AKKA IAS ACADEMY, BENGALURU

INDEX

UNITS CHAPTERS S.NO.

UNIT – 1 Cultural Heritage of India 2-69
UNIT – 2 Major schools of thought. 70-109
UNIT – 3 From Kadambas to the Hoysalas. 110-137
UNIT - 4 The Vijayanagara Empire and thereafter (1336-1799) 138-162
UNIT - 5 Modern Mysore (1799-1947) 163-185
UNIT - 6 Freedom Movement in Karnataka and Unification (1885-1956) 186-205

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UNIT – 1
Cultural Heritage of India
DISTINCTION BETWEEN INDUS CIVILIZATION AND VEDIC CIVILIZATION
Indus Valley Civilization (IVC)
Introduction
 The history of India begins with the birth of the Indus Valley Civilization (IVC), also known as
Harappan Civilization.
 It flourished around 2,500 BC, in the western part of South Asia, in contemporary Pakistan and
Western India.
 The Indus Valley was home to the largest of the four ancient urban civilizations of Egypt,
Mesopotamia, India and China.
 In 1920s, the Archaeological Department of India carried out excavations in the Indus valley wherein
the ruins of the two old cities, viz. Mohenjodaro and Harappa were unearthed.
 In 1924, John Marshall, Director-General of the ASI, announced the discovery of a new civilisation in
the Indus valley to the world.
Vedic period
The Vedic Age was between 1500 BC and 600 BC. This is the next major civilization that occurred in
ancient India after the decline of the Indus Valley Civilization by 1400 BC. The Vedas were composed in
this period and this gives this age the name. The Vedas are also the chief source of information about this
era.
Distinction between Indus civilization and vedic civilization
 The time of Harappa culture is BCE 3500 to 2200 and the time of Vedic culture is BCE 2500 to 1000.
Thus, the Harappa Civilization was more ancient than the Vedic Civilization.
 The Indus valley civilization was a city civilization while the Aryan civilization was a village
civilization.
 The people of both civilizations were, of course, agriculturists, but the Indus valley people were
certainly more industrialised and commercialised than the Aryans and carried on brisk trade within
the sub-continent as well as with distant countries of the West. And, that was the primary cause of
their thriving economy resulting in city-culture.
 Iron was not known to the Indus valley people while the Aryans used it. The Indus valley made use of
only copper and probably bronze as well. That is why their culture belonged to what is called
Chalcolithic age (when man used both copper and stone implements) while the Iron age started with
the Vedic period.
 While horse was well known to the Aryans and they used it in their chariots, it was unknown to the
Indus valley people and became known to them only when they came in contact with the Aryans.
 Nandin-bull (humped bull) was probably a sacred animal to the Indus valley people while cow
occupied a sacred place among the Aryans.

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 While the gods of the Aryans were mostly males and goddesses occupied only a subordinate position,
and that too much later, the Indus valley people certainly provided a high place to the worship of
Mother Goddess.
 The Indus valley people buried their dead while the Aryans burnt them.
 Fish was included in the diet of the Indus valley people while it was discarded by the Aryans.
 The script of the Indus valley people was mainly phonetic while the Aryans succeeded in developing
Sanskrit literature and its script as well.
 Performance of Yajnas was a necessary part of the religious life of the Aryans while we find no such
religious rituals among the Indus valley people.
 Probably, idol-worship in some rudimentary form was accepted by the Indus valley people but it was
absolutely absent among the Vedic Aryans.
 Hereditary caste-system and Varna Asram Dharma constituted an essential part of the social system of
the later Aryans while these were nonexistent among the Indus valley people.
 It has been suggested by many scholars that the nature of the state among the Indus valley people was
theocratic while the state of the Aryans was purely secular, though, of course, the rulers observed
Rajya Dharma.
 The Indus valley people were not artistic as a whole yet they succeeded in producing fine pottery and
a few pieces of sculpture whereas the Aryans though they possessed an artistic temperament failed to
leave any signs of such craftsmanship.

EVOLUTION OF VARNA, JATHI/CASTE SYSTEM

Origin of caste system in India
 There are various theories regarding the origin of the caste system in India.
 As per the religious theory, the caste system bears its origin to the Varna system. The Varna system
states that four Varnas were created from the body of Brahma (the creator of the world).
o Those who were created from his mouth were Brahmanas.
o Those who were created from his hands were Kshatriyas.
o Vaishyas were those who were created out of his thighs.
o Shudras were the ones who were created from his feet.
 Another theory regarding the origin of the caste system in India is the social-historical theory. It states
that the caste system originated with the arrival of Aryans, around 1500 BC. They organised
themselves into three groups:
o The first group of Aryans which comprised warriors were called Rajanyas who later came to
be known as Kshatriyas.
o The second group had priests as its members and was known as Brahmanas.
o The third group was Vaishyas who were mainly farmers and craftsmen.
o When Aryans had arrived in India, they did not accept the local culture. Most of the locals
were pushed away. The locals who were subdued by Aryans and those who were descendants
of Aryans with locals were considered to be Shudras.
 If we see from the perspective of the timeline, the earliest traces of the caste system can be found in
the Purusha Suktam verse of Rig Veda which is believed to have been developed during 1500-800 BC
and here it was in the form of the Varna system.

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o As per the verse, Purusha (believed to be the first being) is constituted by a combination of the
four Varnas. Following this, the Varna system was developed.
o The Varna system divided Hindu society into four groups according to their work and
responsibilities to maintain prosperity and eternal order.
o The system was developed to avoid conflicts within business and encroachment on respective
duties.
o This division later turned into the caste system in society.
 The Bhagavad Gita composed between 200 BC to 200 AD had also emphasized the importance of
caste.
 The Laws of Manu or Manusmriti which is believed to have been written during the same period also
defined and specified the rights and duties of four varnas of Hinduism in Indian society.
 The text of Mahabharata which was completed by the 4th century AD also has evidence of the four-
tier varna system.
Is the Varna system synonymous with the caste system?
 Precisely, the Varna system is the textual model or book view of how the society should be organised
whereas the caste system is contextual or the on-field view of the Indian social system.
 There are only four varnas whereas there are around 4000 Jatis (castes).
 In the Varna system, initially, the untouchables did not form a part but in the Jati or caste system, the
untouchables form an integral part.
 Additionally, in the Varna system, there was a possibility of social mobility if one‘s condition (socio-
economic) was improved but in the caste system, improvement in one‘s socio-economic condition
does not change his/her caste.
Evolution of the caste system in India
 The caste system has gone through several phases in India. Historians believe that during the Early
Vedic Period, the Varna system was not that rigid and there was social mobility.
 The system did not have untouchables initially. It was during the Later Vedic Period (around 1000
BC), the term ―Asat Shudra‖ finds a mention which meant untouchable community.
 However, from 1000 to 200 BC, the caste system began to solidify.

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 Around 2nd Century BC to the 1st century AD, the occupations in society diversified and several
occupational groups came into being now known by name of different Jatis.
 Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and Shudras were the major caste groups. The Brahmins had
tremendous social respect whereas the Shudras were despised.
 The resultant discrimination based on one‘s caste led to the advent of religions promoting social
equality like Buddhism.
 Brahmins enjoyed a lot of power and privileges and over time, certain castes were placed even below
Shudras and were known as Avarnas (considered Dalits in modern times). These were the people who
performed menial jobs in society such as sweepers, scavengers and others.
 During the Islamic rule in India, the power of the Hindu priestly caste was considerably reduced.
However, in the rural areas, anti-Islamic feelings strengthened the caste system. In the later periods of
Islamic rule, the caste system considerably evolved and Brahmins began to do farming as long as the
physical labour was performed by the lower caste individuals.
 During the British Raj, the caste system became more discriminatory and the British took advantage
of this situation. They misused the Indian caste system to gain social control. It was also during that
period that strong voices were raised against the caste system and the discrimination on its grounds
which forced the British to make laws for the protection of lower castes and untouchables.
 With India attaining independence and a fresh Constitution being drafted, those who had long been
discriminated against gained some rights and privileges and the journey to an equal Indian society
began.
 However, discrimination and social distinction based on caste have not reduced that much in
independent India but it is evident that the boundaries have disappeared considerably.
Now, there is no compulsion on individuals to perform certain tasks because they belong to a particular
social group. People enjoy a considerable amount of freedom in choosing their occupation and their way
of life. Although this change is uneven and still there are some places in India where the caste system and
its repercussions are strongly felt.
Gradual withdrawal from the ancient Varna duties
Despite the life order being arranged for all kinds of people, by the end of the Vedic period, many began
to deflect and disobey their primary duties. Brahmins started to feel the authoritarian nature of their
occupation and status, because of which arrogance seeped in. Many gurus, citing their advice-imparting
position to Kshatriya kings, became unholy and deceitful by practising Shudra qualities. Although
Brahmins are required only to live on alms and not seek more than their minimal subsistence, capitalising
on their superior status and unquestioned hierarchical outreach, they began to demand more for
conducting sacrifices.
Kshatriyas contested with other kings often to display their prowess and possessions. Many kings found it
acceptable to reject their Brahmin guru's advice and hence became self-regulating, taking unrighteous
decisions, leading to loss of kingship, territory, and the confidence of the Vaishyas and Shudras. Vaishyas
started to see themselves as powerful in their ownership of land and subjection of Shudras. Infighting,
deceit, cheating influenced the conduct of Vaishyas. Shudras were repeatedly oppressed by the Kshatriyas
and Vaishyas at will, which made them disown their duties and instead opt for stealing, lying,
avariciousness, and spreading misinformation.

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INDIA IS NOW HOME TO A REPOSITORY OF THE PRIMARY FOUR VARNAS & HUNDREDS
OF SUB-VARNAS, MAKING THE ORIGINAL FOUR VARNAS MERELY 'UMBRELLA TERMS' &
PERPETUALLY AMBIGUOUS.
Thus, all Varnas fell from their virtuosity, and unrighteous acts of one continued to inspire and justify
similar acts of others. Mixing of castes was also considered a part of the declining interest in Varna
system. Most of these changes took place between 1000 BCE and 500 BCE when constant social and
economic complexities emerged as new challenges for Varna-based allocation of duties. Population
increased, and so did the disunity of citizens in their collective belief in the sanctity of the original Varna
system. Religious conversions played a significant part in subsuming large societies into the tenets of
humanism and a single large society.
The period between 300 CE to 700 CE marked the intersection of multiple religions. As a large Varna
populace became difficult to handle, the emergence of Jainism propounded the ideology of one single
human Varna and nothing besides. Many followed the original Varna rules, but many others,
disapproving opposing beliefs, formed modified sub-Varnas within the primary four Varnas. This
process, occurring between 700 CE and 1500 CE, continues to this day, as India is now home to a
repository of the primary four Varnas and hundreds of sub-Varnas, making the original four Varnas
merely 'umbrella terms' and perpetually ambiguous.
The subsequent rise of Islam, Christianity, and other religions also left their mark on the original Varna
system in India. Converted generations reformed their notion of Hinduism in ways that were compatible
with the conditions of those times. The rise of Buddhism, too, left its significant footprint on the Varna
system's legitimate continuance in renewed conditions of life. Thus, soulful adherence to Varna duties
from the peak of Vedic period eventually diminished to subjective makeshift adherence, owing partly to
the discomfort in practising Varna duties and partly to external influence.
While the above impacts were gradual, expeditious withdrawal from Varna rules was made possible by
the large-scale influence of western notions of liberty, equality, and freedom. These changes can be
observed from 1500 CE right through the present. For Western nations, rooted in their own cultural
background, it made little sense to approve of this in their eyes antiquated Varna system. Intercepting the
Moghul invasion and the near-end sovereignty of multiple Hindu dynasties, British invasion brought with
it a fresh worldview based on equality and freedom, incompatible with the Varna system. Massive
colonisation, impact of 'cultural imperialism' enforced significant alterations on Varna duties. Trade and
liberalisation, exchange of culture dented the tiny bit of belief left in continuing the Varna system.
Despite this perpetual decline, the descendants of all four Varnas in contemporary India are trying to
reinvent their roots in search of ancestral wisdom. Although the four Varnas have encroached upon each
other's life duties, a sense of order and peace is sought and recalled in discourses, community gatherings,
and engagement between different generations. Varna system in contemporary terms is followed either
with earnest commitment without reservations and doubt or with ambiguity and resistance arising out of
unprecedented external influence and issues of subjective incompatibility. While many citizens practice a
diluted version of Varna system, extending its limitations and rigidness to a broader context of
Hindu religion, staunch believers still strive and promote the importance of reclaiming the system.

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Main Features caste system

 Hereditary
o An individual‘s caste is determined by the caste of the family he is born in. It is generally
hereditary.
o One‘s caste is unalterable no matter what his/her social position is. One inherits the
membership of a caste by his/her birth.
 Hierarchy
o Hierarchy refers to the ladder of command where different castes are positioned on the upper
and lower strata as per their positioning in the caste ladder. It shows who is considered
superior and who is considered to be inferior.
o In this ladder, Brahmins occupy the superior position and the untouchables occupy the inferior
one.
o In between the Brahmins and untouchables are the intermediate castes.
 Endogamy
o This refers to the rule where individuals are supposed to marry a person belonging to one‘s
caste.
o Marriage outside one‘s caste is not preferable. Those who violate the rule are ostracised or
lose their caste status.
o However, these rules are gradually changing.
 Restrictions on the way to lead a life
o The caste system puts various restrictions on how a person can lead his/her life.
o It tends to set particular rules for particular castes. A person‘s occupation, choices, custom,
dress and speech – everything is decided by the caste he has taken birth in.
o For instance, a Brahmin is supposed to teach or practise priesthood while an untouchable is
supposed to perform menial tasks like sweeping, hair-cutting and others.
o Similarly, a Brahmin cannot accept food and drink from a lower caste person. People
belonging to lower castes are not allowed to enter certain temples.
o Usually, the higher caste people speak pure or refined language whereas the lower caste
people use colloquial language. Previously, Sanskrit was considered to be the language of
Brahmins. It was much later that lower caste members had access to learning such languages.
o Although such practises are changing with time yet they are still very much prevalent in rural
areas.
 Concept of purity and pollution
o A very important feature of the caste system is the concept of purity and pollution.
o People and practices of lower castes are considered to be impure and it is believed that the
lower caste‘s touch, food and shadow may pollute a higher caste person‘s body, food or
image.
o Even certain foods are not supposed to be consumed by higher caste members as they are
considered to be impure. These include consumption of non-vegetarian food, liquor etc.
o However, with growing urbanisation and the spread of western education, such social patterns
are changing.
 Others

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o These include conventions and conflict resolving mechanisms of various castes of their own.
Caste panchayats at the village and inter-village levels are quite common.
Evil effects of the caste system
 Untouchability
o This is the worst effect of the caste system. The caste system fostered the idea of
untouchability.
o The lower castes or people who performed menial jobs were treated as untouchables. They
were not allowed to visit temples, take water from ponds and wells used by upper castes.
o To prevent the upper caste students from being polluted by the shadow and touch of lower
caste people, children of the latter were not allowed in schools thus preventing them from
accessing education.
 Discrimination
o The lower caste people face discrimination in various ways. They were not treated at par with
upper caste people. They could not inter-dine or inter-mix with upper caste people.
o Moreover, their cultures and practices were considered to be profane and they were ill-treated.
o Lower caste people have faced a lot of exploitation such as bonded labour, harassment and
others, the basis of which is nothing but caste.
 Threat to national integration and development
o People belonging to various castes develop caste consciousness and thus tend to fulfil and
fight for their caste interests which ultimately hinders national unity and integrity.
o Furthermore, as some of the castes had access to various government facilities and those who
belonged to lower caste faced discrimination, the nation has not been able to attain an even
development throughout.
o However, the situation is changing as the developmental services are now reaching the
downtrodden.
 Inferior status of women
o The worst effects of the caste system were borne by women members of the group. They were
supposed to adhere to all the social and cultural norms that discriminated against them.
o On one hand, the upper caste women faced child marriage and widowhood at a younger age,
the lower caste women faced physical and sexual harassment by the upper caste men.
o In short, the caste system perpetuated the sorry state of women in society.
 Fall of Hinduism
o History has evidence that the evils of the caste system led to the fall of Hinduism and the birth
of other religions.
o Those who faced discrimination in Hinduism due to its caste system chose to disregard it
which ultimately weakened and defamed Hinduism.
 Religious conversion
o Many people who faced discrimination and exploitation in the Hindu caste system choose to
convert to other religions like Islam and Christianity which further leads to religious hatred
and enmity among various communities.

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RELIGIOUS CONDITION – EMERGENCE OF RELIGIOUS MOVEMENTS.

The sixth century B.C. is considered a wonderful century in history. Great thinkers like Buddha,
Mahavira, Heraclitus, Zoroaster, Confucius and Lao Tse lived and preached their ideas in this century. In
India, the republican institutions were strong in the 6th century B.C. This enabled rise of heterodox sects
against the orthodox religion dominated by rites and rituals. Among them the most successful were
Jainism and Buddhism whose impact on the Indian society was remarkable.
Causes for the Rise of Jainism and Buddhism
The primary cause for the rise of Jainism and Buddhism was the religious unrest in India in the
6th century B.C. The complex rituals and sacrifices advocated in the Later Vedic period were not
acceptable to the common people. The sacrificial ceremonies were also found to be too expensive. The
superstitious beliefs and mantras confused the people. The teachings of Upanishads, an alternative to the
system of sacrifices, were highly philosophical in nature and therefore not easily understood by all.
Therefore, what was needed in the larger interests of the people was a simple, short and intelligible way
to salvation for all people. Such religious teaching should also be in a language known to them. This need
was fulfilled by the teachings of Buddha and Mahavira.
Other than the religious factor, social and economic factors also contributed to the rise of these two
religions. The rigid caste system prevalent in India generated tensions in the society. Higher classes
enjoyed certain privileges which were denied to the lower classes. Also, the Kshatriyas had resented the
domination of the priestly class. It should also to be noted that both Buddha and Mahavira belonged to
Kshatriya origin. The growth of trade led to the improvement in the economic conditions of the Vaisyas.
As a result, they wanted to enhance their social status but the orthodox Varna system did not allow this.
Therefore, they began to extend support to Buddhism and Jainism. It was this merchant class that
extended the chief support to these new religions.

VEDIC LITERATURE
The term 'Vedic literature' simply means literature based on or derived from the Vedas. The texts
which constitute the Vedic literature are:
1. The four Vedas i.e. Samhitas,
2. the Brahmanas attached to each of the Samhitas,
3. the Aranyakas, and
4. the Upanishads.
The Vedas
The Rg-Veda, Samveda and Yajurveda are collectively known as Vedatrayi. Atharva Veda is considered
a later addition. Bharatamuni's Natyasastra is considered to be the panchama Veda (fifth Veda). The Rg-
Veda is the oldest among all Vedas. It must have been compiled over several centuries. Some of the
earliest hymns are said to have been composed around 1500 BC. These were passed on from the teacher
to the disciple, orally. The different parts (mandalas) are ascribed to different families of seers' e.g.
Gautama and Kanva etc. It is the foundation of all the Vedic literature.
The Rg-Veda is neither a historical nor a heroic poem but is mainly a collection of hymns by a number of
priestly families. The hymns addressed to various Gods such as Agni, Indra etc are recited at the time of

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sacrificial rites and other rituals. The Rg-Veda contains 1028 hymns (sukta) which are divided into ten
mandalas and sometimes into astakas. Mandalas 2 to 7 are considered to be the earliest of all
compositions.
The tenth mandala is said to have been added later as its language differs slightly from the other nine
mandalas. It contains the famous Purushasukta that explains that the four varnas (Castes) (Brahmana,
Kshatriya, Vaishya and Shudra) were born from the mouth, arms, belly and the legs of the Creator. The
universally famous Gayatri mantra (Savitri) is in Rg-Veda. There are five divisions of Rg-Veda namely,
Sakala, Baskala, Asvalayana, Sankhayana and Mandukya. The total mantras in Rg-Veda are 10,600.
The Samaveda derived from the root saman i.e. 'melody', is a 'collection of melodies. Samaveda consists
of 1603 (excepting 75) verses that have been borrowed for the Rg-Veda. These were meant to be sung at
the time of Soma sacrifice. The Jha Samaveda is important in tracing the history of Indian music.
The Yajurveda is the book of the Adhvaryu priests. The Yajurveda prescribes the procedures to be
adopted at the time of performing different sacrifices. There are two main texts of the Yajurveda: Sukla
Yajurveda or Vajasaneyi (Madhyandin and Kanva) and Krsna-Yajurveda (Taittiriya, Kathaka, Maitrayani
and Kapisthal) . It is a collection of short magic spells used by a certain class of priests at the time of
sacrifices. Patanjali, the grammarian, refers to 101 schools of Yajurveda.
The Atharaveda is entirely different from the other three Vedas is content and style. It is the latest of the
four. However, it is equally important and interesting as it describes the popular beliefs and superstitions
of the humble folk. For a very long time it was not included into the category of the Veda. It is divided
into 20 kandas and has 711 hymns and a collection of 5987 mantras - most of these hymns are used to
ward off the evil spirits. The Atharvaveda has two different divisions - Paippalada and Saunakiya. Each
Vedas has its own Samhita and commentary.
The Brahmanas
The Brahmanas explain the hymns of the Vedas. They are written in prose and they elaborately describe
the various sacrifices and rituals, along with their mystic meanings. Each Veda has several Brahmanas.
The two Brahmanas attached to the Rg-Veda are Aitareya Brahmanaand Kausitaki Brahmana. These were
composed by Hotri-priests or invoker (the priest who recites mantras of the Rgveda at the sacrifices). The
Sukla Yajurveda is appended with Satapatha Brahmana which recommends 'one hundred sacred paths'
(Satapatha). It is the most exhaustive and important of all the Brahmanas. The Gopatha Brahmana is
appended to the Atharvaveda. These Brahmanas, in fact, are the elaborate commentaries on the various
hymns is Samhitas.
The Aranyaka
The word Aranyaka means 'the forest' and these are called 'forest books' written mainly for the hermits
and students living in the jungles. These are the concluding portions of the Brahmanas or their
appendices. A strict code of secrecy was maintained over the Aranyakas as it was believed that the
contents would spell danger if taught to the uninitiated. And hence they were to be studied in the forest.
They deal with mysticism and symbolism. They form the natural transition of the Upanishads. They offer
the bridge between Karma marga (way of deeds) which was the sole concern of the Brahmanas and the
jnana marga (way of knowledge) which the Upanishads advocated.

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The Upanishads
The word Upanishad has been derived from the root Upani-sad that means 'to sit down near someone'. It
denotes a student sitting under the feet of his guru to learn. Eventually the word began to be used for the
secret knowledge imparted by the guru to his selected pupils. Today the word began to be used for the
secret knowledge imparted by the guru to his selected pupils. Today the word is associated with
philosophical knowledge and spiritual learning. Upanishads are also called Vedanta (the end of the Veda)
firstly, because they denote the last phase of the Vedic period and secondly, because they reveal the final
aim of the Veda. Our nation's motto Satyameva jayate is taken from the Mundakopanishad.
In fact, the Upanishads are the culmination of ancient Indian philosophical ideas. The whole of later
philosophy of India is rooted in the Upanishads. The philosophical principles of Sankara, Ramanuja,
Ramakrishna Paramahans, Aurobindo and others are derived from Upanishads and, by and large, all the
philosophical doctrines of subsequent and large, all the philosophical doctrines of subsequent days have
borrowed something or the other from them. There are 108 Upanishads classified according to the Vedas,
and were composed by several learned saints between 800 BC and 500 BC. Some of the most renowned
Upanishads are Aitareya, Kausitaki, Taittariya, Brhadaranyaka, Chhandogya and Kena.
All these are older than Buddha and Panini. Among the later Upanishads mention may be made of Katha.
Svetashvatara, Isa, Maitrayaniya etc., which lay stress on Samkhya and Yoga doctrines. The language of
these Upanishads is classical Sanskrit and not the Vedic Sanskrit.
Like Aranyakas, the Upanishads also give less importance to ceremonies and sacrifices. They discuss
various theories on the creation of the Universe and define the doctrine of Karma (action). Brahman
(God) and atman (soul) are treated as identical. They profess the goal of life to be-to attain moksha
(salvation) which is possible through meditation and self-control.
All the works referred to above are also called Sruti which means 'revelation'. Literally speaking Sruti
means 'heard'. The Vedas are not the outcome of logical interpretation, not a historical anecdote, but they
are Divine revelations. The Vedic literature enjoys the status of the foremost authority in all religious
matters for the Hindus.
Smritis
Smritis are the auxiliary treatises of the Vedas and are the law books of Indian society. Literally 'Smrti'
means 'to remember' and these are regarded, as a part of the revelation though not included in the Vedic
literature proper.
Vedangas
There are six Vedangas (limbs of Veda). They are: Siksha, Kalpa, vyakarana, niruktas, chhandas and
jyotisa. Siksha deals with pronunciation, Kalpa with rituals, Vyakarana with grammar, Nirukta with
etymology, Chhanda with meter and Jyotisa with astrosciences.
Darshana
Similarly, there are six schools of Indian philosophy known as Shad-Darshana. These are: Nyaya,
Vaishesika, Sankhya, Yoga, Purva and Uttara Mimansas. These are written in Sutra (aphorism) style,
which are short, to the point and without doubts. They all propagate the virtues of life. The Nyaya

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Darshana was written by Gautama, Vaishesika Darshana by Kanada, Purvamimansa Darshana by Jaimini,
Sankhya by Kapila, Yoga by Patanjali and the Uttaramimansa Darshana by Bhadarayana.
Upavedas
Both the Vedangas and the Darshanas claim to have derived inspiration from the Vedas the explain the
Vedic Philosophy. Still they are not included in the umbrella of core Vedic literature. In the same manner,
four Upavedas namely Dhanurveda (deals with the art of warfare), the Gandharvaveda (deals with the
music), Silpaveda (deals with are and architecture) and Ayurveda (deals with medicine) also do not form
part of the Vedic literature though they enjoy great sanctity.
The Vedic texts have been nourished, simplified and continued from one generation to the next through
the Sruti parampara by the great saint scholars and sages, to name a few Sri Sankaracarya, Caitanya
Mahaprabhu, Madhvacharya and Ramanuja. The Vedas are the treasure housed of knowledge not merely
spiritual, but scientific, cultural and material. A fresh look at them, overcoming the hitherto laden
emphasis on their religiosity would render that wisdom to us.

MYTHOLOGY (EPICS) AND PURANAS OF INDIA

Three great epics of India are the Srimad Bhagavatam, the Ramayana and the Mahabharata. It is said
that to understand these stories is in large measure to understand India. Certainly, all three epics have
exercised a profound influence upon India. Her poets and dramatists, have found a rich source of material
in the legends of the epics, the national heroes whom the stories celebrate, and the truths of which they
are a dramatic expression.
The Srimad Bhagavatam is about the divine child then adult Krishna. As it begins, the forces of evil have
won a war between the benevolent devas (deities) and evil asuras (demons) and now rule the universe.
Truth re-emerges as Krishna first makes peace with the demons, understands then, and then creatively
defeats them, bringing back hope, justice, freedom, and good - a cyclic theme that appears in many
legends.
The Ramayana is an epic, traditionally ascribed to the Hindu sage Valmiki, that narrates the life of Sri
Ram Chandra, the legendary prince of the Kosala Kingdom, his banishment from the kingdom by his
father, King Dasharatha, his travels across forests in India with his wife Sita and brother Lakshmana, the
kidnapping of his wife by Ravana, the demon king of Lanka, resulting in a war with him, and Rama's
eventual return to Ayodhya to be crowned king.
The Mahābhārata is an epic narrative of Krishna and the Kurukṣetra War and the fates of the Kaurava and
the Pāṇḍava princes. It also contains philosophical and devotional material, such as a discussion of the
four "goals of life". Among the principal works and stories in the Mahābhārata are the Bhagavadgītā, the
story of Damayantī, an abbreviated version of the Rāmāyaṇa, and the story of Ṛṣyasringa, often
considered as works in their own right. The Mahābhārata is the longest known epic poem and has been
described as "the longest poem ever written."
These ancient stories are a thrill to read even today and capture the imagination of millions of people
throughout the world.

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Puranas
 Purana is a Sanskrit word that means "ancient." Puranas were first created by Sage Veda-
Vyasa, according to legend.
 There are 18 Mahapuranas (great puranas) and a plethora of Upapuranas (secondary puranas).
 The puranas' beginnings may overlap with the Vedas to some extent, although their writing spanned
the 4th and 5th century CE, and in some cases much later.
 The puranas were mostly composed during the Gupta period, although some were produced in the
early mediaeval period as well.
 Bhagavata Purana (10th century) and Skanda Purana are two examples (14th century).
 The Puranic literature is encyclopaedic and covers a wide range of themes, including cosmogony,
cosmology, genealogy of gods, goddesses, kings, heroes, sages, and demigods, folk tales, pilgrimages,
temples, medicine, astronomy, grammar, mineralogy, comedy, love stories, and theology and
philosophy.
 The Puranas' substance is exceedingly inconsistent, and each Purana has survived in a number of
manuscripts, each of which is incongruent.
 The Hindu Maha Puranas are generally credited to "Vyasa," although many academics believe they
were written by a number of writers over time; by contrast, most Jaina Puranas may be dated and
authors assigned.
Puranas - Significance
 Women and shudras did not have access to Vedic books throughout the later Vedic period and
beyond, but Puranas became available to them, and they could read and listen to Puranas, which aided
in the transmission of knowledge to the people.
 The most common method of disseminating secular Purana information to the populace was through
tale telling:
 According to Banabhatta, he heard the legends of Vayu Puran in his hamlet as a youngster when the
Puranas were recited aloud.
 "The pouranika, the suta, and the magadha," according to Arthashastra, were three officials appointed
by a monarch to listen to the Puranas.
Puranas Secular Nature
 The Puranas' idea of time is mind-boggling. There are four eras or yugas in Hinduism: krita, treta,
dvapara, and kali.
 The six puranas - Vayu, Brahmanda, Bhagavata, Bhavisya, Matsya, and Vishnu - contain important
information on ancient political history out of the eighteen primary Puranas.
 They are referring to historical dynasties like the Haryankas, Shishunaga, Nandas, Mauryas, Shungas,
Kanvas, and Andhras (Satavahanas).
 For example, the Vishnu Purana, Matsya Purana, and Vayu Purana discuss the Mauryan period,
Satavahana period, and Gupta period, respectively.
 The Puranas shed much insight on the evolution of monarchy, the creation of the state, inter-state
interactions, administrative organisation (local, judicial, civil, military, revenue), and so on.
 The Puranas provide stories of mountains, rivers, and places that can be used to understand historical
geography.

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 Example - Markandeya Purana discusses the Vindhya Ranges and the Narmada Valley area.
 The Puranas also portray interactions between individuals from many cultural traditions.
 Puranas provide information about the foundations, planning, naming, antiquity, growth and decay of
towns and cities which are very important for the study of history of urbanisation in ancient India.
 The Puranic records shed light on the nature of urban settlements by showing the growth of towns
for political, administrative, commercial, religious or educational purposes.
 The Puranic descriptions of Brahmanical social values like Varnashrama dharma (four-fold stages of
life), caste system etc have considerable historical value.
Panchatantra:
Panchatantra was compiled as a teaching manual for young princes by Vishnu Sharma. The word
Panchatantra comprises 2 words- Pancha and Tantra. ―Pancha‖ means five and ―Tantra‖ implies
principles or practices.
So, Panchatantra means the 5 principles or practices. The collection thus has 5 volumes. Before
revealing the names of these volumes, let‘s get a little history about Panchatantra.
Panchatantra, one of India‘s greatest contributions to the art of storytelling. It is perhaps the only secular
literary work that can truly claim to be a world heritage. Widely accepted to have been composed few
centuries before Common Era, Panchatantra has become the most widely read Indian text between Java
and Iceland. The original Sanskrit text has been translated into Persian, Arabic, Hebrew, Syriac, Latin,
Greek, German, English, Spanish, etc. The text travelled from India to Europe much like all Indian
knowledge did, through West Asia. Panchatantra uses metaphors and substitutes to tell a story. The use
of animals, who talk, think and act like humans is a clever play to relate the acts and nature of humans to
that of animals. The anthropomorphism of Panchatantra strikes a chord of similarity with many modern
works.
The Jataka Tales, which are the stories of Buddha‘s previous lives, is heavily influenced by Panchatantra.
So influential were the Jataka tales that many Buddhist sects (Mahasamghika Chaitika) accepted them as
Buddhist canonical literature.
These are the names of the 5 volumes in which Panchatantra is divided:
 Mitra-laabha (Gaining Friends)
It has a collection of stories that are related to winning friends.
 Mitra-bheda (Losing Friends)
It has a collection of stories that are related to losing friends.
 Aparīkṣitakārakaṃ (Acting without Thinking)
It has a collection of stories that are related to hasty actions or taking actions without thinking of the
consequences.
 Labdhapraṇāśam (Loss of Gains)
It has a collection of stories that are related to losing what you have gained.
 Kākolūkīyam (Crows and Owls)
It has a collection of stories that are related to war and peace.

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Mughal contributions to literature.

 Persian, Sanskrit and regional languages developed during the Mughal rule.
 Persian was the language of administration in Mughal Empire.
 The greatest contribution in the field of literature during the Mughal rule was the development of
Urdu as a common language of communication for people speaking different dialects.
 Babur wrote his autobiography, Tuzuk-i-Baburi in Turki language.
 This autobiography gives details of flora and afauna in India.
 Babarnama(translation of tuzuk I baburi) was written in Persian by Abdul Rahim Khan.
 Abdul Fazl has written Akbarnama (history of Akbar) and Ain-i-Akbari(administration book).
 Jahangir hasitten his autobiography as Tuzuk-i-jahangiri.
 Mutamid khan has written biography of Jahangir as Iqbalnamah-i-Jahangir.
 Shahjahan‘s biography padshanamah was written by two author. They were Abdul Hamid lahori and
Inayat Khan. Inayat khan wrote shahjahan namah.
 Persian literature was enriched by translations of Sanskrit works.
 The Mahabharata was translated under the supervision of Abul Faizi, brother of
Abul Fazal and a court poet of Akbar.
 Dara Shikoh translated the Bhagavat Gita and Upanishads into the Persian language. His most famous
work, Majma-ul-Bahrain.
 Badauni was bitter critic of Akbar. He translated Mahabharata into Persian as Razanamah.
 Regional languages such as Bengali, Oriya, Rajasthani and Gujarathi had also developed during this
period.
 From the time of Akbar, Hindi poets were attached to the Mughal court. The most influential Hindi
poet was Tulsidas, who wrote the Hindi version of the Ramayana, the Ramcharitmanas.
 Jaganath Pandithraya , court poet of Shahjahan has written two Sanskrit books Ganga Lahari and
Rasagangadharam.

ASTRONOMY
Astronomy made great progress in ancient times in India. The movement of planets came to be
emphasized and closely observed. Jyotishvedanga texts established systematic categories in astronomy
but the more basic problem was handled by Aryabhatta (499 AD). Astronomy was called KHAGOL
SHASTRA.
His Aryabhattiya is a concise text containing 121 verses. It contains separate sections on astronomical
definitions, methods of determining the true position of the planets, description of the movement of the
sun and the moon and the calculation of the eclipses. The reason he gave for eclipse was that the earth
was a sphere and rotated on its axis and when the shadow of the earth fell on the moon, it caused Lunar
eclipse and when the shadow of the moon fell on the earth, it caused Solar eclipse. On the contrary, the
orthodox theory explained it as a process where the demon swallowed the planet.
All these observations have been described by Varahamihira in Panch Siddhantika which gives the
summary of five schools of astronomy present in his time. Aryabhatta deviated from Vedic astronomy
and gave it a scientific outlook which became a guideline for later astronomers. Astrology and horoscope
were studied in ancient India. Aryabhatta‘s theories showed a distinct departure from astrology which
stressed more on beliefs than scientific explorations.

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MATHEMATICS
The town planning of Harappa shows that the people possessed a good knowledge of measurement and
geometry. By third century AD mathematics developed as a separate stream of study. Indian mathematics
is supposed to have originated from the Sulvasutras. Apastamba in second century BC, introduced
practical geometry involving acute angle, obtuse angle and right angle. This knowledge helped in the
construction of fire altars where the kings offered sacrifices. The three main contributions in the field of
mathematics were the notation system, the decimal system and the use of zero. The notations and the
numerals were carried to the West by the Arabs. These numerals replaced the Roman numerals. Zero was
discovered in India in the second century BC. Brahmagupta‘s Brahmasputa Siddhanta is the very first
book that mentioned ‗zero‘ as a number, hence, Brahmagupta is considered as the man who found zero.
He gave rules of using zero with other numbers. Aryabhatta discovered algebra and also formulated the
area of a triangle, which led to the origin of Trignometry.
The Surya Siddhanta is a very famous work. Varahamihira‘s Brihatsamhita of the sixth century AD is
another pioneering work in the field of astronomy. His observation that the moon rotated around the earth
and the earth rotated around the sun found recognition and later discoveries were based on this assertion.
Mathematics and astronomy together ignited interest in time and cosmology. These discoveries in
astronomy and mathematics became the cornerstones for further research and progress.
Bhaskaracharya in his book Siddhanta Shiromani divided into four sections:
Lilavati arithmetic. In this he introduced Chakravat Method or Cyclic Method of solving equations.
 Bijaganit algebra.
 Goladhyaya Spheres.
 Grahaganita Planets.

MEDICINE

During the Vedic times, Ashwini Kumars were the practisioners of medicine and were given the divine
status. Dhanvantari was the God of medicine. Atharva Veda was the first book where we find mention
about the diseases, its cure and medicines. According to it, the diseases were caused by the demons and
spirits entering into the human body and can be cured by magical charms and spells. Atharva Veda
mentioned cure for many of the diseases which include diarrhoea, sores, cough, leprosy, fever and
seizure.
However, the era of practical and more rational cure to diseases emerged around 600 BC. Takshila and
Varanasi emerged as the centres for medicinal learning.

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The two important treaties during this time were:

Charak Samhita (deals with Ayurveda) by Charak
Sushruta Samhita (deals with Surgery) by Sushruta
Before them, Atreya and Agnivesa had already dealt with principles of Ayurveda way back in 800 BCE.
Charak Samhita mainly deals with use of plants and herbs for medicinal purposes. In a way, it mainly
deals with Ayurveda as a science having the following eight components:
Kaya Chikitsa (General Medicine)
Kaumara-Bhrtya (Paediatrics)
Shalya Chikitsa (Surgery)
Salakya Tantra (Ophthalmology/ENT)
Buta Vidya (Demonology/Psychiatry)
Agada Tantra (Toxicology)
Rasayana Tantra (Elixirs)
Vajikarana Tantra (Aphrodisiacs)
Sushruta Samhita:
Deals with practical problems of Surgery and Obstetrics. Sushruta studied anatomy in great detail with
the aid of a human dead body. His forte was mainly:
Rhinoplasty (plastic surgery)
Ophthalmology (ejection of Cataract)
Surgery was termed as Sastrakarma during those times. The book Sushruta Samhita records in detail the
steps to be taken for the performance of a surgery. In this field, one of the greatest contributions of
Shushruta was Rhinoplasty which means restoration of a mutilated nose through plastic surgery. The
ejection of cataracts from eye was even done by Sushruta with ease and using simple surgical tools.
Hence, it can be inferred that India also saw best of the developments in medicine when compared to the
world.
The Unani system of medicine came to India from Greece with the book Firdausu hikmat written by Ali-
bin-Rabban.

PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY :

From the Vedic times, the materials on the Earth have been classified into panchbhootas. These
panchmahabhootas were identified with human senses of perception.
 Earth (prithvi) with smell
 Fire (agni) with vision
 Air (maya) with feeling
 Water (apa) with taste
 Ether (akasha) with sound.

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It has been perceived that the material world comprises of these five elements. The Buddhist philosophers
who came later rejected ether as one of the element and replaced it with life, joy and sorrow. Philosophers
were of the view that except ether, all other four were physically palpable and therefore comprised
miniscule particles of matter. The last miniscule matter which could not be further subdivided was called
Parmanu. There are five different types of parmanu for five different elements. Hence it can be inferred
that Indian philosophers conceived the idea of splitting an atom.

Chemistry:
The development of Chemistry in India was in phases through experimentation. The areas of application
of chemistry were:
 Metallurgy (smelting of metals)
 Distillation of perfumes
 Making of dyes and pigments
 Extraction of sugar
 Production of paper.
 Production of gunpowder.
 Casting of canons, etc.
In India, Chemistry was called Rasayan Shastra, Rasatantra, Rasa Vidya and Rasakriya, all of which
means science of liquids. Chemical laboratories were called Rasakriya Shala and chemist was referred to
as rasadanya.
The development of metallurgy started in India from the Bronze Age. In fact, the progress from Bronze
Age to Iron Age to the present owes a great contribution to developments in metallurgy. In the area of
smelting of metals, Indians had an expertise in extraction of metals form ore and its casting. It is possible
that India had borrowed this idea form Mesopotamia.
Indians in the Persian army used weapons tipped with iron. The best evidences of Indian metallurgy are
Iron pillar of Mehrauli in Delhi and an idol of Gautama Buddha in Sultanganj, Bihar. They have not
caught rust yet even after their manufacture more than thousands of years back. One of the famous
alchemist of ancient times was Nagarjuna. He was an expert in transforming the base metals into gold.
Born in Gujarat in 931 AD, Nagarjuna was blessed with this power of changing base metals into gold and
extraction of ―Elixir of life‘‘ as per the beliefs of the people. He wrote a treatise Rasaratnakara, a book on
chemistry and is in the form of dialogue between him and the Gods. The treatise mainly deals with
preparation of liquids (mainly mercury). The book also emphasised on the survey of metallurgy and
alchemy.
To prepare the elixir of life from mercury, Nagarjuna used animal and vegetable products apart from
minerals and alkalis. He also discussed the transmutation of base metals into gold. The gold could not be
produced but the method has been useful in producing metals with gold like yellowish brilliance which
even helps in manufacturing imitation jewellery.
Nagarjuna also wrote Uttaratantra which is a supplement to Sushruta Samhita and deals with preparation
of medicinal drugs.

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Four ayurvedic treatises have also been written by him in the later years when his interest shifted in
organic chemistry and medicine. The contribution of Nagarjuna in the field of chemistry had been
immense as the idea of transformation of metals seems to be taken by Arabs from the Indian books.

SHIP BUILDING

There have been many references of maritime activities by Indians during ancient times. Sanskrit and Pali
literature had a mention of ship building and navigation activities. In the theological folklore of
Hinduism, the Satyanarayan Puja talks of a sea merchant who was caught in a storm and prayed to the
lord that if he is saved then he will offer puja to Lord Satyanarayana.
Yukti Kalpa Taru is a treatise in Sanskrit which deals with the various techniques used in ship building
during ancient times. The book contains minute details about the types of ships, their sizes and the types
of material used to build those ships. Indian builders possessed good knowledge about the materials used
for ship building during ancient times. The ships were primarily classified into two classes:
 Samanya (Ordinary class)
 Vishesha (special class)
The ordinary class is for a sea voyage and had two types of ships:
 Dirgha type of ship – long and narrow hull
 Unnata type of ship – higher hull
According to length and the position of cabins, the ships were classified into:
 Sarvamandira vessels - cabins extending from one end of the deck to another, used for transportation
of royal voyage and horses.
 Madhyamandira - cabins in the middle part of the deck, for pleasure trips.
 Agramandira - vessels used for warfare.
Some of the Sanskrit terminologies used during ancient times for various parts of the ship are:
 Anchor of the ship - Nava bandhan kilaha
 Sail – Vata vastra
 Rudder of the ship - Jeni pata or karna
 Keel of the ship - Nava tala
 Compass of the ship – Machayantra or fish machine(in the shape of a fish).

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ART OF THE MAURYAN PERIOD

Pillars & Sculptures
 Erection of pillars was common in the Achamenian Empire (Persian Empire) also. While there were
commonalities like the use of polished stones, motifs like lotus, there are also differences. While the
Achamenian pillars were constructed in pieces, the Mauryan pillars were rock-cut, displaying the
superior skill of the carver.
 Stone pillars can be seen all over the Mauryan Empire. These had proclamations inscribed on them
and were used to spread the message of the Buddha by Emperor Ashoka.
 The top portion of the pillar is called capital and it typically has animal figures like bull, lion,
elephant, etc. These capital figures are carved standing on a square or circular abacus. The abacuses
are on the base which could be a stylised inverted lotus.
 Example of pillars with capital figures: Sarnath, Basarah-Bakhira, Rampurva, Sankisa and Lauriya-
Nandangarh.
 The Lion Capital at Sarnath is the most famous example.
 Monumental figures of Yakshas and Yakshinis have been found in various parts of India thus showing
the popularity of Yaksha worship.

Rock-cut architecture
 Ashoka also patronised rock-cut architecture.
 Rock-cut elephant at Dhauli, Odisha – shows modelling in round with linear rhythm. It also has an
Ashokan edict.
 Lomus Rishi Cave – Rock-cut cave at Barabar Hills near Gaya. The cave entrance is decorated with a
semicircle chaitya arch. An elephant is carved in high relief on the chaitya. The interior hall of the
cave is rectangular; it also has a circular chamber at the back. Ashoka patronised this cave for the
Ajivika sect.

