern has its own internal logic and provides its own special strategies for imposing
order on your ideas.

Practice

Task 1:

For each topic sentence that follows, underline the topic and double underline the point of
view that the writer takes toward the topic.

1. The apartments on Walnut Avenue are a fire hazard.

2. Losing my job turned out to have benefits.

3. Blues is the most interesting form of American music.

4. Our neighbor’s backyard is a dangerous place.

5. Paula and Jeff are a stingy couple.

6. Snakes do not deserve their bad reputation.

7. Pollution causes many problems in American cities.

8. New fathers should receive at least two weeks of “paternity leave.”

9. People with low self-esteem often need to criticize others.

10. Learning to write effectively is largely a matter of practice.

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Task 2:

Each group of items below includes one topic, one main idea (expressed in a topic sentence),
and two supporting details for that idea. In the space provided, label each item with one of the
following:

1. …………………..a. The weather in the summer is often hot and sticky.

……………………..b. Summer can be an unpleasant time of year.

………………………c. Summer.

……………………….d. Bug bites, poison ivy, and allergies are a big part of
summertime.

2. …………………….a. The new Ultimate sports car is bound to be very popular.

……………………….b. The company has promised to provide any repairs

needed during the first three years at no charge.

………………………c. Because it gets thirty miles per gallon of gas, it offers real
savings on fuel costs.

………………………d. The new Ultimate sports car.

3. …………………….a. Decorating an apartment doesn’t need to be expensive.

……………………….b. A few plants add a touch of color without costing a lot of

money.

……………………….c. Inexpensive braided rugs can be bought to match nearly

any furniture.

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 ………………………d. Decorating an apartment.

4. ……………………a. Long practice sessions and busy game schedules take too
much time away from schoolwork.

………………… ….b. High school sports.

………………………..c. The competition between schools may become so

intense that, depending on the outcome of one game, athletes are either adored or scorned.

………………………..d. High school sports put too much pressure on young

athletes.

5. ……………………..a. After mapping out the best route to your destination,

phone ahead for motel reservations.

……………………….b. A long car trip.

……………………….c. Following a few guidelines before a long car trip can

help you avoid potential problems.

……………………….d. Have your car’s engine tuned as well, and have the tires,
brakes, and exhaust system inspected.

Chapter 7: Types of Paragraphs

1/ Compare Contrast Paragraph

Comparison and contrast focuses on the similarities and differences between two
or more separate things. The purpose for using comparison and contrast in academic

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 writing is to explain how these similarities and differences reveal something meaningful
that is not apparent when either object stands alone. This writing should:

In compare and contrast writing, at least two subjects or objects of interest are
studied. The writer must be able to explain these two subjects separately and make
meaningful connections between them at the same time. It is also important to include
both similarity and difference in your analysis; the analysis is more useful and complete if
similarity and difference are both discussed so that the significant similarity or significant
difference takes on its full meaning.

Here are some examples of what could be compared:

Discovering Similarities & Differences

Many strategies can be used to brainstorm ideas for compare/contrast writing.

Some of these involve using diagrams and charts to help visualize and organize thoughts
and ideas.

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 Venn Diagram

A
SIMILAR B

DIFFERENT
DIFFERENT

A Venn Diagram is helpful for brainstorming as many similarities and differences

as possible. When analyzing the subjects or items, it’s important to explore both the
similarities and differences as completely as possible to fully understand what is most
significant or meaningful about the two items in relation to each other. For example, even
if your emphasis will be on differences, examining similarities provides the starting point
for then showing the differences.

Idea Chart

Taking the Driving to School

Key Points
Bus to School

Cost Money Saver Expensive

Time Longer Travel Shorter Travel Time

Time

Convenience Less More Convenient

Convenient

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 Environment Better for More Pollution
Environment

An Idea Chart is helpful for organizing and listing similarities and differences. Filling
in the blanks is a great way to discover key points you will use to organize the paper.

Structuring Compare/Contrast Paragraph

There are 2 basic structures for organizing compare and contrast writing:

Subject-by-subject: One subject is fully discussed before the second. When using
this structure, it’s important to remember that comparisons must be made between each
subject. Otherwise, the two paragraphs won’t relate to one another. So, when discussing
the second subject, remember to compare each point to the points of the first subject. See
the essay near the end of this handout for an example.