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Stupas, chaityas and viharas

 Stupas and viharas were constructed as part of the Buddhist and Jaina monastic tradition but most of
the constructions belong to Buddhism.
 Some Brahmanical gods were also represented in the sculptures here.
 Stupas were constructed over the relics of the Buddha at Rajagriha, Kapilavastu, Vaishali,
Ramagrama, Allakappa, Pava, Vethadipa, Pippalvina and Kushinagar.
 Stupas consist of a cylindrical drum with a circular anda and a harmika and a chhatra on the top.
Sometimes there were circumambulatory pathways and gateways. In many cases, additions were
added in later centuries.
1. Anda: hemispherical mound symbolic of the mound of dirt used to cover Buddha‘s remains (in many
stupas actual relics were used).
2. Harmika: square railing on top of the mound.
3. Chhatra: central pillar supporting a triple umbrella form.

 Stupa at Bairat, Rajasthan – 3rd century BCE; grand stupa with a circular mound and a
circumambulatory path.
 Many stupas were built and not all of them with royal patronage. Patrons included lay devotees,
gahapatis, guilds and kings.
 Not many mention the names of the artisans. But artisans‘ categories like stone carvers, goldsmiths,
stone-polishers, carpenters, etc. are mentioned.
 Stupa at Sanchi – most famous and one of the earliest examples.
 Chaityas were basically prayer halls and most of them were with stupas. Generally, the hall was
rectangular and it had a semi-circular rear end. They had horse-shoe shaped windows. They also had
pillars separating the hall from the two aisles.
 Viharas were the residences of the monks.
 Both chaityas and viharas were made out of wood, and later were also stone-cut.
Depiction of the Buddha
 In the early periods, Buddha is represented through symbols like footprints, lotus thrones, chakras,
stupas, etc.

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 Later on, stories were portrayed on the railings and torans of the stupas. These were mainly the Jataka
tales.
 The chief events from Buddha‘s life which are narrated in the arts are birth, renunciation,
enlightenment, first sermon (dharmachakrapravartana) and mahaparinirvana (death).
 The Jataka stories that find frequent depiction are Chhadanta Jataka, Sibi Jataka, Ruru Jataka,
Vessantara Jataka, Vidur Jataka and Shama Jataka

GUPTA SCULPTURAL ART

The renowned Gupta sculptural style appears to have grown out of the Kushanstyle. In Mathura, art had
already flourished in Indian style, which was touched with refinement in all aspects under the patronage
of the illustrious Gupta rulers. The Buddhist images of Mathura and Samath are some of the best
specimens of Indian art, never equaled by any art creations oflater period. Vishnu sculptures in Udayagiri
rock-cut Caves, Dhamek stupa at Samath, Bhitargaon, Buddhist caves in Ajanta, Ahichchattra, and
Dasavatara Temple in Deogarh.

SULTANGUNJ BUDDHA VISHNU INANANTASHAYANA

POSITION IN DEOGARH
Cave architecture during Guptas
Rocket caves at Ajanta kanheri karle bhaja pandavleni, Viharas were built as a residential quarters for
monks and Chaityas were built as a place of worship or assembly halls in stupas. Sangharamas where
Buddhist monastery and school.
Temple architecture under guptas developed in four stages
First stage temple had flat roof. Temples were square in shape. The political was developed on shallow
pillars entire structure was built on low platforms one of the example for this is temple number 17 at
Sanchi
Second stage is a continued process of the first stage but with higher or uprised platforms and temples
where usually two storied the example for this is Parvati temple in Madhya Pradesh Nachna Kuthara.

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Third stage of temple architecture developed as emergence of shikaras in a place of flat roof and which
were square or curvilinear. Panchatantra Steel was introduced with four subsidiary friends along with the
main principle diet a temple
Fourth stage of temple architecture in which the temple became more rectangular and barrel-vaulted roof
above.

GUPTA ARCHITECTURE
 The beginning of the Gupta Empire in the 4th century A.D. is considered the "Golden Period of
Indian Architecture."
 Temple construction gained prominence under the sponsorship of the later Gupta rulers, who were
Hindus.
 While the early Gupta kings were Buddhists who conserved Buddhist architectural traditions, temple
building rose to prominence under the patronage of the later Gupta rulers, who were Hindus.
 The Gupta kings were Brahmanical rulers, especially in the later phases. They, on the other hand,
displayed exceptional tolerance for all other religions.
 Vishnu was worshipped in the northern and central parts of India, Shiva in the southern section,
and Shakti in the eastern part of India, as well as on the Malabar coast or in the south-west.
Cave Architecture
 The architectural development of caves remained consistent during the Gupta period.
 The utilisation of mural paintings on the cave walls, on the other hand, became an extra element.
 The caves of Ajanta and Ellora have some of the best examples of mural art.
 Ajanta is a group of rock-cut caves near Aurangabad, Maharashtra, amid the Sahyadri ranges on the
Waghora River.
 There are 29 caves in all, 25 of which were utilised as Viharas (residence caves) and 4 of which were
used as Chaitya (prayer halls).
 Between 200 B.C. and 650 A.D the caves were constructed.
 The Buddhist monks inscribed the Ajanta caves under the patronage of the Vakataka rulers, one of
them was Harishena.

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AJANTA CAVES
Ellora Caves.
 Another famous cave architecture site is Ellora Caves.
 It is almost 100 kilometres from the Ajanta caves in Maharashtra's Sahyadri hills. It consists of 34
caves, 17 of which are Brahmanical, 12 Buddhist, and 5 Jain.
 These caves were built by numerous guilds from Vidarbha, Karnataka, and Tamil Nadu between the
5th and 11th centuries A.D. (they are newer than the Ajanta Caves).
 As a result, in terms of topic and architectural styles, the caves represent a natural diversity.

Ellora Caves.
Bagh caves
 A set of nine Buddhist caves formed around the 6th century A.D. on the bank of the Bagh river in
Madhya Pradesh.
 It has a similar architectural style to the Ajanta caves.

Bagh caves

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Nasik caves
 Pandav Leni" refers to a series of 24 Buddhist caves in Nasik. They were created in the first century
A.D. during the Hinayana period.
 Later, though, the Mahayana sect's impact may be seen in these caves.
 His presence is expressed in the Hinayana sect through the usage of motifs and symbols such as the
throne and footprints.
 Later on, Buddha idols were sculpted inside these caves, indicating Mahayana Buddhism's impact.
 The site also shows a superb water management system, as evidenced by the presence of water tanks
carved out of solid rock.
History of Dilwara Jain Temple AT mount abu
Built-in between the 11th and 13th centuries AD by Chalukya dynasty, Dilwara Jain temples are simple
and general looks from outside but its extravagant doors of entrance tell about its architectural superiority.
It is surrounded by green hills and a temple complex by high walls.
All of its ceilings, doorways, pillars, and panels have minutely carved ornamental details which show its
architectural uniqueness. It is also important to notice that at that time there was no convenience to
transport such big blocks of marble at a 1200 meters height.
Elephants were used to transports marble on their back from Arasoori hills at Ambaji to Mount Abu.
Odishyan temples
SUN TEMPLE
1. In 1984, it was declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
2. On the reverse side of the Rs. 10 denomination note, a picture of the Konark Sun Temple is depicted.
3. In the month of February every year, many Hindu pilgrims gather here for the Chandrabhaga Mela.
4. It is often called ―Surya Devalaya‖ as well.
5. Konark together with Puri and with Bhubaneshwar completes the Golden Triangle of Odisha, which
is a major pilgrimage route for the Hindus in the state of Orissa.
6. It was originally constructed at the mouth of the river Chandrabhaga which has since then receded.
7. Konark Sun temple represents the Kalinga Style of Architecture.
8. The face of the temple faces East so that the early rays of the sun fall on the main entrance of the
temple.
9. It is built using Khondalite rocks which are a sub-type of Metamorphic rocks.
10. The temple has 12 wheels in two rows each totaling 24 around the temple, which represents sundials
and could be used to determine the time precisely to minute.
11. In the late 18th century period, a monolith called ―Aruna Stambh‖ was removed from the Konark Sun
Temple and installed on Lion‘s Gate (Singha Dwara) of Puri‘s Jagannath Temple by a Maratha
brahmachari named Goswain/Goswami
12. The temple has been destroyed many times and factors are attributed to nature and war activities by
Muslim invaders.
13. The assembly hall of the temple also called ―Jagamohan‖ in the Odisha, was filled with sand and
closed by the British in the year 1904 to stop it from completely collapsing. This assembly hall is the
center of the temple as it connects the entrance with the sanctum-sanctorum.

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JAGANNATH TEMPLE
Key Points
 The temple is believed to be constructed in the 12th century by King Anatavarman Chodaganga Deva
of the Eastern Ganga Dynasty.
 Jagannath Puri temple is called ‗Yamanika Tirtha‘ where, according to the Hindu beliefs, the power of
‗Yama‘, the god of death has been nullified in Puri due to the presence of Lord Jagannath.
 This temple was called the ―White Pagoda‖ and is a part of Char Dham pilgrimages (Badrinath,
Dwaraka, Puri, Rameswaram).
 There are four gates to the temple- Eastern ‗Singhdwara‘ which is the main gate with two crouching
lions, Southern ‗Ashwadwara‘, Western 'Vyaghra Dwara and Northern ‗Hastidwara‘. There is a
carving of each form at each gate.
 In front of the entrance stands the Aruna stambha or sun pillar, which was originally at the Sun
Temple in Konark.
Art of Pallava Dynasty
A part of southern India was ruled by the Pallava Dynasty, an Indian monarchy that lasted from 275 CE
to 897 CE. After the Satavahana Dynasty, in which the Pallavas served as feudatories, was overthrown,
they rose to prominence. The Pallava Dynasty rose to prominence during the reigns of Mahendravarman I
(571–630 CE) and Narasimhavarman I (630–668 CE). They ruled the Telugu and northern regions of the
Tamil area for almost 600 years till the end of the ninth century.
Pallava Art and Architecture:
The period's religious resurgence sparked an interest in architecture. The Pallavas made significant
contributions to Indian architecture and art. In actuality, the Dravidian architectural style of southern
India was founded by the Pallavas. There was a progressive evolution from cave temples to monolithic
Rathas and finally to structure temples.
 The Pancha Pandava Rathas (Rock-cut Rathas), also known as the Five Rathas, in Mamallapuram
have five distinct architectural styles.
 The outstanding examples of Pallava structural temples are the Kailasanatha temple in Kanchi and the
Shore temple in Mamallapuram. The Kailasanatha temple is the greatest architectural achievement of
Pallava art.
 The Pallavas contributed to the development of sculpture as well. The Mandapas' walls are adorned
with lovely sculptures.
 A masterwork of classical art is the sculpture at Mamallapuram that shows the "Descent of the Ganges
or the Penance of Arjuna." Under the Pallavas' patronage, the arts of music, dance, and painting had
all blossomed.
 The Sittannavasal caves' paintings originate from the Pallava era.
Pallava Art The Pallava kings were supporters of the arts. Their passion for music can be seen in the
Kudumianmalai and Thirumayam music inscriptions. Some musical instruments used throughout the
Pallava era included the Yaazhi, Mridhangam, and Murasu. Mahendravarman I and Narasimhavarman I
were both still musically accomplished. The Pallava period's temple sculptures show how well-liked

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dance was at the time. Mahendravarman I was referred to as "Chittirakkarapuli", and his paintings at
Chittannavasal are examples of the style of Pallava painting.
Mahendravarman wrote Thatchina Chitram and the satirical play Maththavilasam Prakasanam,.
Therefore, drama, music, and dance were quite popular during the Pallava era. The Pallavas had
positively impacted the development of culture in this way.
Pallava Painiting at Conjeevaram 45 miles west-southwest of Madras in Conjeevaram, the former Pallava
capital, which has several temples and shrines. The Kailasanatha and Vaikunthaperumal temples, which
have historical murals, are the most significant of these.
 Paintings from the 7th and 8th century A.D. can be found on the inside walls of the little cells that line
the outside walls of the courtyard of the Kailasanatha temple, which was constructed during the reign
of the Pallava king Narasimhavarman alias Rajasimha (680–722 AD).
 Images from Hindu mythology are shown in them.
 Except for a tiny head under one of the eaves of the main tower, or the Vimana, the paintings in this
temple, which are thought to have been created during the eighth and ninth century A.D., are all but
gone. However, paint remnants can be found under the eaves and in the niches of the main tower.
 The mechanical foundation of the paintings immediately supporting the ground is made up of the
inner walls of the cells in the courtyard of the Kailasanatha temple, as well as the eaves and walls of
the niches of the Vimana of the Vaikunthaperumal temple.
 The Kailasanatha and Vaikunthaperumal temples include the colours Yellow ochre, Red ochre, Terre
Verte, Carbon, and Lime.
Pallava Paintings at Kailasanatha Temple
Although Rajasimha's sculptures are still intact, its paintings are all but gone. There are rumours that
vibrantly coloured murals previously covered the walls of the Kailasanatha temple's pradakshina-patha.
However, the majority of it has been reduced to traces.
 At Kailasanatha, there are no complete paintings; only remnants have survived.
 However, the vestiges at Talagishwara temple in Panamalai and the fragments at Kailasanatha are
significant because they are the only two remaining instances of Pallava mural paintings.
 Additionally, they represent a critical period in the evolution of South Indian painting

Pallava Art: Sculptures

Pallava sculptures were created between the fourth and ninth centuries. The era of the Pallavas saw a
boom in the development of rock-cut architecture. Pallava art and architecture were first documented
between 610 and 690 AD. Contrarily, the other temples were built between 690 and 900 AD. The Pallava
Empire also saw a rise in the popularity of rock-cut caves. For the first time, the unique rock construction
and sculptures quickly displaced the prominent component of the South Indian temples.
Chola Art and Architecture :
 The Dravidian style of architecture reached its zenith during the Chola empire.
 The Chola period is also remarkable for its sculptures and bronzes

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 AKKA IAS ACADEMY, BENGALURU

 The main feature of Chola style of Architecture is a building of five to seven storeys in a typical style
known as ―Vimana‖ above the chief pillared hall with flat roof was placed in front of the sanctum
known as ―mandap‖.
 The Brihadeshwara temple/ Rajrajeshwara Temple at Tanjore is a classic example of Dravidian style
of architecture under the Chola empire. Gangai-kondanCholapuram temple is another such example.
Chola Bronzes:
 Chola period bronzes were created using the lost wax technique. It is known in artistic terms as ―Cire
Perdue‖.
 Nataraja is the most popular image in Chola Bronzes. This is the dancing Shiva, the presiding deity of
the Chola dynasty.
 After Nataraja, the next most popular image is Somaskanda where Shiva is depicted sitting with his
consort Uma and his son Skanda dancing between them on a platform.
 KalyanasundaraMurti: 9th century; marriage is represented by 2 separate statuettes; Shiva and
Parvati‘s marriage or panigrahana.
 Ardhanarishwar with half Shiva and half Shakti is another popular image
 Parvati is also carved in her various avatars like Maheshwari, Durga, Kali, etc. Her most popular
avatar remains Mahishasurmardini – the one who slays the demon Mahisha.
 Great patron of Chola bronze work: widowed queen SembiyanMaha Devi (10th century).

Chola frescoes:
 In 1931, Chola frescoes were discovered within the circumambulatory corridor of the Brihadisvara
Temple, by S.K. Govindasamy, a professor at Annamalai University.
 These are the first Chola paintings discovered. The passage of the corridor is dark and the walls on
either side are covered with two layers of paintings from floor to ceiling

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Architecture:
 Chola architecture (871-1173 AD) was the epitome of the Dravida style of temple architecture.
 They produced some of the most grandeur temples in medieval India.
 Chola temples like Brihadeshwara temple, Rajarajeshwara temple, Gangaikonda Cholapuram temple
took Dravidian architecture to newer heights. Temple architecture continued to flourish even after
Cholas.
Temple Architecture During the Cholas
Brihadeeshvarar Temple
 The Grand Temple of Thanjavur, also known as Rajarajisvaram and Brihadishvarar Temple, is a
magnificent example of Chola architecture, painting, sculpture, and iconography.
 Rajaraja's polity was greatly legitimised by this temple. The sanctum, which has a 190-foot vimana, is
topped with an 80-ton stone.
 The figures of Lakshmi, Vishnu, Ardhanarisvara, and Bikshadana, a mendicant form of Siva, on the
outer walls of the sanctum are notable.
 The fresco paintings and miniature sculptures of scenes from puranas and epics in the temple walls
reveal the Chola rulers' religious ideology.
 Dancing girls, musicians, and music masters were chosen from various settlements across Tamil Nadu
and attached to this temple.
 Singers had been assigned to recite the bhakti hymns in the temple grounds.
Gangaikonda Chozhapuram
 In commemoration of his victory in North India, Rajendra I built Gangaikonda Chozhapuram on the
model of Brihadisvarar temple in Thanjavur.
 He constructed the Chola-gangam irrigation tank near the capital of Jalastambha (water-pillar). It
became the coronation centre, which became a Chola landmark.
 The sculptures of Ardhanariswarar, Durga, Vishnu, Surya, Chandesa, and Anugrahamurty are the best
pieces of the idols of gods placed in the niches of the sanctum's outer wall.

Darasuram Temple
 Darasuram Temple, built by Rajaraja II (1146–1172), is yet another significant Chola contribution to
temple architecture.
 In the form of miniatures, incidents from the Periyapuranam are depicted on the temple's garbhagriha
(sanctum sanctorum) wall.
Features of Chola Architecture
 The dvarapalas, or guardian figures, at the entrance to the mandapa, or hall, which began in the Palava
period, became a distinctive feature of Chola Temples.
 After a transition from the Pallava Period's rock cut structures, the Dravidian Style was fully
developed.
 In comparison to the colossal buildings of the Imperial Cholas, the early Chola temples on the banks
of the Kaveri River were smaller and made of brick.

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 AKKA IAS ACADEMY, BENGALURU

 The Imperial Chola temples are adorned with exquisite, well-composed sculptures and frescoes.
 The Siva Temple of Tanjore, the largest and tallest of all Indian temples, was built during the Chola
period.
 Among the sculptures at the temple, Ganas are the most memorable figures created in Chola temples.
Pandyan architecture
The Pandyan dynasty had their own unique temple style that followed on from the chola style temples
between 1000-1250 AD The architectural features of Pandyan temples reflected the kingdoms wealth and
social position in respect to other dynasties of southern India at the time. They were mostly stone
buildings with distinctive qualities such as rectangular ground floors leading into pyramidal floors higher
up with gilded roofs above. Surrounding the temples there were various important Hindu mythological
figures sculpted into the rock and various animals carved into the pillars.
Key features of Pandyan architecture include the vimanas, mandapas, and the gopuras. The vimana is the
structure above and around the main shrine and is the area where the deities are present. The vimana can
be single or multi storied, depending on how many deities the temple contains. The mandapa is a pillared
hallway or room that ancient Indian dynasties used for religious dancing, music and ceremonies. Larger
temples can have more than one mandapa placed to the sides of the main structures. The gopura is another
predominant feature of Pandyan architecture and it is the entranceway into the temple. It is a storied
structure commonly made of stone, and there can be multiple built around the sides of the temple
Dravidian style architecture is commonly seen throughout Pandyan temples and it is a southern Indian
architectural style. The predominant features of Dravidian architecture are the main tower, referred to as
the vimana, and the entrance gateway referred to as the gopuram. The vimana is notable in Dravidian
architecture as it is structured as a tiered pyramid that rises up to the sky. This is different to the main
tower structures in northern India, which curve up to a point.
There are few standing architectural monuments left from Pandyan ruling and no temples surviving in
Madurai, Pandya‘s capital, preceding the sixteenth century. The temples that do remain, depict the
notable features attributed to the rule of the Pandyan kings.

Paintings

Murals of the Sittannavasal Jain Temple, dating back to 7th century CE

The rule of both the Pandya‘s and the Cholas is referred to as the ‗golden period‘ of art and culture in the
ancient cities of Tamil Nadu. The paintings of the Pandyan dynasty share similarities to that of Buddhist
and Hindu art found in the Brihadeesvara temple. Common motifs seen in Pandyan paintings include
animals, royal figures, floral patterns and lotus leaves. Sittannavasal is a Jain temple originating under

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 AKKA IAS ACADEMY, BENGALURU

Pandyan ruling which is home to some of the only Pandyan paintings left in the world. It is famous for its
mural paintings covering the walls and roof of the cave. The Sittannavasal paintings contain varied colour
schemes, using black pigments from soot, green from Terre verre, red and yellow from ochre and blue
from ultramarine. These elaborate colour schemes contrast the typically monochrome, red ochre paintings
of other southern Indian dynasties. However, many of these Pandyan paintings in the Sittannavasal
temple have been vandalised and are poorly visible in the modern day. Other cave paintings dating to the
9th century include motives of fish, ducks and people dancing.
Mugal architecture
Mughal architecture is referred as the architecture under Mughals of Delhi. Your kings built temples with
great vision and artistic inspirations from around the world.
Initial kings like the Babur and the Humayun didn't live much impact on architecture though Humayun
tried to build a city named Dinpanah.
During surintergum Sher Shah Suri built few important monuments. He built Qila-e-Quhunah (mosque of
the old fort) in Delhi. He built Rohtas fort in present-day Pakistan. He under took reconstruction and
improvement of mauryan period routes and renamed it as sadak-e-Azam (grand trunk road). How long the
trade routes he built resting places for caravans which had places to rest and food and water supply.
Mughal Architecture
 In northern India, the Mughal period saw a remarkable rebirth of Islamic architecture.
 Persian, Indian, and diverse regional styles were combined under the patronage of the Mughal
emperors to produce works of exceptional beauty and finesse.
 It grew so popular, particularly in north India, that it was reflected in colonial architecture in the Indo-
Saracenic style.
Mughal Architecture - Features
 It was built in a mix of Indian, Persian, and Turkish architectural styles.
 It included various types of structures, including impressive gates (entrances), forts, mausoleums,
palaces, mosques, sarais, and so on.
 The most common building materials were red sandstone and white marble.
 Specialty - Charbagh gardens with noticeable bulbous domes, thin turrets at corners, large entrances,
magnificent calligraphy, arabesque, and geometric patterns on pillars and walls, and royal halls
supported on pillars.
 The arches, chhatri, and other forms of domes were extremely popular in Indo-Islamic architecture,
which was further developed by the Mughals.
Babur
Babur built mosques at Panipat and Rohilkhand, both of which were completed in 1526 AD. His rule,
however, was much too brief to inspire any new style or approach.
Humayun
 Humayun's reign was characterized by a persistent fight for dominance with Sher Shah Suri.
 As a result, he was unable to devote much time to art and architecture. He oversaw the construction
of Dinpanah but was unable to complete it.

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 AKKA IAS ACADEMY, BENGALURU

 The Persian style gained popularity in the building during this time period.
Sher Shah
 In Delhi, he constructed the Qila-e-Quhunah (Old Fort Mosque).
 To commemorate his rule, he erected the famed Rohtas Fort in Pakistan and the Sher Shah Suri
Masjid in Patna, both in Afghan architecture.
 His reign marks the shift from the Lodi to the Mughal architectural styles.
 He also reconstructed and extended an existing Mauryan roadway, renaming it Sadak-e-Azam , which
subsequently became known as Grand Trunk Road.
 He made certain that there were enough sarais and trees for travelers.
 Sher Shah Suri's tomb was erected at Sasaram, where he was born. It's composed of red sandstone and
sits in the middle of a lake.
 Sher Shah's works carried on the traditions of the Delhi Sultanate period.
Akbar
 The golden age of Delhi, as well as the Mughal Architecture, began in 1556 when Akbar came to the
throne of Delhi.
 The usage of red sandstone was a prominent aspect of the structures throughout Akbar's reign.
 He also popularised the term "Tudor arch" (four centered arch).
The following are some of the most notable construction projects done during Akbar's reign:
(i) Agra Fort
 It is a fortification in Agra.
 It was one of the earliest structures to be built during Akbar's rule.
 The majority of the constructions inside the fort, however, were built during Shah Jahan's reign. The
following are some of the notable structures in the area:
o Moti Masjid by Shah Jahan.
o Diwan-i-aam (Hall of Public Audience) and Diwan-i-khas (Hall of Private Audience) by Shah
Jahan.
o The Jahangiri Mahal.
o Sheesh Mahal (Turkish Bath).
(ii) Fatehpur Sikri
 The construction of a new capital city by Akbar at Fatehpur Sikri is one of the highlights of Indo-
Islamic architecture.
 The structures here exhibit a unique combination of Hindu and Persian architecture, and have been
described as a "frozen moment in history."
 Buland Darwaza, a 40-meter red sandstone edifice erected in 1576 AD to celebrate Akbar's victory
over Gujarat, is one of the city's most notable structures. It is the world's tallest doorway.
 The Tomb of Salim Chishti was erected in 1581 AD. It contains lovely white marble Jaali
craftsmanship, arabesque designs on the walls, as well as inscriptions of Quranic texts.
 Buland Darwaza and Jama Masjid are also part of the imperial complex. In 1606 AD, Jahangir
decorated it more.

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 AKKA IAS ACADEMY, BENGALURU

 The Panch Mahal is a five-storey edifice built of columns that is based on the Persian badgir idea
(wind-catcher).
 The interiors of Jodha Bai's Palace, also known as Mariam-uz-Zamani's Palace (Mary of the Age), are
decorated with Hindu bell and floral themes.
 Ibadat Khana: This is where Akbar would meet with religious authorities to address issues.
 Pachisi Court, where Akbar is claimed to have played chess in the courtyard.
 The Hiran Minar was named after Akbar's favourite elephant, Hiran. It also acted as a traveler's
lighthouse. It is a one-of-a-kind design, with tusk-like spikes on the external wall.
 In Vrindavan, Akbar also constructed a Govind Dev shrine.
Jahangir
 Architecture took a back seat during Jahangir's reign, as he focused more on paintings and other types
of art.
 He did, however, supervise the construction of several notable monuments, such as Akbar's Tomb in
Sikandra.
 During his rule, he also built a number of gardens, including the Shalimar Bagh in Kashmir and
in Lahore; he also constructed the Moti Masjid.
 During Jahangir's reign, his wife Noor Jahan also conducted some large construction projects, one of
which being the Tomb of Itmad-ud-daulah (Noor Jahan's father).
 During this time, white marble began to replace the previously utilised red sandstone as the primary
construction material.
 Itmad-ud-daulah's tomb was the first Mughal structure composed entirely of white marble.
 It also has some of the best masterpieces in pietra dura.
 Jahangir's tomb was built at Lahore by his son Shah Jahan.
Shah Jahan
Mughal architecture reached its pinnacle under Shah Jahan. The following are some of his most important
works:
 The Taj Mahal is the best example of Mughal architecture, displaying the entire range of wealth and
majesty.
 It was built in honor of his wife, Arjumand Banu Begum, also known as Mumtaz Mahal.
 The employment of calligraphy, pietra-dura works, foreshortening method, Charbagh style gardens,
and the usage of water in the premises for ornamentation were all hallmarks of Mughal architecture.
Apart from that, the Taj Mahal has several distinctive features:
o The jaali work in Taj Mahal is lace-like and incredibly exquisite;
o The marble carvings were low relief.
 Apart from the Taj Mahal, Shah Jahan built a number of other monuments, gardens, and structures,
including the Red Fort in Delhi, the Jama Masjid in Delhi, and the Shalimar Bagh in Lahore.
 Aside from large-scale structures, one of his outstanding works was the Peacock Throne, which is
considered one of the finest examples of metalwork during this time period.
Aurangazeb

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 Mughal architecture deteriorated under Aurangazeb's reign. He did not take an active interest in the
pursuit of art and architecture since he was puritanical.
 Aurangzeb, on the other hand, commissioned the construction of Bibi-ka-Maqbara in honor of his
wife, Begum Rabia-ud-Daurani. It is located in Aurangabad and is said to be a poor copy of the
Taj Mahal.
Cathedral Architecture:
Since 14 century onwards with advent of Portuguese in the territory of present Goa European architecture
started to develop full stop this was further accelerated with decline of Mughal empire and rise of other
European powers like the British the Dutch the French.
Portuguese influence
 With them Portuguese brought Iberian style of architecture. Introduced petio houses and baroque
style. They built sports wear hoses and 45 the towns and palatial houses and villas in and around old
Goa.
 St Cathedral which was built in 1619 AD it has a large golden Bell
 Basilica of bom Jesus or Holi Jesus it is now a World Heritage site built in Baroque style. The body of
Saint Francis Xavier is reverd inside the church.
 Saint Paul's Church in Diu
 Church of Saint Anne in Goa.
French influence
French were restricted to the towns of Pondicherry and Chandernagore the present day Chandan Nagar in
West Bengal. They built in cartesian grid plans and their architecture was based on scientific designs full
stop the introduced the concept anonymous architecture which means simple facade involved without
much ornamentation or design.
Search of sacred heart of Jesus in Pondicherry is an example
British influence
British occupied large area in India and ruled for over 200 to 300 years. They built many architecture in
Gothic style. In the letter period them merged the Indian architecture and it was called indogatic style of
architecture full stop in later period post 1911 another new style emerged as new Roman architecture.
Victoria memorial in Kolkata gateway of India in Mumbai Chhatrapati Shivaji terminus in Mumbai are
some of the examples.
Post 1911 the architectures where under the supervision of some of the famous architectures of Europe.
They were Edwin Lutyens and Herbert Baker. Show the present day area around parliament house in
Delhi is also called as utens Delhi as most of the architectures there were designed by him. Many of the
constructions in this style where influenced by ancient architectures of India. Like the circular building of
Indian parliament is inspired by the Yogini temple in Madhya Pradesh.
Supreme court building and the parliament house or all examples for this type of architecture.
Ajanta Cave paintings
Bodhisattva Padmapani

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A painting in cave number 1 of Ajanta caves, this is Buddha‘s former existence portrayed as a painting.
Cave number 1 of Ajanta caves is known for some of the most elaborate carvings and sculptures from the
life of Gautam Buddha.
King Janaka & Wife
This is a painting of King Janaka of Videha sitting in the palace with his wife. He is seen to be talking to
her and discussing why he wants to renounce his worldly life, live a life of solitude and lead to salvation.
The Painting of Persian Ambassador
A ceiling painting in cave number 1 of Ajanta caves, this one doesn‘t talk about any particular religious
story but is a general decorative motif that explains the importance of Persian culture in ancient India.
The painting portrays a white-skinned Persian ambassador surrounded by dark-skinned native people.
Buddha Paintings
With intricately beautiful paintings on the doorways, this painting in cave number 6 of Ajanta caves
depicts different events in Buddha‘s life. This double storey cave was used as a home to monks, even
when it was incomplete and not entirely built. There is also a Buddha figure seated in this cave.
Doorway Painting
One of the many doorway paintings in Ajanta caves, this one depicts scenes from kings and communities
enjoying each others company eating and drinking wine in merriment.
These manually excavated caves have survived over 2,000 years now, and the paintings, murals and
sculptures can still take you back in wonder. A haven for history buffs, photographers, architecture
students, and tourists in general, the Ajanta caves are a perfect destination for one to understand and
indulge in Indian art and culture.

Mughal School of Paintings

under Akbar
The reign of Akbar is known for the initial works of Mughal School done by Mir Sayyed Ali and Abdus
Samad Khan. These two artists were originally employed by Humayun. Apart from this celebrated duo,
more than a hundred painters were employed, most of whom were Hindus from Gujarat, Gwalior and
Kashmir. The collected and constant efforts of these artists gave birth to a new school of painting,
popularly known as the Mughal School of miniature Paintings. The two most celebrated works
accomplished during the times of Akbar was Tuti-nama and Hamza Nama.
Tuti-Nama
Tuti-nama seems to be the first work of the Mughal School. Tuti-Nama literally means the ―Tales of a
Parrot‖. It is an illustrated compilation of 52 stories in 250 miniature paintings. The work was
commissioned by Akbar. The themes and stories are derived from the 12th century Sanskrit
anthology titled Śukasaptati or ―Seventy Tales of Parrot‖. The parrot tells the 52 stories in the consecutive
52 nights and in these stories he teaches some moral stories to his owner. The work was completed in a
span of five years under Mir Sayyid Ali and Abdus Samad. The text was written by Nakhshabi, an ethnic
Persian physician and a Sufi saint who had migrated to Badayun. It was wrote in Persian.

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Hamza-nama
A more refined and developed work is the Hamza-nama, which contains the illustrations on cloth,
originally consisting of 1400 leaves in seventeen volumes. Each leaf measured about 27″x20″. These
paintings were based upon a Persian Hamzanama or Dastan-e-Amir Hamza. Amir Hamza was the uncle
of the prophet of Islam. Hamza nama was a extremely fanciful story, which was disliked by Babur but
was so much enjoyed by his grandson Akbar that he commissioned the court workshop to create an
illustrated manuscript on this fable, and that took 14 years to complete!
These illustrations went beyond the story-telling and brought into existence some dazzling images,
glowing with jewel-like colours. The initial paintings show the Persian safavi style with Brilliant red, blue
and green colours predominating. The later works show Indian tones.
Mughal School under Jahangir
Under Jahangir, the Mughal school paintings acquired greater charm, refinement and dignity. The
emperor Jahangir had a great fascination for nature and took delight in the portraiture of birds, animals
and flowers. The best example of this period is the portrait of Jahangir himself, who is shown holding a
picture of the Virgin Mary in his right hand. Some other illustrated manuscripts of Jahangir‘s time are
animal fable book titled Ayar-i-Danish, Anwar-i-sunavli. Most of the paintings created during the time of
Jahangir depict the durbar scenes, portraits, bird, animal and flower studies.
Aqa Riza, Abul Hasan, Mansur, Bishan Das, Manohar, Goverdhan, Balchand, Daulat, Mukhlis, Bhim and
Inayat were the famous painters in the court of Jahangir.
Ustad Mansur
Ustad Mansur was a court artist of Jehangir, who specialised in depicting plants and animals. He is best
known for two paintings one of which was a siberian crane and another was of a Bengal Florican. He is
also remembered for a famous painting on Dodo, the now extinct Bird.
Bishandas
Out of the above mentioned painters, Bishandas was praised by the emperor as ―unrivalled in the art of
portraiture‖. In 1613, Bishandas was sent on a diplomatic mission to Persia, to paint the Shah‘s portrait.
He remained there for seven years and returned happily with an elephant as gift.
Development of Provincial Mughal School
Inspired by their overlord, the Mughal courtiers and the provincial officers started patronizing the artists
trained in the Mughal technique of painting. At the same time, we have been told that Jahangir had a
passion for perfect artists. The artists with inferior merits lost their jobs and sought employment in the
provinces. Thus, during those times, the artists who were employed in the Imperial Government were
known as the first grade artists. The works accomplished by these first grade artists is known as the
Imperial Mughal Painting.
But the artists available to the provinces were of inferior merit, thus, the works accomplished in the
provinces was known as ‗Popular Mughal‘ or ‗Provincial Mughal‘ painting, which possessed all the
important characteristics of the Imperial Mughal painting with some inferior quality. The example
paintings of the provincial Mughal paintings are Razm-nama, Rasikapriya and Ramayana, all of which
were created in the initial two decades of 17th century.

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Mughal School of painting under the Shahjahan

The refined quality of the Mughal School was maintained under the reign of Shah Jahan. Importance was
given to portraiture.
Under Aurangzeb and later Mughals
Puritan King Aurangzeb did not encourage art and thus much of the quality of the Mughal painting was
lost. This was the time of mass migration of court artists to provinces. Later, Bahadur shah tried to revive
the art, but after him, the school became lifeless and worthless much like the later mughals.
Rajasthani Schools of Painting'
The term 'Rajasthani Schools of Painting' refers to the schools of painting that flourished between the
sixteenth and early nineteenth centuries in the princely kingdoms and thickens of what is now roughly
Rajasthan and parts of Madhya Pradesh, such as Mewar, Bundi, Kota, Jaipur, Bikaner, Kishangarh,
Jodhpur (Marwar), Malwa, Sirohi, and other such principalities.
Rajasthani paintings are divided into various sub-genres, each of which is named for the princely state in
which they were created.
 Mewar school
 Kishangarh school
 Bundi school
 Amber-Jaipur School
 Marwar School
Mewar school of painting
 Mewar monarchs appear to have patronized art, while the years of relative peace and prosperity saw
an unprecedented efflorescence.
 The remarkable figure of Sahibdin dominates early Mewar paintings.
 The Rasikapriya, the Ramayana, and the Bhagavata Purana are all shown by Sahibdin during this
period of Mewari art.
 The style of Mewar paintings shifted after Sahibdin's death. The majority of the paintings showed life
in Mewar's courts.
 The remarkable 'tamasha' paintings, which depict court rituals and city views in unprecedented detail,
are a highlight of this period.
Kishangarh school of painting
 The most romantic legends - Sawant Singh and his lover Bani Thani – and the merging of life and
mythology, romance and bhakti are all shown in Kishangarh's paintings.
 They also painted a lot about Radha and Krishna's spiritual and romantic relationships.
Bundi school of painting
 Hadoti is the name given to the twin kingdoms of Bundi and Kota. The sister republics, which were
founded by splitting the elder Bundi kingdom between two brothers, have histories and artistic
traditions that are inextricably linked.

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 The monarchs of Bundi and Kota have devoted Krishna believers, and in the 18th century, they
declared themselves to be mere regents, ruling on behalf of the god who was the genuine king (similar
worship patterns can also be seen in Udaipur and Jaipur).
 Paintings of natural vegetation were detailed in the Bundi school. In the artwork, human faces were
spherical with a pointy snout.
 The sky is painted in various colors, with a red ribbon visible most of the time.
Amber-Jaipur School of painting
 The Amber school is also known as the 'Dhundar' school, and its oldest evidence can be seen in
Rajasthan's Bairat wall paintings.
 The palace walls and mausoleum of Amer palace in Rajasthan also have some paintings. Despite the
fact that some of the guys are depicted in Mughal-style attire and headdress, the paintings have a folk-
style finish.
 In the 18th century, during the reign of Sawai Pratap Singh, this school attained its pinnacle.
 Suratkhana, or painting department, produced miniatures to accompany the Bhagavata Purana,
Ramayana, Ragamala, and a variety of portraits.
Marwar School of painting
 Jodhpur and Bikaner, both controlled by the Rathods, and Jaisalmer, ruled by the Bhati's, make up one
of the most vast schools of painting. Jodhpur, like Bikaner, was a desert kingdom that prospered
thanks to its ties to the Mughals.
 The men and ladies in paintings from the 15th and 16th centuries wore brightly colored attire.
 They followed Mughal traditions throughout this time, but after the 18th century, the Rajput element
grew more prominent, as seen by an influx of paintings with a linear rhythm and bright colors.
 Many excellent paintings may be seen in the Jodhpur atelier, but the attention has always been on the
exceptional paintings created during Man Singh's (1803-1843) reign and beyond.
The Rajasthani School of painting is inspired by Indian epics, religious literature such as the Puranas,
love poems in Sanskrit and other Indian languages, Indian folklore, and works on musical themes.
Between the fifteenth and early nineteenth centuries, this style of painting had a strong effect in Rajasthan
and parts of Madhya Pradesh, including Mewar, Bundi, Kota, Jaipur, Bikaner, Kishangarh, Jodhpur
(Marwar), Malwa, Sirohi, and other principalities.

6 Classical Dances of India

Dance is an ancient and celebrated cultural tradition in India. Folk dances abound all across the country,
and huge crowds of people can be found dancing at festivals and weddings. Dance and song features
heavily in Indian cinema (so-called ―Bollywood‖ films), too. But where does Indian dance draw its roots
from? Here are six of the most important classical dance forms of India.
1. Bharatanatyam
Bharatanatyam is a dance of Tamil Nadu in southern India. It traces its origins back to the Natyashastra,
an ancient treatise on theatre written by the mythic priest Bharata. Originally a temple dance for women,
bharatanatyam often is used to express Hindu religious stories and devotions. It was not commonly seen
on the public stage until the 20th century. The dance movements are characterized by bent legs, while feet
keep rhythm. Hands may be used in a series of mudras, or symbolic hand gestures, to tell a story.

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2. Kathakali
Kathakali comes from southwestern India, around the state of Kerala. Like bharatanatyam, kathakali is a
religious dance. It draws inspiration from the Ramayana and stories from Shaiva traditions. Kathakali is
traditionally performed by boys and men, even for female roles. The costumes and makeup are especially
elaborate, with faces made to look like painted masks and enormous headdresses.
3. Kathak
A dance of northern India, Kathak is often a dance of love. It is performed by both men and women. The
movements include intricate footwork accented by bells worn around the ankles and stylized gestures
adapted from normal body language. It was originated by Kathakas, professional storytellers who used a
mixture of dance, song, and drama. Like other Indian dances it began as a temple dance, but soon moved
into the courts of ruling houses.
4. Manipuri
Manipuri comes from Manipur in northeastern India. It has its roots in that state‘s folk traditions and
rituals, and often depicts scenes from the life of the god Krishna. Unlike some of the other, more rhythmic
dances, Manipuri is characterized by smooth and graceful movements. Female roles are especially fluid in
the arms and hands, while male roles tend to have more forceful movements. The dance may be
accompanied by narrative chanting and choral singing.

5. kuchipudi
Unlike the other styles mentioned, kuchipudi requires talent in both dancing and singing. This dance,
from the state of Andhra Pradesh in southeastern India, is highly ritualized, with a formalized song-and-
dance introduction, sprinkling of holy water, and burning of incense, along with invocations of goddesses.
Traditionally the dance was performed by men, even the female roles, although now it is predominantly
performed by women.
6. Odissi
Odissi is indigenous to Orissa in eastern India. It is predominantly a dance for women, with postures that
replicate those found in temple sculptures. Based on archaeological findings, odissi is belived to be the
oldest of the surviving Indian classical dances. Odissi is a very complex and expressive dance, with over
fifty mudras (symbolic hand gestures) commonly used.
7. Mohiniyattam
 Mohiniyattam or dance of Mohini (an incarnation of Lord Vishnu) is the classical solo dance form of
Kerala.
 References of Mohiniyattam can be found in the texts Vyavaharamala written in 1709 by
Mazhamagalam Narayanan Namputiri and in Ghoshayatra, written later by poet Kunjan Nambiar.
 It was structured into the present day classical format by the Travancore Kings, Maharaja Kartika
Tirunal and his successor Maharaja Swati Tirunal (18 -19 century)
 Mostly a solo performance by girls with circular movements, delicate footsteps and subtle
expressions.

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 Movements have been borrowed from Nangiar Koothu and female folk dances Kaikottikali and the
Tiruvatirakali.
 It has elements of Bharatanatyam (grace & elegance) and Kathakali (vigour) but is more erotic, lyrical
and delicate.
 Realistic make-up and simple dressing (in Kasavu saree of Kerala) are used.
 The lyrics are in Manipravala (a medieval south Indian language combining TamilMalayalam and
Sanskrit).
 Sunanda Nair and Pallavi Krishnan are the notable artists.
8. Sattriya (Assam)
 The Sattriya dance form was introduced in the 15 century A.D by the Vaishnava saint and reformer of
Assam, Sankaradeva as a medium for propagation of the Vaishnava faith.
 The dance form evolved and expanded as a distinctive style of dance later on.
 Because of its religious character and association with the Sattras (Vaishnava maths or monasteries),
this dance style has been named Sattriya.
 Sattriya dance tradition is governed by strictly laid down principles in respect of hastamudras,
footworks, aharyas, music etc.
 This tradition, has two distinctly separate streams - the Bhaona-related repertoire starting from the
Gayan-Bhayanar Nach to the Kharmanar Nach, secondly the dance numbers which are independent,
such as Chali, Rajagharia Chali, Jhumura, Nadu Bhangi etc.
 Among them the Chali is characterized by gracefulness and elegance, while the Jhumura is marked by
vigor and majestic beauty.

CLASSICAL MUSIC
There are two systems of music:
1. Northern Music System – It is called Hindustani Sangeet. In India, it is prevalent everywhere except
in four southern states. The neighbouring countries of India like Nepal and Bangladesh also have
northern music system.
2. Southern Music System – It is called Karnatak Sangeet. The southern states of India have a southern
music system.
Forms of Hindustani Music
Dhrupad
This is the oldest and grandest form of Hindustani music. It is essentially poetic and it is presented in a
style marked with the precise and orderly elaboration of Raga. exposition proceedings composed verses
is called Alap.
Khayal
Khayal means imagination. This is the most prominent style in Hindustani depicting the romantic style of
singing. It largely depends on the imagination and improvisation of the performer. It is also composed of
particular raga and tala. It ranges from the praise of kings description of seasons and pranks of Lord Sri
Krishna.

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Thumri
Thumri originated in the eastern part of Uttar Pradesh. It is influenced by Hori, Kajri, Dadra. Tumhri is
supposed to be the romantic and erotic style of singing and is also called ―lyric of Indian classical music‖.
The song composition mainly on love and devotion.
Tappa
Tappa developed around the 18th century. It means jump in Persian, it is developed on folk songs of
camel riders.

Carnatic Music
Characteristics
 The intensity of sound can be controlled in this style.
 Use of helical (Kundali) swaras is evident.
 Free and typical style of raga.
 The singer recites the ‗aalap‘ and ‗taanam‘.
 The distorted swars are named according to the shrutis. They are started afterwards.
 The purity of swars are based on less shrutis, meaning high purity.
 The thaat of pure swars is called `mukhari‘.
 The time durations are well-defined in the Carnatic music. Madhya is twice of ‗Vilamba‘ and the
‗Dhruta‘ is twice of Madhya.
Origin of Carnatic Music
 Carnatic music owes its name to the Sanskrit term Karnâtaka Sangîtam which denotes ―traditional‖ or
―codified‖ music.
 Composed of a system of Ragam (Raga) and Thalam (Tala), it has a rich history and tradition.
 Carnatic Sangeet has developed in the south Indian states of Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Andhra Pradesh and
Karnataka. These states are known for their strong presentation of Dravidian culture.
Renaissance of Carnatic Music
 The course of the evolution of Indian music saw the emergence of two different subsystems as
Hindustani and Carnatic music. Both the terms emerged for the first time in Haripala‟s “Sangeeta
Sudhakara”, written in the 14th century A.D.
 The two distinct styles, Hindustani and Carnatic came into vogue after the advent of the Muslims,
particularly during the reign of the Mughal Emperors.
 Purandardas (1484-1564), a prolific poet-composer and mystic of Vijayanagar, is considered to be
the father of Carnatic music (Carnatic Sangeeta Pitamaha).
 Venkatamakhi is regarded as the grand theorist of Carnatic music. In 17th century AD, he
developed “Melakarta”, the system for classifying south Indian ragas. There are 72 Melakartas at
present.
 Tyagaraja (1767-1847), his contemporaries Syama Sastri and Muttusvami Dikshitar are together
known as the “Trinity” of Carnatic music.
Musical forms of Carnatic Music
 Gitam: It is the simplest type of composition with an easy and melodious flow of raga.

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 Suladi: The Suladi is a talamalika, the sections being in different talas.

 Svarajati: It consists of three sections, called Pallavi, Anupallavi and Charanam. The theme is either
devotional, heroic or amorous.
 Jatisavaram: It is noted for the use of rhythmical excellence and the Jati pattern.
 Varnam: It is the only form which does not find a counterpart in Hindustani music. This form is
called a Varnam because many of the Svara group patterns called ‗Varnas‘ in ancient music are
interwoven in its texture.
 Kirtanam: It is valued for the devotional content or Bhakti Bhava of the Sahitya.
 Kriti: It developed from the Kirtanam. It is a highly evolved musical form.
 Pallavi: This is the most important branch of creative music. It allows improvisation

Folk Music
India is a geographically diverse nation and that diversity is also reflected in the Indian culture. Each state
of this country has its own form of music that is the basis of their cultural affirmation. While the classical
music follow the rules as laid in the Natyashastra and cultivate a guru-shishya (student-mentor) tradition;
the folk tradition is the music of the people and has no hard and fast rules. They are based on diverse
themes and are full of musical rhythm.They are also set on beats so that they can be dance oriented. There
are several type of folk music associated with a particular State:

Baul
It is not only a type of music, but a Bengali religious sect. The music of the Bauls, Baul Sangeet, is a
particular type of folk song. Its lyrics carry influences of the Hindu Bhakti movements and the Suphi, a
form of Sufi song exemplified by the songs of Kabir and is called ‗Baul Gaan‘ or Baul song. Their music
represents a long heritage of preaching mysticism through songs in Bengal, as in the Shahebdhoni or
Bolahadi sects. The prominent propounder of this music are: Yotin Das, Purno Chandra Das, Lalon
Phakir, Naboni Das and Sanatan Das Thakur Baul.
Lavani
This is one of the most famous folk dance forms from Maharashtra. It is also one of the most popular
genre of music that is popular in Maharashtra. It is a combination of traditional dance and song that is
performed usually on the beats of the Dholki, which is a percussion instrument. The music is unique as it
is perfect for dancing. It has a powerful rhythm and beats which ensures that everyone dances merrily
Dandiya
Raas or Dandiya Raas is the traditional folk dance form of Gujarat and is associated with scenes of Holi
and lila of Krishna and Radha at Vrindavan. Along with Garba, it is the featured dance of Navratri
evenings in Western India. There are several forms of Raas, but ―Dandiya Raas‖, performed during
Navaratri in Gujarat is the most popular form. Other forms of Raas include Dang Lila from Rajasthan
where only one large stick is used, and ―Rasa lila‖ from North India. Raas Lila and Dandiya Raas are
similar. Some even consider ―Garba‖ as a form of Raas, namely ―Raas Garba‖. In Dandiya Raas men and
women dance in two circles, with sticks in their hands.
Bhavageete

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These are emotional songs that are very popular amongst the masses in Karnataka and Maharashtra.
Musically, they are very close to the Ghazals and are sung on a slower pitch. They are usually composed
on themes around nature, love and philosophy.
Kolannalu or Kolattam
It is popular in Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu. It is similar to ―Dandiya‖. It is an ancient
dance form and involves movement in a rhythmic fashion. Songs and music is played along with dance.

FOLK ARTS OF INDIA

FOLK DANCE;
Chhau
The word Chhau originates from ‗Chhaya‘ meaning shadow. It is a form of mask dance that uses
vigourous martial movements to narrate mythological stories. Some narrations also use natural themes
such as Sarpa nritya (serpent dance) or Mayur Nritya (peacock dance).
There are three main styles of Chhau dance – Saraikella Chhau in Jharkhand, Mayurbhanj Chhau in
Odisha and Purulia Chhau inWest Bengal. Of these, Mayurbhanj Chhau artists don‘t wear masks. In
2010, UNESCO inscribed Chhau in the Representative List of Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity.
Garba
Garba is a popular folk dance of Gujarat, held at the time of Navaratra. Garba actually refers to ―Garbha
deep‖ - an earthern pot with holes, in which a lamp is lit and women dance around it in circular
movements with rhythmic clapping.
Dandiya Raas
It is an energetic, lively dance form in which polished sticks or dandiyas are used. It represents a mock
fight between Durga and Mahishasura. Tarangamel It is the folk dance of Goa that celebrates the
youthfulness of the region. It is performed during Dussehra and Holi. The use of rainbow-like costumes
with multi coloured flags and streamers make it a visual spectacle.
Ghoomar or Gangore
It is a traditional folk dance performed by the women of the Bhil tribe in Rajasthan. It is characterised by
the pirouetting movements of the women, which brings into prominence the multi-coloured vibrancies of
the flowing Ghaghra.

Ghoomar

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Kalbelia
It is a sensuous folk dance performed by the women of the Kalbelia community of Rajasthan. The
costumes and dance movement are similar to that of the serpents. ‗Been‘ (wind instrument played by
snake charmers) is the popular musical instrument of this dance form. The UNESCO has inscribed
Kalbelia folk songs and dances in the Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity
in 2010.
Thang Ta
Thang Ta is the exclusive martial dance form of Manipur. Thang means sword and Ta means spear. The
dance performance is a unique display of skill, creativity and agility in which the performers enact a
mock fight sequence – leaping to attack and defend.
Bhootha Aradhane
Bhootha Aradhane or devil worship is a popular dance form of Karnataka. Prior to the performance, idols
depicting devils are placed on a plinth and the performer then dances vigorously, as if a possessed person.
It is basically worshipping Demigods, recent famous movie Kantara is based on this art.

Bhootha Aradhane
Pata Kunitha
It is the dance form popular in the Mysore region. It is primarily a religious dance performed by men who
use long bamboo poles decorated with colourful ribbons, known as pata. The colourful exuberance makes
it a visual spectacle and is extremely popular among the masses of all religion. Puja Kunitha is a variant
of this dance form popular in the region around Bengaluru and Mandya districts.

FOLK THEATRE:
Ankia Nat
It is the traditional one-act play of Assam. It was started by the famous Vaishnava Saint Shankaradeva
and his disciple Mahadeva in the 16th century A.D. It is performed in the style of an opera and depicts
incidents from the life of Krishna. The Sutradhar or narrator is accompanied by a group of musicians
known as Gayan-Bayan Mandali who play the ‗khol‘ and cymbals. One of the unique features of this
form of theatre is the use of masks to depict special expressions.

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Ramlila
Ramlila is a popular folk theatre in the region of Uttar Pradesh. It is an enactment of Ramayana using
songs, dances and dialogues, mainly during the period before Dussehra. It is generally performed by male
actors, who perform the role of Sita as well.
Ramman
It is a ritualistic theatre of Garhwal region of Uttarakhand. It is dedicated to Bhumiyal Devta, the local
deity. It is listed in the UNESCO‘s Representative list of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity.
People of the Bhandari caste wear the sacred mask symbolizing Narasimha (half-man and half lion).
Dances are performed and various songs are sung. Stories of Lord Rama are also narrated.
Tamasha
Tamasha is form of folk theatre in the region of Maharashtra, known for its humour and erotic content.
The unique feature of Tamasha is the presence of female actors, who play the even the male roles. The
Tamasha performances are generally accompanied by Lavani songs
Yakshagana
 Yakshagana is a traditional theatre form of Karnataka.
 It is a temple art form that depicts mythological stories and Puranas.
 It is performed with massive headgears, elaborate facial make-up and vibrant costumes and
ornaments.
 Usually recited in Kannada, it is also performed in Malayalam as well as Tulu (the dialect of south
Karnataka).
 It is performed with percussion instruments like chenda, maddalam, jagatta or chengila (cymbals) and
chakratala or elathalam (small cymbals).
It is perhaps the oldest theatre traditions, which is prevalent till date in the regions of Andhra Pradesh and
Karnataka. It originated in the royals courts of the Vijaynagar empire and was performed by a particular
community known as Jakkula Varu. Originally, it was largely a descriptive dance-drama enacted by a
single artist. Later forms adopted further variations and became a typical dance drama. Some of the
popular variants of Yakshagana are Lalita in Maharashtra, Bhavai in Gujarat and Gandharva Gana in
Nepal.

Yakshagana

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Bayalata
It is an open-air theatre tradition of Karnataka that is performed during the worship of the local deity.
There are generally five types of Bayalatas – Dasarat, Sannata, Doddata, Parijata and Yakshagana. The
stories are based on the love of Radha-Krishna. Parijata and Yakshagana are narrated by a single
Sutradhar while the other three forms are performed in a chorus of three-four, aided by a Vidushaka.

Music in Mughal Empire

 Mughals were great patrons of Music. It was another field in which Hindus and Muslims collaborated.
 Akbar was a great fan of music and was a patron of all those who practised it.
 Akbar was an accomplished musician. He continued his studies in Hindu vocalisation with Lal
Kalawant, who taught him "every breathing and sound that pertains to the Hindi language."
 According to Ain-i-Akbari (written by Abdul-Fazl ibn Mubarak), there were 36 high-level musicians
in the Mughal court of Akbar.
 Tansen (also known as Mian Tansen), regarded as one of India's greatest musicians, held a position of
great importance in Akbar‘s court.
 Tansen invented several new ragas and was even credited with having the ability to stop the flow of
the Yamuna with his music.
 Baba Ram Das was another well-known musician. He appears to have been attached to Bairam Khan,
who was so pleased with him on one occasion that he bestowed a large reward upon him.
 Baba Hari Das, a contemporary of Tansen and Akbar, was another equally, if not more famous,
singer.
 Akbar is said to have paid him an unannounced visit at his hermitage in Vrindaban.
 Sur Das, son of the celebrated singer Ram Das and one of the greatest Hindi poets of all time, was
also a court musician during Akbar's reign.
 The emperor's interest in and patronage of music resulted in significant advancements in both the
instrumental and vocal arts.
 The Mughals are credited with bringing two disparate musical systems (Hindu and Muslim) together
and giving birth to national Indian music.
The contribution of Mughals in the field of Music
The Mughals were patrons of music. According to Lane-Poole, ―the art of improving quatrain on the spot,
quoting Persian classics, writing a good hand and singing a good song were appreciated in the time of
Babur who himself was fond of music. He not only liked music but himself wrote poetry.
Humayun was also fond of musicians and singers and had fixed Mondays and Wednesdays for that
purpose. It is stated that when Humayun captured Mandu in 1535 and ordered a wholesale massacre of all
the prisoners, he came to know that Bachchu, a musician, was among the captives.
Not only his life was saved, he was also made a musician of the court. As regards the members of the Sur
dynasty, Badauni says that they ―were enticed from the path of fortitude and self- restraint by all sorts of
sense-ravishing allurements.‖ Adil Shah was so great a patron of music that he gave Bhagat, a musician
boy, Mansab of 10,000.

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Akbar was also a great lover of music. According to Abul Fazal. ―His Majesty pays much attention to
music and is the patron of all who practise this enchanting art. There are numerous musicians at the court,
Hindus, Iranis, Turanis, kashmiris, both men and women.
The court musicians are arranged in seven divisions, one for each day of the week.‖ Abul Fazal gives us a
list of 36 singers and performers on various instruments. The name of Baz Bahadur, the ex-king of
Malwa, is one of them. It is stated that he was appointed a Mansabdar of 1,000 and he is described as a
singer without rival.
According to Abul Fazal. ―Akbar was the master of such knowledge of the science of music as trained
musicians do not possess; and he had likewise an excellent hand at performing especially on the Sakarah
(kettle-drum).‖ ―Akbar made a special study of Hindi Vocalization under Lai Kalawant or Miyan Lai who
taught him every breathing and sign that appertains to the Hindi Language.‖ The Ain-i-Akbari contains
details of the daily routine of performances by the palace band.
Mian Tansen was the best singer of Akbar‘s time. His original name was Raman Pande. He was born in
1506. His father‘s name was Makaranda Pande, a resident of Gwalior. His talent in music became
manifest when he was a mere boy. The natural gift of the boy was developed by the famous musicians of
the time, Swami Haridas of Brindavan. It is said that when the Swami was passing along a field, He heard
a strange musical voice; it was the voice of young Raman who was imitating the cries of various animals,
particularly tigers, to scare away trespassers.
Haridas took Ramtanu to Brindavan and gave him a sound training in the finer points of music. On return
to his village, Ramtanu continued to work hard and eventually emerged as a seasoned musician. Much of
his time was now spent in singing devotional songs, composing and teaching. He gradually came to the
notice of Raja Ram Chand who made him one of his court singers. The Raja was so overwhelmed by the
music of Ramtanu that he once made a present of one crore of Tankas in appreciation of his
performances.
When his fame reached Akbar, he sent Jalalud-din-Qurchi to bring Ramtanu to his court at Agra. This
was in 1563. Raja Ram Chand was reluctant to lose his favourite, but could do nothing to resist Akbar‘s
demand. Akbar was so moved on hearing Ramtanu that he presented him with 2 lakhs of rupees and
conferred on him the title of Tansen.
He was so much honoured and encouraged by the Mughal Emperor that most of Tansen‘s later
compositions are in praise of Akbar in whom he sought inspiration for the final bloom of his talents. Abul
Fazal says of Miyan Tansen, ―A singer like him has not been known in India for the last thousand years.
He was by far the best of the group of musicians of the imperial court of whom at least 36 are enumerated
in history.
Numerous musicians were attached to Akbar‘s court-Hindus, Iranis, Turanis, Kashmiris, both men and
women. They formed 7 groups, one for each day of the week.‖ Tansen was the greatest luminary on the
horizon of classical music of Northern India, the renowned discoverer of several Ragas and a few
instruments. He is credited with the discovery of the Rudra Vina and is said to be the innovator of two
famous Ragas, Miyan-ki-Tod and Darbari Kanada-probably after his own name and the name of the
imperial court which he had the privilege to serve.

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Tansen died at the age of 83 in 1589, full of years and honours. His body was taken to Gwalior and buried
near the sacred mausoleum of bis benefactor and spiritual guru, Mohammad Ghaus. The other famous
musicians were Baba Ram Da, Baiju Bawara and Sur Das. Babu Ram Das was second only to Tansen. A
reward of one lakh of Tankas was given to him by Bairam Khan. In the time of Akbar, the different
systems of music were fused together and a New Indian Music came into being.
Like his father, Jahangir had an ear for music. He kept in his court a large number of musicians.
According to William Finch, ―Many hundred of musicians and dancing girls attended there day and night,
yet as their several turns-every seventh day, that they may be ready when the King or his women shall
please to call any of them to sing or dance in his Mahal, he was giving to every one of them stipend
according to their worth.‖ Jahangir was himself the author of many Hindi songs which were very
interesting. Mohammad Salih and his brothers were great singers of Hindi songs. Jagannath and
Janardhan Bhatt of Bikaner were great musicians.
Shah Jahan was also a lower of music. In the evenings, he used to hear the best of the songs of the
musicians. Vocal and instrumental music was given every day in the Diwan-i-Khas. On occasions, Shah
Jahan himself took part in music. According to J.N. Sarkar, ―the voice of Shah Jahan was so attractive
that ―many pure-souled Sufis and holy men with hearts withdrawn from the world who attended these
evening assemblies lost their senses in the ecstasy produced by his singing.‖ Shah Jahan patronised
musicians. Ram Das and Maha Patra were chief vocalists at the court of Shah Jahan. On one occasion,
Shah Jahan was so much pleased with the music of Jagannath that he had him weighed against gold and
gave him the amount as his fee.‖

India‟s cultural contributions to the outside world:

CENTRAL ASIA
From the 2nd century B.C. onwards India maintained commercial contact with China, Central Asia, West
Asia and the Roman empire. Central Asia is a landmass bound by China, Russia, Tibet, India and
Afghanistan.Traders to and from China regularly crossed the region despite hardships. The route, that was
opened by them, later became famous as the Silk Route.
The route was so named because silk was one of the chief mercantile commodities of China. In later
times, the same route was used by scholars monks and missionaries.The route served as a great channel
for the transmission of cultures of the then known world. The impact of Indian culture was felt strongly in
Central Asia.
Among the kingdoms of Central Asia, Kuchi was a very important and flourishing centre of the Indian
culture. It was the kingdom where the Silk Route bifurcates and meets at the Dun-huang caves in China
again.
Thus, there is the Northern and the Southern Silk Route. The Northern route goes via Samarkand,
Kashgarh, Tumshuk, Aksu, Karashahr, Turfan and Hami and the Southern route via Yarkand, Khotan,
Keriya, Cherchen and Miran.
Many Chinese and Indian scholars travelled through these routes in search of wisdom and to propagate
the philosophy of Buddhism.Cultural exchanges that took place between India and the countries of
Central Asia are visible from the discoveries of ancient stupas, temples, monasteries, images and
paintings found in all these countries.

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Along the route there were resting places for Monks and Missionaries, for pilgrims and merchants and
later these became famous centres of Buddhist learning.
Silk and jade, horses and valuables changed hands, but the most lasting treasure that travelled along the
route was Buddhism. Thus, the trade route transmitted religion and philosophy, ideas and beliefs,
languages and literature, and art and culture.
Khotan was one of the most important outposts. It was on the Southern Silk Route. The history of cultural
relationship between India and the kingdom goes back to over two millennia.
Khotan was famous for its silk industry, dance, music, literary pursuits, commercial activities and for gold
and jade exports. The history of the Indo-Khotanese relationship is witnessed by a continuous flow of
teachers and monks from India to Khotan.
Coins found from the first century AD bear engravings in Chinese on the obverse and Prakrit in Kharosthi
script on the reverse providing evidence of a composite culture in Khotan.
A large number of Sanskrit manuscripts, translations and transcriptions of Buddhist texts in Sanskrit were
discovered from the monasteries buried in sand.

Spread in East Asia

China
The contact between India and China began around the 2nd Century B.C. Indian culture first entered
China with two monk scholars—Kashyapa Martanga and Dharmarakshita who went to China in AD 67
on the invitation of the Chinese Emperor Ming Ti.
After Kashyapa Martanga and Dharmarakshita, there was a continuous flow of scholars from India to
China and from China to India. The Chinese were a highly cultured people. They listened to the thrilling
stories of the Buddha with great attention.
The Chinese who came in search of wisdom wrote about India and the Indian culture to such an extent
that today they are the most important sources of Indian history. Prominent teachers from the Indian
Universities and monasteries became famous in China.
In the fourth century AD Wei Dynasty came to power in China. Its first Emperor declared Buddhism as
the state religion. This gave an impetus to the spread of Buddhism in China. Thousands of Sanskrit books
were translated into Chinese.
Braving the hazards of a long and perilous journey they came to visit the land of the Buddha. They stayed
in India and collected Buddhist relics and manuscripts related to Buddhism and learnt about it staying at
the various educational centres.
Japan
The story of Indian culture in Japan is believed to go back to more than fïfteen hundred years. But the
earliest historical evidence of Indian culture going to Japan is from AD 552.
At that time, the Korean Emperor sent a Buddhist statue, sutras, instruments for worship, artists,
sculptors, painters and architects as gifts for the Japanese Emperor. Soon, Buddhism was given the status
of State Religion. Thousands of Japanese became monks and nuns.

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Sanskrit was accepted as the sacred language in Japan. Monks were given special training to write the
Sanskrit syllables and mantras. The script in which all these are written is known as ‗Shittan‘.
Shittan is believed to be Siddham, the script that gives ‗siddhi‘ (accomplishment). Even today, there is a
keen desire among the Japanese scholars to learn Sanskrit.
As the language of Buddhist scriptures, it is a cementing force between India and Japan. Buddhist sutras,
translated into Chinese, were brought to Japan during the time of Prince Shotokutaishi in the seventh
century, who was highly impressed by their philosophy.

INDIA AND SOUTH-EAST ASIA

People and culture of India began to reach Myanmar in the beginning of the Christian era. Myanmar is
situated on the route to China. People coming from the port towns of Amaravati and Tamralipti often
settled down in Myanmar after the second century AD. The people who had migrated included traders,
brahmins, artists, craftsmen and others
Till the year 1939, Thailand was called Siam, its original name. Indian cultural influences began to reach
there in the first century AD. It was first carried by Indian traders, followed by teachers and missionaries.
The Thai kingdoms were given Sanskrit names such as Dwaravati, Shrivijay, Sukhodaya and Ayutthiya.
The names of their cities also indicate a strong cultural interflow. For example, Kanchanaburi is from
Kanchanapuri, Rajburi is from Rajpuri, Lobpuri is Lavapuri, and names of the cities like Prachinaburi,
Singhaburi are all derived from Sanskrit. Even the names of the streets like Rajaram, Rajajrani, Mahajaya
and Cakravamsha remind us of the popularity of the Ramayana. Brahminical images and Buddhist
temples began to be constructed in third and fourth century AD. The earliest images found from Thailand
are those of Lord Vishnu.
The famous kingdoms of Champa (Annam) and Kamhuja (Cambodia) were ruled by the kings of Indian
origins. The history of deep-rooted cultural relationship between India and Cambodia goes back to the
first and second centuries AD. In Kambuja, Kaundinya dynasty of Indian origin ruled from the first
century A.D. We can reconstruct their history from numerous Sanskrit inscriptions and from literary
works. We can also see their splendour from the magnificent temples.
Angkor Vat is supposed to be the abode of Vishnu, that is, Vaikunthadhama. Its five towers are said to be
the five peaks of the Sumeru mountain. The king Suryavarman is portrayed there as an incarnation of
Vishnu who had attained a place in heaven because of his meritorious deeds. The temple represents a
square mile of construction with a broad moat running around adding to its spectacular charm. Scenes
from Ramayana and Mahabharata are engraved on the walls of this temple. The largest among all of them
is the scène of Samudra manthan that is churning of the ocean.
Indian culture was carried to the distant land of Vietnam by a number of enterprising traders and princes
who migrated and established themselves as pioneers in the field of politics and economics. They named
the cities there as Indrapura, Amaravati, Vijaya, Kauthara and Panduranga.
Malaysia was known to us since ancient times. There are references in the Ramayana, the Jataka stories,
Malindapanha, Shilapadikaram, Raghuvamsha and many other works. Evidence of Shaivism has been
discovered in Kedah and in the province of Wellesly. Female figurines with trident have been unearthed.
The Head of a Nandi made of granite stone, a relief of Durga image, Ganesha and Shivlingas belonging to
the seventh and eighth centuries have been discovered from various sites. Brahmi, in its late form, was the

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script of ancient Malaysia. Tablets of Buddhist texts written in a script that resembles old Tamil have
been found at Kedah. Sanskrit was one of the source languages for them. Till today a fairly large number
of Sanskrit words can be seen in their language, for example, svarga, rasa, guna, dahda, mantri, dhïpati,
and laksha. Hanuman and Garuda were known in Malaysia for their superhuman qualities
In the field of religious architecture, the largest Shiva temple in Indonesia is situated in the island of Java.
It is called Prambanan. It was built in the ninth century. It has a Shiva temple flanked by Vishnu and
Brahma temples. Opposite these three temples are temples constructed for their vahanas. They are Nandi
(Bull) for Shiva, Garuda for Vishnu and Goose for Brahma. In between the two rows are the temples
dedicated to Durga and Ganesh, numbering eight in all, surrounded by 240 small temples. It is an
example of wonderful architecture. The stories of Ramayana and Krishna, carved on the walls of the
temple, are the oldest representations in the world. Sanskrit hymns are recited at the time of puja. Over
five hundred hymns, stotras dedicated to Shiva, Brahma, Durga, Ganesha, Buddha, and many other
deities have been discovered from Bali. In fact Bali is the only country where Hindu culture flourished
and survived. Today, while the entire Archipelago has accepted Islam, Bali still follows Hindu culture
and religion.
A large number of scriptural works have been found from Java. They are mostly written on palm leaves in
their ancient script called Kawi. Kawi script was devised on the basis of Brahmi. Some of them contain
Sanskrit verses (shlokas) followed by commentary in Kawi language. Among the texts on Shaiva religion
and philosophy, Bhuvanakosha is the earliest and the longest text. This has five hundred and twenty five
shlokas in Sanskrit. A commentary is written to explain the meaning.
Sri Lanka
You might have read the great epic called Ramayana in which Lord Rama, King of Ayodhya goes to Sri
Lanka to bring back Sita. It is possible that the Lanka of that time and Sri Lanka might be different
places.
King Ashoka made great efforts to propagate Buddhism outside India. He sent his son Mahendra and
daughter Sanghamitra to Sri Lanka to spread the message of the Buddha.
A number of other scholars also joined them. It is said that they carried a cutting of the Bodhi tree from
Bodhgaya which was planted there. At that time Devanampiya Tissa was the king of Sri Lanka.
The teachings of the Buddha were transmitted orally by the people who had gone from India. For around
two hundred years, the people of Sri Lanka preserved the recitation of Buddhist scriptures as transmitted
by Mahendra.
The first monasteries built there are Mahavihar and Abhayagiri. Sri Lanka became a stronghold of
Buddhism and continues to be so even today. Pali became their literary language. Buddhism played an
important role in shaping Sri Lankan culture.
The Dipavansa and Mahavamsa are well known Sri Lankan Buddhist sources. With Buddhism, Indian Art
forms also reached Sri Lanka, where the themes, styles and techniques of paintings, dance, folklores and
art and architecture were taken from India.
The most renowned paintings of Sri Lanka are found in the cave-shelter monasteries at Sigiriya. King
Kashyap is believed to have converted it into a fortified place in the fifth century AD. Figures painted in
the cave are in the Amaravati style of India.

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RELIGIONS OF INDIA-
Hinduism
Hinduism is a religious practice that originated and is practiced in India. It is one of the oldest religious
practices in the world. It is mainly practiced in India and it‘s the world‘s 3rd most popular religion with
over 900 million followers. It is a complex religion, but it is widely accepted.
Hindus Participate in Sacraments and believe in the Holy Book of the Hindus called Veda, which is made
up of four different books. The first book is Rig Veda, the second book is Sama Veda, the third book is
Yajur and the Argtharva is the fourth book. However, ordinary Hindus read it rarely because it was only
reserved for certain classes of people. Hinduism beliefs are focused mainly on spiritual matters.
Apart from the Veda, the following are the major characteristic of Hinduism beliefs and practices:
 Existence of Brahman, one Supreme Being who is omnipotent, eternal, uncreated, and omnipresent.
 Existence of different aspects of the one supreme God in form of other gods.
 Existence of the Hindu Trinity comprising of Brahma, who is the Creator of the universe, the divine
who is usually associated with Maya, a sign of eternal illusion. Vishnu, whose followers make one of
the major divisions of Hinduism. Shiva is the last of the Trinity who represents the destroyer. He is
the protector of evil and is often linked to the river Ganges because of his hair.
 They believe in Karma, a theory of casualty in which the Hindus use to believe in Samsara, a cycle of
rebirth, and the concept that the soul is immortal. They believe that someone experiences the
consequences of his or her actions when he is reborn. This stems from the law of cause and effect
called Karma. A person‘s good or bad actions are determined by the reward he or she gets after the
rebirth.
 Hindus also believe in Samsara, a theory of the Wheel of Rebirth. This refers to the idea of rebirth
which is viewed as escaping from the knowledge of one‘s True Self. Maya refers to any kind of
illusion. A situation whereby someone is freed from Samsara is referred to as Moksha. There are
various beliefs one has to undergo to attain Moksha. These include Yoga, which is the main issue on
which the activities of Hindus are focused. It refers to somewhere between prayer, healthy exercise,
and meditation. Jnana yoga, Karma yoga, Raja yoga, and Bhakti yoga are the four major ways a
Hindu undergoes on his or her path to liberation.
It is however important to understand that this religion is very diverse and even though some of the codes
of belief are widely accepted by most Hindus, it is very difficult to identify the beliefs that have been
accepted universally in all denominations. Hinduism is both a religion and a style of living that makes up
the way of life of most Indians. It makes up the world‘s most original, bold and insightful philosophy of
living.

PURUSHARTHA
The four goals of purushartha are believed to be necessary for a happy and fulfilling life. Each of the
following may be sought either for its own sake, or as a means of accomplishing the next goal:
1. Artha - incorporating wealth, career, prosperity and financial security, artha refers to having the
means and material comfort to live with ease.

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2. Kama - signifies desire for pleasure, enjoyment, love, intimacy, affection and even music or art.
Whilst excessive kama can lead to overindulgence, the right kind of kama can help individuals to
fulfill their dharma with passion.
3. Dharma - includes duties, conduct and virtues. Dharma means truth or right way of living, and can be
thought of as one‘s true purpose in life.
4. Moksha - the ultimate goal of human life; self-realization and liberation from the cycle of
reincarnation. Moksha is believed to occur when an individual has successfully achieved artha, kama
and dharma.
In simple terms, artha is equated with money, kama with pleasure, dharma with duty and moksha with
death. Artha and kama refer to the goals that humans are naturally inclined to seek, whereas dharma and
moksha are considered to be of greatest importance to spiritual growth.
The concepts of artha, kama and dharma appear in the most ancient Hindu scripture known as the Vedas,
referred to collectively as trivarga or "the three ends of human endeavor". It was not until the
later Upanishads that the concept of moksha appeared, after which texts such as the Dharmasastras and
the epics Ramayana and Mahabharata integrated the four as purushartha.

ETHICS OF HINDUISM
A Hindu's code of ethics is as high as that of any other civilized nation.
Ṛigveda
It means 5 commandments. Hindus today submit to the Panchavrata or five major vows or
commandments:
1. Ahiṅsa - non-injury
2. Brahmacharya - non-fornication
3. Asteya - non-stealing
4. Satya - non-lying
5. Aparigraha - non-possessiveness
Bhagavad Gitā
It has 9 commandments. The law giver Kṛiṣhṇa gave the following precepts:
1. Amanitva - Absence of pride
2. Adambhitva - Absence of deceit
3. Ahiṅsā - Non-injury
4. Śanti - Patience
5. Arjava - Uprightness
6. Acaryopāsāna - Service to the teacher
7. Sauca - Internal and external purity
8. Sthairya - Steadfastness
9. Atmavinigraha - Self-control
Manu Smriti
It has 10 commandments. In Manusmṛti ten aspects of general duties are mentioned. They are:
1. Ahimsā

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2. Truthfulness
3. Non-stealing
4. Purity
5. Control of senses
6. Intelligence
7. Knowledge
8. Non-anger
9. Forgiveness
10. Tenacity of purpose
Nārada Bhakti Sutra
It means 5 commandments. The Nārada Bhakti Sūtra 78 declares five principles to practice.
1. Nonviolence
2. Truthfulness
3. Cleanliness
4. Compassion
5. Faith

FESTIVALS AND SACRED DAYS:

 Diwali is the festival of lights. Light represents knowledge. It is celebrated in late October or early
November. This is the Hindu New Year.
 Holi is the festival which marks the coming of spring. It is held in March or April. There are
processions and people light bonfires and cover each other with colored water and powders.
 Dussehra is the festival which marks Rama's triumph over the evil Ravana. It is held in September. It
is also the State festival of Karnataka, mainly celebrated in Mysore.
 Kumbha Mela: This celebration is a huge bathing affair. Millions of Hindu pilgrims go to the River
Ganges at Allahbad for this festival.
 Maha Shivaratri: Maha Shivaratri, or great night of Shiva, commemorates the supremacy of Shiva.
People on this day refrain from sleeping and also instead pray to the Shiva. Most dedicated disciples
celebrate Maha Shivaratri by fasting and chanting hymns to Tandava, a dance by Lord Shiva.
 Krishna Janmashtami: Krishna has a prominent place in Hindu folklore. Krishna Janmashtami is
joyous festival celebrating the birth of Krishna, with a lot of dancing and singing. The Krishna
Janmashtami is often accompanied by competitions, notably breaking a pot filled with yoghurt that is
suspended high in the air. Competitors form human pyramids in an attempt to break the pot and spill
the contents, which is then formally offered as prasada (ritual offering).

PILGRIMAGE AND FAIRS:

Pilgrimage in Hinduism, is the practice of journeying to religious sites where powers, knowledge, or
experience are believed especially accessible. Hindu pilgrimage has mention in ancient scriptures. Texts,
the early reference is in Rig-Veda, where wanderer is praised. Later texts, including the Mahabharata and
mythological Puranas also speak on the capacities of particular sacred sites to grant boons, such as health,
wealth, progeny, and deliverance after death. Texts says Hindu pilgrims to perform rites on behalf of
ancestor and deceased kin.

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 Pilgrimage has been increasingly popular recently, due to improving transportation.. Most pilgrimage
centres have religious fairs or melas, to mark auspicious astrological moments or important
anniversaries. For example, the Kumbh Mela in Allahabad.
 Sonepur Mela It is one of Asia's major cattle fairs. The mela takes place at the confluence of the
Ganga and the Gandak rivers in Sonepur, Bihar.
 Pushkar Fair The Pushkar Mela is an annual fair in Rajasthan that takes place on Kartik Poornima
Day and lasts roughly a week. Etc.

SHAIVISM
 Shaivism seems to be a section of the Hindu religion and seems to be one of the major Hindu sects
that follow and worship Shiva as their main deity;
 Shiva is also also known as Rudra in the Hindu religion and seems to be the supreme being and is
often seen as the one with powers of disintegrating all forms of life.
 The Shaivism sections seem to include several sub-traditions that include practices like devotional
dualistic theism cultures as the likes of the Shaiva Siddhanta as well as yoga oriented nontheism like
Kashmiri Shaivism within Shaivism, these different subcultures make it one of the largest Hindu
sects.
 The sect follows the views of the Agama scriptures as their primary source of essential theological
studies of Shaivism.
 Shiva, throughout the Shaivism sect, seems to be described as the creator as well as the destroyer and
preserver, as well as known as the Atman, that is the ―self‖ that seems to be present in every living
entity.
 It seems to have a strong connection to another sect called Shaktism, and some of the worshippers that
are known as Shaivas, visit both Shiva as well as Shakti temples. Shaivism devotees that follow the
culture are known as Shaivites or Saivas.
 It is the Hindu cultural sect that seems to be known for embracing asceticism and also seems to be a
culture that promotes yoga and, like other Hindu traditional cultures, invites people to explore and
become one with the Shiva inside themselves. No organisation, no prophet like leaders or any kind of
body that seems to govern the cultural traditions.

VAISHNAVISM
 Vaishnavism, also called Vishnuism, one of the major forms of modern Hinduism, characterized by
devotion to the god Vishnu and his incarnations (avatars).
 A devotee of Vishnu is called a Vaishnava. The devotional Vaishnava literature that emerged
in Sanskrit and in vernacular writings from the 10th through the 16th century continues to be a part of
Vaishnava worship, though it is often supplemented by later philosophical and narrative texts, both
written and oral.
 For Vaishnavas, absolute reality (brahman) is manifested in Vishnu, who in turn is incarnated
in Rama, Krishna, and other avatars. Through his avatars, Vishnu defends traditional righteousness in
keeping with the moral law (dharma).

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 The most popular of the avatars are Rama and Krishna. Rama is often depicted in Hindu art and
literature with his consort Sita. Krishna manifests his true identity as Vishnu to his warrior
friend Arjuna in the Bhagavadgita, but he is often portrayed as a handsome youth in the company
of Radha or other gopis (milkmaids).
 The various sects of worshippers of Vishnu pray to him in different ways.
 For some, the goal of religious devotion (bhakti) to Vishnu is liberation (moksha) from the cycle of
birth and death (samsara). For others, it is health and prosperity in this life, good crops, success in
business, or thriving children. Most Vaishnavas hope to spend eternity in Vishnu‘s presence after
death.

SHAKTISM:
 Shaktism reveres the Supreme as the Divine Mother, Shakti or Devi, in Her many forms, both gentle
and fierce. Shaktas use mantra, tantra, yantra, yoga and puja to invoke cosmic forces and awaken the
kundalini power.
 The diversity of Shakti is central to its ideology. The Supreme Goddess has taken on numerous forms
for the benefit of the universe. Shakti, the greatest female energy of the Universe, is worshipped in
numerous forms. In line with her tasks, Shakti expresses herself in an infinite number of forms.
 Shakti means power or energy, and power or energy is considered feminine in the Shaktism tradition.
As the metaphysical truth is feminine, the goddess is supreme, according to the Shaktism tradition.
 This tradition worships several distinct goddesses, and all of the many goddesses are regarded as
different manifestations of the same supreme deity. Furthermore, numerous sub-traditions of the
Shaktism tradition exist, each of which is focused on devotion to a certain goddess.
 Two schools of thought are particularly important: "Srikula," which is prevalent in South India, and
"Kalikula," which is prevalent in northern and eastern India. The pan-Indian Goddesses are essentially
classified into two groups.
 The Goddesses who personify the inherently benign qualities of strength or energy, such as devotion,
knowledge, love, or compassion, and these orthodox Goddesses are Radha, Krishna's lover, Gauri, the
golden one, Sita, Rama's dedicated and faithful wife, Sarasvati, the Goddess of learning and wisdom,
and Lakshmi, the Goddess of money and wealth and consort of Vishnu. In contrast, the Goddesses
that embody the more energetic forces of protection and annihilation of evil are two, namely Durga
and Kali.
 However, both groups are fundamentally benign and essentially ferocious by nature. The majority of
the indigenous goddesses are self-sufficient and wild in character. Confined deities are more
important than Hindu Pantheon deities.
 These Goddesses are concerned with local issues and are worshipped for the protection of devotees.
One of the most well-known local Goddesses is the Goddess of Small Pox, who is concerned with
ailments. In South India, she is known as Mariyamman, but in the north, particularly in Bengal, she is
known as Shitala. The sicknesses are also seen to be the Goddess manifesting herself in the hamlet,
and the ailment is said to represent the Goddess' grace.

UPANISHADS
 The Upanishads are the philosophical-religious texts of Hinduism (also known as Sanatan
Dharma meaning ―Eternal Order‖ or ―Eternal Path‖) which develop and explain the fundamental
tenets of the religion.

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 At the same time, Upanishad has also been interpreted to mean ―secret teaching‖ or ―revealing
underlying truth‖. The truths addressed are the concepts expressed in the religious texts known as the
Vedas which orthodox Hindus consider the revealed knowledge of creation and the operation of the
universe.
 The word veda means ―knowledge‖ and the four Vedas are thought to express the fundamental
knowledge of human existence.
o Rig Veda
o Sama Veda
o Yajur Veda
o Atharva Veda
The 13 Upanishads are:
o Brhadaranyaka Upanishad
o Chandogya Upanishad
o Taittiriya Upanishad
o Aitareya Upanishad
o Kausitaki Upanishad
o Kena Upanishad
o Katha Upanishad
o Isha Upanishad
o Svetasvatara Upanishad
o Mundaka Upanishad
o Prashna Upanishad
o Maitri Upanishad
o Mandukya Upanishad
Central Concepts of Upanishads
 Brahman was recognized as incomprehensible to a human being, which is why It could only be
apprehended even somewhat through the avatars of the Hindu gods, but was also understood as the
Source of Life which had given birth to humanity (essentially each person's father and mother).
 It was recognized as impossible for a mere human to come close to the enormity which was Brahman
but seemed equally impossible for Brahman to have created people to suffer this kind of separation
from the Divine.
Brhadaranyaka Upanishad: Embedded in the Yajur Veda and the oldest Upanishad. Deals with the
Atman as the Higher Self, the immortality of the soul, the illusion of duality, and the essential unity of all
reality.
Chandogya Upanishad: Embedded in the Sama Veda, it repeats some of the content of the
Brhadaranyaka but in metrical form which gives this Upanishad its name from Chanda (poetry/meter).
The narratives further develop the concept of Atman-Brahman, Tat Tvam Asi, and dharma.
Taittiriya Upanishad: Embedded in the Yajur Veda, the work continues on the theme of unity and
proper ritual until its conclusion in praise of the realization that duality is an illusion and everyone is a
part of God and of each other.

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Katha Upanishad: Embedded in the Yajur Veda, the Katha emphasizes the importance of living in the
present without worrying about past or future and discusses the concept of moksha and how it is
encouraged by the Vedas.
Mundaka Upanishad: Embedded in the Atharva Veda, focuses on personal spiritual knowledge as
superior to intellectual knowledge. The text makes a distinction between higher and lower knowledge
with ―higher knowledge‖ defined as self-actualization.
Maitri Upanishad: Embedded in the Yajur Veda, and also known as the Maitrayaniya Upanishad, this
work focuses on the constitution of the soul, the various means by which human beings suffer, and the
liberation from suffering through self-actualization.
The lessons to be learnt from Upanishads are:-
(i) Mundakopnishad says- Satyamev Jayate. The importance of truth in every walk of life in this post-
truth era can be learnt.
(ii) Brihadaranyopnishad gives lesson that strong people should help the weaker ones, not to supress
them.

BHAGWAT GITA:
 It is 700 verse Hindu scripture in Sanskrit that is part of Hindu epic Mahabharata.
 It is set in narrative framework of dialogue between Pandava prince Arjuna and his guide and
charioteer Lord Krishna.
 The Bhagavad Gita presents a synthesis of the concept of Dharma, theistic bhakti, yogic ideals of
moksha through jnana, bhakti, karma, and Raja Yoga and Samkhya philosophy.
The lessons to be learnt from Bhagwat Gita are
(i) Work is worship- The line- Karmanye Vadhikaraste...indicates the importance of work in one's life. A
person is known because of his good deeds.
(ii) Fight for Right- The battle of Kurukshetra had taken place because Pandavas wanted their rights. So
the instructions & suggestions given by Krishna to Arjun show the importance of righteousness & fair
justice.
(iii) Krishna stated Arjun to think beyond the personal relationships when its the matter of justice. A
public servant needs to put the justice above the pitty thinking.
(iv) Gita symbolises the ethical code of conduct which can be applied in different fields to a great extent.
Patanjali‟s Yoga Sutra
Yoga Sutra is a collection of about 195 sutras or aphorisms written in Sanskrit.
 It was composed by the sage Patanjali drawing upon the previous works and older traditions on
Yoga.
 It is dated between 500 BCE and 400 CE.
 In the treatise, Patanjali describes Yoga as having eight limbs (Ashtanga). They are yama
(abstinences), niyama (observances), asana (yoga postures), pranayama (breath control), pratyahara
(withdrawal of the senses), dharana (concentration), dhyana (meditation) and samadhi (absorption).
 During medieval times, it was translated into about 40 Indian languages and also into Arabic and Old
Javanese.

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 The Yogasutra was almost forgotten in modern times until Swami Vivekananda resurrected it and
took it to the West.