Point-by-point: Both subjects are discussed with each point of comparison. This
structure requires frequent transitions between each subject. Consequently, it’s important
to use clear transitions when writing with this structure. One paragraph could be used to
compare both subjects. However, if there is a large amount of information, it’s best to
dedicate an individual paragraph for each subject’s point.

Subject by subject Point by point

Topic sentence Topic sentence
Subject A: Point 1:
- Point 1 - Subject A
- Point 2 - Subject B
- Point 3
Subject B: Point 2:
- Point 1 - Subject A
- Point 2 - Subject B
- Point 3 Point 2:

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 - Subject A
- Subject B
Concluding sentence Concluding sentence

Surface and Depth

When using comparison and contrast in academic writing, it’s important to make
an argument that contains critical analysis and not just a summary of how two things are
similar or different. This can be understood by recognizing the difference between surface
ideas and depth.

A surface idea is simply an observation of similarity or difference. For example,

the statement “Driving to school costs more than taking the bus to school” is a surface
idea. The statement tells us how there is a difference between driving and taking the bus,
but it doesn’t offer insight as to why this difference matters. In other words, it doesn’t
offer depth.

Practice: Two Paragraphs to Consider

Read these sample paragraphs of comparison or contrast and then answer the
questions that follow.

Two Views on Toys

1 Children and adults have very different preferences. 2 First, there is the matter of
taste. 3 Adults pride themselves on taste, while children ignore the matter of taste in favor
of things that are fun. 4 Adults, especially grandparents, pick out tasteful toys that go
unused, while children love the cheap playthings advertised on television. 5 Second, of
course, there is the matter of money. 6 The new games on the market today are a case in
point. 7 Have you ever tried to lure a child away from some expensive game in order to
get him or her to play with an old-fashioned game or toy? 8 Finally, there is a difference
between an adult’s and a child’s idea of what is educational. 9 Adults, filled with

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 memories of their own childhood, tend to be fond of the written word. 10 Today’s
children, on the other hand, concentrate on anything electronic. 11 These things mean
much more to them than to adults. 12 Next holiday season, examine the toys that adults
choose for children. 13 Then look at the toys the children prefer. 14 You will see the
difference.

Mike and Helen

1 Mike and Helen, a married couple we know, look very much alike. 2 They are
both short, dark-haired, and slightly pudgy. 3 Like his wife, Mike has a good sense of
humor. 4 Both Mike and Helen can be charming when they want to be, and they seem to
handle small crises in a calm, cool way. 5 A problem such as an overflowing washer, a
stalled car, or a sick child is not a cause for panic; they seem to take such events in stride.
6 In contrast to Helen, though, Mike tends to be disorganized. 7 He is late for
appointments and unable to keep important documents -bank records, receipts, and
insurance papers- where he can find them. 8 Also unlike Helen, Mike tends to hold a
grudge. 9 He is slow to forget a cruel remark, a careless joke, or an unfriendly slight. 10
Another difference between these two is how they like to spend their free time; while
Mike enjoys swimming, camping, and fishing, Helen prefers to stay inside and read or
play chess.

- About Unity

1. Which paragraph lacks a topic sentence?

2. Which paragraph has a topic sentence that is too broad?

- About Support

3. Which paragraph contains almost no specific details?

4. Which paragraph provides more complete support?

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- About Coherence

5. What method of development (one side at a time or point by point) is used in

“Mike and Helen”?

6. What method of development is used in “Two Views in Toys”?

Write a comparison or contrast paragraph on one of the following topics:

Two holidays

Two friends

Two members of a team (or two teams)

Two singers or groups

Two pets

Two jobs

Two characters in the same movie or TV show

Two cars

PREWRITING

a. Choose your topic, the two subjects you will write about.

b. Decide whether your paragraph will compare the two subjects (discuss their similarities),
contrast them (discuss their differences), or do both. If you choose to write about differences,

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you might write about how a musical group you enjoy differs from a musical group you
dislike. You might discuss important differences between two employers you have had or
between two neighborhoods you’ve lived in. You might contrast a job you’ve had in a car
factory with a job you’ve had as a receptionist.

c. Write a direct topic sentence for your paragraph. Here’s an example: “My job in a car-parts
factory was very different from my job as a receptionist.”

d. Come up with at least three strong points to support your topic sentence. If you are
contrasting two jobs, for example, your points might be that they differed greatly (1) in their
physical setting, (2) in the skills they required, and (3) in the people they brought you into
contact with.

e. Use your topic sentence and supporting points to create a scratch outline for your
paragraph. For the paragraph about jobs, the outline would look like this:

Topic sentence : My job in a car-parts factory was very different from my job as a
receptionist.