JAINISM
Jainism is an ancient religion that is rooted in the philosophy that teaches the way to liberation and a path
to spiritual purity and enlightenment through disciplined nonviolence to all living creatures
Jainism Origin
 Jainism came to prominence in the 6th century B.C., when Lord Mahavira propagated the religion.
 There were 24 great teachers, the last of whom was Lord Mahavira.
 These twenty-four teachers were called Tirthankaras-people who had attained all knowledge
(Moksha) while living and preached it to the people.
 The first Tirthankara was Rishabnatha.
 The word ‗Jain‘ is derived from jina or jaina which means the „Conqueror‟.
Vardhamana Mahavira
 Vardhamana Mahavira, the 24th Tirthankara, was born in 540 B.C. in a village
called Kundagrama near Vaishali.
 He belonged to Jnatrika clan and was connected to the royal family of Magadha.
 His father Siddharta was the head of the Jnathrika Kshatriya clan and his mother Trishala was a sister
of Chetaka, the king of Vaishali.
 At the age of 30 years, he renounced his home and become an ascetic.
 He practised austerity for 12 years and attained highest spiritual knowledge called Kaivalya(i.e
conquered misery and happiness) at the age of 42 years.
 He delivered his first sermon at Pava.
 A symbol was associated with every Tirthankara and Mahavira‘s symbol was a lion.
 His missions took him Koshala, Magadha, Mithila, Champa etc
 He passed away at the age of 72 in 468 B.C. at the Pavapuri in Bihar.
Cause of Origin?
 Hinduism had become rigid and orthodox with complex rituals and dominance of Brahmins.
 The Varna system divided the society into 4 classes based on birth, where the two higher classes
enjoyed several privileges.
 Kshatriya's reaction against the domination of the brahmanas.
 Spread of the new agricultural economy in the north-eastern India due to the use of iron tools.
Tenets of Jainism
 It mainly aims at the attainment of liberation, for which no ritual is required. It can be attained
through three principles called Three Jewels or Triratna i.e.
o Right Faith (Samyakdarshana)
o Right Knowledge (Samyakjnana)
o Right Action (Samyakcharita)
 Five Doctrines of Jainism
o Ahimsa: Non-injury to living being
o Satya: Do not speak a lie

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o Asteya: Do not steal

o Aparigraha: Do not acquire property
o Brahmacharya: Observe continence
The Concept of God in Jainism
 Jainism believes that the universe and all its substances or entities are eternal. It has no beginning or
end with respect to time. Universe runs on its own accord by its own cosmic laws.
 All the substances change or modify their forms continuously. Nothing can be destroyed or created in
the universe.
o There is no need for someone to create or manage the affairs of the universe.
o Hence Jainism does not believe in God as a creator, survivor, and destroyer of the universe.
 However Jainism does believe in God, not as a creator, but as a perfect being.
o When a person destroys all his karmas, he becomes a liberated soul. He lives in a perfect
blissful state in Moksha forever.
o The liberated soul possesses infinite knowledge, infinite vision, infinite power, and infinite
bliss. This living being is a God of Jain religion.
o Every living being has a potential to become God.
 Hence Jains do not have one God, but Jain Gods are innumerable and their number is continuously
increasing as more living beings attain liberation.
Anekantavada
 Anekantavada in Jainism is the ontological assumption that any entity is at once enduring but also
undergoing change that is both constant and inevitable.
 The doctrine of anekantavada states that all entities have three aspects: substance (dravya), quality
(guna), and mode (paryaya).
o Dravya serves as a substratum for multiple gunas, each of which is itself constantly
undergoing transformation or modification.
o Thus, any entity has both an abiding continuous nature and qualities that are in a state of
constant flux.
Syadvada
 Syadvada, in Jaina metaphysics, the doctrine that all judgments are conditional, holding good only in
certain conditions, circumstances, or senses, expressed by the word syat (―may be‖).
 The ways of looking at a thing (called naya) are infinite in number.
 Syadavada literally means the ‗method of examining different probabilities‘.
Difference between Anekantavada and Syadvada
 The basic difference between them is that Anekantavada is the knowledge of all differing but opposite
attributes whereas Syadvada is a process of the relative description of a particular attribute of an
object or an event.
What are the Sects/ School of Jainism?
 Jain order has been divided into two major sects: Digambara and Svetambara.
o The division occurred mainly due to famine in Magadha which compelled a group led by
Bhadrabahu to move South India .

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o During the 12 years famine, the group in South India stick to the strict practices while the
group in Magadha adopted a more lax attitude and started wearing white clothes.
o After the end of famine, when the Southern group came back to Magadha, the changed
practices led to the division of Jainism into two sects.
 Digambara:
o Monks of this sect believe in complete nudity. Male monks do not wear clothes while female
monks wear unstitched plain white sarees.
o Follow all five vows (Satya, Ahimsa, Asteya, Aparigraha and Brahmacharya).
o Believe women cannot achieve liberation.
o Bhadrabahu was an exponent of this sect.
o Major Sub-Sects
 Mula Sangh
 Bisapantha
 Terapantha
 Taranpantha or Samaiyapantha
o Minor Sub-Sets
 Gumanapantha
 Totapantha
o Svetambara:
 Monks wear white clothes.
 Follow only 4 vows (except brahmacharya).
 Believe women can achieve liberation.
 Sthulabhadra was an exponent of this sect.
o Major Sub-Sects
 Murtipujaka
 Sthanakvasi
 Terapanthi
Reason for the Spread of Jainism?
 Mahavira organised an order of his followers which admitted both men and women.
 Jainism didn‘t very clearly mark itself out from the brahmanical religion, therefore it spread gradually
into West and South India where brahmanical order was weak.
 The great Mauryan King Chandragupta Maurya, during his last years, became a Jain ascetic and
promoted Jainism in Karnataka.
 Famine in Magadha led to the spread of Jainism in South India.
o The famine lasted for 12 years, and in order to protect themselves many Jains went to South
India under the leadership of Bhadrabahu.
 In Odisha, it enjoyed the patronage of Kalinga King of Kharavela.
Jain Literature
Jain literature is classified into two major categories:

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 Agam Literature: Lord Mahavir's preaching was methodically compiled by his followers into many
texts. These texts are collectively known as Agams, the sacred books of the Jain religion. Agam
literature is also divided into two groups:
o Ang-agama: These texts contain the direct preaching of Lord Mahavir. They were compiled
by Ganadharas.
 Lord Mahavir's immediate disciples were known as Ganadhara.
 All Ganadharas possessed perfect knowledge (keval-gyan).
 They orally compiled the direct preaching of Lord Mahavir into twelve main texts
(sutras). These texts are known as Ang-agams.
o Ang-bahya-agams (outside of Ang-agams): These texts are expansions of Ang-agams. They
were compiled by Shrutakevalin.
 Monks who had knowledge of a minimum of ten Purvas were known as Shrutakevalin.
 Shrutakevalin wrote many texts (sutras) expanding the subject matter defined in the
Ang-agams. Collectively these texts are called Ang-bahya-agams meaning outside of
Ang-agams.
 The twelfth Ang-agam is called Drastivad. The Drastivad consists of fourteen Purva
texts, also known as Purvas or Purva-agams. Among Ang-agams, Purvas were the
oldest sacred texts.
o They are written in the Prakrit language.
 Non-agam Literature: This consists of commentary and explanation of Agam literature and
independent works, compiled by elder monks, nuns, and scholars.
o They are written in many languages such as Prakrit, Sanskrit, Old Marathi, Gujarati, Hindi,
Kannad, Tamil, German, and English.
Jain Architecture
 Jain architecture cannot be accredited with a style of its own, it was almost an offshoot of Hindu and
Buddhist styles.
 Types of Jain Architecture:
o Layana/Gumphas (Caves)
 Ellora Caves (Cave No. 30-35)- Maharashtra
 Mangi Tungi Cave- Maharashtra
 Gajapantha Cave- Maharashtra
 Udayagiri-Khandagiri Caves- Odisha
 Hathi-gumpha Cave- Odisha
 Sittanavasal Cave- Tamil Nadu
o Statues
 Gometeshwara/Bahubali Statue- Shravanabelagola, Karnataka
 Statue of Ahimsa(Rishabnatha)- Mangi-Tungi hills, Maharashtra
o Jianalaya (Temple)
 Dilwara Temple- Mount Abu, Rajasthan
 Girnar and Palitana Temple- Gujarat
 Muktagiri Temple- Maharashtra

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 Manastambha: It is found in the front side of the temple, having religious importance with an
ornamental pillar structure carrying the image of Tirthankar on top and on all four cardinal directions.
 Basadis: Jain monastic establishment or temples in Karnataka.
Jain Council
 First Jain Council
o Held at Patliputra in 3rd Century B.C. and was presided by Sthulbhadra.
 Second Jain Council
o Held at Vallabhi in 512 A.D. and was presided by Devardhi Kshmasramana.
o Final Compilations of 12 Angas and 12 Upangas.
How is Jainism different from Buddhism?
 Jainism recognised the existence of god while Buddhism did not.
 Jainism does not condemn the varna system while Buddhism does.
 Jainism believed in transmigration of soul i.e. reincarnation while Buddhism does not.
 Buddha prescribed the middle path while Jainism advocates his followers to even completely discard
the clothes i.e. life of austerity.
What is the Relevance of Jain Ideology in Today‘s World?
 Contribution of Jainism:
o Attempts to reform the evils of varna order.
o Growth of Prakrit and Kannada.
o Contributed to architecture and literature immensely.
 The Jain theory of Anekantavada translated into practical terms in social context would mean three
principles:
o Absence of dogmatism or fanaticism
o Honouring the freedom of others
o Peaceful coexistence and cooperation
 It brings the spirit of intellectual and social tolerance.
 The principle of Ahimsa (non-violence) gains prominence in today‘s nuclear world to attain long
lasting peace in the society.
o The concept of Ahimsa can also help to counter growing violence and terrorism.
 The principle of Aparigraha (non-possession) can help to control consumerist habits as there is great
increase in greed and possessive tendencies.
o Global warming also can be healed with this thought by doing away with unwanted luxuries,
which produce carbon emissions.

Buddhism
Buddhism is one of the world's largest religions and originated 2,500 years ago in India. Buddhists
believe that the human life is one of suffering, and that meditation, spiritual and physical labor, and good
behavior are the ways to achieve enlightenment, or nirvana
Four noble truths:
 Suffering (dukkha) is the essence of the world.

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 Every suffering has a cause – Samudya.

 Suffering could be extinguished – Nirodha.
 It can be achieved by following the Atthanga Magga (Eight Fold Path).
Eight-Fold Paths:
It consists of various interconnected activities related to knowledge, conduct, and meditative practices.
 Right view
 Right intention
 Right speech
 Right action
 Right livelihood
 Right mindfulness
 Right effort
 Right concentration
Buddha also established code of conduct both for the monastic order and the laymen to follow which are
also known as the Five Precepts or Pancasil and refrain from them.
 Violence
 Stealing
 sexual misconduct
 lying or gossip
 taking intoxicating substances e.g. drugs or drink
Mahayana
 The term Mahayana is a Sanskrit word which literally means "Great Vehicle".
 Mahayana believed in the divinity of the Buddha. The sect encouraged idol worship in Buddhism and
Bodhisattvas embodying Buddha Nature.
 Mahayana holds the law of karuna / compassion over and above the law of karma.
 Mahayana upholds the ideals of Boddhisatva / the saviour – who is concerned about the salvation of
others.
 Mahayana Buddhism is spread across India, China, Japan, Vietnam, Korea, Singapore, Taiwan,
Nepal, Tibet, Bhutan, and Mongolia.
Hinayana
 The Hinayana sect, meaning ‗Small Vehicle‘ in Sanskrit.
 Hinyana did not believe in the divinity of the Buddha. It believes in the original teaching of Buddha or
Doctrine of elders.
 Hinayana does not believe in Idol worship and tries to attain individual salvation through self-
discipline and meditation.
 Pali, the language of masses was used by the Hinayana scholars. Hinayana scriptures are written in
Pali, and founded on the Tripitakas.
 Hinayana stresses on righteous action and law of karma.
 Hinayana believes in salvation by works, that each man should work for his own salvation.

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 Hinayana or Theraveda traditions are followed in SriLanka, Laos, Cambodia, other South-east Asian
countries.

Sikhism
 Over twenty million Sikhs follow a revealed, distinct, and unique religion born five centuries ago in
the Punjab region of northern India. Between 1469 and 1708, ten Gurus preached a simple message of
truth, devotion to God, and universal equality. Often mistaken as a combination of Hinduism and
Islam, the Sikh religion can be characterized as a completely independent faith:
 Sikhism rejects idolatry, the caste system, ritualism, and asceticism. It recognizes the equality
between both genders and all religions, prohibits the intake of any intoxicants, and encourages an
honest, truthful living.
 Sikhs have their own holy scripture, Guru Granth Sahib. Written, composed, and compiled by the
Sikh Gurus themselves, the Guru Granth Sahib serves as the ultimate source of spiritual guidance for
Sikhs. While the Sikhs hold their Gurus in high reverence, they are not to be worshipped; Sikhs may
only worship God.
Sikhism Principles
 Sikhism is a way of life and form of thought attaching importance to optimistic, dynamic and happy
life with prescribed code of conduct. It is a way to conduct and govern true life all the times and at all
the places in every behaviour according to the Word of God.
 The Sikh Gurus required of a Sikh to be wise, intelligent, understanding, erudite, generous, incapable
of doing wrong, closed to weakness, humble, content, shy and grateful as God endowed him with
flawless soul.
 Sikhism stands for human liberty, equality, fraternity, universalism, freedom of conscience, social
justice, ethical living, gender equality, and Charhdi Kala or dynamic power. It believes in love,
selfless service, human dignity, self respect, Simran and Sarbat Da Bhala.
 Guru Nanak Dev founded the Sikh religion by establishing universal elements in it. Sikhism stands on
the cardinal principles of earning one‘s bread by honest labor, sharing the earnings with the needy
willingly and with pleasure, meditating on the Name of One God, singing His praises and by doing
noble deeds.
 The principles of Kirt Karna (honest labor), Wand Chhakna (sharing the earnings) and Nam Japna
(Meditation on the Name of God) must be studied as a community and applied accordingly in life.
practices
 All the Sikh ceremonies like birth, baptism, marriage and death are simple, inexpensive and have a
religious tone. They are held in the presence of Guru Granth Sahib and include Kirtan, the singing of
appropriate hymns for the occasion, saying of Ardas – formal prayer, and the distribution of Karah
Parshad, sacred food, to the congregation. The baptism ceremony called Amrit , is the most important
of all Sikh ceremonies.

Islam
The Five Pillars are the core beliefs and practices of Islam:

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1. Profession of Faith (shahada). The belief that "There is no god but God, and Muhammad is the
Messenger of God" is central to Islam. This phrase, written in Arabic, is often prominently featured in
architecture and a range of objects, including the Qur'an, Islam's holy book of divine revelations. One
becomes a Muslim by reciting this phrase with conviction.
2. Prayer (salat). Muslims pray facing Mecca five times a day: at dawn, noon, mid-afternoon, sunset,
and after dark. Prayer includes a recitation of the opening chapter (sura) of the Qur'an, and is
sometimes performed on a small rug or mat used expressly for this purpose (see image 24). Muslims
can pray individually at any location (fig. 1) or together in a mosque, where a leader in prayer (imam)
guides the congregation. Men gather in the mosque for the noonday prayer on Friday; women are
welcome but not obliged to participate. After the prayer, a sermon focuses on a passage from the
Qur'an, followed by prayers by the imam and a discussion of a particular religious topic.
3. Alms (zakat). In accordance with Islamic law, Muslims donate a fixed portion of their income to
community members in need. Many rulers and wealthy Muslims build mosques, drinking fountains,
hospitals, schools, and other institutions both as a religious duty and to secure the blessings associated
with charity.
4. Fasting (sawm). During the daylight hours of Ramadan, the ninth month of the Islamic calendar, all
healthy adult Muslims are required to abstain from food and drink. Through this temporary
deprivation, they renew their awareness of and gratitude for everything God has provided in their
lives—including the Qur'an, which was first revealed during this month. During Ramadan they share
the hunger and thirst of the needy as a reminder of the religious duty to help those less fortunate.
5. Pilgrimage (hajj). Every Muslim whose health and finances permit it must make at least one visit to
the holy city of Mecca, in present-day Saudi Arabia. The Ka'ba, a cubical structure covered in black
embroidered hangings, is at the center of the Haram Mosque in Mecca (fig. 2). Muslims believe that it
is the house Abraham (Ibrahim in Arabic) built for God, and face in its direction (qibla) when they
pray. Since the time of the Prophet Muhammad, believers from all over the world have gathered
around the Ka'ba in Mecca on the eighth and twelfth days of the final month of the Islamic calendar.

Sufi philosophy
 The essence of this doctrine is that God and man are not different. This theory was developed by
many Muslims who were philosophers before the Prophet Muhammad moved from Mecca to
Medina.
 Women are also known to be in this group. In particular, a woman named Biya was very devoted to
Sufi doctrine. She is still revered by the people of this sect. She died in 752.
 A poet named Attar has written admirable words about her and also extolled her divine feeling. Her
statement that turning the face towards the Supreme Being is the fruit of wisdom can be said to be an
adventurous and earnest effort in the proposition of Sufi theory.
 Thus both men and women joined hands in the propagation of the Sufi sect.
Sufis of Karnataka
 Kannada poet Shishunala Sharif is also said to be a Sufi saint. Many works have been written in
Kannada on Sufism.
 Poets are also known to have taken up the work of propagating the Sufi sect. Among these, Abu
Saeed is prominent. He had many disciples. All of them were wearing woolen clothes.

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Christianity
Christian Christianity is the largest religion having followers of the teachings of Jesus Christ. Christianity
has the largest other ends all over the world number in more than 2.2 billion.
Origin
Jesus Christ was born as a jive in Bethlehem in 4 BC. He was believed to have poses to supernatural
powers. He began travelling widely and preaching to people in various towns. Alone by the growing
popularity of Jesus Christ and preachings some Jewish priests conspired to kill him and succeed in having
crucified. On the third day of his crucifixion Jesus was resurrected. He lived on Earth for another 40 days
and then assended to the heaven.
Christian doctrine and theology
 Christians are monothes and insist that the originator and preserver of the creation is one but is
represented in the holy trinity as the father the son and the holy spirit.
 Christian see god as the lord of Israel and father of the divine and human figure of Jesus Christ. Jesus
Christ was the eternal World of God who assumed human form to serve humanity and rescue the
human beings. Jesus Christ suffered and died on to redeem mankind from sin
 Christians also believe that Jesus Christ now sits at the right hand of God as the final judge of dead,
and that he will return again as proficized.
 The Christians believe that Jesus Christ chose 12 learned men apostles as messengers and directed
them to spread is teaching and guide the populace.
Christian groups or sects:
 Christianity became the formal religion of the Roman empire after constant time the emperor of
Rome, converted to Christianity in 313 CE. The religion was known as catholic or universal, with
Roman Pope as head. By 1054 CE many differences aroused and the Church formally split into
eastern orthodox and the Western Roman catholic schools.
 The 15 century, a new school of philosophy begin to question the supremacy of Pope. The 16th
century Martin Luther advocated many reforms in the church which led to yet another split in
Christian community and the formation of protestant churches across northeast Europe. The
protestants this approved of the authority of the Pope and advanced the cause of the Bible as a sole
authority.

Christianity and missionary work in India:

 By tradition, Christianity is said to have arrived in South India with the travel of Saint Thomas, one of
the apostles of Jesus Christ at the Malabar coast in 52 CE. He spend some years in South India and
died near Madras. However, others believe that first missionary to arrive in the country was St.
Bartholomew.
 Historically Christian missionary activities started with the advent of Saint Francis Xavier in 1544
CE. Throughout the 18th and 19th centuries catholic as well as protestant missionaries preached
Christian doctrine in India and also made important contributions to social improvement and
education in India.
 The great period of expansion of Christianity in India begin in 1858 when the British government to
cover rule in India from East India company. Christians from money countries came as missionaries.

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 At present Christians are scattered all across India but most of them are concentrated in northeast and
in the Kerala and other Southern States.

SAINTS
Gulbarga
 Shaikh Sirajud-din Junaidi came to Gulbarga in 1347 A.D. The King Alauddin Hasan Bahman Shah
selected him as a royal preceptor. Sultan Muhammad I (1358-75 A.D.) and his son Mujahid (1375-
1378 A.D.) always counted on the prayers of this saint whenever they set out on a campaign. His
tomb called Shaikh Roza dargah is located in Shah Bazar at Gulbarga.
 Hazrat Shaikh Saad Zanjani Rahimatullah Aulia came to Gulbarga in 1351 A.D. His dargah is located
near the Chor Gumbad at Gulbarga. • Hazrat Shaikh Minajjuddin Tamim-ul-Ansari came to Gulbarga
from Daulatabad in 1352 A.D. At present his dargah is located in Kirana Bazar near fort road at
Gulbarga.
 Syed Muhammad Gesu Daraz (Hazarat Khwaja Bande Nawaz): One of the most prominent figures in
the early history of Islamic mysticism in Gulbarga was Syed Muhammad Gesu Daraz. He was of the
Chishti order that had created a centre of Sufi culture at Gulbarga. The arrival of Gesu Daraz to
Gulbarga had a great cultural impact on the people of Karnataka with important consequences
BIDAR
 Syed Tajuddin is said to have played a vital role in bringing the social and cultural synthesis in Bidar.
He was born in Iran, and came to Kalyana (Bidar) in 1387 A.D. He was popularly called ―Raja Bagh
Sawar‖ of Kalyana and was also one of the prominent followers of Gesu Daraz of Gulbarga and at the
instruction of his master; he came to Kalyana and commenced his Sufi activities.
 Syed Ismail Qadiri from Bagdad held a distinguished place in the Bahamani kingdom and appears to
have been a favourite of King Alaud-din II. He lived in the neighbourhood of Hindu Brahmana
families and had good relations with them. The dargah of Syed Ismail Qadiri is located in Ghorwad
near by Bhalki, a taluka unit of Bidar district.
Female sufi saints
 Hazrat Masaheba Ashrafe Dojahan who came from Arabia or Baghdad about 800 years ago to Kudchi
in Raybag taluk of Belgaum district.
 Kunja Maa Bee, the daughter of king Muhammad Shah I (1358 A.D. to 1375 A.D).
 Other female saints were Hazrata Amina Bibi Dadi Ma Sahiba and Mastana Bibi (darghas at City
Market, Bangalore), Syedani Bibi (dargha at Tannery road, Bangalore), Tawakkal Mastan Bibi
(dargha at Richmond Circle, Bangalore), Hazrat Saiyida Amma Jaan (in Mandya) and Saidani Bibi (in
Mangalore).
Bijapur
 Sayyid Chanda Husaini migrated from Arabia to Bidar in the late 15th century and joined the cavalry
of King Yusuf Adil Khan and accompanied him to Gogi, seven miles from Shahapur of Gulbarga
district. At present his tomb is located in Gogi.
 Shaikh Shamsal-Din Zinda Dil was the only Sufi saint of the Shattari order, who came from Shiraz
(Persia) to Ahmedabad and then to Bijapur during the period of King Ali I.

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UNIT – 2
Major schools of thought.

Socio-Religious Reform Movements.

Factors impacting Socio-Religious Reforms
1. European Islamic scholars laboured tirelessly to bring India‘s rich past to light. The most principal
factor, perhaps, was British rule. It had a major influence on India‘s social, economic, cultural, and
political life. An environment that fostered intellectual growth was developed.
2. James Princep, Sir William Jones, Muller, Charles Wilkins, and others may be included. Several
Indian philosophers, like Rajendralal Mitra, Raja Ram Mohan Roy, M. G. Ranade, and others, have
contributed to the reconstruction of India‘s past.
3. The progressive movement‘s emergence lead to a developing body of extremely innovative writing,
which was characterized by a remarkable combination of the old and the current, a huge mingling of
the greatest literary techniques of ancient India with the excellent parts of modern global culture.
Renowned scholars in this subject include Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Keshav Chandra Sen, Kashinath
Trimbak Telang, Bankim Chandra Chatterjee, and others.
4. Christian preachers who believed that spreading religious beliefs in India shall help Britain‘s imperial
goals and promote the empire‘s security had a negative impact. Indians regarded it as a threat to the
customs, religion, and heritage & social beliefs. They wished to modify it in order to expel civilization
from harmful social behaviours.
SOCIETY OF 19TH CENTURY
The Caste System
 Indian society had a caste system which was originally occupation based.
 Over a period of time, interpretation of religious texts by the upper caste and lack of access to
religious scriptures by the lower caste led to several superstitious practices in the name of religion.
 Hindu society was based on the Varna system, that is, Brahmin, Kshatriya, Vaishya and Shudra.
According to this system people were divided on the basis of their occupation.
 This caste system, which was purely based on occupation, had become hereditary.
 A person born in a particular caste could not change his/ her caste even though they might have
changed their work. This created inequality in society. This also resulted in power being concentrated
in upper caste and exploitation of the lower caste.
 It also led to the exploitation of the lower castes. Therefore, caste system had become a major
hindrance in the development of a healthy, democratic and progressive society.
Lack of Education
 Majority of people in those days were illiterate.
 Education was limited to a handful of men belonging to the upper castes.
 Brahmins in India had access to the Vedas which were written in Sanskrit. It was a language known
only to them.

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 Religious texts were also controlled by these people. So they interpreted them in a way that
benefitted them.
 Expensive rituals, sacrifices and practices after birth or death were outlined by this priestly class. It
was mandatory for everyone to perform these rituals in the belief of a better life after death.
 Nobody could question the Brahmin priests because nobody knew what was written in the scriptures.
Position of Women
 Certain social practices like female infanticide, child marriage, sati and polygamy were prevalent in
some sections of Indian society.
 Girls who survived were often married at a very young age and often to men who were much older.
 Polygamy, a practice of a man having more than one wife was an accepted norm among many castes
and religion.
 Those women who could escape the practice of Sati had to live a very miserable life.
 Women had no right to property. They also had no access to education. Thus, in general, women had
a subordinate position in the society.
 The fear of the invader and loss of family honor was one reason. The other reasons were dowry and
sharing of ancestral property which further deteriorated their status.
SOCIO-RELIGIOUS MOVEMENT AMONG HINDUS
Brahmo Samaj
The Brahmo Samaj is a social and religious movement founded in Kolkata in 1828 by Raja Ram Mohan
Roy. The Brahmo Samaj movement thereafter resulted in the Brahmo religion in 1850 founded
by Debendranath Tagore — better known as the father of Rabindranath Tagore.
Brahmo Samaj of South India
The faith and Principles of Brahmo Samaj had spread to South Indian states like Andhra Pradesh, Tamil
Nadu, Karnataka, and Kerala with many followers.
In Kerala the faith and principles of Brahmosamaj and Raja Ram Mohun Roy had been propagated
by Ayyathan Gopalan, and reform activities had been led by establishing Brahmosamaj in 1898 in the
Calicut (now Kozhikode) region. Gopalan was a doctor by profession, but dedicated his life to
Brahmosamaj, and was an active executive member of the Calcutta Sadharan Brahmosamaj until his
death.
The Calicut (Kerala) branch of Brahmomandir (Hall for conducting prayer meetings) was opened to
public in the year 1900 (Now Ayathan School which runs under the patronage of Brahmosamaj at Jail
road, Calicut). Second Branch of Brahmosamaj at Kerala was established at Alappuzha (South Kerala) in
the year 1924 with a Brahmomandir(Hall for conducting prayer meeting's) established at Poonthoppu,
Kommady (now Grihalakshmi Gandhi Smaraka seva sangam).
Significance of the Brahmo Samaj
 Polytheistic religion and idol worship were denounced.
 Renounced any belief in divine incarnation.
 Demonstrated that no book could be claimed to have ultimate power over the rational mind and
morality.

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 It was significant for the caste system, but it did not take a definite stand on karma and transformation
theories of the soul.
 Keshab Chandra Sen‘s daughter, who was 13-year-old, married a Cooch-Behar prince. Many
individuals opposed these actions since they contradicted the values of the Brahmo Samaj. As a result,
they agreed to split up.
 In addition, only a few of them disagreed with his ―Doctrine of God in Conscience.‖
 As a result, the Sadharan Brahmo Samaj broke away in 1878. Sadharan Brahmo Samaj was led by
Sivnath Shastri, Anand Mohan Bose, Vijay Krishna, and Derozian Shib Chandra.

The Brahmo Samaj was a monotheistic group. This organization was formerly known as the Brahmo
Sabha, but it was renamed the Brahmo Samaj in the year of 1830. Polytheistic religion and idol worship
were both condemned. Similarly, the Brahmo Samaj denied the doctrine of divine incarnation. Bengali
legislators in Calcutta initiated the campaign in 1828. Ram Mohan Roy, the Brahmo Samaj‘s founder,
was a crucial figure in the movement. As a reformist ambassador, Ram Mohan Roy arrived in England in
1831 and his life ended in 1833.

Founder of Arya Samaj

Swami Dayananda Saraswati founded the Arya Samaj on April in 1875. He established the Arya Samaj
based on 2 basic tenets and these were-

 Monotheism
 Infallible authority of the Vedas.

His contribution to the Arya Samaj is as follows-

 He emphasized the concept of One God and condemned the practice of idol worship.
 He was against the role of the priest in Hinduism. He also warned society against the contributions
made to the priests.
 He was strongly against the diversification of castes. He thought caste assortment was one of the
major reasons for conversing the lower castes to Islam and Christianity at that time.
 He was the founder of the Vedic schools to educate all the castes' males and females. They give free
shelter, clothes, food, literature, Knowledge of Vedas, and other ancient writings.
 He pushed society against the evil of untouchability and inequalities of caste.
 He established the Dayanand Anglo Vedic Trust and Management Society in Lahore in 1886 to stop
the division of samaj and make the operations of the samaj a success.
 He worked for the better status of women and the protection of widows.
 He focused on humanity and assisted the victims because of artificial and natural disasters.
 He was a famous novelist. His notable work included Satyartha Prakash, Rig Veda Bhashyam, Rig
Veda Bhashyam, and much more. Along with Sanskrit, his books were published in foreign languages
like English, French, Arabic, Swahili, German, and Chinese.
Swami Dayananda Saraswati founded the Arya Samaj, but the contribution of Pandit Lekh Ram, Shri
Shraddhanand, and Swami Virajanand Dandeesha made the Arya Samaj reach to people and spread the
real meaning of Hinduism among masses.

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Features of Arya Samaj

Arya Samaj was a socio-religious reform sabha that Swami Dayananda Saraswati founded to bring back
the idea of Vedas in the Hindu religion. The key features of the Arya Samaj are as follows-
 Arya Samaj believes that the Veda is not liable to mislead or deceive and thus regarded as the
Knowledge's ultimate source and spreads the truth. It must be read and recited by an Aryan.
 The founder was of the thought that Puranas (the post-Vedic texts) were the major reasons that led to
the heresy of the Vedas. So, the samaj was against these post-Vedic tests.
 Arya Samaj believes God is the supreme power and the primary source of all Knowledge.
 It states that God is one and doesn't hold a physical existence. With this thought, Arya Samaj opposed
Idol worship of God and was against the idea of reincarnation.
 The founder of Arya Samaj does not believe in the concept of destiny Niyati (fate).
 It supported the concept of Soul transmigration and Karma.
 It strongly condemns the domination of Brahmins over the spiritual and social life of Hindus. It
doesn't believe that Brahmins are the connectors between the almighty and humans.
 It supports the idea of the Four Varna System, which works based on merit instead of birth.
 It believes in equality in the position of a man concerning the social lives and spirituality of Hindus.
 Just like other social reforms, Arya Samaj supports female education. Worked for widow remarriages
and fought for the practice of Sati, child marriage and polygamy.
 Arya Samaj believed in women's equality and advocated gender equality against women.
 It supported spreading the Sanskrit and Hindi languages among the masses by providing good
education. It worked phenomenally for educating people, especially women.
 It was strongly against the cruel practices of Animal sacrifices, feeding the dead through sraddhas,
religious pilgrimages, sorcery and charms, and other prevailing sins.
As per Dayananda Saraswati, all these evil practices prevailing in the society were because of the lack of
understanding of Vedic Knowledge. So, if there was a need to educate man, for this, Arya Samaj
established the Vedic Schools in India.
Principles of Arya Samaj
Arya Samaj was established to bring Vedic Knowledge to the masses. It has the following guiding
principles-
 Almighty God creates the Universe. He is Immortal and omnipotent. Thus, It the God alone that
deserves to be worshipped.
 God creates all Knowledge.
 The genuine scriptures of wisdom are the Vedas.
 A true Arya must always be ready to reject the lies and embrace the truth.
 Dharma must be the guiding concept for the activities. This means that one should carefully consider
what is evil and what is wrong.
 Arya Samaj aims to promote every individual's social and physical well-being.
 Every individual needs to be treated with respect, justice, and compassion.
 A person must accept Knowledge and avoid ignorance.
 Every person must take care of their welfare. But, he must consider the welfare of others as well.

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 Rather than thinking about an individual's well-being, one must think about the collective well-being
of humanity.
Ramakrishna Movement
 Swami Vivekananda was a central personality in the development of another stream of Hinduism in
late 19th century and the early 20th century that reconciled the devotional (bhakti-märga) path of his
guru Sri Ramakrishna (of the Puri dashanami sampradäya) with the gnana märga (path of
knowledge).
 His ideals and sayings have inspired numerous Indians as well as non-Indians, Hindus as well as non-
Hindus. Among the prominent figures whose ideals were very much influenced by them
were Rabindranath Tagore, Gandhi, Subhas Bose, Satyendranath Bose, Megh Nad Saha, Sister
Nivedita, and Sri Aurobindo.
Matua Mahasangha
 Matua Mahasangha is a religious reformation movement that originated, around 1860 AD, in
modern-day Bangladesh, with a considerable number of adherents both in Bangladesh and in West
Bengal of India. Matua is a sect of depressed class AVARNA Hindus who are Namasudras, a
Scheduled Caste group.
 The movement was launched as a reformation by the followers of Harichand Thakur. Thakur attained
atmadarshan at an early age and would subsequently preach his Darshan in Twelve Commandments.
The teachings of Thakur establish education as preeminently important for the adherent and the
upliftment of the population the adherent's duty, while also providing a formula for ending social
conflict.
Sree Narayana Dharma Paripalana Yogam
Important Works:
Against Caste Injustice:
 He gave the famous slogan ―One Caste, One Religion, One God for All‖ (Oru Jathi, Oru Matham, Oru
Daivam, Manushyanu).
 In 1888, he built a temple dedicated to Lord Shiva at Aruvippuram which was against the caste-based
restrictions of the time.
 In one temple he consecrated at Kalavancode, he kept mirrors instead of idols. This symbolised his
message that the divine was within each individual.
Against Conversions:
 He taught equality but felt the inequalities should not be exploited to carry out conversions and
therefore generate strife in society.
 Narayana Guru organized an All-Region Conference in 1923 at Alwaye Advaita Ashram, which was
reported to be the first such event in India. This was an effort to counter the religious conversions
Ezhava community was susceptible to.
Philosophy of Sree Narayana Guru:
 Sree Narayana Guru became one of the greatest proponents and re-evaluators of Advaita Vedanta, the
principle of non-duality put forward by Adi Shankara.

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Literary Works:
 He wrote various books in different languages. Few of them are: Advaitha Deepika, Asrama,
Thevarappathinkangal, etc.
Prarthana Samaj.
1. One such movement was the Prarthana Samaj which emerged in Bombay and went on to wield a good
deal of influence in western India and to a lesser extent in southern India.
2. Founded by Atmaram Panduranga, the movement gained momentum and popularity after scholar and
reformer Mahadev Govind Ranade joined it.
3. The Samaj was different from the Brahmo Samaj of Bengal in that it was not as radical and took a
cautious approach to the reformist programmes. For this reason, it was better received by the public as
well.
4. The members were all Hindus and remained so throughout. They wanted to reform the religion from
within. They were only against the social evils prevalent then like child marriage, widow suppression,
dowry, sati, untouchability, etc. and not against the religion per se.
5. They also propagated monotheism and denounced idol worship.
6. They also accepted all religious teaching, including Christian and Buddhist ideas. They were
staunchly against the division of society into castes. Members of the Samaj had communal meals
prepared by a cook from a ‗low caste‘. They also ate bread that was baked by a Christian and drank
water brought by a Muslim.
7. The Samaj did not question the existence of god but fostered a firm belief in one god. They sang
hymns during the society‘s meetings. The Samaj also encouraged a firm love and reverence for god.
8. It was also against certain tenets of Hinduism like god‘s incarnations. Through the society was against
idol worship, its members could continue to practice Hindu ceremonies at home.
9. The society had many programmes to propagate women‘s education. It also opened homes for
orphans and widows. It also supported widow remarriage. It established several schools as well that
imparted western education.
10. The society‘s meetings were done in secret for fear of a backlash from the orthodoxy. In fact, the
Prarthana Samaj never directly attacked the orthodox sections of society or Brahminical power.
11. The Samaj was greatly influenced by the Brahmo Samaj and the Arya Samaj of Dayananda Saraswati,
but it continued as an independent movement.
12. Apart from Ranade, other important members of the Samaj included Sanskrit scholar Sir Ramakrishna
Gopal Bhandarkar and political leader Sir Narayan Chandavarkar.
Derozio and Young Bengal Movement Henry Lui Vivian Derozio
 Joined the Hindu College of Calcutta as a teacher.
 Had come from Scotland to sell watches in Calcutta, but later made the spread of modern education in
Bengal as his life‘s mission.
 Promoted radical ideas through his teaching and by organizing an association for debate and
discussions on literature, philosophy, history and science.
 Inspired his followers and students to question all authority.
 Follower came to be known as the Derzians and Young Bengal, were fiery patriots.

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 Cherished the ideals of the French Revolution (1789 A.D.) and the liberal thinking of Britain. Died of
cholera at the young age of 22.
 The Young Bengal Movement continued even after Derozio‘s dismissal and his sudden death.
 Though deprived of leadership, the members of this group continued preaching radical views through
teaching and journalism.
Self-Respect Movement (1925)
The Brahmins' monopoly on power and influence steadily diminished due to E.V.R. 's never-ending anti-
orthodoxy crusade. People were inspired by a notion of self and, more importantly, self-confidence as
they prepared to fight the Brahmins' systemic racism.
 As a result, inter-caste and interreligious weddings were encouraged, and marriages without a
Brahmin priest were legally done.
 The very first state after freedom to pass legislation allowing Hindu marriages without a Brahmin
priest there was Tamil Nadu.
 Additionally, the system of giving Harijan members monopoly seats in municipal councils was
abolished.
 The Self Respect Movement's continued support led to the name panels of the hotels being changed
from "Brahmins Hotel" to "Vegetarian Hotel.
 People started to be proud of losing their caste name.
Self-Respect Movement Objectives.
 To create a society wherein lower castes enjoy the same fundamental rights as higher castes, equality
is the central part of the society. Discrimination should not be supported and followed.
 Attempting to give each individual the same opportunities for development and growth so that they
can be treated equally by living in the same society.
 The creation of a particular society that is fair enough and peaceful, in addition to the total elimination
of untouchability. So that everybody living in the community should feel free.
 It aspired for a social transformation in which everyone naturally experiences friendship and a sense
of belonging.
 To develop schools and colleges and build homes for the homeless, orphans, and widows.
 It should forbid building new temples, mutts, kings, or Vedic institutions. The movement aimed to
abolish behaviours like using one's family name as their given name and other similar, thoughtless
customs.

Social Reformers
B.R. Ambedkar
The untouchables (Dalits) and India‘s socially underprivileged group were the priority of B.R.
Ambedkar‘s lifelong campaigning and social reform efforts. Ambedkar, who was seen as a savior for the
oppressed, campaigned tirelessly to end caste inequality that was widespread in Indian societies.
Ambedkar suffered caste intolerance, injustice, and racism as a child because he took birth in a socially
underprivileged household. But in spite of everything, he persevered against all difficulties to complete
his further education and then started advocating for equal opportunity and social justice. Later, he
became the first Law minister of India who composed the Indian Constitution.

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Savitribai Phule
Savitri Bai Phule dedicated her life to an effort of educating women and people of lower castes during the
British rule in India. She put in tireless effort in a number of areas, notably caste and gender-based
discrimination, liberation and literacy of females, and the elimination of untouchability. Additionally, she
also stood against child marriage, Sati Pratha, and caste systems. India got the first female tutor in the
form of Savitribai Phule and later she founded ―Balhatya Pratibandhak Griha‖ in order to halt the Sati
Pratha.
Raja Ram Mohan Roy
The greatest accomplishment of Raja Ram Mohan Roy was ending the tradition known as ―Sati Pratha,‖
which required widows to commit suicide by setting themselves ablaze on the death march of their
husbands who had died. He established the Brahmo Samaj to combat injustices such as the caste system,
dowry, mistreatment of women, etc. In West Bengal, Ram Mohan Roy was born and raised into a
prominent Brahmin family. After his higher education, he established an English school in Calcutta in
1816 because he believed that education plays a major role in the awakening and advancement of the
common man. One of the Mughal emperors in the 19th century gave him the title of Raja when he
traveled to England as a diplomat in order to meet the King of England for some economical issues.
Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar
Thakurdas Bandyopadhyay and Bhagavati Devi gave birth to Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar in a tiny
hamlet. It is mentioned that he did not have enough money to buy a kerosene lantern so he often studied
at the street lights but his deep desire to learn was incredible. Later, he graduated in 1841 from a college
in Kolkata where he got knowledge of Sanskrit grammar, literature, Vedanta, and astronomy. He was a
maestro in Sanskrit which is why he got the title of ―Vidyasagar‖ because of his extensive understanding
of Sanskrit and philosophy. His major contribution was his endeavors in battling the atrocities done to
women, and child widows. He was the person who convinced the British Government to approve the
Hindu Widows‘ Remarriage Act, 1856.
Anna Hazare
He is one of the Indian social reformers who takes a stand for the poor and helpless people in the nation.
He has mostly focused his campaign against dishonesty on improving the impoverished and oppressed
circumstances that exist in rural India. Anna Hazare is well-known for his unwavering dedication to
serving Indian residents and taking a stand for them in the face of selfishness and dishonesty. He fought
the Indian Government and went on hunger strike in an effort to approve the Jan Lokpal Bill in the
parliament which is an anti-corruption bill. Hazare contributed massively to the development of the
impoverished hamlet, Ralegan Siddhi, into one of the richest villages in India by improving its
environment and economics.
Swami Dayanand Saraswati
Born in 1824 in Tankara, Gujarat, and died in 1883, Dayanand Saraswati was a great Indian social
reformer whose major contribution includes the foundation of Arya Samaj, and he established various
Gurukuls in order to impart Vedic knowledge. The main objective of the Arya Samaj is to encourage
social services, gender equality as well as equal justice throughout the nation. His famous book named
Satyaprakash (The Light of Truth) conveys creative ideas in order to rejuvenate Hindu ideology that had

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become dull. He repeatedly stated that performing charitable efforts through social work might lead to
salvation.
Ramakrishna Paramahamsa
Born on 18 Feb 1836 in Kamarpukur, West Bengal, and died in 1886. Ramakrishna Paramahamsa was
one of the great souls of India whose contributions can never be forgotten. His real name is Gadadhar
Chattopadhyay and he had been a significant part of the social reform movement in Bengal which was
started in the 19th century by Raja Ram Mohan Roy. Since childhood, he had a huge attraction toward
nature and spiritual love, he used to visit and converse with saints, thus he became a great spiritual leader
and people still hold his teachings in high regard.
Swami Vivekananda
Swami Vivekananda whose real name is Narendranath Dutta took birth in 1863 in Calcutta and took his
last breath in 1902. During his 40 years of life, he contributed a lot to the upliftment of the nation and
regaining the self-confidence that the Indians had lost under the British injustice and torture. He accepted
Ramakrishna Paramahamsa as his guru and later Vivekananda became his main follower. Additionally, he
became a maestro in Vedanta philosophy and gave his entire life to the nation for the advancement of the
underprivileged, downtrodden, and oppressed. In 1893, Swami Vivekananda visited America to take part
in the religious festival organized in Chicago and collected a lot of applause.
Vinoba Bhave
The real name of Vinoba Bhave is Vinayak Narahari Bhave and he came from a Brahmin family. He took
birth in 1895 in the hamlet of Gagoda in the Kolaba region of Maharashtra and passed away on
November 15, 1982. His most notable accomplishments include the huge Bhoodan Movement (The Gift
of Land), which was founded in 1951 and whose main goal was to gather and conserve all contributions
for the purpose of aiding the underprivileged or impoverished. He played a major role in the Sarvodaya
movement which was started by Mahatma Gandhi whose main objective was to make a nation that
follows love, peace, and non-violence.
Medha Patkar
Born in 1954, Medha Patkar is a social reformer who quit his Phd program in the middle in order to take
part in the protests and demonstrations led by the tribal people and farmers of Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh,
and Maharashtra. She stood with those people and later established a Narmada Bachao Andolan. The
main goal of the movement is to oppose the government‘s plan to raise the height of the Narmada dam
but it was denied by the Supreme Court.
Shanta Sinha
Honored by the Ramon Magsaysay Award, Shanta Sinha is a social reformer who has contributed her
effort to the development and safety of children. Her major achievements include Mamidipudi
Venkatarangaiya (MV) Foundation in Secunderabad. She often stood against child labor and raised her
voice for making child education mandatory. She is a kind individual who has worked hard to put smiles
on kids‘ faces.
Baba Amte
Baba Amte was a great soul and social reformer of India who gave up his all life in the care of leprosy
sufferers. Apart from this, Baba Amte frequently consented to have leprosy germ growth studies
performed on his body. His humanitarian initiative in the Indian state of Maharashtra‘s Anandwan is well

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known around the globe for its pioneering work to abolish inequities against leprosy victims. He achieved
Padma Shri Award in the year 1971, Padma Vibhushan in the year 1986, and Gandhi Peace Prize in 1999.
Mahatma Gandhi
Mahatma Gandhi, the father of the nation, was the greatest soul India will ever have back, he fought for
the nation‘s independence following the rule of non-violence. He spearheaded social reform initiatives
that tackled many pressing concerns, such as caste discrimination, hunger, and gender equity. He
campaigned against the ills of society. His contributions are so extensive that they cannot be described in
a few paragraphs.
Jyotiba Phule
Jyotiba Phule is one of the great social reformers whom the nation can never forget for his restless effort
to uplift and literate women. He and his wife dedicated their whole life in order to fight for women‘s
education. Apart from educating women, he also fought for social issues like eliminating caste
discrimination, inequality, and untouchability. He laid the foundation of Satyashodak Samaj in 1873
which works for the equality of lower caste and poor people. It is said that Jyotiba Phule was the person
who gave untouchables the title ―Dalit‖ which means who is shattered, unhappy, or oppressed and does
not belong to the so-called Varna system.
Aruna Roy
Aruna Roy, who has been a teacher and an IAS officer, is also recognized for his major contribution to
the establishment of the Right to Information Act (RTI) in 2005. She was a social activist who has often
raised her voice against corruption and dishonesty in a system. She was honored with the Lal Bahadur
Shastri National Award for Excellence in Public Administration, and the Ramon Magsaysay Award for
Community Leadership in 2000.