1. The jobs differed in physical setting.

2. The jobs differed in the skills they required.

3. The jobs differed in the people they brought me into contact with.

f. Under each of your supporting points, jot down as many details as occur to you. Don’t
worry yet about whether the details all fit perfectly or whether you will be able to use them
all. Your goal is to generate a wealth of material to draw on. An example: Topic sentence :
My job in a car-parts factory was very different from my job as a receptionist.

1. The jobs differed in physical setting.

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Factory loud and dirty

Office clean and quiet

Factory full of machines, hunks of metal, tools

Office full of desks, files, computers

Factory smelled of motor oil

Office smelled of new carpet

Windows in factory too high and grimy to look out of

Office had clean windows onto street

2. The jobs differed in the skills and behavior they required.

Factory required physical strength

Office required mental activity

Didn’t need to be polite in factory

Had to be polite in office

Didn’t need to think much for self in factory

Constantly had to make decisions in office

3. The jobs differed in the people they brought me into contact with.

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 In factory, worked with same crew every day

In office, saw constant stream of new customers

Most coworkers in factory had high school education or less

Many coworkers and clients in office well educated

Coworkers in factory spoke variety of languages

Rarely heard anything but English in office

g. Decide which format you will use to develop your paragraph: one side at a time or point by
point. Either is acceptable; it is up to you to decide which you prefer. The important thing is
to be consistent: Whichever format you choose, be sure to use it throughout the entire
paragraph.

h. Write the first draft of your paragraph.

2/ Cause Effect Paragraph

What caused Pat to drop out of school? Why are soap operas so popular? Why
does our football team do so poorly each year? How has retirement affected Dad? What
effects does divorce have on children? Every day we ask such questions and look for
answers. We realize that situations have causes and effects—good or bad. By examining
causes and effects, we seek to understand and explain things.

Practice: Two Paragraphs to Consider

Read these sample paragraphs of cause effect and then answer the questions that
follow.

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 New Puppy in the House

1 Buying a new puppy can have significant effects on a household. 2 For one
thing, the puppy keeps the entire family awake for at least two solid weeks. 3 Every night
when the puppy is placed in its box, it begins to howl, yip, and whine. 4 Even after the
lights go out and the house quiets down, the puppy continues to moan. 5 A second effect
is that the puppy tortures the family by destroying material possessions. 6 Every day
something different is damaged. 7 Family members find chewed belts and shoes, gnawed
table legs, and ripped sofa cushions leaking stuffing. 8 In addition, the puppy often misses
the paper during the paper-training stage of life, thus making the house smell like the
public restroom at a city bus station. 9 Maybe the most serious problem, though, is that
the puppy causes family arguments. 10 Parents argue with children about who is supposed
to feed and walk the dog. 11 Children argue about who gets to play with the puppy first.
12 Puppies are adorable, and no child can resist their charm. 13 Everyone argues about
who left socks and shoes around for the puppy to find. 14 These continual arguments,
along with the effects of sleeplessness and the loss of valued possessions, can really
disrupt a household. 15 Only when the puppy gets a bit older does the household settle
back to normal.

- About Unity

1. Which sentence does not support the opening idea and should be omitted? (
Write the sentence number here. )

- About Support

2. How many effects of bringing a new puppy into the house are given in this
paragraph?

- About Coherence

3. What words signal the effect that the author feels may be the most important?

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Writing a Cause Effect Paragraph

Choose one of the following three topic sentences and brief outlines. Each is made up of three
supporting points (causes or effects). Your task is to turn the topic sentence and outline into a
cause-and-effect paragraph.

- Option 1

Topic sentence: There are several reasons why parenthood makes people more
responsible.

(1) Ensure that children’s needs are met ( cause )

(2) Cannot think only of themselves ( cause )

(3) Provide children with a better life ( cause )

- Option 2

Topic sentence: My divorce has changed my life in positive ways.

(1) Enrolled in college ( effect )

(2) More quality time with children ( effect )

(3) Began exercising regularly ( effect )

- Option 3

Topic sentence: Lack of sleep makes daily life more difficult.