MUSLIM REFORM MOVEMENTS

 A few movements were launched which aimed to spread modern education and removing social
practices like the polygamy.
 The Muslim upper classes had tended to avoid contact with Western education and culture and it was
only after the revolt of 1857 that modern ideas of religious reform began to appear.
 The Mohammedan Literacy Society of Calcutta was founded by Abdul Latif in 1863. It was one of
the earliest organisations that promoted modern education among the upper and middle class
Muslims. It also played an important role in promoting HinduMuslim unity.
 Shariatullah of Bengal, leader of the Faraizi movement in Bengal, took up the cause of the peasants.
He also condemned the evils of the caste system among the Muslims. It promoted discussion of
religious, social and political questions in the light of modern ideas and encouraged upper and middle
class Muslims to adopt Western education. It also played an important role for Muslim Unity.
 There were several other socioreligious movements which in one way or the other helped the national
awakening of the Muslims.
 Mirza Ghulam Ahmed had founded the Ahmediya Movement in 1899. Under this movement, a
number of schools and colleges were opened all over the country. They emphasised the universal and
humanitarian character of Islam. They favoured the unity among Hindus and Muslims.

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Aligarh Movement Objectives

The chief Aligarh Movement objectives included convincing the section of Muslim individuals to gain
the recent English language and knowledge. The other objectives of the Aligarh movement include:
To promote and maintain the economic and political significance of the Muslim community To build a
sense of trust between the Muslim community and the government.
Outcomes of the Aligarh Movement
The political emancipation of the Muslims in India was highly contributed due to the Aligarh Movement.
As compared to the other movements of the 19th century, this movement had more influence on the
Muslim society of India. Many socio-religious movements grew in the 19th century as a result of the
Aligarh movement. During the 20th century, the influence of this movement was visible in the other
regions of the Indian sub-continent other than North India. The growth of institutes including Osmania
University, Jamia Millia Islamia, Dacca University, and Aligarh Muslim University was promoted by the
annual Educational conferences that took place in different parts of the country
Role of the Aligarh Movement in Politics
Separate politics was encouraged by the Aligarh Movement even though it began as a reform movement.
This movement created a division between Muslims and Hindus. The Indian National movement was
weakened by the sense of separation among Muslims.
The Muslim community was guided to keep a distance from the nationalistic movements. These
nationalistic movements were initiated in 1885 by the National Congress of India.
The aspirations of the Muslim community of India were voiced by some of the graduated of Aligarh
College in the Muslim League. Communalism grew in India as a result of the Aligarh movement. Instead
of positively affecting politics, it turned to promoting communalism in India.
Impact of the Aligarh Movement on Society and Eucation
One of the most important reformers of Muslims, Sir Syed Ahmed Khan, caused the upliftment of
Muslims by favouring modern scientific education. He was against narrow-mindedness and fanaticism.
He prompted the Muslim community to the tolerant and broadminded. Sir Syed Ahmed Khan wanted the
Muslim community to create freedom of thought and develop a critical approach that he realised would
not come from religious education alone. He wanted his community to upgrade themselves.
He wanted Muslims to adopt western learning methods since it was the only way toward achieving
enlightenment. Throughout Sir Syed Ahmed Khan‘s life, the promotion of western education among the
Muslim community was one of his chief concerns.
The Opposition to the Aligarh Movement
The conservative Ulemas were the critics of the Aligarh movement. Jamāl al-Dīn al-Afghānī, who was a
Pan-Islamist thinker, opposed the Aligarh movement. Munshi Sajjad Hussain, Akbar Allahabadi, and
Pandit Ratan Nath Sarshar ridiculed this movement in the Awadh Punch. They were against Sir Syed
Ahmed Khan‘s idea of promoting westernised customs and ethics among their community. Another group
of individuals who opposed the Aligarh Movement was the Deoband school.

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Conclusion
This article comprises information on the Aligarh movement led by Sir Syed Ahmed Khan. The
movement was initiated to uplift the Muslim community by indulging them in western education and
learning methods. The above-written article begins with information on the history and initiation of the
Aligarh movement. After that, information on the objectives, the role of the movement in politics, and the
impact of the movement on society and education are mentioned. The article ended with the details of
individuals who opposed the initiation, working, and objectives of the Aligarh movement.
Ahmadiya Movement
 The Ahmadiya movement was launched by Mirza Ghulam Ahmad of Qadiyan (1839-1908) in 1889,
who began his work as a defender of Islam against the polemics of the Arya Samaj and the Christian
missionaries. In 1889 he claimed to be masih (messiah) and mahdi, and later also to be an incarnation
of the Hindu god Krishna and Jesus returned to earth. Ghulam Ahmad, though called himself a minor
prophet, regarded Muhammad as the true and great Prophet whom he followed.
 The Ahmadiya movement based itself, like the Brahmo Samaj, on the principles of a universal
religion of all humanity. Ghulam Ahmad was greatly influenced by Western liberalism, Theosophy,
and the religious-reform movements of the Hindus. The Ahmadiyas opposed jihad or sacred war
against non-Muslims and stressed fraternal relations among all people. The movement spread Western
liberal education among Indian Muslims and started a network of schools and colleges for that
purpose.
Deoband Movement
 The Islamic Seminary at Deoband was founded in 1867 by two theologians, Muhammad Qasim
Nanautavi (1837-80) and Rashid Ahmad Gangohi. The Deoband School of Islamic Theology was a
poor man‘s school and its teachers and students lived frugal lives. The followers of this school were
concerned with the problems of education and character. The questions of ―society and State‖ were as
important for them as those of ―belief and practices of the individual‖. Rashid Ahmad Gangohi
advised the Muslim community in India to cooperate with the Congress in its activities.
 The Deoband School declared in unambiguous terms that the concept of nationality was based upon
the unity of all religious groups and did not contravene any Islamic principle. This declaration created
a gulf between the Deoband and Aligarh movements.
 Among the supporters of the Deoband school was Shibli Numani (1857-1914), a profound scholar of
Persian and Arabic and a prolific writer in Urdu. He was in favour of reforming the traditional Islamic
system of education by cutting down its formal studies and including the English language and
European sciences.
 He founded the Nadwat-al-Ulama and Dar-ul-Uloom in Lucknow in 1894-96, where he tried to give
effect to his educational ideas. Shibli admired the Congress for its high idealism and for its concern
for the welfare and advancement of the Indian people. He believed that Muslims were citizens of
India and they owed loyalty to their motherland. He was convinced that ―the Muslims could, jointly
with the Hindus, create a State in which both could live honourably and happily‖. As a result of these
reform movements, the Muslim urban society started taking to modern ways.

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 The modern awakening among the Muslims led to a decline in the practice of polygamy, and widow
remarriage was encouraged. The great political upheavals of this period thus helped in bringing about
a renaissance of Indian Islam and a reorientation of Muslim society.

REFORM MOVEMENTS IN SIKHS

The Nirankari Movement
 This movement, initially an offshoot of Sikhism, was founded in the 1840s by Baba Dayal Das (1783-
1885), who emphasized the worship of God as nirankar (formless God). His approach meant a
rejection of idols, rituals associated with idolatry and the Brahman priests who conducted these
rituals.
 Dayal Das‘s disciples were to worship the formless God, obey the shabad (preaching) of the Guru,
serve their parents, avoid bad habits and earn their livelihood through work. Eating meat, drinking
liquor, lying, cheating, etc., were forbidden.
 The Nirankari movement stressed proper religious practice and issued hukmnamas (injunctions) to
define its ideology and precepts. The Nirankaris set up a chain of worship centres staffed by their own
priests and thus became a permanent subsect of the Sikh religion.
The Namdhari Movement
 The Namdhari movement of the Sikhs was an offshoot of the Kuka movement in Punjab, founded by
Balak Singh. Balak Singh‘s followers saw in him a reincarnation of Guru Govind Singh.
The Singh Sabha
 The Namdhari unrest, the activities of the Sanatan Dharmis, the Arya Samajists and Christian
conversions had shaken the foundations of the Sikh religion. To strengthen Sikhism, a small group of
prominent Sikhs, led by Thakur Singh Sandhawalia and Giani Gian Singh, founded the Singh Sabha
of Amritsar on October 1, 1873.
 The objectives of the Sabha were to restore Sikhism to its pristine purity, to publish historical
religious books and periodicals, to propagate, knowledge using Punjabi, to return Sikh apostates to
their faith and to involve Englishmen in the educational programme of the Sikhs.
Gurdwara Reform Movements
 Before 1920 the Sikh Gurdwaras were governed by the Udasi Sikh mahants, who treated the gurdwara
offerings and other income of the gurdwaras as their personal income.
 The British Government supported these mahants as a counterpoise to the rising tide of nationalism
among the Sikhs. Matters came to such a pass that the priests of the Golden Temple issued
a hukamnama (injunction) against the Ghadarites, declaring them renegades, and then honoured
General Dyer, the butcher of Jallianwala massacre, with a saropa.
 The Gurdwara Reform Movement launched an agitation for freeing the gurdwaras from these
corrupt mahants and for handing over the gurdwaras to a representative body of Sikhs.
 Under the growing pressure of the nationalists and the gurdwara agitators, the gurdwaras came under
the control of an elected committee known as the Shiromani Gurdwara Prabandhak Committee, in
November 1920. The movement for the liberation of the gurdwaras soon turned into the Akali
movement, which later on got divided into three streams, namely moderate nationalist reformers, pro-
government loyalists and the political organ of Sikh communalism.

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Evaluation of the Impact of Socio-Religious Movements

Positive Aspects
 These movements were able to contribute to the liberation of the individual from fear-based
conformity and uncritical submission to exploitation by priests and other classes.
 The movements emphasized the ability of the human intellect to think and reason.
 The reform movements provided the rising middle classes with much-needed cultural roots to
cling to, as well as a means of alleviating the sense of humiliation caused by a foreign power's
conquest.
 A major contribution of these reform movements was recognising the unique needs of modern times,
particularly in terms of scientific knowledge, and thus promoting a modern, this-worldly, secular, and
rational outlook.
 The reform movements sought to create a social climate conducive to modernization.
Negative Aspects
 One of the major limitations of religious reform movements was that they had a narrow social base,
namely the educated and urban middle classes, while the vast majority of peasants and urban poor
were ignored.
 The reformers' proclivity to appeal to the greatness of the past and to rely on scriptural authority
encouraged mysticism in new guises and fostered pseudo-scientific thinking while putting a brake
on full acceptance of the need for a modern scientific outlook.
 Above all, these tendencies contributed, to some extent, to the compartmentalization of Hindus,
Muslims, Sikhs, and Parsis, as well as the alienation of high-caste Hindus from low-caste Hindus.
 The evolution of a composite culture, which had been visible throughout Indian history, appeared to
be stalled with the rise of another form of consciousness, communal consciousness,
alongside national consciousness among the middle classes.
The nineteenth-century reform movements made a significant contribution to the development of
contemporary India. They represented societal democratization, the abolition of superstition and heinous
habits, the spread of enlightenment, and the development of a reasonable and modern worldview.

EMPOWERMENT OF THE DEPRESSED CLASSES THROUGH EDUCATION

Dr. Bhim Rao Ambedkar
 Dr. Bhim Rao Ambedkar was an educational Pragmatist. His educational philosophy stresses
the development of person and his environment.
 He was highly influenced by the John Dewey‘s philosophy of education. He emphasized
education as one of the basic need for human. According to him education is not only a ladder for
social mobility but also opens the doors for their modernization. Ambedkar was largely concerned
about the empowerment and political struggle of the depressed classes.
 He believed that education was the only mean of get rid of their mental sluggishness and
satisfaction with their prevalent pathetic conditions. Babasaheb envisaged that education was a
powerful instrument for the change of the lives of untouchables and women

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 He believed that education was the only mean of get rid of their mental sluggishness and
satisfaction with their prevalent pathetic conditions. Babasaheb envisaged that education was a
powerful instrument for the change of the lives of untouchables and women
 He acclaimed that the lack of education was the foremost cause for the backwardness of
underprivileged people. He recognized the importance of education in shaping the future.
 He put all his efforts to guarantee the educational without any discrimination to all the citizens
of independent India. Dr. Ambedkar gave the slogan of Educate, Agitate and Organize. The slogan
has a deep rooted meaning that can be understood as under:
Educate
As education directly influence the human civilization, it is essential to educate each and every
citizen of the country. Therefore the education is indispensable for the state to realize the goal of growth
and sustainable development.
Agitate
Agitate is mental uprising not physical agitation. According to Ambedkar an educated man, by
understanding his thoughts and strategy can initiate agitating mentally. The agitated mind would drive
educated people to form associations/organizations and eventually they would take action to fix the
problems.
Organize
Educated and agitated minds will certainly organize for a common mission. All of us must get
ourselves educated resulting in agitating thoughts so as to collectively organize. The agitated minds for a
universal mission would help the people to unite, strive & struggle for the common goal.
In India, the Hindu social system was based on caste that proclaimed a social order since ancient time.
It was the main cause/source of injustice within Indian society. All human are equal by birth but a few
selfish & snobbish people constructed caste system based on occupations that contributed to the evil
practice of untouchability.
The Hindu caste system had its origin in the period of Manusmriti. In this Hindu caste system
untouchables are placed at the bottom of the hierarchy and called Shudras. Today they are known as
Dalits. These are the people who are poor, neglected, mistreated and downtrodden. These people were
excluded from various human rights viz. social, economic and political rights including the right to
education and employment. They constituted the traditionally forced and customary undignified and
mortifying labour due to their birth in the untouchable castes. These people were forced to live on
the outskirts of the villages and towns in the areas towards which the wind blew and sewage flowed.
Their houses were dirty, dingy, dark, and unhygienic full with poverty and squalidness.

The Vedas for all – The Casteless society

 We have a deep-rooted social problem in the country, which is apparently peculiar to Hindu society.
In no other society in the world do we find the populace grouped under some three thousand castes,
with high and low gradations, all based on the accident of birth. Though coming under the broad
umbrella of Hinduism, each caste has its own peculiar features and traditions.

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 By and large, inter - caste marriages are still in the nature of exceptions, intra - caste marriages
continuing to the rule. There is neither rhyme nor reason underlying the system. On the contrary, it
has created needless cleavages in society, necessitating the adoption of measures to curb casteism.
 The system reeks with the worst form of social injustice, which assumes extreme proportions in the
case of the hapless dalits, many of whom were obliged to endure the stigma of untouchability for
centuries on end.
 When and how the caste system originated I leave for our social scientists to debate upon. In this
focusing attention on the firm proposition that the prevailing caste system in India is an unmitigated
evil. The sooner we root out this system from our society the better it will be for us. I am, therefore,
making a fervent plea that our nation should apply itself to the task of working for a totally casteless
society in India.
 There is divine sanction for the caste system. Lord Krishna in the Bhagavad-Gita has stated that he
created making of four castes (Varnas) distinct in their principles and duties. Our Manu Dharmasastra
also refers to the prevalent four castes and further makes the point that this is a way of making a
useful division of labour, assigning specific tasks to ear-marked sections of society. This may even be
looked upon as a role model for others to emulate.
 With progressive urbanization and globalization, castes are no longer as rigid / as they used to be at
one time. There is so much inter-mingling among the castes, that castes have become virtually
irrelevant in day-to-day life. The system seems to be crumbling and withering on its own. We must,
therefore, remain patient and await the decay of the system in the normal course of events.
 Human birth is not accidental. One is born high or low depending on one's own karma. One born a
dalit today is presumably reaping the consequences of his bad karma in a previous incarnation!
 There are some useful crafts which have somehow become linked to certain castes. Abolition of
castes may put such crafts in jeopardy. Weavers and jewelers are sometimes cited as examples.
 The basic problem in India is economic, not social. Once we resolve the conflict between the "haves"
and the "have nots" and ensure equitable distribution of wealth, the castes would fade away on their
own.
Features Caste System
Following are salient features of the traditional caste system in India.
 Castes have resulted in segmental division of the Indian society. Each caste is hereditary and different
from other castes by behavioural pattern, manners of dialogue, food habits and interaction. Further,
each caste in India has its own caste council or Jati Panchayat.
 In each region of India, there are numerous castes which can be arranged into a hierarchy on the basis
of their social precedence. Brahmins are on top of this hierarchy while Sudras are at the bottom. In
between are the other castes.
 There are rules and restrictions regarding eating, drinking and social interaction from other castes.
These rules are powerfully enforced by the caste panchayats.
 The hereditary caste has made choice of occupation impossible and closed system.
 The Endogamous marriages are an essential feature of the caste system. A person has to marry within
one‘s own caste.
 Within jajmani system at the village level, each caste is dependent on other castes. Their dependence
is not only economic but also social, cultural and religious.

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Further, this system has enforced the concepts of Karma and Dharma. Performance of rites and rituals
promoted cooperation of the members of the caste and among‘ different castes.
Functions of Caste System:
All the functions of caste system can be categorized under two:
(a) From Individual Point of View
(b) From Social Point of View
From the individual‘s point of view caste provides opportunities to the individual to develop in the
society.
Caste Provides Social Recognition:
 All the caste categories are based on the principle of purity and pollution. The pure castes get high
social status without any achievement. By ascription, a Brahmin gets high status.
Provides Social Security:
 If any individual faces the problem of getting security from the family, caste protects the person. For
example, if a child becomes orphan and nobody is there to look after the child, then the caste/sub-
caste takes the responsibility of child.
It Solves Economic Problem:
 As each and every caste is attached with an occupation, and as it is hereditary in nature, one can
follow his traditional occupation. Through his specialized occupation one can solve his economic
problem.
It helps in Socialization:
 Each caste has its own rules and regulations to control the behaviour of its members. Through these,
caste can guide the individual behaviour. A caste introduces its members in the wider social circle.
The pattern of taking food, wearing dress, keeping relations with other castes etc. give the individual
an identity in the society.
Protects Individual from the Exploitation:
 Caste acts as a trade union. It protects its members from the exploitation. In jajmani system, the
higher caste people cannot exploit the kameens (the service giving castes) as these caste groups have
their caste panchayats. Caste panchayat looks after the social and economic security of the individual.
From the point of view of society:
Integrity of the Society:
 Caste helps in the integrity of the society. It has the capacity to accommodate individuals/groups from
different races, religions, regions and forms a social whole. So, caste system acts as a mechanism to
maintain social integrity.
Preservation of the Culture:
 Each society has its own way of acquiring knowledge, expression of behaviour, habits, style of life
etc. These cultural elements pass from one generation to another. Caste helps in passing those cultural
elements through the socialization process.

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System of Division of Labour:

 Caste is based on the unique system of division of labour. All the activities necessary for the society
have been divided into various categories and allotted to different caste groups. The main objective of
this sort of division of labour is smooth functioning of the society.
Promotes Political Stability:
 In the caste system the political power is given to one category, i.e. Kshatriyas. No other caste is
allowed to compete with Kshatriyas to have political power. So it avoids political competition,
conflict and violence. It creates a situation of political stability in the society.
Maintains Racial Purity:
 Caste system follows the strict rule of caste/sub-caste endogamy. Endogamy (marriage within one‘s
own caste/sub-caste) helps in maintaining and preserving the purity of blood.
Promotes Economic Development:
 In caste system each caste is allotted a specific occupation. When a caste continues a profession
generation after generation it is obvious that it can produce qualitative things. Because of this reason
many handicraft items of India gained international recognition. It helps in the economic betterment
of the individual and also economic- development of the society.
Dysfunctions of Caste System:
 Caste system has also many demerits. Hindu society is facing various problems due to caste system.
Creates Social Obstacles:
 Caste system divides society into- many groups. Each group is attached to rigid social norms and
values, because of which normal interaction among the categories is not possible. So, it is a hindrance
to social progress.
Slow Social Change:
 All the caste groups have to follow certain fixed and rigid rules and regulations. The basis of these
rules and regulation is the principle of ‗Purity and Pollution‘. One has to conform the traditional
norms and values to maintain the principle. So, the change occurs in the society is very slow.
Hinders Economic Progress:
 Three things are responsible for creating economic hindrance in connection to caste system.Firstly,
caste system is based on the unequal distribution of wealth.
 Secondly, low caste people are allotted occupations which give them low income.
 Thirdly, it denies social and occupational mobility.
Creates Social Dis-organisation:
 When caste was originated the main objective was to unify the society. But now Hindu society is
divided into so many castes and sub-castes. Caste conflict, caste tension and caste rivalry are very
common in the society. So, it is not serving its purpose rather it is dividing the society and creating the
situation of social dis-organisation.

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Political Conflict:
 Caste system also breeds political conflict. Involvement of caste in democratic system creates
conflicting situation in the political field. Political parties are using caste as their means to get vote.
Low Status of Women:
 Caste system is related with child marriage, prohibition of widow remarriage, sati system etc. Caste
system gives low status to women by denying education and also they were denied to perform priestly
functions.

Ideal of service
The ideal of service is universal and is found in all religions. Some aspects of service are: There is a
relationship between service, work and worship; work as worship: work is worship. Service is open
worshiping of God. Service kills ego. This is a step towards liberation. Service is going outwards;
worship is looking inwards. This way work and worship combine inwards and branches outwards as
service. Motive behind service is very important. An act of charity transforms into an act of worship when
it done with the right motive. There should be no hidden agenda behind the good deed. Service done with
the motive of overcoming guilt or a feeling of pity, or gaining recognition, or from a sense of duty is
incomplete.

Swami vivekanand idea of service.

The idea that service of the poor is akin to worshiping the God. The idea is deeply ingrained in Indian
spiritual thinking. Quoting Swami Vivekananda: ―If you want to find God, serve man. To reach Narayana
you must serve the Daridra Narayanas – the starving millions of India…‖
The ideal of service is universal and it contained and is found in all religions. Some aspects of service can
be summarized as follows:
 There is a relationship between service, work and worship; work as worship: work is worship.
 Service is open worshiping the God.
 Service kills ego. This is a step towards liberation.
 Service is going outwards; worship is looking inwards. This way work and worship combine inwards
and outwards aspect of our personality.
 Motive behind service is very important. An act of charity transforms into an act of worship when it
done with the right motive. There should be no hidden agenda behind the good deed. Service done
with the motive of overcoming guilt or a feeling of pity, or gaining recognition, or from a sense of
duty is incomplete.
 Swami Vivekananda said, ―It is only by doing good to others that one does good to oneself‖.

Gandhi idea of service.

Gandhiji always held the service in high regard and in his own words, ―I am endeavouring to see God
through service of humanity; for I know that God is neither in heaven, nor down below, but in everyone.‖
Service to humanity has taken many forms in today's society.
MOTHER THERESA:
 Mother Teresa (1910-1997) was a Roman Catholic nun from the Republic of Macedonia who adopted
India as her country of service. She dedicated her life in the service of the poor, ailing and the
destitute through the Missionaries of Charities, an order of Roman Catholic nuns, in Kolkata, India.

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 She opened the Nirmal Hriday (The Home of the Pure Heart) at Kalighat in 1952, a hospice for the
dying. Individuals brought in were given medical attention, dignity before death with the knowledge
that someone cares and appropriate last rites after death. She next opened Shanti Nagar, a home for
those ailing with leprosy, and shunned by the society, along with several outreach clinics attending to
the patient.
SERVANTS OF INDIA SOCIETY:
 It was established by Gopal Krishna Gokhale in 1905, along with MG Ranade. The aim was to train
national missionaries for service of India. And prepare a cadre of volunteers devoted to cause of the
country.
SOCIAL SERVICE LEAGUE:
 It was established by Narayan Malhar Joshiin Bombay with aim betterment of education and social
service. They established schools, libraries, reading rooms, etc.
Importance of ideal service
 Builds a strong character
 Prepares the individual for life‘s struggle
 Generates empathy for others
 Builds society and nation
 Helps us become better human beings
 Achieve happiness

Emancipation of the Depressed class

The traditional caste system divides all members of society into four hierarchical categories called varnas
with Brahmins at the top and Shudras at the bottom:
 Brahmins.
 Kshatriyas
 Vaishyas
 Shudras.
All castes can be classified into one of these four varnas. The membership of one‘s caste is ascribed by
birth and one‘s progeny also by default falls into the same caste category.
WHO WERE UNTOUCHABLES?
 In 1931 Census, untouchables were covered under the term ―Depressed Classes.‖
 In 1928, the Depressed Classes Association was formed which functioned up to 1942 (Louis 2003).
The term, however, was contested by Dr Ambedkar in 1932 because the term created an impression of
these communities as helpless and lowly.
 In 1935, the term ―…Scheduled Caste was coined by the Simon Commission and embodied in the
Government of India Act, 1935. In 1936, for the first time Government of British India published a
list of Scheduled Castes‖
 The social category of Scheduled Castes is today a common denominator of those castes whose earlier
generations were once considered untouchables by the traditional caste order.

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EMANCIPATION OF UNTOUCHABLES
The Bhakti movement starting around 6th century AD had a major role in developing the discourse of
equality. It also challenged the hegemony of Brahmins and drew people away from Brahmanic rites and
rituals. The movement brought forth some famous saints from the backward as well as Dalit
communities; something that was not feasible in the caste- based Hindu social order. Some of the saints
that emerged from Dalits and backward communities were:
 Namdev (1270–1350 AD)
 Kabir (1440–1518 AD)
 Ravidas (1450–1520 AD)
 Dhanna Jaat (1415–? AD)
 Chokhamela,
Ambedkar and Gandhi
 In 1920s, Ambedkar struggled for equal rights for untouchables. In March 1927, Ambedkar organised
one of the most popular civic-rights movements. The movement, Mahad Tank Satyagraha, asserted
right of untouchables to have access to drinking water from public tank.
 On 25 December 1927, the movement called for public burning of Manusmriti, the sacred text of
Hindus which sanctified caste-based restrictions in society, at Mahad. The act was a symbolic victory
of Ambedkar against the caste-based practices in Hindu society.
 Ambedkar soon launched another satyagraha for entry into Kalaram temple at Nasik in May 1930.
Ambedkar believed that by facilitating access of untouchables to hitherto restricted public utilities and
places of worship, caste Hindus will gradually accept untouchables as equals and hence change their
social status
 M.K. Gandhi. While Ambedkar constantly attacked caste system and spoke of its annihilation, Gandhi
refuted Ambedkar‘s position on caste. For Ambedkar, caste system represented the most anachronistic
social institution in modern times and one of the most oppressive forms of social stratification. For
Gandhi, it represented a unique system of division of labour which provided stability and coherence to
Indian society. Gandhi believed the caste system to be a unique feature of Hindu society which
promoted cooperation among distinct caste groups as against competition and conflict among
different social categories in Western society
Mahatma Gandhi and the Caste System
From 1920 onwards, both Mahatma Gandhi and Dr. B.R. Ambedkar began organising protests against
untouchability. At that time anti-untouchability programmes became an important part of the Congress
agenda. Mahatma Gandhi simultaneously worked for the upliftment of the lower castes, advocate the
abolition of untouchability and other caste restrictions, and at an equivalent time, reassured the
landowning upper castes that their interests also would be looked after.
In 1920 at Nagpur's speech on untouchability, Mahatma Gandhi called it a great evil in Hindu society but
also observed that it was not unique to Hinduism, having deeper roots.
He called the doctrine of untouchability intolerable and asserted that the practice could be eradicated.
Mahatma Gandhi in 1932 began a new campaign to improve the lives of untouchables, whom he started
to call "Harijans" that is the "Children of God". Subsequently, he founded the All India Harijan Sevak
Sangh in the wake of his Epic fast at Yerwada Jail, Pune, on the backdrop of the historic Poona Pact.

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Jyotibha phule
He is credited with introducing the Marathi word dalit (broken, crushed) as a descriptor for those people
who were outside the traditional varna system. The terminology was later popularised in the 1970s by
the Dalit Panthers.
At an education commission hearing in 1882, Phule called for help in providing education for exploited
castes. To implement it, he advocated making primary education compulsory in villages. He also asked
for special incentives to get more lower-caste people in high schools and colleges.
Major reasons behind miserable conditions of Scheduled Castes
 Untouchability:
o While modern Indian law has officially abolished the caste hierarchy, untouchability is in
many ways still a practice.
o In most villages in Rajasthan Dalits are not allowed to take water from the public well or to
enter the temple.
 Political:
o Dalit movement, like identity movements across the world, has really narrowed its focus to
forms of oppressions.
o Most visible Dalit movements have been around issues like reservations and discrimination in
colleges, and these are issues that affect only a small proportion of the Dalit population.
o Today Dalits are perceived as a threat to the established social, economic and political position
of the upper caste. Crimes are a way to assert the upper caste superiority.
o Stasis in farm income over the past few years caused disquiet among predominantly agrarian
middle caste groups, who perceive their dominance in the countryside to be weakening.
o The growing scramble for Dalit votes by different political actors has only added a fresh twist
to a conflict that has been simmering for some time.
 Economic:
o Rising living standards of Dalits appears to have led to a backlash from historically privileged
communities.
o In a study by Delhi School of Economics ,an increase in the consumption expenditure ratio of
SCs/STs to that of upper castes is associated with an increase in crimes committed by the latter
against the former
o Rising income and growing educational achievements may have led many Dalits to challenge
caste barriers, causing resentment among upper caste groups, leading to a backlash.
o There is also a possibility of the rise due to high registration and recognition of such crimes.
o Half of all atrocities committed against Dalits are related to land disputes.
 Educational Institutions:
o In public schools, Dalits are not allowed to serve meals to superior castes; they often have to
sit outside the classroom; and are made to clean the toilets.
o Even in universities most of the faculty vacancies reserved for them are lying vacant and
students are often discriminated.
o The recent incidents of suicides of Rohith Vemula and Payal Tadvi substantiate the above
claims of discrimination against Dalit students.

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 Dalit women:
o Girls face violence at a younger age and at a higher rate than women of other castes.
According to the National Family Health Survey by the age of 15, 33.2% scheduled caste
women experience physical violence. The figure is 19.7% for ―other‖ category women.
o The violence continues, largely due to a sense of impunity among dominant castes.
o Dalit women and girls are often the targets of hate crimes. Access to justice has been abysmal,
with conviction rates at a measly 16.8 percent. Crimes against Dalits usually see half the
conviction rate of the overall rate of conviction of crimes. Experts and activists say that low
conviction rates and lack of prosecution of such cases of atrocities are the reasons why crimes
against Dalits continue to rise.
 Political power does not help:
o Even when Dalit women acquire political power, as when they are elected as sarpanches, there
is often no protection against the social power that sanctions violence and discrimination
against them.
o In a village with a Dalit woman sarpanch, a Dalit woman was burned, but no action was taken.
 Workplace violence:
o The risky workplaces compounded with a lack of labour rights protection measures render
migrants Dalit women more vulnerable to occupational injury.
o Further, the emerging problem of sub-contracting short-termed labour makes it more difficult
for them to claim compensation when they are injured at work places.
o Dalit women are most vulnerable to abuse and exploitation by employers, migration agents,
corrupt bureaucrats and criminal gangs.
o The enslavement trafficking also contributes to migration of large proportion of Dalit women.
Contribution of Ambedkar in awakening Dalit consciousness:
 Ambedkar launched full-fledged movements for Dalit rights during the 1930s. He demanded public
drinking water sources open to all and right for all castes to enter temples. He openly condemned
Hindu Scriptures advocating discrimination and arranged symbolic demonstrations to enter the
Kalaram Temple in Nashik.
 He adopted various means to safeguard Dalit rights. Ambedkar launched a movement against Dalit
discrimination by creating public opinion through his writings in several periodicals such as Mook
Nayak, Vahishkrit Bharat, and Equality Janta, which he started for the protection of Dalit rights.
 Ambedkar had been closely involved in the struggle to give Scheduled Caste people solid statutory
safeguard. He was a delegate at the Round Table Conference in London, where he asked for separate
electorate for Dalits.
 In 1932, the Poona Pact was signed between Dr. Ambedkar and Pandit Madan Mohan Malviya to
ensure reservation of seats for the untouchable class in the Provincial legislatures, within the general
electorate. These classes were later designated as Scheduled Classes and Scheduled Tribes.
 In 1936, Ambedkar founded the Independent Labor Party which later transformed into the All India
Scheduled Castes Federation.
 He linked nationalism with the social and political aspiration of the untouchables.
 According to Ambedkar what British imperialism was to India, Hindu imperialism was to the
untouchables. He was against injustice and imperialism in any form and any part of human society.

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 AKKA IAS ACADEMY, BENGALURU

 He encouraged the Dalits to embrace Buddhism to liberate their own selves from Hindu subjugation.
 He saw that the Dalit movement lacked philosophical justification. So he wrote about the French
revolution ideas of fraternity, liberty and equality.
 Being the chairman of the drafting committee of Indian Constitution, Dr B.R. Ambedkar provided
certain constitutional provisions to protect the rights of Dalits in social, economic, educational,
employment, and political fields, in the form of positive discriminations or preferential treatments or
reservation policy.
 Ambedkar‘s efforts brought educational awareness among Dalits who became socially conscious
about the circumstances and social problems of untouchability and caste discrimination meted out to
them.
 Ambedkar launched the social liberation movement for social rights and opportunities of the deprived
and downtrodden section of society.

Depressed Classes and Indian Constitution

 Dr. Ambedkar introduced Article 13(2), which describes – "The State shall not make any law which
takes away or abridges the rights conferred by this part and any law made in this contravention of this
cause shall, to the extent of the contravention, be void".
 Article 14 of the Constitution declares that "the State shall not deny to any person equality before the
laws or equal protection of laws". Article 15 of the Indian Constitution gives "fundamental rights to
all Indian Citizens against any form of discrimination either by State or by any citizen on the basis of
religion, race, caste, sex, place of birth or any of them".
 Article 15(4) of the Constitution of India declares that "Nothing can prevent the State from making
any special provision for the advancement of any socially and educationally backward classes of
citizens or for the Scheduled Castes (SCs) and the Scheduled Tribes (STs)".
 Atrticle 16(4A) declares that "Nothing can prevent prevent the State from making any provision for
reservation in matters of provision with consequent seniority to any class or classes of posts in the
services under the State in favour of SCs and STs which in the opinion of the State are not adequately
represented in the service under the State".
 Article 16(4B) states that "Nothing in the Article shall prevent the state from considering any unfilled
vacancies of year which are reserved for being filled in that year in accordance with any provision for
reservation made under clause (4) or clause as a separate class of vacancies shall not be considered
together with the vacancies of the year in which they are being filled up for determining the ceiling of
50% reservation on total number of vacancies of the year".
 Article 17 of the Indian Constitution declares that " Untouchability is abolished and its practice in any
form is forbidden. The enforcement of any disability arising out of untouchability shall be an offence
punishable in accordance with law". Based on this Article the Civil Right Protection Act 1965 and the
Prevention of Atrocities (SCs and STs Act 1989) was enacted by the Parliament for the protection of
Dalit rights.
 Article 330 of the Indian Constitution declares reservation of seats for Scs and STs in the House of the
People for Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes except some STs in the autonomous districts of Assam
and Scheduled Tribes in the autonomous districts of Assam.

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 Article 332 in the constitution of India states about the reservation of seats of SCs and STs in
Legislative Assemblies of the States. 73rd amendment of constitution in the Article 243 declares that
"Panchayat bodies must have proportionate representation of SCs and STs and women. Such
reservation should also apply in the case of Chairperson and Deputy Chairpersons of their bodies".
Besides these several programmes of the Indian State in the form of grants, scholarships, loans,
stipends etc. are being provided for Dalits. This is all due to provisions of constitution drafted by Dr.
Ambedkar. He was really a God Father for the Dalits in true sense.
Educational Empowerment
Various scholarships are provided to the students belonging to the Scheduled Castes (SCs) to ensure that
education is not denied due to the poor financial condition of their families. These Scholarships are
provided at both pre-matric and post-matric levels. Scholarships are also provided to SC students for
obtaining higher education in India and abroad, including premier educational institutions. The
Scholarships can broadly be classified into the following three types:
 Pre-Matric Scholarships: The objective of the pre-matric Scheme is to support the parents of SC
children for educating their wards, so that the incidence of drop outs at this stage is minimized.
 Pre-Matric Scholarship to SC Student: The objective of the pre-matric Scheme is to support the
parents of SC children for educating their wards, so that the incidence of drop outs at this stage is
minimized.
 Pre-Matric Scholarship to the Children of those engaged in occupations involving cleaning and prone
to health hazards: This is also a centrally sponsored scheme, which is implemented by the State
Governments and Union Territory Administrations, which receive 100% central assistance from the
Government of India for the total expenditure under the scheme, over and above their respective
Committed Liability
Social Empowerment
 The Protection of Civil Rights Act, 1955: In pursuance of Article 17 of the Constitution of India, the
Untouchability (Offences) Act, 1955 was enacted and notified on 08.05.1955. Subsequently, it was
amended and renamed in the year 1976 as the "Protection of Civil Rights Act, 1955". Rules under this
Act, viz ―The Protection of Civil Rights Rules, 1977‖ were notified in 1977. The Act extends to the
whole of India and provides punishment for the practice of untouchability. It is implemented by the
respective State Governments and Union Territory Administrations. Assistance is provided to States/
UTs for implementation of Protection of Civil Rights Act, 1955.
 Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes (Prevention of Atrocities) Act, 1989: Assistance is provided
to States/ UTs for implementation of Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes (Prevention of
Atrocities) Act, 1989. Financial assistance is provided to the States/ UTs for implementation of these
Acts, by way of relief to atrocity victims, incentive for inter-caste marriages, awareness generation,
setting up of exclusive Special courts, etc.
 Pradhan Mantri Adarsh Gram Yojana (PMAGY): The Centrally Sponsored Pilot Scheme ‗Pradhan
Mantri Adarsh Gram Yojana‘ (PMAGY) is being implemented for integrated development of
Scheduled Castes (SC) majority villages having SC Population concentration > 50%. Initially the
scheme was launched in 1000 villages in 5 States viz. Assam, Bihar, Himachal Pradesh, Rajasthan
and Tamil Nadu. The Scheme was further revised w.e.f. 22.01.2015 and extended to 1500 SC

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majority villages in Punjab, Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Uttar Pradesh, Telangana,
Haryana, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Uttarakhand, West Bengal and Odisha.
 The ‗Prohibition of Employment as Manual Scavengers and their Rehabilitation Act, 2013‘ (MS Act,
2013): Eradication of dry latrines and manual scavenging and rehabilitation of manual scavengers in
alternative occupation has been an area of high priority for the Government. Towards this end, a
multi-pronged strategy was followed, consisting of the following legislative as well as programmatic
interventions:

“Two-Nation” theory
Two-Nation Theory
Introduction
 The two-nation theory is an ideology of religious nationalism which significantly influenced the
Indian subcontinent following its independence from the British Empire.
 The plan to partition British India into two states was announced on 3rd June 1947. These two states
would be India and Pakistan.
 According to this theory, Indian Muslims and Indian Hindusare two separate nations, with their own
customs, religion, and traditions; therefore, from social and moral points of view, Muslims should be
able to have their own separate homeland outside of Hindu-majority India.
 The ideology that religion is the determining factor in defining the nationality of Indian Muslims was
undertaken by Muhammad Ali Jinnah.
Critical events from 1909 to 1947 leading to Partition.
 The partition of Bengal in 1905 served as the first act of the British towards breaking Hindu Muslim
unity.
 The later introduction of the Morley Minto reforms in 1909 proved to be a critical juncture in struggle
against colonial domination in India.
o The reforms introduced a system under which separate electorates were formed, where in only
Muslims could vote for Muslim candidates in constituencies reserved for them.
o By so doing the British wanted to promote the idea that the political, economic and cultural
interests of the Muslims and Hindus were separate.
 Then, the Montagu Chelmsford reforms or the Government of India Act 1919 in addition to the
reserved seats for Muslims.
 Later, Hindu-Muslim unity began to bond with the coming of Non-cooperation Movement in 1919, by
rallying on the Khilafat issue.
o However, Following the Chauri Chaura incident(1922) where some British policemen were
killed due to some action initiated by the participants of the Non-Cooperation movement, the
movement itself was called off by Gandhiji.
o So, now the Muslim leaders felt betrayed since their cause of revolting against the removal of
the Caliphate was left unfinished due to the calling off of the movement.
o From that time on, the differences between the Hindus and the Muslims only increased over a
period of time and eventually became irreconcilable.

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 In 1930, Muhammad Iqbal became the leader of the Muslim League in 1930 and for the first
time articulated a demand for a separate Muslim state.
o He argued that Muslims and Hindus constituted two different nations in themselves and were
incompatible.
o At this time, the congress rejected this theory and argued in favour of a united India, based on
unity between different religious groups.
 Further, the policy of the British to divide and rule got exemplified in the Communal Award of 1932.
This policy further strengthened the provisions for separate electorates.
 Conclusively, Jinnah in 1940 declared at the Muslim League conference held at Lahore, that ―Hindus
and the Muslims belong to two different religions, philosophies, social customs and literature. To
yoke together two such nations under a single state, one as a numerical minority and the other as a
majority, must lead to growing discontent and final destruction of any fabric that may be so built up
for the government of such a state‖
 The Cripps Mission in 1942 suggested that India be granted a Dominion status under the British
Empire.
o The Mission did not accept the demand for Pakistan but allowed for a provision whereby
provinces could secede from the Indian Union.
o But, the Congress and the Muslim League interpreted this in their own unique ways.
 Eventually, on the 16th August 1946 Jinnah declared Direct Action Day and the Muslim League
raised the demand for an independent Pakistan.
o There were communal tensions amongst the Hindus and the Muslims in places including
Calcutta, Madras, Bombay, Bihar, Punjab
 In 1947, Mountbatten agreed with the Muslim League‘s demand for an independent Pakistan but he
also saw merit in the Congress‘s demand for unity.
o He was asked by the British government to explore options of creating a united India or the
option of partition.
o However, the unity signs did not find place, and as a result India and Pakistan dominions were
created in 1947.
MUHAMMAD IQBAL – TWO NATION THEORY
 It is critical to point out that even though Jinnah is seen as the founder of Pakistan, another important
political figure whose thought added to the development of the two-nation theory was Muhammad
Iqbal.
 Iqbal emphasised the cultural aspect of Islam and suggested that Muslims were to get together on geo-
political basis. A pan Islamic identity was seen to be problematic by Iqbal. He suggested that each
region in the world had its specific addition to Islam and in order to ensure that Muslims of a region
flourish, they must come together in that area.
 Islam was the basis of identity and this must translate into political identity as well. The concept of
territorial nationalism was critical to his thought. Nationalism as a concept was seen to be important
only in so far as it served as a point of merger between Muslim identity and Islam.
 In other words nationalism was to be incorporated between the idea of Islam. Iqbal found Indian
nationalism problematic because it did not adequately recognize Muslim identity. Iqbal did not create
a hierarchy between religions. He did not intend to say that any religion was superior to another.

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 AKKA IAS ACADEMY, BENGALURU

However, he did want to lay emphasis on the need for political, cultural and economic rights for the
Muslim community.
 He was skeptical of an independent India characterized by the domination of Hindus. The most
interesting aspect of Iqbal‘s conceptualization of assertion of Muslim political identity was that he
argued for provisional autonomy for Muslim dominated areas within an Indian Union.
 It is important to point out that Jinnah‘s conception of the two-nation theory developed in dialogue
with some Muslim League members. In 1939 a League Working Committee was set up which looked
in to the matter of articulating political interests of Muslims. Some argued for a loose federation with
autonomy for Muslims, whilst others professed the division of colonial India into three sovereign
states- Pakistan, Bengal and Hindustan.
 Jinnah rejected both these suggestions. After the 1940 Presidential address, Jinnah proclaimed himself
as the sole spokesperson of the Muslims and created a stage where the British and Congress were
asked to directly negotiate with him on the matter.
 Within the Muslim League, he pressurized members to agree with the two-nation theory and those
who didn‘t agree were asked to resign. However, it is important to point out that ‗Pakistan‘ was not a
well worked out political idea. In the sense that Jinnah‘s conception of the borders of Pakistan and the
nature of proposed relationship between eastern and western regions of Pakistan, were unclear in his
statements.
 For instance, it has been pointed out that at the time of the Cripps negotiations, Jinnah argued to let
Defense and Foreign Affairs of the proposed Muslim nation rest with the British for a stipulated time.
 It was only towards 1944-45 that he began speaking about an independent sovereign Pakistan. The
only thing Jinnah emphasized repeatedly was the right the Muslims had for self-determination

ISLAMIC REVIVALIST
Wahabi/ Walliullah Movement:
 Started by Shah Walliullah
 1st Indian Muslim leader of 18th century to organize Muslims
 His teachings further popularized by- Shah Abdul Aziz & Syed Ahmed Barelvi.
 initially directed against Sikhs in PB later against British.
 imp role during 1857 revolt.
 fizzled out in 1870s.
Titu Mir's Movement:
 Mir Nithar Ali= Titu Mir
 desciple of Sayyid Ahmed Barelvi (founder of Wahabi movement).
 he adopted Wahabism & advocated Sharia.
 organised Muslim peasants against Hindu landlords+ British Indigo planters.
Deoband School (Darul Uloom):
Organized by- orthodox section among Muslim Ulemas as revivalist movement.
Had two Objectives :
 propogate pure teachings of Quran & Hadis among Muslims
 keeping alive the spirit of Jihad against the foreign rule

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 Started in 1866 by- (to train religious leaders from Muslim community)
Mohammad Qasim Nanotavi and Rashid Ahmed Gangohi
 started in contrast to Aligarh movement.
 aim- moral & religious regeneration of Muslim Community
 welcomed formation of INC
 1888- issued Fatwa against - Syed Ahmed Khan's org (Aligarh), United Patriotic Association &
Mohammedan Anglo-Oriental education.
 New leader: Mahmud-ui-Hasan- gave political & intellectual content to the religious ideas of school
 He worked out synthesis of Islamic principles & nationalist aspirations
 Jamiat-ul-Ulema: gave concrete shape to his ideas.
 Shibi Numani- supporter of school founded- Nadwatal Ulama & Darul Uloom in Lucknow in 1894-96
 Tablighi Jamaat members were followers.
Faraizi Movement:
 It was called so coz- emphasis on Islamic pillars of faith
 founded by Haji Shariatullah in 1818 in East Bengal
 aim- eradication of social innovations or un-Islamic practices
 under Haji's son- Dudu Mian- movement became revolutionary in 1840
 organised paramilitary force armed with clubs to fight zamindars
 established its own law courts

Hindutva and Patriotism

Hindutva is the predominant form of Hindu nationalism in India. The term was formulated as a political
ideology by Vinayak Damodar Savarkar in 1923. It is used by the Rashtriya Swayamsevak
Sangh (RSS), the Vishva Hindu Parishad (VHP).
The Hindutva movement has been described as a variant of right-wing extremism[5] and as
"almost fascist in the classical sense", adhering to a concept of homogenised majority and cultural
hegemony. Some analysts dispute the identification of Hindutva with fascism, and suggest Hindutva is an
extreme form of conservatism or "ethnic absolutism".
Savarkar
 Hindutva is an inclusive term of everything Indic. The three essentials of Hindutva in Savarkar's
definition were the common nation (rashtra), common race (jati), and common culture or civilisation
(sanskriti). Savarkar used the words "Hindu" and "Sindhu" interchangeably. Those terms were at the
foundation of his Hindutva, as geographic, cultural and ethnic concepts, and "religion did not figure in
his ensemble", states Sharma.
 His elaboration of Hindutva included all Indic religions, i.e. Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism and
Sikhism. Savarkar restricted "Hindu nationality" to "Indian religions" in the sense that they shared a
common culture and fondness for the land of their origin.
Supreme Court of India on Hindutva
 The definition and the use of Hindutva and its relationship with Hinduism has been a part of several
court cases in India.

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 In 1966, the Chief Justice Gajendragadkar wrote for the Supreme Court of India in Yagnapurushdasji,
that "Hinduism is impossible to define".
 The court adopted Radhakrishnan's submission that Hinduism is complex and "the theist and atheist,
the sceptic and agnostic, may all be Hindus if they accept the Hindu system of culture and life".
 The Court judged that Hinduism historically has had an "inclusive nature" and it may "broadly be
described as a way of life and nothing more".
 The 1966 decision has influenced how the term Hindutva has been understood in later cases, in
particular the seven decisions of the Supreme Court in the 1990s that are now called the "Hindutva
judgments".
 According to Ram Jethmalani, an Indian lawyer and a former president of its Supreme Court Bar
Association, the Supreme Court has properly explained the "true meaning" of the term, and "Hindutva
is not hostility to any organised religion nor does it proclaim its superiority of any religion to
another".
 According to him, it is unfortunate that "the communal propaganda machinery relentlessly
disseminates "Hindutva" as a communal word, something that has also become embedded in the
minds and language of opinion leaders, including politicians, media, civil society and the
intelligentsia".

Dravidian Movement
The caste-based hierarchical system is one of the most peculiar features of Indian society. In the past,
those who were on the top of this hierarchical system (Brahmins) enjoyed all privileges, while people
from lower hierarchies did not get access to resources and they were exploited by the people who
belonged to higher hierarchical order. Reformation in this caste-based system was one of the prime
targets of various social reform movements including Dravidian movement.
Justice party
The root of the Dravidian movement lies in Brahmin-non-Brahmin conflict. The non-Brahmans started
demanding their right and questioned the dominance of Brahmins in each and every sphere. In 1916,
Zamindars and Maharajas in order to counter growing clout of Brahmins in society and politics,
established South India Welfare Association in Madras Presidency. The organization had eminent non-
Brahman leaders as Dr TM Nair, Theagaroya Chetty, Dr C Natesa Mudaliar, Panagal‘s Raja and Sir A
Ramaswamy Mudaliar. It started publishing English newspaper ‗Justice‘, with growing popularity the
society came to be known as Justice Party. This Justice party contested the election and for the first time
in 1921 Indian cabinet was formed in Madras Presidency.
Self-respect Movement
In 1925 V. Ramaswamy Naicker who was popularly known as Periyar was not happy with the
Brahminical dominance in society as well as in Congress Party that he believed was controlled by
Brahmins. To assert the rights of non-Brahmins, he established Self-Respect Movement in 1925. The aim
was to have a society with equal human rights for backward castes. Anti-Brahminism and Self-respect
Marriages were two important aspects of Self-respect Movement. The movement encouraged inter-caste
and inter-religious marriages, along with that it also encouraged marriage ceremonies without Brahmin

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 AKKA IAS ACADEMY, BENGALURU

priest. Post independence, Tamilnadu passed a law and become the first state to legalize Hindu marriage
without Brahmin priest.
Dravidar Kazhagam
The justice party could not continue its popularity and in 1936 no party candidate was elected to state
legislature. After the defeat, justice party approached Periyar and Justice party came under Periyar who
decided to withdraw from politics and transformed Justice party into a social organization Dravidar
Kazhagam(Dravidian Organization).
Anti-North Orientation and Dravida Nadu
Dravidian Movement which initiated as a movement against Brahmins, after independence added one
more dimension of Anti north orientation. At the time of Independence Periyar boycotted the
independence celebration. According to him now the British dominance will be replaced by the
dominance of North India and Congress which was led by Brahmins. Therefore he started the demand for
Independent south Indian nation/ Dravida Nadu or Dravidsthan. However, this view was not supported by
various other party leaders including CN Annadurai. The movement for Dravida Nadu reached its height
during the period of anti-Hindi protests. However, after the 16th Amendment (popularly known as the
Anti-Secessionist Amendment), successionist tendency was declared illegal and the demand for
politically independent nation faded away.
Anti Hindi Movement
Use of Hindi as the official language was opposed by people and politicians of non Hindi speaking states
in general and Tamilnadu in Particular. 1938 when Congress government headed by C. Rajagopalachari
issued order to use Hindi as compulsory language in schools, it was vehemently opposed by people of
Tamilndau, which forced the government to withdraw the order in 1940.
Post-Independence Hindi was given a special status. When the question of making Hindi as the official
language of India came into the picture, people started agitating. The official language act provided for
the provisions to use English for the transaction of business in Parliament, by Centre and states and for
certain purposes in high courts for 15 years. Later, in 1967 there was an amendment in an act which
allowed continuation of English for official purposes. However, the issue of language has not been
resolved for example Tamil Nadu passed a resolution in 2006 to make Tamil the official language of
Madras high court.
Critical analysis of Dravidian movement
The Dravidian movement failed to liberate women as well as lower caste. It could not ensure equal rights
for them. Also, the ambit of movement was confined only to Tamil Nadu. The Dravidian movement may
have succeeded in reducing the dominance of the upper castes in the administration, however, it has
strengthened the middle castes which is the backbone of the rural economy. Without proper land reforms
middle-class control rural economy which has kept the lower castes in a continued state of suppression.
However, despite limitations, the Dravidian movement was successful in the abolition of Devadasi
system, promotion of inter-caste and inter-religious marriages and legalization of marriages without
Brahman priest and therefore reducing brahminical dominance.

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Socialist approach
Socialism is a political philosophy and movement encompassing a range of economic and social
systems, which are characterised by social ownership of the means of production, with an emphasis on
democratic control, such as workers' self-management, as opposed to private
ownership. Socialism includes the political, social, and economic philosophies and movements associated
with the proposal and implementention of such systems. Social ownership can
be public, community, collective, cooperative, or employee. While no single definition encapsulates the
many types of socialism, social ownership is the one common element, and is considered left-
wing. Different types of socialism vary based on the role of markets and planning in resource allocation,
on the structure of management in organizations, and from below or from above approaches, with some
socialists favouring a party, state, or technocratic-driven approach. Socialists disagree on whether
government, particularly existing government, is the correct vehicle for change.

Advantages of Socialism
The socialist system has a number of advantages over capitalism.
 First, socialism leads to greater economic equality. In socialist societies, the government owns the
means of production, so there is no private ownership of capital. This leads to a more even
distribution of wealth, as opposed to the vast inequality that exists in capitalist societies.
 Second, socialism provides for more social and economic security. In socialist societies, the
government guarantees a basic level of income for all citizens, as well as free healthcare and
education. This means that people are less likely to fall into poverty and have access to the resources
they need to live a good life.
 Third, socialism leads to greater democracy. In socialist societies, the government is democratically
elected by the people. This means that the government is accountable to the people and can be
removed from office if it fails to meet their needs.
 Fourth, socialism promotes international solidarity. In socialist societies, people are not divided by
national borders. Instead, they see themselves as part of a global community. This leads to greater
cooperation between socialist countries and a commitment to working together for the common good.
 Fifth, socialism is environmentally friendly. In socialist societies, the government is responsible for
protecting the environment. This means that socialist countries are more likely to invest in renewable
energy and to enact laws that safeguard the planet.
Overall, socialism is a system that has many advantages over capitalism. It leads to greater economic
equality, social and economic security, democracy, international solidarity and environmental protection.
For these reasons, socialism is an attractive option for many people around the world.
Socialism is a complex economic and political system that has been around for centuries. It has evolved
over time and there are many different interpretations of what it means. Despite this complexity, socialists
share a common belief in the need to provide basic human needs such as food, shelter, healthcare and
education to all citizens.
Jawahar lal Nehru socialism
 Jawaharlal Nehru was greatly influenced by the achievements of Soviet Planning. Since he also
viewed democratic qualities of capitalism as indispensable for complete economic and social growth

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 AKKA IAS ACADEMY, BENGALURU

and since he wished to take advantage of both, he came out with his vision of so called ―Democratic
Socialism” for new India. Ideally, the democratic socialism was to not only check the growth of
monopolistic tendencies of the private sector but also provide freedom to the private sector to play for
main objective of social gain rather than economic gain.
 Another feature of Nehru‘s planning philosophy was ―Democratic Collectivism‖, which emphasized
on planning by consensus. Nehru had a genuine concern about the need for a peaceful transition
through consensus in the development process in India. The emphasis was on ―Social‖ implications of
the economic ideas along with wider national and international lines. The ―Democratic Socialism‖
and the ―mixed economy‘ demanded equality of opportunities for all and it was the basic theme.
Nehru‘s vision of a technologically progressive India was also inspired by a socially inspired process
of integrating the technology with the modern methods of agriculture and production.

Why India chose the so called Nehruvian Socialism?

The reason to why India chose the path of socialism are more political than economic and go back to the
British Era. On the basis of the views on economy, the congress leaders of those times can be divided
into three groups.
 First group, who eventually were in majority, were called capitalists. The leaders of this group
included leaders such as Rajendra Prasad, Sardar Patel and C Rajagopalachari.
 The second group can be called This group included Ram Manohar Lohiya, Jai Prakash Narayan and
Acharya Kripalani.
 The Third group consisted of Jawahar Lal Nehru and some other leaders. Although Nehru later called
himself a socialist, he was labelled as a ‗radical‘ and a ‗Marxist‟ by the press of the day. Marxist-
derived ideas were at the heart of the economic thinking of leaders such as Jawaharlal Nehru.
 The economic thought of the above mentioned second group of socialists was not something related to
the ‗communist‘ or ‗state-control‘ but an economy containing cottage industries run by cooperative
societies. That is why; this group opposed the communists and also raised its voice against Nehru
when they got a clue about the economic policy of the Congress.
 After the demise of Sardar Patel and elevation of Dr. Rajendra Prasad to the office of the President,
Nehru got a free reign and the first thing he did was to create a Planning Commission on the lines of
the Gosplan of the Soviet Union. He imitated the Soviet Union by drawing up Five Year Plans. At the
time of drafting the first Five Year Plan, Nehru was ambivalent and talked of a mixed economy that
would accommodate the private sector.
 However, later he progressively implemented his plan to usher the country in an era of socialism. In
Mid 1950s, Nehru got Parliament to accept the ―socialist pattern of society‖ as the aim of economic
development, and at the Avadi session of the Indian National Congress (1955), the resolution now
known as the Avadi Resolution was passed. This resolution called for establishment of a socialistic
pattern of society where the principal means of production are under social ownership or control and
there is ―equitable distribution of the national wealth.‖ This was followed by the Industrial Policy of
1956 in which only the government was permitted to undertake new ventures in several sectors such
as textiles, automobiles, and defence. For the private sector the policy said that the state would
―progressively participate‖ and would not ―hesitate to intervene‖ if it found progress to be
―unsatisfactory.‖ The second five year plan was based on the Industrial Policy Resolution of 1956.

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This plan asserted the economic goal as the socialist pattern of society. The economy was now
modelled after that of the Soviet Union. The private individuals were deprived of the right to indulge
in many forms of commercial activities. The government policies of the 1950s and 1960s transformed
India into such a socialist country in which all the flaws of socialism took root.

TOTAL REVOLUTION AND JP MOVEMENT

 The concept of Total Revolution as enunciated by Jayaprakash Narayan is a confluence of his ideas
on seven revolutions i.e. social, economic, political, cultural, ideological and intellectual, educational
and spiritual.
 Jayaprakash Narayan, an Indian political leader and theorist, was born in Sitab Diyara on October 11,
1902.
 He was a Mohandas Gandhi disciple and the leader of India's independence movement.
 He moved to the United States in 1922 to study political science and economics at universities in
California, Iowa, Wisconsin, and Ohio.
 JP was not religious, but he started reading the Bhagvad Gita, one of the most fundamental Hindu
scriptures, on a regular basis, drawing heroic inspiration from the Mahabharata's great war.
 He advocated for Gandhian-style revolutionary action, in which he attempted to change people's
minds and hearts.
 He was a proponent of "saintly politics," urging Jawaharlal Nehru and other leaders to resign and live
among the poor.
 In the absence of senior leaders, he took part in the independence struggle and led the Quit India
movement in 1942. After independence, he remained detached from electoral politics, but he was not
uninterested in politics. He never held a formal government post, but he remained a prominent
political figure outside of party politics.
 Narayan received his education at American universities, where he became a Marxist. He became a
member of the Indian National Congress (Congress Party). He was sentenced to a year in prison in
1932 for his role in the civil disobedience movement against British rule in India, and he was again
imprisoned in 1939 for his opposition to Indian involvement in World War II on Britain's side, but he
managed to flee and attempted to organise armed resistance to the government before being
recaptured in 1943. He sought to convince Congress representatives to pursue a more aggressive
stance against British rule after his release in 1946.

SAMPOORNA KRANTI
 Jayaprakash Narayan (JP) was one of the Mahatma's twelve apostles and a front-line soldier in the
Indian freedom struggle. JP used a mixture of ahimsa and violence in this war.
 In 1974, he called for a ‗sampoorna kranti,' or absolute revolution, to combat rampant corruption,
unemployment, and the systemic undermining of democratic institutions, and the events that followed
led to the infamous Emergency. It paved the way for a realignment of political powers in the world
and gave the country's politics a new direction, with far-reaching implications.
 He was a true believer in putting youth at the forefront of systemic change. Those in control would
naturally oppose any change, but he was convinced that only the passion and force of youth could
bring about revolutionary change and that is exactly what happened in the 1970s.

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 JP mobilised students in Bihar to combat authoritarianism and corruption after blessing the Nav
Nirman Andolan in Gujarat, where people rose up against a corrupt state government. He had such a
hypnotic effect on the political scene that, under his tutelage, a slew of Congress splinter parties,
including Congress (O), Jana Sangh, and Swatantra Party, as well as other socialists, merged to form
the Janata Party. During the Janata regime, he could have easily risen to the top. Despite public
demand for his leadership, he stated that power was not his goal.
 Total Revolution, according to Jaya Prakash, is a combination of seven revolutions: political, social,
economic, cultural, ideological or intellectual, educational, and spiritual, with the main aim of
bringing about a shift in the current society in accordance with the Sarvodaya ideals. JP had a rather
idealistic view of society, and it was in this search that he moved from Marxism to Socialism, and
then to Sarvodaya.
 His motivation for inciting the Bihar students was to bring about a full transformation of the Indian
polity's governmental framework and system. He named it a ‗Total Revolution‘ because of this. JP
gave a thorough presentation on the principle of Total Revolution. The idea of total revolution
reflected his commitment to socialist and humanistic ideals.
 JP sought to transform culture as well as people's attitudes toward society through this revolution. He
also urged workers in Bihar to prepare for a long fight to achieve the complete revolution's goals.
 Sarvodaya Movement - Jayaprakash, a founder of the Sarvodaya movement, travelled from socialism
to Sarvodaya in the 1950s. Gandhi began the Sarvodaya movement in pre-independence India, and
Vinoba Bhave led it in the post-independence period. Jayaprakash's Sarvodaya denotes a new social
order in which society is classless and stateless; it will be a democratic structure in which Lokniti
replaces Rajneeti; it will be "peoples' socialism," guaranteeing not only independence and equality,
but also harmony and immortality. The key features of sarvodaya, according to JP, are that no power
should be dominant in society.

Gram Swaraj
 Gram Swaraj is a special term coined by Mahatma Gandhi and later developed by Vinoba Bhave,
which promotes the transformation of every village into a self-efficient autonomous entity where all
the systems and facilities for a dignified living are available. Swaraj signifies self-rule with a
continuous effort towards independence and self reliance. Gram Swaraj or village self-rule is
decentralized, human centric and non-exploitative. It adheres to working towards a simple village
economy and towards achieving self-sufficiency.
 The Gandhian development approach's primary target was village as he considered that rebuilding of
a nation depends on the reconstruction of rural areas. He, based on his experiences, introduced his
economic ideas to reconstruct many rural areas of India. Among them, the experiment of rural
reconstruction in Champaran in 1917, Sevagram in 1920, Wardha in 1938 and constructive
programmes were the prominent example of such initiative. Moreover, he directly introduced his rural
reconstruction ideas and urged his followers and colleagues to focus on rural reconstruction. In one of
his letters wrote on 13th November 1945 to first Prime Minister of Independent India Pandit
Jawaharlal Nehru he suggested him mental, economic, political and moral development of each
individual to have equal right and opportunity. He also asked him to focus on bridging the gap
between rural-urban divide.

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 There are many components of Gandhian ideal village. These include revenue generation, village
sanitation, village industries, high status of women etc. He considered that to be a complete republic,
a village must have sources of revenue generation.
 Village sanitation and village industries were integral parts of Gandhi's dream village.
 Village industries in the Gandhian ideal village find a vital place because only village industries could
cater to unemployment in rural areas.
 Therefore, Gandhi dreamed for a village where all the individual will be free of all diseases, exercise
their physical labour, have all connectivities, and all necessities of life such as clean water, food,
cloth, sanitation, education, and the house lead to self-reliant.
 He thus emphasised people's inclusion in decision-making as decision-making only can make a
village self-reliant and self-rule or true republic.
 There would be no exploitation, and each individual will have equal right and opportunity in the
Gandhian ideal village
Principles Gram Swaraj:
 India lives in its villages, not in cities.
 Rural Reconstruction is based on the non-exploitation of rural areas.
 Moral and ethical values are vital than materialistic gain.
 Sarvodaya - the welfare of all.
 Promotion and use of Swadeshi products.
 Village industrialisation through small scale and cottage industries.
 Each individual must perform their duty towards the state.
 Decision making should be lies in people's hand.
 Bottom-up Planning Process.

Satyagraha
Satyagraha is a particular form of nonviolent resistance or civil resistance. Someone who
practises satyagraha is a satyagrahi.
The term satyagraha was coined and developed by Mahatma Gandhi (1869–1948), who practised
satyagraha in the Indian independence movement and also during his earlier struggles in South
Africa for Indian rights. Satyagraha theory influenced Martin Luther King Jr.'s and James
Bevel's campaigns during the Civil Rights Movement in the United States, as well as Nelson
Mandela's struggle against apartheid in South Africa and many other social justice and similar
movements.
Ahimsa and satyagraha.
There is a connection between ahimsa and satyagraha. Satyagraha is sometimes used to refer to the
whole principle of nonviolence, where it is essentially the same as ahimsa, and sometimes used in a
"marked" meaning to refer specifically to direct action that is largely obstructive, for example in the form
of civil disobedience.
He founded the Sabarmati Ashram to teach satyagraha. He asked satyagrahis to follow the following
principles (Yamas described in Yoga Sutra):[23]
1. Nonviolence (ahimsa)

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2. Truth – this includes honesty, but goes beyond it to mean living fully in accord with and in devotion
to that which is true
3. Not stealing
4. Non-possession (not the same as poverty)
5. Body-labour or bread-labour
6. Control of desires (gluttony)
7. Fearlessness
8. Equal respect for all religions
9. Economic strategy such as boycotts of imported goods (swadeshi)
On another occasion, he listed these rules as "essential for every Satyagrahi in India":
1. Must have a living faith in God
2. Must be leading a chaste life and be willing to die or lose all his possessions
3. Must be a habitual khadi weaver and spinner
4. Must abstain from alcohol and other intoxicants
Rules for satyagraha campaigns
Gandhi proposed a series of rules for satyagrahis to follow in a resistance campaign:
1. Harbour no anger.
2. Suffer the anger of the opponent.
3. Never retaliate to assaults or punishment, but do not submit, out of fear of punishment or assault, to an
order given in anger.
4. Voluntarily submit to arrest or confiscation of your own property.
5. If you are a trustee of property, defend that property (non-violently) from confiscation with your life.
6. Do not curse or swear.
7. Do not insult the opponent.
8. Neither salute nor insult the flag of your opponent or your opponent's leaders.
9. If anyone attempts to insult or assault your opponent, defend your opponent (non-violently) with your
life.
10. As a prisoner, behave courteously and obey prison regulations (except any that are contrary to self-
respect).
11. As a prisoner, do not ask for special favourable treatment.
12. As a prisoner, do not fast in an attempt to gain conveniences whose deprivation does not involve any
injury to your self-respect.
13. Joyfully obey the orders of the leaders of the civil disobedience action.
Gandhi Satyagraha In Africa:
 Against registration certificates (1906): Gandhiji formed passive resistance Association to conduct the
campaign of defying the law and suffering all the penalties resulting from such a defiance. Gandhiji
and his followers publicly burnt registration certificates. In the end, there was a compromise
settlement.
 Restrictions on Indian Migration: Restriction was defied by crossing over from one province to
another and by refusing to produce licences though they knew they would be jailed.

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 Protest against Transvaal Immigration Act: By illegally migrating from Natal into Transvaal. Gandhiji
was successful in bringing the British to the negotiating table who conceded to the conceded the
major Indian demands.
Gandhi Satyagraha In India:
 Champaran Satyagraha: Gandhiji defied the order of by the authorities to leave the town and prepared
to face punishment. After the enquiry and negotiations, he was successful in partial compensation to
peasants under tinkathia system.
 Kheda Satyagraha: Gandhiji defied the British by uniting peasants against paying taxed and finally
was able to strike a deal to return all confiscated property and reduce the increase in rate.
 It was again used during Non-cooperation movement, salt satyagraha, quit India movement and it saw
partial successes like participation in 2nd RTC, negotiations under August offer-Cripps mission-
Cabinet mission, INA trials (popular pressure) and so on.

Bhoodana
Vinaba Bhave
 Born Vinayak Narahari Bhave to Narahari Rao and Rukmini Devi, Vinoba Bhave had a deep sense of
spiritualism instilled in him at a very young age by his religious mother.
 He had read the Bhagavad Gita in his early years and was drawn towards spiritualism and asceticism
despite being an academically good student.
 He learnt various regional languages and Sanskrit along with reading the scriptures.
 He read a newspaper report carrying Mahatma Gandhi‘s speech at the newly founded Benaras Hindu
University, and this inspired him so much that he burnt his school and college certificates while on his
way to Bombay to take his intermediate examination.
 He exchanged letters with Gandhi before meeting him at the latter‘s ashram in Ahmedabad in 1916.
 There, he quit his formal education and involved himself in teaching and various constructive
programmes of Gandhi related to Khadi, education, sanitation, hygiene, etc.
 He also took part in nonviolent agitations against the British government, for which he was
imprisoned.
 He was chosen by Gandhi as the first individual Satyagrahi in a nonviolent movement in the year
1940. After this event, the unknown Vinoba Bhave became known to the whole country.
 He worked towards eliminating social inequities. He started the Sarvodaya Movement which meant
‗Progress for all‘.
 He also created the Brahma Vidya Mandir which was a small community of women enabling them to
become self-sufficient.
 In 1951, Bhave started the Bhoodan Movement in Pochampally, Telangana.
 He authored several books and was well-versed in many languages including Marathi, Gujarati,
Sanskrit, English, Urdu and Hindi.
 He was awarded the Roman Magsaysay Award for Community Leadership in 1958. In 1983, he
received the Bharat Ratna posthumously.
 Vinoba Bhave died on 15 November 1982 due to a serious illness.
Facts about the Bhoodan Movement

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 Bhoodan literally means a donation of land. As implied by the name, in this movement, landlords
voluntarily give up land to be distributed to landless labourers, who would then cultivate the land.
 This is aimed at reducing the gap between the rich and the poor. Here, the land donors are not given
any compensation.
 This was initiated by Vinoba Bhave in Pochampally.
 This movement went on for 13 years during which time Bhave travelled all over India. He collected
4.4 million acres of land to be distributed to landless farmers.
 In 1954, he started the Gramdan movement which involved the voluntary donation of whole villages.
 These movements attracted worldwide admiration for being stellar examples of voluntary social
justice.

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UNIT – 3
From Kadambas to the Hoysalas.
KARNATAKA – ITS ANTIQUITY
 The earliest reference to Karnataka is in Panini‘s work where he calls Karnadhaka as the gotra of a
people.
 Allusion to Karnataka as a territory is found for the first time in Mahabharata, the antiquity of whose
composition is carried back to at least 2000 years.
Antiquity of Kannada Language
 Kannada is among more than 20 languages of the Dravidian group. It is one of the oldest Dravidian
languages .
 The name Isila found in one of the Ashokan inscriptions in Karnataka has been described as a
Kannada word by Prof. D.L. Narasimhachar. According to him, it means ―throw an arrow‖. Thus,
Kannada was a spoken language during the 3rd century B.C. itself.
 The next important document that helps us to prove the antiquity of Kannada is The
Geography written by Ptolemy, a scholar from Alexandria, during the first half of the second century
A.D. Ptolemy speaks of many places in Karnataka such as Kalgeris (identified as Kalkeri),
Modogoulla (Mudugal), Badamios (Badami) and so on. All these are not only places in Karnataka,
but are also names of Kannada origin.
INSCRIPTIONS
 The earliest stone records are Ashokan. They are 13 in number, and are found in Chitradurga, Bellary,
Raichur districts and three are found at Sannati in Gulbarga. They are in the Prakrit language and the
Brahmi script.
 There are a number of Shatavahana Records in the same language and script found in Belgaum,
Gulbarga and North Kanara districts and also in Maharashtra where they are numerous.
 From the 5th century onwards, we have Sanskrit documents such as the Talagunda Record of the
Kadambas and the Aihole Record of Pulakeshin II, which is in Kannada script and is one of the
earliest records with a Shaka date. Most of the records of the Kadambas, the Gangas and the
Chalukyas of Badami are in Sanskrit.
 A good number of the Ganga Records are copper plates. The earliest lithic documents in Kannada are
the Halmidi Record of the Kadambas and the Badami Cave Record of Mangalesha which are of the
5th and the 6th centuries respectively.
 The Gangas and the Chalukyas have left a good many records, and mention must be made of the
Kanchi Record of Vikramaditya II in commemorating his victory over the Pallavas. The Badami Cliff
Record, the Mahakuta Pillar Inscription of Mangalesha and the Aihole Record of Pulakeshin II are the
most important sources for the study of the Chalukyas.
 A majority of the documents of the Rashtrakutas are copper plates and mention must be made of the
Samangad Plates of Danthidurga dated 754 A.D., the Talegaon Plates of Krishna I, the Jetwayi Plates
of Dhruva and the Sanjan Plates of Amoghavarsha. British Museum Plate of Govinda III is one of the
earliest copper plates in Kannada.

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 The Belmannu Plates from Dakshina Kannada is the earliest Kannada copper record from the State.
 Of the Chalukyas of Kalyana, the records of Vikrama VI are numerous. The Vadageri and Hyderabad
museum inscriptions help us to fix the date of the era started by him in 1076 A.D. The Raibag Record
of 1077 A.D., informs us of his victory over Dhara.
 Of the Sevunas, Kalachuris and the Hoysalas, inscriptions are numerous. The Sangamaner Record of
Bhillama II is the earliest of the Sevuna Records, dated 1000 A.D. It gives us details of the early
rulers of the family. Scores of records pertaining to the rule of Singhana, Bhillama V, Jaitugi and
Singhana II are available. A majority of the records are in Kannada language.
 More numerous are the records of the Hoysalas. Of the Hoysala Records, one at Belur dated 1117
A.D., speaks of the early rulers of the family and the early achievements of Vishnuvardhana. There
are many records of the dynasty in Tamilnadu.
 There are as many as 7,000 inscriptions of the Vijayanagara period and of these nearly 300 are copper
plates. The latter are mostly in Sanskrit with Nandi Nagari script.
 Most of their stone records are in the regional languages, and of these those in Kannada are almost
half in number. The Sringeri Grant of Sangama Brothers dated 1346 A.D., Beluru Record of Harihara
II which mentions the appointment of Mudda Dandanayaka as the Prithvisetty and defines his powers
of collecting duties over specific goods from 26 recognised fairs in the empire, and Hampi Record of
Krishnadevaraya dated 1510 A.D., which commemorates his victory over Adilshah are the most
important.
 The Odeyars of Mysore and the rulers of Keladi have also left numerous lithic and copper records.
Inscriptions continue to be useful source material even for the study of the history of the Muslim
rulers like the Bahman Shahis, the Adilshahis and Haider Ali and Tipu.
 Minor rulers like those of Chitradurga too have left behind numerous stone records. The Maratha
rulers in Bangalore, during the 17th century, have also left more than a dozen stone records in
Bangalore and Kolar districts. They are in Kannada except the one in the Nandi Fort, of Sambhaji
Bhosle, son of Shivaji. This document is in Sanskrit.
 A Persian Record at Doddaballapur speaks of the capture of the place by Aurangazeb from Sambhaji.
 The stone records are of various types. A majority of them are grants made to temples or scholars.
Considerable number of them are viragals or herostones, commemorating the exploits of warriors,
while fighting an enemy or driving back of a cattle raid. Some of the viragals have beautiful
sculptured representations of war scenes.
 Mention must be made of a Ganga Record from Begur, preserved in the Bangalore Museum. You can
read more about inscriptions, their varieties.
 Inscriptions generally contain data helping the historian to reconstruct the chronology. Many times
they contain details like the tithi (lunar date), the month, the weekday and other facts.
 A majority of records in Karnataka contain Shaka Era (wrongly called as Shalivahana Era.) There are
a few records which contain the Yudhishthira or Kali Era.
 The Chalukya Vikrama Era initiated by Vikrama VI of Kalyana was popular for almost a century in
Karnataka. The Muslim Records contain the Hijara (A.H.). There are a few lithic records of the 19th
and 20th centuries A.D.

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ARCHAEOLOGICAL SURVEY, MONUMENTS AND MUSEUMS

 Old buildings of Historical and Architectural importance must be preserved in good condition, so that
a strong sentiment or feeling of belonging for our history and culture is cherished as it is treasure of
history, left by our rulers and builders should be preserved and conserved for future generations.
 Conservation / reuse / recycling often also helps to save money and a resource, as it is cheaper to
repair and reuse something than to demolish it and build totally new one. It helps us to save expensive
resources in preserving the identity of the place, without altering its original features
 Monuments are contemporary sources and living examples which speak about the architectural glory
of the past in volumes and depict Indian Culture. Preservation of these monuments and heritage site
is not only our responsibility but also our Yeoman Service to the mankind.
 Conservation means the processes through which material, design and integrity of the monument is
safeguarded in terms of its archaeological and architectural value, its historic significance and its
cultural or intangible association.
 Structure means any building, equipment, device or other facility which is fixed to the land and is a
part of the monument, site or archaeological remains.
 Intervention means the action undertaken with the objective of conservation, as outlined in the sub-
articles 04 to 2.17, for the safeguarding of a monument and its integrity.
 Fabric means all movable and immovable contents of or within a Monument including its setting.
 Maintenance or preventive conservation means the such care of a monument as is exercised in order
to prevent damages and deterioration and to avoid an intervention as long as possibl All monuments
should be duly maintained in order to retain their significance regularly monitored to any major
unnecessary intervention.
 Preservation means maintaining the status quo of a monument including its setting there by not
allowing any changes, either through deliberate human interventions or due to action of natural agents
of decay to its fabric or its immediate environment.
 Repair means removing or replacing decayed or damaged material or portion of a monument in order
to impart stability and to prevent loss of original material.
 Restoration means bringing back the monument or any part thereof, as nearly as possible, to an earlier
known state or condition.
 Reassembly or Reinstatement (Anastylosis) means putting existing but dismembered parts back
together.
 Reinstatement means putting components of earlier material back in position.
 Adaptation or Adaptive Reuse means modifying a lesser significance part of the monument, or a
place inside or outside it, to suit it to a compatible use, involving , as little as possible, loss of value
(as outlined in Sub-article 1.05).
 Reconstruction means to rebuild in the original form.
 Retro fitting means to consolidate a monument‘s structure by inserting new parts or new
material/technology in order to improve their safety and to make them functional.
 Scientific clearance means systematic removal of historic building material, debris, buried within or
outside the monument, not necessarily at that location to retrieve any buried architectural members or
sculptures, etc., for purpose of their study, investigation and possible reinstatement.

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 Stabilization or Consolidation means action to arrest processes of decay using external agents that
are ―time tested and proven scientifically‖.
 Transplantation or Translocation means to remove the monument from its existing location and to
relocate it at an alternate location.
 Cleaning means periodic removal of any harmful encrustations or non-original surface deposits and
bio-deteriorating agent from the surface of a monument.
 Authenticity is a value / significance imparted to a monument through a truthful and accurate
depiction of one or more of the following elements:
 location and setting;
 form and design;
 materials, construction techniques and building craftsmanship; and
 function and traditional management systems
 Integrity is the quality / extent of the completeness / intactness of the monument demonstrated
through its attributes such as structural, functional (in case of a living monument) and visual.
 A monument means Remains of an ancient monument, Site of an ancient monument, Such portion of
land adjoining the site of an ancient monument as may be required for fencing or covering in or
otherwise preserving such monument, a The means of access to, and convenient inspection of, an
ancient monument.
 In Karnataka there are total of 844 monuments or sites which are protected. These monuments belong
to different periods, ranging from the prehistoric period to the colonial period and are located in
different geographical settings. They include Temples, Mosques, Churches, Tombs, Graves, Forts,
Citadel, Palaces, Gateways, Pillars, Minars, Residential Buildings, Baolis or Wells, Tanks, Bridges,
Caves, rock-cut sculptures, Stupas, Monasteries, Gardens etc., The State has the second highest
number of protected monuments in the country.
Some important museums under government:
 Government Museums Bengaluru: The Government Museum is centrally located on the Kastuba road
(then Sydney road) in Bengaluru spread in an area of 190655 Sq.mtrs.
 The Museum was first established at the Cantonment‘s jail building. It continued to function there for
13 years until 1978. The current site of the museum was identified for the new museum. The new
museum (the Current structure was planned and build in 1877 by Col. Richard Hieram Sankey, the
Chief Engineer of Mysore State at that time. The museum was popularly known as the Tamasha house
(entertainment house).
 Currently. The Government Museum Bangalore is under the jurisdiction of the Department of
Archaeology, Museums and Heritage, Government of Karnataka
Government Museum Wellington House Mysuru: Paintings: Karnataka had developed its own school
of Art. Painting is one of its forms and an interesting section of the Museum.
 The art works consists of Oil paintings, water paintings, photographs, etching paintings on canvas
etc., Paintings displayed in this Museum are typical examples of different varieties.
 The art works (paintings) depict different varieties ranging from Royal Dynasty of Mysuru, Diwans of
Mysuru, two or three famous temples in Karnataka, the paintings of Monolith of Gommateshwara of
Shravanbelagola.

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 The paintings on ordinary folks like Vegetable sellers, Traditional kite flying, paintings on common
sights like Tanga, stimuli poser of cock, paintings of with statesmen like Jawaharlal Nehru,
SardharVallabhabhai Patel, Dr.Radhakrsihnan etc., in Raajghat. Intimacy of the mother and a child,
friends in happy moments.
Photographs of Mysore Wodeyars period records are displayed
 Shreemanthi Bai Memorial Government Museum Mangaluru: established on 4th May 1960.
Shreemanthibhai Memorial Govt Museum provides educational information of Culture & Tradition of
the land along with the joy to the family & kids who visits the Museum
 Government Museum Madikeri: The Government Museum is housed in the Church building that is
located in Madikeri fort premises. Even the building itself has historical significance, the architecture
is of 165 years old (1855 built church) some of the attraction include a tall Arch over the entrance,
spacious Auditorium with transparent painted glass windows.
 Kodagu is one of the most naturally decorated Districts of Karnataka and renowned for Coffee,
Orange, Cardamom, unique Kodava culture and tradition, dressing pattern and also for the Vernacular
language.
 The Kodavas are still continuing the traditional uniqueness even today. In the fort area Roman-Gothic
style Church was built in 1855 with a view of preserving and exhibiting the Historical, Traditional
Arte facts of the District this particular Museum was established in 1971 by Government of Karnataka
in this imposing Church.
 The Church can be entered through a grand towered structure which connects to the prayer hall
having very beautiful altar. In the background of it there is beautifully executed stained glass painting.
 In this Museum art objects belonging to the Gangas, Kongalvas-Changalvas, the Hoysalas , the
Vijayanagara Empire, the Nayakas of Belur, the local chief and the British period. The belongings of
the General field Marshal Kariyappa the post independent war hero are also preserved in this
Museum.
 The exhibits includes the Hindu and Jain stone and Bronze images, varieties of swords, Odikattis
belonging to Virarajendra period, Folklore objects, Guns and Hero stones of various period.
 Other museums are located at Gadag, Kalaburgi etc.
Kadamba dynasty
Origin
 The Kadambas lived alongside the Western Ganga Dynasty and created one of the first local
kingdoms to rule the country autonomously.
 From the mid-6th century, the dynasty ruled as a vassal of the bigger Kannada empires, the Chalukya
and Rashtrakuta empires, for about 500 years, during which time it split into subsidiary kingdoms.
 The major sources of Kadamba history are inscriptions in Sanskrit and Kannada.
 The Talagunda, Gundanur, Chandravalli, Halasi, and Halmidi inscriptions are only a few of the
noteworthy inscriptions that provide insight on Karnataka's old royal line.
 They were Manavya Gotra and Haritiputras (lineage), which links them to the local Chutus of
Banavasi, a feudatory of the Satavahana kingdom.
 The inscriptions of Talagunda and Gundanur bear witness to this.

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 The Talagunda inscription of crown prince Santivarma, one of their earliest inscriptions, provides
what may be the most likely explanation for the creation of the Kadamba monarchy.
 Mayurasharma was a resident of Talagunda (in present-day Shimoga district of Karnataka state), and
his family was named after the Kadamba tree that flourished there.
 The Talagunda inscription also establishes Mayurasharma as the kingdom's founder.
Expansion
 In around 365, Mayurasharma was replaced by his son Kangavarma. To safeguard his realm, he had
to confront the strength of Vakataka.
 According to the Talagunda inscription, he had marital ties with prominent governing families such as
the imperial Guptas of northern India.
 King Madhava of the Ganga dynasty married one of his daughters.
 Only Ravivarma, who ascended to the throne in 485, succeeded in developing the kingdom
after Kakusthavarma.
 His reign was marked by a series of clashes within the family as well as against the Pallavas and the
Gangas.
 He was credited with conquering the Vakatakas and extending his Kingdom as far north as
the Narmada River.
Administration
 The Kadamba rulers, like the Satavahana kings, referred to themselves as Dharma Maharajas.
 The prime minister (Pradhana), the steward (Manevergade), the council secretary (Tantrapala or
Sabhakarya Sachiva), the scholarly elders (Vidyavriddhas), the physician (Deshamatya), the private
secretary (Rahasyadhikritha), the chief secretary (Sarva Karyakarta), the chief justice
(Dharmadhyaksha), and other officials (Bhojaka and Ayukta).
 Officers in the army included Jagadala, Dandanayaka, and Senapathi.
 The king was assisted in administration by a crown prince from the royal dynasty.
 The royal family's princesses were appointed as governors of numerous regions. Krishna, King
Kakusthavarma's son, was appointed viceroy of the Thriparvataha area.
 This subsequently proved disastrous to the monarchy since it allowed for breakaway factions inside
the country.
 Mandalas (provinces) or Desha were used to partition the kingdom. Vishayas had been living in a
Mandala (districts).
Economy
 The major source of knowledge on the economy and the things that shaped it is inscriptions and
literature.
 Mixed farming, a combination of grazing and agriculture, dominated by the affluent Gavunda
peasantry (today's Gowdas), seemed to be the way to go, since both the amount of grain produced and
the number of cattle head defined prosperity.
 Several accounts indicate the giving of both grazing and cultivable land in kolagas or khandugas to
either people who battled livestock thieves or their relatives.
 There have been nine Vishaya discovered. There had been Mahagramas (Taluk) and Dashagramas
(Hobli) under a Vishaya .

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 Mahagrama had a greater number of villages than Dashagramas. Tax on one-sixth of land output was
required.
 Perjunka (load tax), Vaddaravula (royal family social security tax), Bilkoda (sales tax), Kirukula (land
tax), Pannaya (betel tax), and other professional charges on traders were among the levies imposed.
Society
 In organised Hindu society, the caste system was widespread, with the Brahmins and Kshatriyas at the
top.
 The erection of memorial stones to honour the deceased hero was a unique feature of mediaeval
Indian society ("hero stone").
 These stones, with their inscriptions and relief sculptures, were intended to deify the fallen hero.
 The highest concentration of such stones, totaling over 2650 and dating from the fifth to twelfth
centuries, may be found in India's current Karnataka area
 Even Jainism and Buddhism, which gained popularity by rejecting social hierarchy at first, grew to
adopt the trappings of a caste-based society.
 Sati appears to have been embraced much after the Vedic period, given there was no authorization for
the practice in the Rig Veda's funeral songs.
 Men were big fans of physical education. The book Agnipurana advised men to avoid exercises while
they had either a partially digested meal or a full stomach.
Architecture
 The Kadamba style includes unique features, including some similarities to the Chalukyan and
Pallava styles.
 They were inspired by the Satavahana architectural tradition.
 The most noticeable aspect of their architecture is the Shikara, known as Kadamba Shikara.
 The Shikara is shaped like a pyramid and climbs in steps, with a Stupika or Kalasha at the summit.
 Several decades later, that type of Shikara was adopted in the Doddagaddavalli Hoysala temple and
the Mahakuta temples in Hampi.
 Perforated screen windows were also utilised in several of their temples. The Kadambas contributed
to the development of the later Chalukya-Hoysala style in architecture and sculpture.
 They erected the Madhukeshwara (Lord Shiva) temple at Banavasi, which still stands today.
 The temple, which was built in the eleventh century and has been restored several times, symbolises
the peak of their art.
 The stone carved with amazing engravings draws many visitors to the temple who love magnificent
art.
Religion
 The Kadambas adhered to Vedic Hinduism.
 Mayurasharma, the founder, was a Brahmin by birth, but his heirs changed their surname to Varma to
signify their Kshatriya rank.
 The horse sacrifice (Ashwamedha) was carried out by several Kadamba monarchs, such as Krishna
Varman.
 Their Talagunda inscription begins with a prayer to Lord Shiva, whilst their Halmidi and Banavasi
inscriptions begin with a prayer to Lord Vishnu.

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 They constructed the Madhukeshwara temple, which was dedicated to their family god.
 Many records, such as the Kudalur and Sirsi records, mention endowments paid to academic
Brahmins as well as Buddhist viharas.
 The Kadambas supported Jainism and erected several Jain temples in Banavasi, Belgaum, Mangalore,
and Goa.
 The dynasty's Kings and Queens were well-known for their encouragement of literature, the arts, and
liberal contributions to temples and educational institutions.
 Several descendants live in modern-day Goa, Belgaum, Mangalore, and Bangalore. In his
works, Adikavi Pampa praised that country.
Mayurasharma
 Mayurasharma or Mayuravarma, a native of Talagunda, founded the Kadamba Monarchy of
Banavasi, the first native kingdom to control over what is now the modern state of Karnataka.
 According to the Talagunda inscription, Mayurasharma travelled to Kanchi, the Pallava capital, to
further his Vedic studies with his master and grandpa Veerasharma.
 Kanchi was a significant Ghatasthapana (learning centre) during the period.
 Mayurasharma rising against the Pallava grip over the Talagunda area may be seen as a successful
rebellion of Brahmins against the domination of Kshatriya authority wielded by the Pallavas of
Kanchi.
 Mayurasharma initially succeeded in establishing himself in the forests of Sri Parvata (perhaps
contemporary Srisailam in Andhra Pradesh) by conquering the Pallava Antharapalas (guards) and
subduing the Banas of Kolar.
 Mayurasharma established a kingdom with Banavasi (near Talagunda) as its capital.
 Mayurasharma was also reported to have beaten the Traikutas, Abhiras, Sendrakas, Pallavas,
Pariyathrakas, Shakasthana, Maukharis, and Punnatas in other wars.
Kadamba dynasty - Decline
 According to the Sangolli inscription, Ravivarma was replaced by his peaceful son Harivarma after
his death in 519.
 According to the Bannahalli plates, Harivarma was murdered about 530 when a
resurrected Krishnavarma II (son of Simhavarma) of the Triparvata branch attacked Banavasi,
unifying the two branches of the kingdom.
 The Chalukyas, who were vassals of the Kadambas and ruled from Badami, seized the whole
kingdom in 540.
 Following that, the Kadambas became vassals of the Badami Chalukyas.
 Later, the dynasty split into various subsidiary branches, ruling from Goa, Halasi, Hangal, Vainad,
Belur, Bankapura, Bandalike, Chandavar, and Jayantipura.