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 (1) Difficulty focusing on homework ( cause )

(2) Irritable all the time ( cause )

(3) More prone to colds and the flu ( cause )

PREWRITING

a. After you’ve chosen the option that appeals to you most, jot down all the details you can
think of that might go under each of the supporting points. Use separate paper for your lists.
Don’t worry yet about whether you can use all the items—your goal is to generate more
material than you need. Here, for example, are some of the details generated by the author of
“New Puppy in the House” to back up her supporting points.

Topic sentence: Having a new puppy disrupts a household.

1. Keeps family awake

a. Whines at night

b. Howls

c. Loss of sleep

2. Destroys possessions

a. Chews belts and shoes

b. Chews furniture

c. Tears up toys it’s supposed to fetch

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 3. Has accidents in house

a. Misses paper

b. Disgusting cleanup

c. Makes house smell bad

4. Causes arguments

a. Arguments about walking dog

b. Arguments about feeding dog

c. Arguments about who gets to play with dog

d. Arguments about vet bills

b. Now go through the details you have generated and decide which are most effective. Strike
out the ones you decide are not worth using. Do other details occur to you? If so, jot them
down as well.

c. Now you are ready to write your paragraph. Begin the paragraph with the topic sentence
you chose. Make sure to develop each of the supporting points from the outline into a
complete sentence, and then back it up with the best of the details you have generated. 3

3/ Argumentative Paragraph

Most of us know someone who enjoys a good argument. Such a person usually
challenges any sweeping statement we might make. “Why do you say that?” he or she
will ask. “Give your reasons.” Our questioner then listens carefully as we cite our reasons,

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 waiting to see if we really do have solid evidence to support our point of view. In an
argument, the two parties each present their supporting evidence. The goal is to determine
who has the more solid evidence to support his or her point of view. A questioner may
make us feel a bit nervous, but we may also appreciate the way he or she makes us think
through our opinions. The ability to advance sound, compelling arguments is an important
skill in everyday life. We can use argument to get an extension on a term paper, obtain a
favor from a friend, or convince an employer that we are the right person for a job.
Understanding persuasion based on clear, logical reasoning can also help us see through
the sometimes faulty arguments advanced by advertisers, editors, politicians, and others
who try to bring us over to their side.

A Paragraph to Consider

Living Alone

1 Living alone is quite an experience. 2 People who live alone, for one thing, have
to learn to do all kinds of tasks by themselves. 3 They must learn—even if they have had
no experience—to change fuses, put up curtains and shades, temporarily dam an
overflowing toilet, cook a meal, and defrost a refrigerator. 4 When there is no father,
husband, mother, or wife to depend on, a person can’t fall back on the excuse, “I don’t
know how to do that.” 5 Those who live alone also need the strength to deal with people.
6 Alone, singles must face noisy neighbors, unresponsive landlords, dishonest repair
people, and aggressive bill collectors. 7 Because there are no buffers between themselves
and the outside world, people living alone have to handle every visitor—friendly or
unfriendly—alone. 8 Finally, singles need a large dose of courage to cope with occasional
panic and unavoidable loneliness. 9 That weird thump in the night is even more terrifying
when there is no one in the next bed or the next room. 10 Frightening weather or
unexpected bad news is doubly bad when the worry can’t be shared. 11 Even when life is
going well, little moments of sudden loneliness can send shivers through the heart. 12
Struggling through such bad times taps into reserves of courage that people may not have
known they possessed. 13 Facing everyday tasks, confronting all types of people, and
handling panic and loneliness can shape singles into brave, resourceful, and more
independent people.

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- About Unity

1. The topic sentence in “Living Alone” is too broad. Circle the topic sentence that
states accurately what the paragraph is about.

a. Living alone can make one a better person.

b. Living alone can create feelings of loneliness.

c. Living alone should be avoided.

2. How many reasons are given to support the topic sentence in this paragraph?

- About Coherence

3. What are the three main transition words in this paragraph?

Writing an Argumentative Paragraph

Develop an argument paragraph based on one of these statements:

__________ (name a specific athlete) is the athlete most worthy of admiration

in his or her sport.

Television is one of the best ( or worst) inventions of this century.

_________ make the best ( or worst) pets.

Cigarette and alcohol advertising should ( or should not) be banned.

Teenagers make poor parents.

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 __________ is one public figure today who can be considered a hero.

This college needs a better ___________ (cafeteria or library or student center or

grading policy or attendance policy).