Western Ganga Dynasty

 The Western Ganga Dynasty (350–1000 C.E.) was an important governing dynasty in ancient
Karnataka, India, known as the Western Gangas to distinguish them from the Eastern Gangas, who
reigned over current Orissa in following centuries.

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 The Western Gangas established their reign during a time when various local clans asserted their
independence due to the decline of the Pallava kingdom in South India, a geopolitical event frequently
linked to Samudra Gupta's southern invasions.
 Despite being a minor kingdom in terms of territory, the Western Ganga has made significant
contributions to the government, culture, and literature of contemporary south Karnataka.
 The Western Ganga monarchs were friendly to all faiths, but are most known for their sponsorship of
Jainism, which resulted in the erection of monuments in sites like Shravanabelagola
and Kambadahalli.
 Because the rulers of this dynasty supported the beautiful arts, Kannada and Sanskrit
literature thrived.
Western Ganga Dynasty - Foundation
 The Ganga dynasty was founded by Konkanivarman. He was known as Dharmamahadhiraja.
 The Gangas accepted Chalukya overlordship with the establishment of the imperial Chalukyas of
Badami and fought for the cause of their overlords against the Pallavas of Kanchi. In 753
C.E,the Rashtrakutas of Manyakheta supplanted the Chalukyas as the dominating force in the Deccan.
 After a century of fight for independence, the Western Gangas ultimately acknowledged Rashtrakuta
as their master and successfully fought alongside them against their adversaries, the Chola Dynasty of
Thanjavur.
Administration
 The principles outlined in the ancient treatise Arthashastra inspired the governance of the Western
Ganga.
 The Praje gavundas documented in the Ganga chronicles served in the same capacity as the village
elders (gramavriddhas) reported by Kautilya.
 Succession to the king had been hereditary, however there were cases where this was neglected.
 The kingdom was split into Rashtra (districts), and then into Visaya (perhaps 1000 villages) and Desa.
Important designations
 Several significant administrative titles have been disclosed in inscriptions, including prime minister
(sarvadhikari), treasurer (shri bhandari), foreign minister (sandhivirgrahi), and chief minister (maha
pradhan).
 All of the roles were accompanied by the extra title of commander (dandanayaka).
 Other titles were royal steward (manevergade), master of robes (mahapasayita), elephant corps
commander (gajasahani), and cavalry commander (thuragasahani).
 Niyogis controlled palace administration, royal apparel, and jewels, while the Padiyara was in charge
of court ceremonial tasks such as door keeping and protocol.
 The pergades were superintendents from many socioeconomic strata, including craftsmen, goldsmiths,
and blacksmiths.
 The pergades who dealt with the royal household were known as manepergades (house
superintendents), while those who collected tolls were known as Sunk Verdades.
 At the Nadu level, nadabovas, accountants and tax collectors, also served as scribes.
 The nalaga migas (officers) organised and managed defence in Nadu.

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 The prabhu assembled a group of distinguished persons to witness land awards and the marking of
land borders.
 The gavundas served as landlords and local elite for whom the state collected taxes, kept property
ownership records, bore witness to grants and transactions, and even raised militia when necessary.
Economy
 The Gangavadi region was divided into three sections: the malnad region, the plains (Bayaluseeme),
and the semi-malnad region, which had a lower height and undulating hills. Inscriptions attesting to
irrigation of previously uncultivated regions appear to suggest the growth of an agricultural society.
 The principal crops of the malnad region were paddy, betel leaves, cardamom, and pepper, while the
semi-malnad region produced rice, millets including ragi and maize, pulses, oilseeds, and served as a
basis for cattle rearing.
 Some lands (manya) were free from taxes and occasionally included numerous villages.
 Talavritti was a donation granted for the maintenance of temples at the time of dedication.
 Income taxes included kara or anthakara (internal taxes), utkota (gifts to the king), hiranya (cash
payments), and sulika (tolls and duties on imported items).
 Taxes had been levied on people who had the right to cultivate land, even if the land remained
uncultivated.
 Siddhaya referred to a local agricultural tax, whereas pottondi alluded to a local feudal ruler's tax on
trade.
Society
 The Western Ganga society mirrored the rising religious, political, and cultural trends of the period in
various ways.
 Because Ganga rulers delegated territorial authority to their queens, women were involved in local
government.
 The devadasi system predominated in temples, which were based after royal palace buildings.
 They avoided lethal punishment because Hindus believed that killing a brahmin (Bramhatya) was a
sin.
 Because of their greater status in the caste system, upper caste kshatriyas (sat kshatriyas) were
likewise spared from lethal punishment.
 Severe offences were penalised by the amputation of a foot or hand.
 Men wore two unrestricted clothes, a Dhoti as a lower garment and a plain fabric as an upper garment,
while ladies wore Saris with sewn petticoats.
 Turbans were popular among upper-class males, and umbrellas made of bamboo or reeds were used.
 Men and women both adored wearing decorations, and elephants and horses were ornamented.
Literature
 The Western Ganga dynasty was a time of vigorous literary production in Sanskrit and Kannada,
however many of the texts have since been destroyed and are only known through allusions to them.
 Chavundaraya Purana (or Trishashtilakshana mahapurana) by Chavundaraya of 978 C.E, an early
known book in Kannada prose style, provides a synopsis of the Sanskrit literature, Adipurana and

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Uttara Purana, published a century earlier by Jinasena and Gunabhadra during the time of Rashtrakuta
Amoghavarsha I.
 Gunavarma I wrote Harivamsa in Kannada. His now-extinct publications have been alluded to in later
years. He was patronised by King Ereganga Neetimarga II.
 Chavundaraya also supported Nagavarma I, a brahmin scholar from Vengi in modern-day Andhra
Pradesh (late tenth century).
 He composed Chandombudhi (ocean of prosody) to his wife, which is said to be the first Kannada
prosody literature.
 He also penned Kadambari, one of the oldest Kannada romantic masterpieces.
 Madhava II (brother of King Vishnugopa) published the treatise Dattaka Sutra Vritti in the age of
traditional Sanskrit literature, based on an earlier work on erotica by a writer named Dattaka.
 Durvinita is credited with a Sanskrit translation of Vaddakatha, a commentary on Panini's grammar
called Sabda Vathara, and a commentary on the fifteenth chapter of a Sanskrit work called
Kiratarjuniya by poet Bharavi (who worked in Durvinita's court).
Architecture
 The Pallava and Badami Chalukya architecture characteristics, as well as indigenous Jain traits,
impacted the Western Ganga architectural style.
 The Ganga pillars, which had a traditional lion at the base and a round shaft of the pillar on its head,
as well as the tiered Vimana of the temple with horizontal mouldings and square pillars, were Pallava
elements.
 Their freestanding pillars, known as Mahasthambha or Bhrahmasthambha, are likewise considered
remarkable and serve as instances of the Brahmadeva and Tyaga Brahma pillars.
 The Brahma sits at the summit of the pillar, on the shaft (cylindrical or octagonal) which is covered
with creepers and other floral themes, while the foot of the pillar usually bears engravings of famous
Jain figures and inscriptions.
 The Gomateshwara monolith commissioned by Chavundaraya represents the pinnacle of Ganga
sculptural achievement in ancient Karnataka.
 Many Hindu temples are built by the Ganges, with beautiful Dravidian gopuras including stucco
sculptures from the Hindu pantheon, elaborate pierced screen windows in the mantapa (hall), and
saptamatrika carvings (seven heavenly mothers).

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Western Ganga Dynasty - Religion

 The Western Gangas supported all major faiths of the day, including Jainism and the Hindu sects
of Shaivism, Vedic Brahmanism, and Vaishnavism.
 Scholars believe that certain Gangas rulers were racist. Some historians claim the Gangas were devout
Jains.
 Jainism gained popularity in the kingdom in the ninth century, when King Shivamara I built several
Jain basadis.
 The Gomateshwara monolith was built by King Butuga II and minister Chavundaraya, both of whom
were devout Jains.
 Jains revered the 24 tirthankaras (Jinas) whose statues were enshrined in their temples.
 They thought that the tirthankaras possessed creative and destructive powers, comparable to Hindu
beliefs about the holy trinity (Trimurti) of Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva.
 When inscriptions attest to donations granted to Srotriya Brahmins in the sixth and seventh
centuries, Vedic Brahmanism became widespread.
Chalukya Dynasty - (6th Century to 12th Century)
The Three Chalukyas
 There were three distinct but related Chalukya dynasties.
 Badami Chalukyas: The earliest Chalukyas with their capital at Badami (Vatapi) in Karnataka. They
ruled from mid-6th They declined after the death of their greatest king, Pulakesin II in 642 AD.
 Eastern Chalukyas: Emerged after the death of Pulakesin II in Eastern Deccan with capital at Vengi.
They ruled till the 11th century.
 Western Chalukyas: Descendants of the Badami Chalukyas, they emerged in the late 10th century and
ruled from Kalyani (modern-day Basavakanlyan).
Extent of the Chalukya dynasty
 The Chalukya dynasty reached its peak during the reign of Pulakesin II.
 His grandfather Pulakesin I had created an empire around Vatapi.
 Pulakesin II subjugated the Kadambas, the Gangas of Mysore, the Mauravas of North Konkan, the
Latas of Gujarat, the Malavas and the Gurjars.
 He also succeeded in getting a submission from the Chola, Chera and Pandya kings.
 He had also defeated King Harsha of Kannauj and the Pallava king Mahendravarman.
Chalukya Rulers
Jayasimha was the first ruler of the Chalukyas.
Pulakesin I (Reign: 543 AD – 566 AD)
 Founded the empire with his capital at Vatapi.
 Performed Ashwamedha.
Kirtivarman I (Reign: 566 AD – 597 AD)
 Son of Pulakesin I.
 Conquered Konkan and northern Kerala.
Mangalesha (Reign: 597 AD – 609 AD)

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 Brother of Kirtivarman I.
 Conquered the Kadambas and the Gangas.
 Was killed by his nephew and son of Kirtivarman, Pulakesin II.
Pulakesin II (609 AD – 642 AD)
 The greatest of the Chalukya kings.
 Extended the Chalukya rule to most parts of the Deccan.
 His birth name was Eraya. Information about him is obtained from the Aihole inscription dated 634.
This poetic inscription was written by his court poet Ravikirti in Sanskrit language using the Kannada
script.
 Xuanzang visited his kingdom. He has praised Pulakesin II as a good and authoritative king.
 Though a Hindu, he was tolerant of Buddhism and Jainism.
 He conquered almost entire south-central India.
 He is famous for stopping Northern king Harsha in his tracks while he was trying to conquer southern
parts of the country.
 He had defeated the Pallava king Mahendravarman I but was defeated and killed by
Mahendravarman‘s son and successor Narasimhavarman I in a series of battles he had with the
Pallavas.
 For the next 13 years, Badami remained under Pallava control.
 Pulakesin II received a Persian mission as depicted in an Ajanta cave painting. He maintained
diplomatic relations with the King of Persia Khusru II.
 His death saw a lapse in Chalukya power.
Vikramaditya I (655 AD – 680 AD)
 Son of Pulakesin II who plundered Kanchi, the capital of the Pallavas.
Kirtivarman II (746 AD – 753 AD)
 Great-great-grandson of Vikramaditya I.
 Last of the Chalukya rulers. Was defeated by the Rashtrakuta king, Dantidurga.
Administration and Society
 The Chalukyas had great maritime power.
 They also had a well-organised army.
 Though the Chalukya kings were Hindus, they were tolerant of Buddhism and Jainism.
 Saw great developments in Kannada and Telugu literature.
 Sanskrit along with the local languages thrived. An inscription dated 7th century mentions Sanskrit as
the language of the elite whereas Kannada was the language of the masses.[/su_box]
Art and Architecture
 They built cave temples depicting both religious and secular themes.
 The temples had beautiful mural paintings also.
 The temples under the Chalukyas are a good example of the Vesara style of architecture. This is also
called the Deccan style or Karnataka Dravida or Chalukyan style. It is a combination of Dravida and
Nagara styles.

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 Aihole temples: Ladh Khan temple (Surya Temple), Durga temple, Huchimalligudi temple, Jain
temple at Meguti by Ravikirti. There are 70 temples in Aihole.
 Badami temples
 Pattadakkal: is a UNESCO World Heritage site. There are ten temples here – 4 in Nagar style and 6 in
Dravida style. Virupaksha temple and Sangameshwara Temple are in Dravida style. Papanatha temple
is in Nagara style.
Religion:
 The rule of the Badami Chalukya was a period of religious development. Initially they followed
Vedic Hindusim, as observed in the diverse shrines devoted to countless popular Hindu deities.
 Pattadakal is the location of their grandest architecture. The worship of Lajja Gauri, the fertility
goddess was equally popular.
 They enthusiastically encouraged Jainsm and confirmed to by one of the Badami cave temples and
other Jain temples in the Aihole complex.
 Aihole and Kurtukoti, Puligere (Laksmeshwara in Gadag district) were primary places of learning
Art and Architecture:
 The primarily long-term inheritance of the Chalukya dynasty is the architecture andart they left
behind. More than one hundred and fifty monuments attributed to the Badami Chalukya and built
between 450 and 700; remain in the Malaprabha basin in Karnataka.
 The rock-cut temples of Pattadakal, a UNESCO World Heritage Site, Badami andAihole are their
most celebrated monuments.
 Two of the famous paintings at Ajanta cave no. 1, "The Temptation of the Buddha"and "The Persian
Embassy" is attributed to them.
 This is the commencement of Chalukya style of architecture and a consolidation of South Indian style.
 The Badami Chalukya era was a watershed moment in the evolution of South Indian architecture.
 This dynasty's kings were known as Umapati Varlabdh, and they builtnumerous temples for the Hindu
god Shiva.
 Their architectural style is known as "Chalukyan architecture" or "Karnata Dravida architecture."
 They built nearly a hundred monuments, both rock-cut (cave) and structural, in the Malaprabha river
basin in the modern Bagalkot district of northern Karnataka.
 The Western Chalukyas' art is sometimes referred to as "Gadag style," after thenumber of ornate
temples they built in the Tungabhadra-Krishna River doab region of present-day Gadag district in
Karnataka.
 Aside from temples, the architecture of the dynasty is well known for the ornate stepped wells
(Pushkarni) that served as ritual bathing places, a few of which are well preserved in Lakkundi.
Architecture of Chalukyas
 They used a local reddish-golden Sandstone for the construction.
 These cave temples are essentially excavations that have been excavated from the living rock sites
that they occupy.
 They were not constructed in the same way as their structural counterparts, but rather through a
special technique known as "subtraction" and are essentially sculptural.

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 Majority of Chalukyan architecture was concentrated in a relatively small area within the Chalukyan
heartland – Aihole, Badami, Pattadakal, and Mahakuta in modern Karnataka state.
 The most notable of which are three elementary cave temples at Aihole (oneVedic, one Jain, and one
Buddhist).
 There are four rock cut cave temples at Badami, they are similar as they have a simple exterior but an
exceptionally well-finished interior that includes a pillared verandah, a columned hall (mantapa), and
a cella (shrine cut deep into rock) that houses the deity of worship. Famous Temples
 Aihole temples include the Lad Khan temple (Surya Temple), Durga temple, Huchimalligudi temple,
and Ravikirti's Jain temple at Meguti. Aihole is hometo 70 temples.
 The Lad Khan Temple with its interesting perforated stone windows and river goddess sculptures.
 The Meguti Jain Temple (634) shows progress in structural design.
 The Durga Temple (8th century) with its northern Indian style tower and experiments to adapt a
Buddhist Chaitya design to a brahminical one.
 The temples at Pattadakal, which were built in the eighth century, now a UNESCO World Heritage
Site, represent the pinnacle and maturity of BadamiChalukyan architecture
 Pattadakal has a total of ten temples, of which four temples are built in theNorthern Nagara style and
six in Dravidian style.
 Some famous Pattadakal temples are Papanatha temple (northern style), Sangamesvara temple,
Virupaksha (it is like Kailashnath temple of Kanchipuram) (Dravidian style).
 The Mahadeva Temple at Itagi, the Kasivisvesvara Temple at Lakkundi, the Mallikarjuna Temple at
Kuruvatti, and the Kallesvara Temple at Bagali, are themost notable of the many buildings dating
from this period.

Religion of Badami Chalukyas

 The Badami rulers were Vedic Hindus who built temples in Aihole, Pattadakal and Mahakuta which
were dedicated to popular Hindu deities.
 During their period, both Shaivism and Vaishnavism prospered, albeit it appears that the former was
more popular.
 Vedic sacrifices, sacred vows, and gift-giving were all significant.
 Sculptures of Hindu gods such as Vishnu, Shiva, Kartikeya, Ganapathi, Shakti, Surya, and Sapta
Matrikas (seven mothers) attest to their popularity.
 The Ashwamedha (horse sacrifice) was also performed by the Badami rulers.
 During this time, Jainism was also a popular religion.
 The dynasty's kings were secular and also promoted Jainism. The Jain faith is honoured in one of the
Badami Cave temples.
 In the Aihole complex, Jain temples were also built.
 At Badami, Queen Vinayavati dedicated a temple to the Trimurti ("Hindu trinity"). The Trimurti,
Harihara (half Vishnu, half Shiva), and Ardhanarishwara (half Shiva, half-woman) sculptures all show
a great deal of tolerance.

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 After making inroads throughout Southeast Asia, Buddhism was on the decline. This fact was
supported by Hiuen-Tsiang's works.
 The primary educational centres of Badami Chalukyas were Badami, Aihole, Kurtukoti, and Puligere.
Literature
 Poetry on stone at the Meguti temple (Aihole inscription) dated 634 CE, in Sanskrit language and old
Kannada script, with a Kannada language endorsement of about the same date at the bottom is very
significant literary evidence.
 The Aihole inscription of Pulakeshin II written by his court poet Ravikirti in Sanskrit language and
Kannada script is considered as a classical piece of poetry. Afew verses of a poet named Vijayanaka
who describes herself as the "dark Sarasvati" have been preserved.
 Famous writers in Sanskrit from the Western Chalukya period are Vijnaneshwara who achieved fame
by writing Mitakshara, a book on Hindu law, and King Someshvara III, a noted scholar, who
compiled an encyclopedia of all arts and sciences called Manasollasa.
 From the period of the Badami Chalukyas, references are made to the existence of Kannada
literature, though not much has survived.
 Inscriptions however refer to Kannada as the "natural language".
 The Kappe Arabhatta record of c. 700 in tripadi (three line) metre is the earliest available work in
Kannada poetics.
 Karnateshwara Katha, which was quoted later by Jayakirti, is believed to be a eulogy of Pulakeshin II
and to have belonged to this period. Other probable Kannada writers, whose works are not extant now
but titles of which are known from independent references are Syamakundacharya (650), who is said
to have authored the Prabhrita, and Srivaradhadeva 38 (also called Tumubuluracharya, 650 or earlier),
the possible author of the Chudamani ("Crest Jewel"), a lengthy commentary on logic.
 The rule of the Western and Eastern Chalukyas, however, is a major event in the history of Kannada
and Telugu literatures respectively. By the 9th–10th centuries, Kannada language had already seen
some of its most notable writers. The "three gems" of Kannada literature, Adikavi Pampa, Sri Ponna
and Ranna belonged to this period.
 In the 11th century, Telugu literature was born under the patronage of t Eastern Chalukyas with
Nannaya Bhatta as its first writer.
Temple Architecture of Chalukyas
The Badami Chalukya era (7th and 8th century) was an important period in the development of South
Indian architecture. Their style of architecture is called ―Chalukyan architecture‖ or ―Karnata Dravida
architecture‖.
Salient Features
 These temples are a mixture of Northern and Dravida style of temple architecture and represent a
transition as well as experimentation in the temple architecture.
 The temples are located on the banks of River Tungabhadra and Malprabaha in Karnataka and
Alampur in Andhra Pradesh , which is near Kurnool.
 The largest temple of Chalukyas of Badami is Virupaksha Temple, whose complex encloses 30 sub
shrines and a large Nadi mandapa. This was also earliest example of Shiva temples, which have a
Nandi pavilion in front of the temple.

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Ravana Phadi Cave

 The earliest monument of Chalukyas of Badami is the Ravana Phadi Cave at Aihole, not far from
Badami. It was probably made around A.D. 550 and is dedicated to Siva. Ravana Phadi Cave is one of
the Earliest Rock Cut Temple located at Aihole, the first capital of the early Chalukyas. At Aihole,
they built more than 70 Hindu Temples later.

Ravana Phadi Cave at Aihole

Badami Cave Temples
 Badami cave temples are located at Badami. The red sandstone cliffs of Badami offered a spectacular
setting for the excavation of four caves, three Brahmanical and one Jaina (Parshwavanath). The
largest and most impressive of these is Cave 3, dedicated to Vishnu. An inscription next to a Varaha
depiction states that Mangalesa, a brother of King Kirtivarman, dedicated the cave in A.D. 578.
Members of the royal family of Chalukyas patronized many Chalukyan monuments. All of them were
created in sixth and 7th century. The architecture is a mixture of the Nagara style and Dravida style.
Apart from the above four, there is a fifth natural Buddhist cave in Badami.

pic.Badami Cave Temples

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Ladkhan Temple, Aihole

 The Ladkhan temple is the earliest temple of Aihole, which dates back to 5th century AD. An
inscription on this temple says that it was dedicated to Durga. There is a Shiva ling out there. The
temple is known as Lad Khan after its owner (in most recent times) at a place used as cattle sheds or
houses. This temple has a large porch and is made in a Panchayat hall kind of design with 12 pillars.
This was earliest experiment for a pillar based structures in the temple architecture.

Ladkhan Temple, Aihole

Navbhramha Group of Temples, Alampur
 The Navabrahma Group of temples is located at Alampur in Andhra Pradesh. There are total 9
temples and present a marvelous piece of art of the Chalukyas of Badami outside Karnataka. These
temple are based upon the Nagara style and do not reflect the Dravidian style of temple architecture (8
out of 9 are clearly Nagara style). The Alampur temples are the finest example of the Chalukyas of
Badami Art. The Nava Bhramma temples are Taraka Bhramma, Swarga Bhramma, Padma Bhramma,
Bala Bhramma, Garuda Bhramma, Kumara Bhramma, Arka Bhramma, Vira Bhramma and the
Vishwa Bhramma. These temples are all enclosed in a courtyard on the left bank of the river
Tungabhadra.
Раttаdаkаl
 Раttаdаkаl hаd оnсe been the riсh сарitаl оf the Сhаlukyаs. During 7th - 8th сentury, Раttаdаkаl
Temрles were gоt соnstruсted by the Сhаlukyа rulers. Роrtrаying the rаre sрeсimen, the temрles
deрiсt а wоnderful blend оf Drаvidiаn (Sоuth-Indiаn) аnd Nаgаrа (Nоrth-Indiаn) аrсhiteсturаl
styles.
Viruраkshа Temрle
 In 745, Viruраkshа Temрle wаs built by Queen Lоkаmаhаdevi tо сelebrаte her husbаnd's viсtоry
(Vikrаmаdityа II) оver the Раllаvаs оf Kаnсhi.
 The temрle wаs ereсted оn the struсturаl lines оf Kаilаshnаth Temрle (Kаnсhi); hоwever Viruраkshа
beсаme the brаinwаve fоr Kаilаshnаth Temрle аt Ellоrа. The temрle is renоwned fоr its аffluent
struсtures like Lingоdbhаvа, Nаtаrаjа, Rаvаnаnugrаhа аnd Ugrаnаrаsimhа.
Mаllikаrjunа Temрle
 In 745, Mаllikаrjunа Temрle wаs built by Trilоkyа Mаhаdevi, whо wаs the seсоnd queen оf
Vikrаmаdityа II.

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 The рurроse behind the ereсtiоn оf а temрle wаs tо соmmemоrаte the viсtоry оf the Сhаlukyаs оver
the Раllаvаs.
 Mаllikааrjunа Temрle wаs mоdeled оn the lines оf Viruраkshа Temрle. The temрle is сelebrаted fоr
its аrtistiс sсulрtures.
Рараnаthа Temрle
 Рараnаthа Temрle is the оnly temрle thаt hаs been designed оn bоth nоrth аnd sоuth Indiаn styles оf
аrсhiteсture. Соntаining а Nаgаrа styled Vimаnаm, the temрle dаtes bасk tо 680 АD.
 Initiаlly, the соnstruсtiоn wаs stаrted with Nаgаrа style, but lаter it wаs switсhed tо Drаvidiаn style.
The temрle is fаmоus fоr its sсulрtures thаt аre imbibed frоm the sсenes оf Rаmаyаnа аnd
Mаhаbhаrаtа.
Jаin Temрle
 Sited оn Раttаdаkаl-Bаdаmi Rоаd, Jаin Temрle wаs соnstruсted by the Rаshtrаkutаs оf Mаnyаkhetа.
 Built in the Drаvidiаn style, the temрle соmрrises reаlly beаutiful sсulрtures. Рerhарs, it wаs ereсted
either by King Аmоghаvаrshа I оr his sоn Krishnа II in the 9th сentury.
Jаmbulingа Temрle
 Built in Nаgаrа style, Jаmbulingа Temрle is built оn the lines оf Huссhimаlli' Guddi аt Аihоle.
 The temрle hоuses the imаge оf Lоrd Shivа, Gоddess Раrvаti аlоng with Nаndi. Jаmbulingа Temрle
hаs а hоrseshоe-shарed рrоjeсtiоn in its exteriоrs.
Sаngаmesvаrа Temрle
 Рerhарs the оldest temрle in the grоuр, Sаngаmeshvаrа Temрle wаs built by King Vijаyаdityа
Sаtyаshrаyа during 697 -733 АD. This inсоmрlete temрle аррeаls with its соlоssаl struсture.
Rashtrakutas
 The Rashtrakuta Empire dominated the Deccan for almost 200 years till the end of 10th century and
also controlled territories in north and south India at various points of time.
 It was not only the most powerful polity of the time but also acted as a bridge between north and
south India in economic as well as cultural matters.
o It promoted and expanded north Indian traditions and policies in south India.
 Significantly, India touched new heights of stability and achievements in the field of polity, economy,
culture, education and religion.
 There was no power in northern India strong enough to interfere with the affairs of the Deccan which
provided an opportunity for the emergence of Rashtrakutas.
POLITY
 There were several branches of the Rashtrakutas ruling in different parts of India in the early medieval
period.
 The earliest known ruling family of the Rashtrakutas was founded by Mananka in Malkhed, having
the Palidhvaja banner (flag) and the Garuda-lanchhana (bird symbol).
 Another Rashtrakuta family was ruling in the Betul district of Madhya Pradesh.

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 The Antroli-Chharoli inscription bearing the Garuda seal dated 757 CE mentions four
generations: Karka I, his son Dhruva, his son Govinda, and his son Karka II belonging to a collateral
branch of the Malkhed line holding sway in the Lata country in Gujarat.
o Lata is identified as the area between Mahi River in the north and Narmada or Tapi River in
south. Bharuch is a major city and former capital of the region.
Dantidurga:
 Dantidurga was the founder of the Rashtrakuta empire who fixed his capital
at Manyakheta or Malkhed near modern Sholapur.
 He seems to be the contemporary of Karka II.
 Dantidurga attacked Kanchi, the capital of the Pallavas, and struck up an alliance with Nandivarman
Pallavamalla.
 Dantidurga captured the outlying territories of the extensive Chalukyan empire in 753 CE and then
assaulted the heart of the empire and easily defeated Kirtivarman.
 The Samangadh inscription of 754 CE records that Dantidurga overthrew the last Chalukya ruler
of Badami called Kirtivarman II and assumed full imperial rank and described himself as:
o Prithivivallabha,
o Maharajadhiraja,
o Parameshvara, and
o Paramabhattaraka.
 Dantidurga describes his territory as comprising four lakhs of villages, which probably included his
sway over a little more than one half of the Chalukyan Empire of Badami.
 Dantidurga died childless, which led to a dispute between Krishnaraja I his uncle and other family
members.

Krishnaraja I:
 Krishnaraja, I succeeded in seizing the throne in 756 CE because of his popularity.
 He had the titles Shubhatunga (high in prosperity) and Akalavarsha (constant rainer) mentioned
in Bhandak Inscription of Krishnaraja I of 772 CE.
 The newly established Rashtrakuta kingdom expanded in all directions under him.
 He started with the overthrow of the Chalukyas of Badami.
 The Bhandak plates of 772 CE show that the whole of Madhya Pradesh had come under his rule.
 Southern Konkana was also conquered and brought under his sway by Krishnaraja I.
 He also expanded his empire in the southern direction by establishing lordship over the Ganga
kingdom.
 The Rashtrakuta empire under Krishnaraja I may, thus, be taken to have extended over the whole of
the modern Maharashtra state, a good part of Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, with Vengi farther east
acknowledging its supremacy and a large portion of Madhya Pradesh.
 Krishnaraja, I died sometime between 772 CE and 775 CE and was followed on the throne by his
son Govinda II.

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Govinda II:
 Govinda II (774–780 CE) bears the titles Prabhutavarsha (profuse rainer) and Vikramavaloka (the
man with a heroic look).
 His name is omitted in some of the later grants of the line.
 It was due to civil war for the throne between him and his younger brother Dhruva ruling in the region
of Nasik and Khandesh as governor.
 The first war between brothers ended disastrously for Govinda II.
Dhruva:
 Dhruva (780 – 793 CE) assumed the titles:
o Nirupama (unequalled)
o Kali-vallabha (fond of war)
o Dharavarsha (heavy rainer)
o Shrivallabha (the favourite of fortune)
 Dhruva severely punished all kings who assisted Govinda II in the late civil war after securing the
throne.
 He made his younger but ablest son Govinda III king during his lifetime.
Govinda III:
 Govinda III (793-814) became one of the greatest Rashtrakuta rulers who had the titles of:
o Jagattunga (Prominent in the world)
o Kirti-Narayana (The very Narayana in respect of fame)
o Janavallabha (Favorite of the people)
o Tribhuvanadhavala (Pure in the three worlds)
o Prabhutavarsha (The abundant rainer)
o Shrivallabha
 He first quelled the rebellions of his elder brothers in the south.
 In the north, after a successful expedition against Nagabhatta of Kanauj and the annexation
of Malawa along with Kosala, Kalinga, Vengi, Dahala and Odraka, Govinda III again turned to the
south.
 Performing better than his father‘s expectations, he spread the fame of the Rashtrakuta empire literally
from the Himalayas to Cape Comorin through his skills both in diplomacy and on the battlefield.
 Govinda‘s successor became his only son Maharaja Sarva better known as Amoghavarsha I.
Amoghavarsha I:
 Amoghavarsha I (814-878 CE) like his father, proved himself as one of the greatest
of Rashtrakuta monarchs.
 He had the titles:
o Nripatunga (exalted among kings)
o Atisayadhavala (wonderfully white in conduct)
o Maharaja-shanda (best of the great kings)
o Vira-Narayana (the heroic Narayana)

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 He was genuinely interested in the religious traditions of contemporary India and used to spend his
time in the company of Jaina monks and other forms of spiritual meditation.
 His inscriptions count him among the most prominent followers of Jainism.
 He was not only an author himself but also a patron of authors.
 Jinasena, the author of Adipurana, was among the Jaina preceptors of Amoghavarsha I.
 He not only promoted Jainism but also the Brahmanical religion and also performed several rituals for
the welfare of his subjects.
 His death was followed by the accession of his son Krishna II in about 879 CE.
Krishna II:
 Krishna II (878–914 CE) had the titles Akalavarsha and Shubhatunga.
 He was not wholly successful in curbing rebellions.
 The only success of his reign was the termination of Lata viceroyalty.
 The wars he undertook against Vengi and the Cholas got him on the whole nothing but disaster,
disgrace, and exile for some time.
Indra III:
 Indra III became king in 915 CE. Indra III had the titles:
o Nityavarsha (constant rainer)
o Rattakandarapa
o Kirti-Narayana
o Rajamarathanda
 Amoghavarsha I‘s grandson Indra III re-established the empire.
 The advance of the Rashtrakuta forces through Lata and Malawa right up to Kalpi and Kanauj and the
dethronement of Mahipala were, no doubt, significant military achievements of Indra.
 After the defeat of Mahipala and the sack of Kanauj in 915 CE, Indra III was the most powerful ruler
of his times.
 Indra III‘s reign comes to a close towards the end of 927 CE.
 He was followed on the throne by his son Amoghavarsha II and reined for one year according to
the Bhandana grant of Silahara Aparajita (997 CE).
Krishna III:
 Krishna III was the last in a line of brilliant rulers.
 Krishna III defeated the Chola king Parantaka I (949 CE), annexed the northern part of the Chola
empire and distributed the Chola kingdom among his servants.
 He, then, pressed down to Rameshwaram and set up a pillar of victory there and built a temple.
 After his death, all in late 966 CE or very early in 967 CE his opponents united against his successor
half-brother Khottiga. The Rashtrakuta capital Manyakheta was sacked, plundered and burnt in 972
CE by the Paramara kings and the emperor was forced to abandon Manyakheta.
Literature of Rashtrakutas
 During the Rashtrakuta rule, Kannada became more prominent as a literary language, with its script
and literature exhibiting remarkable growth, dignity, and productivity.

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 Kavirajamarga (850) by King Amoghavarsha I is the earliest available book on Kannada rhetoric and
poetics, though it is clear from this book that other styles of Kannada literature and poetry existed in
previous centuries.
 Adikavi Pampa, widely regarded as one of the greatest Kannada writers, rose to prominence with his
novel Adipurana (941). The work, written in champu (mixed prose-verse style), depicts the life of the
first Jain tirthankara, Rishabhadeva.
 Pampa's other notable work is Vikramarjuna Vijaya (941), the author's version of the Hindu epic
Mahabharata with Arjuna as the hero.
 Another great Kannada writer is Sri Ponna, who was patronized by King Krishna III and is best
known for his Santipurana, a description of the life of the sixteenth Jain tirthankara Shantinatha.
 For his command of both Kannada and Sanskrit, he was given the title Ubhaya
Kavichakravathi (supreme poet in two languages).
 Bhuvanaika-karamabhyudaya, Jinaksaramale, and Gatapratiagata are among his other Kannada
works. Adikavi Pampa and Sri Ponna have been referred to as "gems of Kannada literature."
 Prose works in Sanskrit were also prolific during that time period.
 Mahaviracharya, a Gulbarga native who belonged to the Karnataka mathematical tradition and was
patronised by King Amoghavarsha I, proposed important mathematical theories and axioms.
 Ganitasarasangraha, a nine-chapter work, is his most significant contribution.
 Somadevasuri wrote in the court of Arikesari II, a feudatory of Rashtrakuta Krishna III in
Vemulavada, in the year 950. Yasastilaka champu, Nitivakyamrita, and other works were written by
him.
 Trivikrama, a renowned scholar in King Indra III's court, wrote the classics Nalachampu (915), the
first in champu style in Sanskrit, Damayanti Katha, Madalasachampu, and Begumra plates.
 According to legend, the Goddess Saraswati assisted him in his attempt to compete with a rival in the
king's court.
 Amoghavarsha I's spiritual preceptor and guru was Jinasena. His contributions as a theologian
included Dhavala and Jayadhavala (written with another theologian Virasena). Those writings were
named after their patron king, Athishayadhavala.
 Among Jinasena's other contributions was Adipurana, which was later completed by his disciple
Gunabhadra, Harivamsha, and Parshvabhyudaya.
Religion and Language
 Kannada is one of the most important languages in modern India, and it was the Rashtrakutas who
popularized it and made it a tool of daily communication, despite the fact that the language had
already been in use for a long time.
 They also supported Sanskrit, which was a language of the elite.
 Amoghavarsha I was instrumental in the creation of seminal works in both languages, and his
Kavirajamarga was a watershed moment in Kannada poetry.
 His work in Sanskrit was widely praised and read in other Asian countries.
 According to legends, Amoghavrasha I endorsed Jainism, and as a result, many Jain scholars
flourished in his court, including the Jain mathematician Mahavirachariya.
 Adikabi Pampa and Sri Ponna flourished in Kannada and are now regarded as iconic contributors to
the language.

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Art and architecture

 The Rashtrakutas contributed heavily to the Deccan's architectural legacy.
 Maharashtra reflects Rashtrakuta‘s contributions to art and architecture through magnificent rock-cut
cave temples at Ellora and Elephant.
 Among the 34 Buddhist caves that were built in the sixth century, Ellora is one. At the Ellora, Jain
monks also resided.
 In addition to renovating the Buddhist caves, the Rashtrakutas decided to devote themselves to the
rock-cut temples.
 Amoghavarsha I practiced Jainism, and five Jain cave temples at Ellora date from his reign.
 The monolithic Kailasanatha temple at Ellora is the most magnificent and lavish creation of
the Rashtrakutas.
o The walls of the temple are adorned with spectacular sculptures of Hindu mythology figures
including Ravana, Shiva, and Parvathi.
Kailasanatha Temple:
 The Kailasanatha temple is the largest of the rock-cut Hindu temples at Ellora Caves in Maharashtra,
India.
 After Rashtrakuta rule expanded into South India from the Deccan, King Krishna I, commissioned
the Kailasanatha Temple project. Karnata Dravida is the architectural style adopted.
 The main shrine, an entry gateway, the Nandi pavilion, and a courtyard with courtyards encircling are
the temple's four principal components.
 The Kailasa temple is an architectural wonder with its amazing sculptures. The sculpture represents
the Buffalo monster being slain by the Goddess Durga.
 Ravana was attempting to move Mount Kailasa, Siva's home, in another sculpture. The walls were
also covered with Ramayana images. The Kailasa temple has a more Dravidian aspect.

Elephanta Caves:
 The Elephanta Caves, located on an island, which is known as Sripuri (It was previously named
Sripuri, but the inhabitants called it Gharapuri) near Mumbai.
 It was later named for the big Elephant sculpture held.
 Ellora caves and the Elephanta caves have pots of similarities that demonstrate the continuity of
artisans.
 The elephanta caves' entrance includes enormous dwara-palaka sculptures.
 On the wall enclosing the prakara around the Sanctum are sculptures of Nataraja, Gangadhara,
Ardhanarishvara, Somaskanda, and Trimurti.
Navalinga Temple:
 Amoghavarsha I or his son Krishna II, a ruler of the Rashtrakuta Dynasty, constructed the Navalinga
temple complex in the ninth century.
 Kukkanur is the town where the temple is situated. It is situated in the Koppal district of the Indian
state of Karnataka, north of Itagi and east of Gadag.

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 The nine temple clusters in South India were built in the dravidian architectural style. Its
name, Navalinga, comes from the presence of a linga, the common representation of Shiva in
Hinduism.
The Western Chalukya Empire or Chalukyas of Kalyani
 After the Chalukyas of Badami were destroyed by Dantidurga, they revived after two centuries in
around 972-73AD.
 This was known as Chalukyas of Kalyani and is supposed to have the same genealogy as those of the
previous mighty Chalukyas (though this is disputed).
 This was established by Tailapa-II who was one of the feudatories of the Rastrakuta. For 200 years
they remained in conflict with the Cholas and also the eastern Chalukyas of Vengi. The Hoyasala
Empire finally destroyed them in 12th century.
 The empire of Chalukyas of Kalyani is also known as Western Chalukya Empire. This empire has a
great contribution in the modern Kannada literature as well as Sanskrit literature.
Political History of Chalukyas of Kalyani
 The last ruler of Rastrakuta Dynasty Kakka II (Karaka) was killed by Taila II or Tailapa II the
scion of old Chalukya stock in 973 AD. Thus Taila II founded the dynasty of Chalukyas of
Kalyani which lasted for 2 centuries.
 For 200 years they remained in conflict with the Cholas and also the eastern Chalukyas of Vengi.
They were finally destroyed by the Hoyasala Empire in 12th century.
 The empire of Chalukyas of Kalyani is also known as Western Chalukya Empire. This empire has a
great contribution in the modern Kannada literature as well as Sanskrit literature.
Tailapa II
 Tailapa-II was one of the feudatories of the Rastrakutas. He restored the family of his ancestors to its
former glory.
 Taila reigned for 24 years and during that time was able to recover the ancient territory of his race
except the Gujarat region. We know about his reign from the Gadag records.
 He patronized a Kannada poet Ranna who was one the earliest poets of Kannada language. Ranna,
Adikavi Pampa and Sri Ponna together are called three gems of Kannada literature.
 Most of the time, Tailapa II kept on fighting with Munja, a Paramara king of Dhara. Munja was
finally captured and probably killed in captivity. This was in 995 AD.
 Two years later Tailpa died and his crown was passed on to his son Satyasraya
Satyasraya
 The period of reign of Satyasraya was 997 to 1008 AD. Though, to star with, he adopted the
aggressive policy of his father had enmity with the eastern Chalukyas and Cholas.
 His 11 years reign was disturbed and was finally faced the disastrous consequence of a war with the
great Chola Rajaraja-I. Rajaraja-I overran the Chalukya country and looted and killed a large number
of men, women and children.
 Satyasraya was followed by Vikramaditya V and Jaysimha II. The next important king was
Someshwara I.

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Someshwara I
 Someshwara I, who was also known as Ahavamalla or Trilokamalla reigned from 1042 AD to 1068
AD.
 The contemporary Chola King was Rajadhiraja Chola I who became Chola king in the same year
i.e. 1042. Someshwara I had established Kalyani as its capital.
 He faced the attack of Rajadhiraja Chola-I, who overran initially the Chalukyan capital and
demolished the forts and erected the pillars as a memorabilia of the victories, but the Chalukyan
counter attack forced them out.
 Under Someshwara-I , the Chalukya army raided Chola capital Kanchipuram but it was repelled back.
Finally in the battle of Koppam, Rajadhiraja Chola was killed. But his younger brother took the
command and drove the Chalukyas back. In this attack, brother of Someshwara-I was killed. The
reign of Someshwara I is known for numerous wars.
 This able king of the Western Chalukya Empire ended his life by drowning himself in the river
Tungabhadra, due to his inability to endure a fever.
 Someshwara I was succeeded by his elder son Someshwara II, but Someshwara II was soon
deposed by his younger brother Vikramaditya VI, whose reign is from 1076 – 1126 AD.

Vikramaditya VI
 Vikramaditya VI ascended the throne in 1076 AD which marks the beginning of Chalukya-Vikram
era. Vikramaditya VI was one of the ablest kings of the Western Chalukyan Empire. He left the
maximum number of inscriptions, all in Kannada.
 He is the hero of a historical poem (Vikramankadevacharita) by Bilhana, a Kashmir poet and reigned
for around half a century in tolerable peace.
 Vikramaditya VI captured Kanchi in late in his career and engaged with serious battles with a
Hoyasala King of Dorsamudra known as Vishnu. In the capital Kalyani during the times of
Vikramaditya VI, a celebrated jurist of the 12th century called Vijñāneśvara lived. Vijñāneśvara has
written a treatise on inheritance which is among the most influential legal treatises in Hindu Law
outside Bengal. The title of this work was Mitāksarā.

Mitākṣarā is considered to be an important commentary on Yajnavalkya Smriti. Another work by

Vijñāneśvara is Dayabhaga, which is also related to Hindu law. Death of Vikramaditya VI was followed
by a decline of Chalukya Empire. The Western Chalukya Dynasty ended in 1190, when most parts of its
territory were absorbed by Yadavas of Devagiri and Hoyasals of Dorsamudra. The last King of Western
Chalukyan Empire was Someshwara IV. After his death, the remaining territories of the Western
Chalukyan Empire were absorbed by the Great Hoyasala King Veera Ballala II.

Hoysalas

Political History:
 Hoysalas were feudatories of chalukyas of Kalyana.
 Dwarasamudra(Halebeedu) was their capital.
 Sala was the founder of this dynasty.

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 He was succeeded by Vinayaditya and Balalla 1.

 Vishnuvardhana(Bittideva) was greatest in Hoysala dynasty.
 He completely routed Cholas from Gangavadi in battle of Talakadu, for this he got the
title Talkadugonda.
 In commemoration of this victory he built kirtinarayana temple at Talakadu and Chennakesavar
temple at Beluru.

Religion:
 Hoysalas patronized Shaivism, Vaishnavism and Jainism.
 Vishnuvardhana followed Jainism.
 He was influenced by Sri Ramanujacharya and converted into srivaishnavism.(remember we
discussed in Cholas history that Ramajunacharya left srirangam in Tamil nadu and settled in
Melukote, Karnataka).

Literature:
 Kannada and Sanskrit literature developed during this period.
 Important literary works in Kannada are
o Harihara-
o Raghavanka- Harishchandracharite
o Nemichandra- leelavati Prabhanda
o Janna-

Art and Architecture:

 Hoysalas combined Vesara and Dravida style and developed new Hoysala style.
 Important features of this style are
o Star shaped platform
o The jagati around the temple is the open pradakshinapatha.
o Polished pillar with variety of designs.
o Elaborate carvings and beautifully carved madanika figures.
o Vimana(shikara) in pyramidical shape.
o Most of their temples in Bhumija style. In this style miniature shikara is carved on the
outerwall of the temple.
 Examples of Hoysala temples are.
o Channakeshava temple at Beluru
o Hoysaleshvara temple at Halebidu
o Keshava temple Somnathpura
 They constructed Jain Basadis also. Eg. Savathi Gandhavarana Basadi at Shravanabelagola.