PREWRITING

a. Make up brief outlines for any three of the preceding statements. Make sure you have three
separate and distinct reasons for each statement. Below is an example of a brief outline for a
paragraph making another point.

Large cities should outlaw passenger cars.

1. Cut down on smog and pollution

2. Cut down on noise

3. Make more room for pedestrians

b. Decide, perhaps through discussion with your instructor or classmates, which of your
outlines is the most promising for development into a paragraph. Make sure your supporting
points are logical by asking yourself in each case, “Does this item truly support my topic
sentence?”

c. Do some prewriting. Prepare a list of all the details you can think of that might actually
support your point. Don’t limit yourself; include more details than you can actually use. Here,
for example, are details generated by the writer of “Living Alone”:

Deal with power failures Noisy neighbors

Nasty landlords Develop courage

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 Scary noises at night Do all the cooking

Spiders Home repairs

Bill collectors Obscene phone calls

Frightening storms Loneliness

d. Decide which details you will use to develop your paragraph. Number the details in the
order in which you will present them. Because presenting the strongest reason last (emphatic
order) is the most effective way to organize an argument paragraph, be sure to save your most
powerful reason for last. Here is how the author of

“Living Alone” made decisions about details:

1 Deal with power failures

4 Nasty landlords

7 Scary noises at night

Spiders

6 Bill collectors

8 Frightening storms

5 Noisy neighbors

1 0 Develop courage

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 2 Do all the cooking

3 Home repairs

9 Loneliness

e. Write the first draft of your paragraph. As you write, develop each reason with specific
details. For example, in “Living Alone,” notice how the writer makes the experience of living
alone come alive with phrases like “That weird thump in the night” or “little moments of
sudden loneliness can send shivers through the heart.”

Summative Assessment

Task 1:

Both of the following paragraphs not only have sentences that are off the topic but
also discuss two or more topics. Step 1 Decide where each paragraph should be
divided into two paragraphs. Underline the topic sentence of each. Step 2 Find
sentence(s)

Paragraph 1

Because the Internet makes the world a smaller place, the value of having a
common language is greatly increased. The question is-which language? Because the
Internet grew up in the United States, the largest percentage of its content is now in
English. Bill Gates, Microsoft's president, believes that English will remain valuable for a
long time as a common language for international communication. His company spends
$200 million a year translating software into other languages. He says, "Unless you read
English passably well, you miss out on some of the Internet experience." Someday,
software may be available to instantly translate both written and spoken language so well
that the need for any common language could decline. That day is decades away,
however, because flawless machine translation is a very tough problem. Computer
spelling checkers also exist for various languages. Software that does crudes translations

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 already exists. It is useful if all you are trying to do is understand the general idea of
something you see on your computer screen. However, if you are trying to negotiate a
contract or discuss a scientific subject where details are important, machine translation is
totally useless.

Paragraph 2

Even when you try to be polite, it is easy to do the wrong thing inadvertently in a
new culture. For example, when someone offers you food or a beverage in the United
States, accept it the first time it is offered. If you say, "No, thank you" because it is polite
to decline the first one or two offers in your culture, you could become very hungry and
thirsty in the United States. There, a host thinks that "no" means "no" and will usually not
offer again. Meals in the United States are usually more informal than meals in other
countries, and the times of meals may be different. Although North Americans are usually
very direct in social matters, there are a few occasions when they are not. If a North
American says, "Please drop by sometime," he may or may not want you to visit him in
his home. Your clue that this may not be a real invitation is the word "sometime." In some
areas of the United States, people do not expect you to visit them unless you have an
invitation for a specific day and time. In other areas of the United States, however,
"dropping by" is a friendly, neighbourly gesture. Idioms are often difficult for newcomers
to understand.

Task 2:

Use your pre-requisites to plan and write a paragraph about the following topic:

- According to you, what are the best ways to relieve stress?

- Critique, assess and rate your colleague' paragraph:

- Switch the paragraph with your colleague and correct his/hers.

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References

 Langan, John. Exploring Writing Sentences and Paragraphs. Atlantic Cape Community College.
 Martin, 2000.
 Savage, Alice & Shafiei, Masoud. Effective Academic Writing 1. Texas.
 The Writing Process. Capella University.
 Writing Academic English Fourth Edition.
 Zemach, Dorothy & Rumisek, Lisa. Academic Writing from Paragraph to Essay.

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