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Channakeshava temple at Beluru

Hoysaleshvara temple at Halebidu

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UNIT - 4
The Vijayanagara Empire and thereafter
(1336-1799).
The Vijayanagara Empire
 It was founded in 1336 by Harihara and Bukka (with the blessings of Guru Vidyaranya) of the
Sangama dynasty who originally served under the Kakatiya rulers of Warangal.
 They later proclaimed their independence and founded a new city on the south bank of
the Tungabhadra River named it ―Vijayanagar‖ (City of Victory)
 Early Vijayanagar rulers were followers of Saivism. Virupaksha was their family God. Later they
came under the influence of Vaishnavism. However, Siva continued to be worshipped.
 There was constant conflict between Vijayanagar Empire and Bahamani kingdom over Raichur
doab (fertile region between Krishna and Tungabhadra), Tungabhadra doab (fertile areas of Krishna-
Godavari delta) & Marathwada.
 In the south its main rivals were the Sultans of Madurai.
 During the reign of Rama Raya, the combined forces of Bijapur, Ahmednagar, Golkonda and Bidar
defeated him at the Battle of Talaikotta in 1565 which marked an end of the Vijayanagar Empire.
 The last ruler of Vijayanagar was Sri Ranga III
 Four Dynasties ruled Vijayanagar from A.D. 1336 TO 1672:

Harihara I
 In 1336 A.D. Harihara I became the ruler of Sangama Dynasty
 He captured Mysore and Madurai.
 In 1356 A.D. Bukka-I succeeded him
Vijayanagar Empire was ruled by four important dynasties and they are:
1. Sangama –(1336-1485)
2. Saluva - (1485-1505)
3. Tuluva - (1505-1570)
4. Aravidu -(1570-1650)
Sangam Dynasty: (1336-1485)
 Harihara raya was first ruler. Vijayanagar and Bahamani conflict started during his times.
 Bukaraya ascended throne after harihara.
 Bukka‘s son kamparaya annexed Madurai. This episode was written by Gangadevi(wife of
kamparaya) as Madhuravijayam in Sanskrit.
 He captured revatidweepa(Goa).
 He created Pansupari bazaar in Hampi
 Bukaraya was succeeded by harihara 2 and later Devaraya came to power
 Devaraya 1 was the first important king. He was the first to construct dam across river Tungabhadra
 Devarya 1 was defeated by Bahaman sultan Feroz shah 1.

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 The greatest ruler of the Sangama dynasty was Deva Raya II.
 He inducted muslim archers into army.
 He was first vijayanagara ruler to collect tributes from cylon.
 After his death, Sangama dynasty became weak.
 The last king virupaksharaya was dethroned by his commander Saluva Narsimharaya 1, and he
stared Saluva dynastic rule.
Saluva Dynasty:
 Narasimha raya 2 was the greatest in saluva dynasty.
 Annamcharaya lived during this time period.
 After the death of Narasimha 2, Narasa nayaka installed his son veeranarsimha on throne.
 Veeranarasimha started rule of Tuluva dynasty.
Conflict Between Vijayanagar & Bahamanis
There were constant conflicts between the Vijayanagar and the Bahamani kingdoms over the control of
Raichur doab which was the land between rivers Krishna and Tungabhadra. This area was fertile and rich
in mineral resources. The famous diamond mines of Golconda were located in the eastern part of the doab
region. The geography of both the kingdoms was such that expansion was possible only across
Tungabhadra in the Deccan. It appears that the battles between the two were not conclusive and the status
quo was maintained
Tuluva dynasty:
 After the death of Veeranarasimha , prime minister Thimmarasu installed Krishnadevaraya on throne.
 Krishnadevaraya (1509-1529)was the greatest in this dynasty.
 He was a great commander and an efficient administrator. He fought a series of war with the
independent kingdoms that came on the ruins of the Bahamani kingdom, maintained law and order
and dealt with the Portuguese influence in the Deccan.
 He completely shattered the Adil Shahi forces of Bijapur first and attacked Gulbarga and set free three
Bahamani princes who were imprisoned there. He helped them in recovering the throne of Gulbarga
and Krishna Deva himself took the title of Yavanarajya sthapanacharya.
 He started his eastern campaign in 1513AD.
 Udayagiri was the first fort to be captured by Krishnadevaraya.
 He defeated Prataparudra Gajapati of Orissa.
 He married Gajapati princess Tukkadevi or Annapurnadevi.
 Raichur campaign in 1520 was his last campaign. He defeated Ismail Adil shah.
 Portugese governor Alfanso de Alburque concluded treaty with Krishnadevaraya.
 In 1510 Portugese captured Goa from Bijapur Sultan.
 He was a great patron of literature and art and he was known as Andhra Bhoja
 Eight eminent scholars known as Ashtadiggajas were at his royal court.
 Due the death of his son ,Krishnadevaraya received nervous breakdown and passed away in 1529.
 After his death, Achyutadeva and Sadashivraya succeeded the throne.
 During the reign of Rama Raya, the Bahaman confederacy (combined forces of Bijapur, Ahmadnagar,
Golkonda and Bidar) defeated him(Ramaraya) at the Battle of Talaikote in 1565.

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 Rama Raya was imprisoned and executed. The city of Vijayanagar was destroyed. This battle was
generally considered to mark the end of the Vijayanagar Empire.
 However, the Vijayanagar kingdom existed under the Aravidu dynasty for about another century.
Aravidu Dynasty:
 Thirumala, Sri Ranga and Venkata II were the important rulers of this dynasty.
 Venkata II was contemporary to Akbar. He shifted capital city to
 The last ruler of Vijayanagar kingdom was Sri Ranga III.
 Sri Ranga was defeated by Mir Jumla of Golconda in battle of Vandavasi in 1647.
 Vijyanagar empire came to an end with this.
Administration :
 They followed traditional monarchy.
 The king was the ultimate authority in the kingdom. He was also the supreme commander of the
army.
 The king was assisted by a council of ministers in his day to day administration.
 One of the important characteristics of the Vijayanagar administration was the amaranayaka This is
similar to the iqta system of Delhi Sultanate.
 In this system, the commander of the Vijayanagar army was called the nayaka. Each nayaka was
given an area for administration. The nayaka was responsible for expanding agricultural activities in
his area
 He collected taxes in his area and with this income maintained his army, horses, elephants and
weapons of warfare that he had to supply to the raya or the Vijayanagar ruler
 The amara-nayakas sent tribute to the king annually and personally appeared in the royal court with
gifts to express their loyalty.
Revenue:
Land revenue was the major source of income to the state.
Genrally it was it was at the rate of one sixth of the total produce.
Judicial Administration
 The king was the supreme judge.
 Severe punishments were given for the guilty.
 Those who violated the law were levied.
Society:
 People were found of luxurious life.
 Silk and cotton clothes were mainly used for dress. Perfumes, flowers and ornaments were used by
the people. Paes mentions of the beautiful houses of the rich and the large number of their household
servants.
 Prostitution was institutionalized.
 Devdasi or temple dancer system became more popular.
 Practice of sati further strengthened.
 Existence of four caste- Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaisyas and Sudras.

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Religion:
 The Sangama rulers were chiefly Saivaites and Virupaksha was their family deity. But other dynasties
were Vaishnavites.
 But all kings were tolerant towards other religions. Borbosa referred to the religious
freedom enjoyed by everyone.
 Muslims were employed in the administration and they were freely allowed to build mosques and
worship.
 Shunya sampadane– a collection of vachanas produced in this age.(vachanas literally meaning sayings
in kannada, these are poetic verses composed in kannada language, popularized by veershaiva
movement led by Basavanna).
Position of Women
 Women occupied a high position and took an active part in the political, social and literary life of the
empire.
 They were educated and trained in wrestling, in the use of various weapons of offence and defence, in
music and fine arts.
 Some women also received an education of high order.
 Nuniz writes that the kings had women astrologers, clerks, accountants, guards and wrestlers.
Literature:
 Sanskrit, Kannada, Telugu language witnessed voluminous literature in Vijayanagar period.
 Few Sanskrit works are.
o Gangadevi wrote- Madhuravijayam
o Krishnadevarya wrote – usha parinayan, jambavanti kalyanam, madalasa charita.
o Guru vidyaranya wrote—Raja kalanirnaya
 Literary works in Kannada.
o Chamarasa wrote – prabhulingaleele
o Kanakadas wrote- Ramadhanacharite, nala charite, mohantarangini
o Kumaravyasa wrote – Karnataka katha manjari
o Purandardas — keertanas
 Literary works in Telugu
o Krishnadevaraya wrote – Amuktamalyada
o Allasani pedanna wrote – Manucharita
o Nandi timanna wrote – Parijathaparahana etc
 Ashtadiggajas– eight great poets of Telugu literature flourished in the court of Krishnadevaraya.
Architecture:
 They used the Dravidian style of architecture later added some unique features to it and it came to be
called as Vijayanagara style.
 Preferred for its durability, local hard granite was the building material of choice, as it had been for
the Badami Chalukyas.
 Vijayanagar temples are surrounded by strong enclosures and characterized by ornate
pillared kalyanamandapa (marriage halls); tall rayagopurams (carved monumental towers at the

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entrance of the temple) built of wood, brick, and stucco in the Chola style; and adorned with life-sized
figures of gods and goddesses.
 This dravida style became popular during the reign of Krishnadeva Raya and is seen in South Indian
temples constructed over the next two centuries.
 The courtly architecture of Vijayanagar is generally made of mortar mixed with stone rubble and
often shows secular styles with Islamic-influenced arches, domes, and vaults.
Some famous temples exemplifying the Vijayanagar style include the Virupaksha Temple at Hampi and
the Hazara Rama temple of Deva Raya I etc.
Virupaksha Temple

hazara rama temple

lotus mahal
Literary Sources:
 Rayavachakam by vishvanatha sthanapati
 ―The forgotten history of vijayanagar empire‖ by Robert seawell

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 The Kannada and Telugu literature, like Manucharitram, Saluvabhyudayam, etc., patronized in the
Vijayanagar court, give genealogical, political and social information.
Foreign Accounts:
 Nicholo de conti visited Vijayanagar durinh times of Devaraya 1 and gave details about his
personality.
 Abdul Razzaq from Persia visited during Devaraya 2. He described the beauty of capital city Hampi.
 Domingo Paes and Barbosa visted during Krishnadevraya time.
 Nuniz visted during the times of achyuthdevaraya
Inscriptions:
 Bitragunta inscription is the major source for construction of family history of sangama dynasty.
 Srirangam copper plates of Devaraya II provide the genealogy and achievements of Vijayanagar
rulers.
 Various copper plate inscriptions of krishnadevraya time.
 The Hampi ruins and other monuments of Vijayanagar provide information on the cultural
contributions of the Vijayanagar rulers.
Krishnadeva Raya (1509-1529 A.D.)
 Krishnadeva Raya of the Tuluva dynasty was the most famous king of the Vijayanagar Empire
 According to Domingo Paes, a Portuguese traveller ―Krishnadeva Raya was the most feared and
perfect king there could possibly be‖.
Krishnadeva Raya„s Conquests
 He conquered Sivasamudram in 1510A.D and Raichur in 1512A.D
 In 1523 A.D. he captured Orissa and Warangal
 His empire extended from the river Krishna in the north to River Cauvery in the south; the Arabian
Sea in the west to Bay of Bengal in the east
His Contributions
 An able administrator.
 He built large tanks and canals for irrigation.
 He developed the naval power understanding the vital role of overseas trade.
 He maintained friendly relations with the Portuguese and Arab traders.
 He increased the revenue of his government.
 He patronized art and architecture.
 It was during his period the Vijayanagar Empire reached its zenith of glory.
 Krishnadeva Raya was a great scholar.
 Ashtadiggajas: A group of eight scholars adorned his court and they were:
1. Allasani Peddanna – the author of Manucharitram, he was also known as Andhra Kavitapitamaha
2. Nandi Thimmana – the author of Parijathapaharanam
3. Madayagari Mallana
4. Dhurjati
5. Ayyalaraju Ramabhadra Kavi
6. Pingali Surana

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7. Ramaraja Bhushana
8. Tenali Ramakrishna.
The decline of the Empire
 The rulers of the Aravidu dynasty were weak and incompetent.
 Many provincial governors became independent.
 The rulers of Bijapur and Golconda seized some areas of Vijayanagar.
The battle of Talikota
 The battle of Talikota was fought between Sultanates of Deccan and Vijaynagar kingdom on 26
January 1565 AD. The Vijaynagar kingdom suffered a defeat in the battle fought near the villages of
Rakshasi and Tangdi.
 At the time of Battle of Talikota, Sadasiva Raya was the ruler of Vijaynagar kingdom. But he was a
puppet ruler. The real power was exercised by his minister Rama Raya. He tried to crush the power of
Deccan sultanates by creating difference amongst them. However, the Deccan sultanates got a hint of
his plan and formed an alliance against Vijayanagar kingdom. Soon, they attacked the kingdom and
looted and destroyed everything after entering the capital.
Its Consequences
 The battle of Talikota ended the prominence of Viajaynagar kingdom in South Indian politics.
 The Kingdom of Mysore, Nayakas of Vellore, Nayakas of Keladi in Shimoga declared their
independence from Vijayanagar.
 The Muslim Sultanates of Deccan could not gain much out of this victory because they soon engaged
themselves in fighting among themselves and fell easy prey to the Mughals.
Causes of Vijaynagar‟s defeat
 Vijaynagar lost the battle because of lesser number of cavalry as compared with Deccan Sultanates.
 The Deccan sultanates had more sophisticated weapons in comparison to Vijaynagar kingdom.
 The Deccan sultanates were better in artillery warfare.
 The biggest reason of Vijaynagar‘s defeat was the betrayal of two key commanders in Vijaynagar
kingdom known as Gilani brothers.
List Of The Travellers Visited During Vijayanagar Empire
Foreign Travellers Country Ruler Time
1. Nicoli Conti Italy Devraya I 1420 AD.
2. Abdur Razzak Persian Devraya II 1434 AD.
3. Fernoa Nuniz Portugal Mallikarjun 1450 AD.
4. Domingos Peas Portugal Krishnadev Raya 1515 AD.
5. Barbosa Portugal Krishnadev Raya 1516 AD.
6. Niktin Russian Devraya I 1515 AD.
Shankaracharya
 Known as Adi Shankara, born 11th May 788 AD, at Kaladi near Kochi, Kerala.

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 Took Samadhi at the age of 33, at Kedar tirth.

 He was a devotee of Shiva.
 Propounded the Doctrine of Advaita (Monism) and wrote many commentaries on the Vedic canon
(Upanishads, Brahma Sutras and Bhagavad Gita) in Sanskrit.
 He was opposed to Buddhist philosophers.
Major Work:
 Brahmasutrabhasya (Bhashya or commentary on the Brahma Sutra).
 Bhajagovinda Stotra.
 Nirvana Shatakam.
 Prakaran Granths.
Other Contributions:
 Was responsible for reviving Hinduism in India to a great extent when Buddhism was gaining
popularity.
 Established four Mathas in the four corners of India at Shingeri, Puri, Dwaraka and Badrinath– for
propagation of Sanathana Dharma.
Advaita Vedanta:
 It articulates a philosophical position of radical nondualism, a revisionary worldview which it derives
from the ancient Upanishadic texts.
 According to Advaita Vedantins, the Upanishads reveal a fundamental principle of nonduality termed
‗brahman‘, which is the reality of all things.
 Advaitins understand brahman as transcending individuality and empirical plurality. They seek to
establish that the essential core of one‘s self (atman) is brahman.
 The fundamental thrust of Advaita Vedanta is that the atman is pure non-intentional consciousness.
o It is one without a second, nondual, infinite existence, and numerically identical with brahman.
Ramanujacharya
 Born in 1017 in Sriperumbudur in Tamil Nadu, Ramanujacharya is revered as a Vedic philosopher
and social reformer.
 He was named Lakshmana at the time of his birth. He was also referred to as Ilaya Perumal which
means the radiant one.
 He traveled across India, advocating equality and social justice.
 He revived the Bhakti movement, and his preachings inspired other Bhakti schools of thought. He is
considered to be the inspiration for poets like Annamacharya, Bhakta Ramdas, Thyagaraja, Kabir, and
Meerabai.
 He is famous as the chief proponent of Vishishtadvaita subschool of Vedānta.
o VishishtAdvaita (literally "Advaita with uniqueness; qualifications") is a non-dualistic school
of Vedanta philosophy.
o It is non-dualism of the qualified whole, in which Brahman alone is seen as the Supreme
Reality, but is characterized by multiplicity.
 He went on to write nine scriptures known as the navaratnas, and composed numerous commentaries
on Vedic scriptures.

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o Ramanuja‘s most important writings include his commentary on the Vedanta Sutras (the Sri
Bhasya, or "True Commentary"), and his commentary on the Bhagavad-Gita (the Gitabhasya,
or "Commentary on the Gita").
o His other writings include the Vedartha Samgraha ("Summary of the Meaning of the Veda"),
the Vedantasara ("Essence of Vedanta"), and Vedantadipa ("Lamp of Vedanta").
 He has also stressed the need of being in tune with nature and not to over-exploit.
The Statue of Equality
 Ramanuja was an advocate of social equality among all sections of people centuries ago, and
encouraged temples to open their doors to everyone irrespective of caste or position in society at a
time when people of many castes were forbidden from entering them.
 He took education to those who were deprived of it. His greatest contribution is the propagation of
the concept of ―vasudhaiva kutumbakam‖, which translates as ―all the universe is one family‖.
 He traveled across India for several decades, propagating his ideas of social equality and universal
brotherhood from temple podiums.
 He embraced the socially marginalized and condemned, and asked royal courts to treat them as
equals.
 He spoke of universal salvation through devotion to God, compassion, humility, equality, and mutual
respect, which is known as Sri Vaishnavam Sampradaya.
 Ramanujacharya liberated millions from social, cultural, gender, educational, and economic
discrimination with the foundational conviction that every human is equal regardless of nationality,
gender, race, caste, or creed.
Shri Madhvacharya
 Shri Madhvacharya was born to Narayana Bhatta and Vedavati in Pajaka, a small place near Udupi.
He was born in 1238, on the auspicious day of Vijayadashami, and he was named Vasudeva.
 He was the third of the trinity of philosophers who influenced Indian thoughts after the ages of the
Vedas and Puranas (the other two being Shankaracharya and Ramanujacharya)
 He propounded the philosophy of Dwaita or Dualism.
 He was initiated into sanyasttva by Achyutapreksha
 At the time of initiation, he was given the name Purnaprajna. It was also Achyutapreksha who gave
him the title ‗Madhva‘ by which he was more famously known.
 Madhvacharya wrote commentaries on several important Hindu holy texts, including the Bhagavad
Gita and the Brahma Sutra.
 He wrote various texts that detailed his philosophy which he called Tattvavada, or as it is more
popularly known, Dvaita. Some of his works were the Gita Bhashya, Brahma Sutra Bhashya, Anu
Bhashya, Karma Nirnaya, and Vishnu Tattva Nirnaya.

About Dvaita philosophy

 The basic tenet of Dvaita philosophy is the refutation of the Mayavada of Sri Shankara. Dvaitha
emphasizes that the world is real and not just an illusion.
 The soul is bound to this world through ignorance

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 The way for the soul to release itself from this bondage is to seek the grace of Sri Hari
 To reach Sri Hari, one has to practice Bhakthi, there is no other way
 To practice Bhakthi, one needs to meditate
 To meditate, one needs to clear the mind and attain detachment by studying the sacred texts.
Sri Basaveshwara
 Sri Basaveshwara was born in Bagevadi (of undivided Bijapur district in Karnataka) during 1131
AD. He is the founding saint of the Lingayat sect.
 His spiritual discipline was based on the principles of Arivu (true knowledge), Achara (right conduct),
and Anubhava (divine experience) and it brought social, religious and economical revolution in the
12th century.
 This path advocates a holistic approach of Lingangayoga (union with the divine). This comprehensive
discipline encompasses bhakti (devotion), jnana (knowledge), and kriye (action) in a well balanced
manner.
 In Kalyana, the Kalchuri king Bijjala (1157-1167, AD) appointed Basaveshwara as a karanika
(Accountant) in the initial stage, in his court and later as the Prime minister.
 Here, Basaveshwara revolted against all the social evils of the traditionalistic society and brought a
drastic change in various facets.
 His practical approach and act of establishment of ‗Kalyana Rajya‘ (Welfare state) brought a new
status and position for all the citizens of the society, irrespective of class, caste, creed and sex.
Anubhava Mantapa:
 He established the Anubhava Mantapa, which was a common forum for all to discuss the prevailing
problems of socio, economic and political strata including religious and spiritual principles along with
personal problems.
 Thus, it was the first and foremost Parliament of India, where Sharanas (citizens of welfare
society) sat together and discussed the socialistic principles of a Democratic set up.
 All those discussions of Sharanas were written in the form of Vachanas.
o Vachanas were an innovative literary form written in simple Kannada language.
 Basaveshwara gave two more very important socio-economic principles. They are:
o Kayaka (Divine work): According to this, every individual of the society should take up the
job of his choice and perform it with all sincerity.
o Dasoha (Equal distribution):
 There must be an equal income for equal work.
 The worker (Kayakajeevi) may lead his day-today life by his hard earned income. But
he should not preserve the money or property for tomorrow. He must utilise the surplus
money for the society and poors.
 th
On 14 November 2015, the Prime Minister of India inaugurated the statue of Basavanna along the
bank of the river Thames at Lambeth in London.
Vachanas and Sharana Movement
 The Vachanas of Basavaadi Sharana were their experiences in the journey of realising God. About
800 sharanas practised the method and recorded their interms of Guru (Unmanifest Chaitanya), Linga

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(Manifest Chaitanya), Jangama (True consciousness of Lingatattva in one‘s soul), Padodaka

(closeness with the knower/source of Lingatattva), as well as, Prasad (becoming lingatattva).
 According to records, the sharanas exclusively exchanged experiences of God realisation in group
conversation in Karnataka, primarily under the direction of Basavanna, Channa Basavanna Allama
Prabhu, and Siddarameshwar. This has been ascribed to the movement‘s widespread appeal. There
were about 200 Vachana authors (Vachanakaras) documented, with over thirty of them being women.
About Vachanas
 Vachanas are short paragraphs that conclude with one or more local names by which Shiva is called
or Pooja is performed. They are epigrammatical, parallelistic, as well as allusive in style.
 They reflect on wealth‘s vanity, the meaninglessness of ceremonies or book study, life‘s
unpredictability, and Shiva Bhakta‘s spiritual advantages (worshiper of lord Shiva).
 The Vachanas urge men to abandon their desire for material prosperity and comfort, to live a lifestyle
of serenity and dissociation from the world, and to seek shelter in Siva.
 The manner of invocation of God (Basveshvara summons ―Kudala Sangama Deva,‖ whereas Allama
Prabhu invokes ―Guheshwara,‖ Akkamadevi invokes ―Channa Mallikarjuna,‖ Siddhrama
(Siddheshwar) of Solapur elicits ―Kapilasidda Mallikarjuna‖) in the vachana can be used to identify
the writer.
 The majority of current vachana readings are based on European interpretations of Indian traditions.
There are over 22,000 vachanas available. Samagra Vachana Samputa was published in 15 volumes
by the Karnataka government.
 Individual vachana authors‘ compilations have been released by Karnataka University Dharwad. The
‗Adya Vachanakara‘ is Jedara Dasimaiah (The First Vachanakara).
KALAMUKHAS AND PASHUPATI SECT
 Kalamukhas – it is a strange cults that portrays Rudra in the Vedas. The Kalamukhas worships Shiva
in form of Rudra. They deface their faces with black marks & symbols.
 They are related to a Kashmiri Devavrata Muni. They were quite dominant in Andhra and Karnataka
between A.D 700 to 1200 in Kedareshvara temple in Balligave, Karnataka, and the temples of
Srisaila, Andhra Pradesh.
 Pashupati cult - The Pasupati cult, also called as the Pashupata cult, The words 'pati,' 'pasa,' and
'prasada' are from Svetasvatara Upanishad worship of Shiva as linga,' the practice of trying the Siva
linga on the arm as per the stone edict of King Pravarasena(A.D. 428), Shivalingas in Cambodia of
period A.D. 550—belongs to tbis belief. It is India's oldest and influential sect dedicated to the god
Shiva. The founder was Lakulisa.
SHAKTISM:
 Shaktism reveres the Supreme as the Divine Mother, Shakti or Devi, in Her many forms, both gentle
and fierce. Shaktas use mantra, tantra, yantra, yoga and puja to invoke cosmic forces and awaken the
kundalini power.
 The diversity of Shakti is central to its ideology. The Supreme Goddess has taken on numerous forms
for the benefit of the universe. Shakti, the greatest female energy of the Universe, is worshipped in
numerous forms. In line with her tasks, Shakti expresses herself in an infinite number of forms.

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 Shakti means power or energy, and power or energy is considered feminine in the Shaktism tradition.
As the metaphysical truth is feminine, the goddess is supreme, according to the Shaktism tradition.
 This tradition worships several distinct goddesses, and all of the many goddesses are regarded as
different manifestations of the same supreme deity. Furthermore, numerous sub-traditions of the
Shaktism tradition exist, each of which is focused on devotion to a certain goddess.
 Two schools of thought are particularly important: "Srikula," which is prevalent in South India, and
"Kalikula," which is prevalent in northern and eastern India. The pan-Indian Goddesses are essentially
classified into two groups.
 The Goddesses who personify the inherently benign qualities of strength or energy, such as devotion,
knowledge, love, or compassion, and these orthodox Goddesses are Radha, Krishna's lover, Gauri, the
golden one, Sita, Rama's dedicated and faithful wife, Sarasvati, the Goddess of learning and wisdom,
and Lakshmi, the Goddess of money and wealth and consort of Vishnu.
 In contrast, the Goddesses that embody the more energetic forces of protection and annihilation of
evil are two, namely Durga and Kali. However, both groups are fundamentally benign and essentially
ferocious by nature.
 The majority of the indigenous goddesses are self-sufficient and wild in character. Confined deities
are more important than Hindu Pantheon deities.
 These Goddesses are concerned with local issues and are worshipped for the protection of devotees.
One of the most well-known local Goddesses is the Goddess of Small Pox, who is concerned with
ailments.
 In South India, she is known as Mariyamman, but in the north, particularly in Bengal, she is known as
Shitala. The sicknesses are also seen to be the Goddess manifesting herself in the hamlet, and the
ailment is said to represent the Goddess' grace.
The Bahmani Kingdom (1347-1527 A.D.)
The Bahmani Sultanate was a Persianised Muslim state of the Deccan in South India and one of the major
medieval Indian kingdoms.
Bahmani Kingdom Political History
 Ala-ud-Din Hasan Bahman Shah (also known as Zafar Khan) was the founder of the Bahmani
Kingdom.
 He was a noble in the employ of Muhammad bin Tughluq
 in 1347 A.D. he established the independent Bahmani kingdom.
 His kingdom included the whole of Deccan up to the river Krishna with its capital at Gulbarga.
Rulers of the Bahmani Kingdom
Muhammad Shah-I (1358-1375.A.D.)
 He was the next ruler of the Bahamani Kingdom.
 He was an able general and administrator.
 He defeated Kapaya Nayaks of Warangal and the Vijayanagar ruler Bukka-I.
Muhammad Shah-ll (1378-1397.A.D.)
 In 1378 A.D. Muhammad Shah-ll ascended the throne.
 He was a peace lover and developed friendly relations with his neighbours.

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 He built many mosques, madrasas (a place of learning) and hospitals.

Feroz Shah Bahmani (1397-1422 A.D.)
 He was a great general
 He defeated the Vijayanagar ruler Deva Raya I.
Ahmad Shah (1422-1436 A.D.)
 Ahmad Shah succeeded Feroz Shah Bahmani
 He was an unkind and heartless ruler.
 He conquered the kingdom of Warangal.
 He changed his capital from Gulbarga to Bidar.
 He died in 1436A.D.
Muhammad Shah-lll (1463-1482 A.D.)
 In 1463A.D. Muhammad Shah lll became the Sultan at the age of nine
 Muhammad Gawan became the regent of the infant ruler.
 Under Muhammad Gawan‘s able leadership the Bahmani kingdom became very powerful.
 Muhammad Gawan defeated the rulers of Konkan, Orissa, Sangameshwar, and Vijayanagar.
The Five Kingdoms
 Muhammad Shah-III died in 1482
 His successors were weak and the Bahmani Kingdom disintegrated into five kingdoms namely:
1. Bijapur
2. Ahmednagar
3. Bera
4. Golconda
5. Bidar
Decline of Bahmani Kingdom
 There was a constant war between the Bahmani and Vijayanagar rulers.
 Inefficient and weak successors after Muhammad Shah III.
 The rivalry between the Bahmani rulers and foreign nobles.
Mahmud Gawan
 Mahmud Gawan, also known as Khawaja Mahmud Gilani, was an important nobleman of
the Bahmani kingdom, and served Shahabuddin Mahmud III as his prime minister for almost 20 years
from 1463 to 1481.
 He was a Persian trader who arrived in India (Deccan) at the age of 42 and entered the Bahmani
kingdom's service.
 Humayun Shah, the Bahmani king, bestowed upon him the title of Malik-ul-Tujjar, or "Chief of the
Merchants."
 Following Humayun's untimely death, his underage son Nizam Shah was crowned and a regency
council was formed, of which Mahmud Gawan was an important member.
 He was gradually promoted to wazir (prime minister) and granted the title of 'Khwaju-i-Jahan' due to
his personal attributes.

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 He was a major supporter of the arts and donated funds to create a college in Bidar that was designed
in the Persian style.
 Strife among nobility was one of the most challenging difficulties the Bahmani kingdom faced.
 The nobles were separated into two groups: Deccanis (old timers) and Afaqis (newcomers).
 Due to court intrigues, Mahmud Gawan was sentenced to death by Muhammad Shah Bahmani III,
who was educated and raised by Gawan himself.
 The Bahmani Kingdom's splendor faded after his death, and it was eventually divided into five Shahi
Deccan kingdoms.
Military Achievements of Mahmud Gawan
 Working conditions of soldiers had been improved. In the army, better discipline was enforced.
 Gawan commanded a successful expedition against Orissa and Khandesh's united army.
 In the struggle against the Vijayanagar kings in Belgaum, he pioneered the use of gunpowder.
 He took over Bidar, Daultabad, and Berar, which were all fertile areas.
 He overcame Mahmud Khalji of Malwa for control of Berar with the support of Gujarat's ruler.
 He established Bahamni authority over the western shore, stretching all the way to Dabhol and Goa.
 Possession of these two ports provided a double benefit.
 First, it resulted in an increase in the Kingdom's sea trade with Iran and Iraq. Internal trade increased
as well.
 Second, it undermined the Vijayanagar Kingdom, its arch-enemy. Up to Kanchi, he captured the
Vijayanagar territory.
Administrative Reforms Under Mahmud Gawan
 Gawan implemented numerous internal administrative reforms in an attempt to end nobility strife and
strengthen the Sultan's control over nobles and provinces.
 He split the kingdom into eight tarafs, or provinces, each of which was ruled by a tarafdar.
 In each of these eight 'tarafs,' some areas were set aside for the Central Government's supervision, and
officials were appointed by the Center to oversee their administration.
 Gawan ordered that just one fort in each province be under the direct supervision of the provincial
tarafdar in order to limit the tarafdar's military capabilities.
 The province's remaining forts were assigned to a Qiladar, or fort commander.
 He established a just legal system.
Mahmud Gawan‟s Work on Education
 He established the Mahmud Gawan Madrasa, a prominent university in Bidar.
 This three-story madarasa with a towering minaret, a mosque, labs, lecture rooms, and students' cells
overlooks a large courtyard with arches on either side, giving it a lovely exterior, measured 242 feet
long, 222 feet wide, and 56 feet tall.
 The blue tiles on the mosque's outer walls have been stolen in large numbers.
 Several experts from Iran and Iraq were invited to this 'Madrasa.'
 A library with approximately 3000 books has been developed.
 As a linguist and mathematician, he founded a prestigious religious school with the help of carefully
selected scientists, philosophers, and religious seers.

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Contributions of the Bahamani

Administration
 The Sultans followed a Feudal type of administration.
 Tarafs – The kingdom was divided into many provinces called Tarafs
 Tarafdar or Amir – Governor who controlled the Taraf.
Golgumbaz
 Golgumbaz in Bijapur is called the whispering gallery because when one whispers, the lingering echo
of the whisper is heard in the opposite corner.
 This is so because when one whispers in one corner, a lingering echo is heard in the opposite corner.
Contribution to Education
 The Bahmani Sultans gave great attention to education.
 They encouraged Arabic and Persian learning.
 Urdu also flourished during this period
Art and Architecture
Numerous mosques, madrassas and libraries were built.
 The Juma Masjid at Gulbarga The Golconda Fort
 The Golgumbaz at Bijapur
 The Madrasas of Muhammad Gawan
ADIL SHAHIS OF BIJAPUR.
 Adil shahis declared independence from the Bahamani sultans and started their rule from Bijapur.
Yusuf Adil Khan founded this dynasty in 1489 CE.
Ibrahim Adil shah II (1580-1626 CE)
 Ibrahim Adil Shah II came to power in 1580 CE. Chandbibi was his regent. He was known as
Jagadguru Badshah. He followed a policy of religious tolerance.
 He was a great musician and Kitab-i-Navaras was his important work. He built Navarasapura, a
suburb at Bijapur for the artists. He worshipped Hindu deities like Narasimha,Ganesha, saraswati and
others. The rule of Adil Shahis declained in 1686 CE with the conquest of Bijapur by Aurangzeb.
Cultural contributions:
Literature:
 Dakhni urdu, Persian, and Arabic languages developed. Due to Sufis Hindu and Muslims were united.
Famous scholars being Sayed Ahmad Harawi, Maulan Gaithuddin, Habibullah and Abdullah were
present.
Architecture:
 Adil shahis built monuments in Indo-Islamic style, which is also called Daccani style. Famous
monuments of Bijapur are, Jami Masjid by Ali Adil Shah is noted for its arches,minars, huge dome
and the mammoth prayer hall.

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 Ibrahim Roza is another famous building, which is the only Roza in India and is called the Taj Mahal
of south India. It was built by Ibrahim Adil shah II. A tomb and a mosque are built on a single
platform which is surrounded by a garden along with a fortification wall which is called Roza.
 Ibrahim also built Mehtar Mahal which is three storied palace.
 Golgumbaz is a huge wonderful dome built by Muhammad Adil shah in 1656 CE which is also his
tomb. It is a world famous monument due to its whispering gallery.
 Anand Mahal, Bara Kaman, Bade Kaman, Asar Mahal, Upli Buruz, Taj bawadi, Chand Bawdi etc are
also few of the important buildings.
Sufis of Karnataka
 Kannada poet Shishunala Sharif is also said to be a Sufi saint. Many works have been written in
Kannada on Sufism.
 Poets are also known to have taken up the work of propagating the Sufi sect. Among these, Abu
Saeed is prominent. He had many disciples. All of them were wearing woolen clothes.
SAINTS
Gulbarga
 Shaikh Sirajud-din Junaidi came to Gulbarga in 1347 A.D. The King Alauddin Hasan Bahman Shah
selected him as a royal preceptor. Sultan Muhammad I (1358-75 A.D.) and his son Mujahid (1375-
1378 A.D.) always counted on the prayers of this saint whenever they set out on a campaign. His
tomb called Shaikh Roza dargah is located in Shah Bazar at Gulbarga.
 Hazrat Shaikh Saad Zanjani Rahimatullah Aulia came to Gulbarga in 1351 A.D. His dargah is located
near the Chor Gumbad at Gulbarga. • Hazrat Shaikh Minajjuddin Tamim-ul-Ansari came to Gulbarga
from Daulatabad in 1352 A.D. At present his dargah is located in Kirana Bazar near fort road at
Gulbarga.
 Syed Muhammad Gesu Daraz (Hazarat Khwaja Bande Nawaz): One of the most prominent figures in
the early history of Islamic mysticism in Gulbarga was Syed Muhammad Gesu Daraz. He was of the
Chishti order that had created a centre of Sufi culture at Gulbarga. The arrival of Gesu Daraz to
Gulbarga had a great cultural impact on the people of Karnataka with important consequences
BIDAR
 Syed Tajuddin is said to have played a vital role in bringing the social and cultural synthesis in Bidar.
He was born in Iran, and came to Kalyana (Bidar) in 1387 A.D. He was popularly called ―Raja Bagh
Sawar‖ of Kalyana and was also one of the prominent followers of Gesu Daraz of Gulbarga and at the
instruction of his master; he came to Kalyana and commenced his Sufi activities.
 Syed Ismail Qadiri from Bagdad held a distinguished place in the Bahamani kingdom and appears to
have been a favourite of King Alaud-din II. He lived in the neighbourhood of Hindu Brahmana
families and had good relations with them. The dargah of Syed Ismail Qadiri is located in Ghorwad
near by Bhalki, a taluka unit of Bidar district.
Female sufi saints
 Hazrat Masaheba Ashrafe Dojahan who came from Arabia or Baghdad about 800 years ago to Kudchi
in Raybag taluk of Belgaum district.
 Kunja Maa Bee, the daughter of king Muhammad Shah I (1358 A.D. to 1375 A.D).

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 Other female saints were Hazrata Amina Bibi Dadi Ma Sahiba and Mastana Bibi (darghas at City
Market, Bangalore), Syedani Bibi (dargha at Tannery road, Bangalore), Tawakkal Mastan Bibi
(dargha at Richmond Circle, Bangalore), Hazrat Saiyida Amma Jaan (in Mandya) and Saidani Bibi (in
Mangalore).
Bijapur
 Sayyid Chanda Husaini migrated from Arabia to Bidar in the late 15th century and joined the cavalry
of King Yusuf Adil Khan and accompanied him to Gogi, seven miles from Shahapur of Gulbarga
district. At present his tomb is located in Gogi.
 Shaikh Shamsal-Din Zinda Dil was the only Sufi saint of the Shattari order, who came from Shiraz
(Persia) to Ahmedabad and then to Bijapur during the period of King Ali I.
Chikka Devaraja Wodeyar – Reign (1673–1704)
At the age of 28 years, Chikka Devaraja was installed as the 14th Maharaja of Mysore. His installation
occurred 16 days after the death of his predecessor, Devaraja Wodeyar I. His first act as Maharaja was to
create an executive council or cabinet of ministers to help him govern the kingdom.
Merely five days after becoming the Maharaja, Chikka Devaraja began a campaign to expand Mysore‘s
borders. 1675 is a landmark year for Mysore‘s political evolution. By this time Chikka Devaraja has
secured Mysore‘s borders and Vijayanagara had lost most of its power, Hence, Chikka Devaraja was in a
position to claim the throne of the Karnataka Empire.
The Kingdom of Mysore continued to grow under his rule through conquests and negotiations. In July
1687, Bangalore was formally acquired by the Kingdom of Mysore. By the end of his reign in 1704, the
Kingdom of Mysore extended from Bangalore in the north to Coimbatore and Salem Baramahal in the
south and Chikmagalur and Sakrepatna in the east to Hassan and Kadur in the west.
Chikka Devaraja Wodeyar – The Administrator
 Chikka Devaraja was an able administrator and his court had a number of scholars. Hos council of
ministers was a powerful advisory body but the roles of his ministers were not clearly defined and he
was regarded as the fountainhead of all authority and power. While the king was at war, it was this
council of ministers that administered the Kingdom.
 Mysore‘s defense was one of Chikka Devaraja‘s prime areas of focus. Along with the number of men
in his army, the weapon system also grew and evolved.
 The maintenance of law and order was also given special importance. The kingdom‘s tax system was
revised and according to some records, revenue of 2 bags of 1000 varahas each was deposited in the
state treasury each day.
 Another important development during the reign of Chikka Devaraja was the standardization of
weights and measures. Iron was an important industry. Weavers, dyers, tailors, plasterers, artisans and
basket makers were also patronized. Forts acquired in the expansion of Mysore were renovated and
marketplaces were planned within them.
 Chikkadevaraja Wodeyar‘s rule was important for the evolution of Vaishnavism as the professed faith
of Mysore‘s ruling dynasty. Melkote and Seringapatam were two of the important strongholds for
Vaishnavism. Other religions like Jainism also flourished in the Kingdom.

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 One of the king‘s earliest acts of piety was to build a temple dedicated to Lord Paravasudeva on the
banks of the Kaundini for the attainment of salvation by his father‘s soul. He also built a temple in
Seringapatam, Haradanahalli and Varakoclu. Many other temples were renovated during his reign.
 In 1700, Chikkadevaraja launched an irrigation scheme by damming the Kaveri River and excavating
canals on either side of the river. The scheme did not work as planned when heavy monsoon showers
broke the dam.
The Jangama Massacre
 During the initial years of Chikkadevaraja Wodeyar‘s rule, dependant Wadeyars and Poligars who
had commenced working towards being called Rajas were compelled to renounce any claim of
independence. A number of unusually high taxes were also introduced in these areas. This leads to
riots and strikes.
 Since the strikers were backed by Lingayat priests, the king invited all priests to the Nunjendgode
temple on the pretext of a discussion. 400 priests arrived at the temple. After paying their obeisance to
the king, they were directed through a narrow corridor where they expected to find refreshments.
Instead, as each priest walked through the corridor, he was executed and the body was tumbled into a
pit dug for that reason.
 On the same day, a number of other Jangama must were also destroyed. This was followed by orders
given to troops to kill orange-robed men in any mob gathering. The orange robe was the characteristic
dress of Jangama priests. This continued until written renunciations were exacted out of every village.
Biography of Kittur Chennamma
 Chennamma was born in a small village called Kakati in Belagavi (Belgaum) District, Karnataka.
 At the age of 15, she became the queen of Kittur (a taluk in present Belgaum) when she married the
king of Kittur, Raja Mallasarja.
 Her husband died in 1816 leaving her with one son and heir to the throne. Unfortunately, the boy died
in 1824. Chennamma adopted another boy Shivalingappa and made him the heir to the throne. The
East India Company, however, did not recognise the adopted heir and proceeded to annex the
kingdom. The Doctrine of Lapse, although codified later by Lord Dalhousie, was practised by the
Company earlier also.
 Rani Chennamma rejected this illegitimate doctrine and refused to accept British sovereignty.
 She took up arms (she was trained in sword fighting, archery and horse riding from her childhood)
and instigated a war with the company in 1824.
 Thus, her rebellion predated the Indian Revolt of 1857 by three decades.
War against the British
 The British attacked Kittur with more than 20000 men and about 400 guns. They attempted to raid
Kittur and take its jewels and treasures (valued at Rs.15 lakh) but failed.
 The first battle between Kittur and the East India Company started in October 1824 and it resulted in a
heavy loss for the company.
 The English Collector and political agent St. John Thackeray was killed in the battle by Amatur
Balappa, the Rani‘s lieutenant. Two British hostages were also taken by the Kittur forces. Rani
Chennamma released them after the British gave her word that they would cease fighting. However,
they went back on their word and restarted the war after getting the hostages back.

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 The Rani was supported in her valiant war by Sangolli Rayanna and Gurusiddappa. Despite her heroic
attempt, Chennamma was captured and Kittur fell to the British forces. She was imprisoned in
Bailhongal Fort where she breathed her last on 21 February 1829. She was fifty years old.
 Despite leading one of the first rebellions in India against the British, Rani Chennamma of Kittur
remains relatively unknown.
Legacy of Rani Kittur Chennamma
 A statue of Kittur Chennamma was unveiled in September 2007 at the Indian Parliament Complex by
Pratibha Patil. There are other statues in Bangalore and Kittur as well. Rani Chennamma‘s samadhi is
maintained by the government in a park in Kittur.
 Ballads and songs describing her valour are sung in Kittur even today. The Kitturu Utsava is held in
Kittur from 22 October to 24 October every year to commemorate Chennamma‘s first victory over the
English.
About Sangoli Rayanna
 Sangoli Rayanna was the Shetsanadi of the Kittur kingdom. He fought against the Doctrine of Lapse
along side Rani Chennamma till his death.
 The Britishers killed the king and prince of Kittur kingdom. As there was no legal heir to the throne,
they wanted to take control over Kittur kingdom under Doctrine of Lapse. Rani Chennamme adopted
Shivalingappa as the ruler of Kittur kingdom.
 Sangoli Rayanna wanted to make Shivalingappa as the next ruler.
Fight against the British
 Rayanna played a major role in the 1824 rebellion. Most of the land in Kittur kingdom was
confiscated. And the left over land was heavily taxed.
 He created a guerrilla army. He and his army moved from place to place, burnt government offices,
plundered treasuries. He trained and built army from the common people.
 He was caught in 1830 and imprisoned by the Britishers.
Death
 Rayanna was hanged to death in a Banyan tree in Belagavi district in 1831.In Rayanna‘s memories
Siddi was a close associate of Rayanna. He planted a Banyan tree in his grave.
 To this date, the tree stands majestic. A temple has been built for Rayanna under the tree. Also,
Ashoka Stambha was installed near the tree.
 The temple has a statue of Rayanna with two wooden weights. The weights were used by Rayanna
himself for body building.
NAYAKAS OF CHITRADURGA
 Nayakas of Chitradurga (1588–1779 CE) ruled parts of eastern Karnataka during the post-
Vijayanagara period.
 During the rule of Hoysala Empire and Vijayanagara Empire, they served as a feudatory chiefdom. •
Later after the fall of the Vijayanagara empire, they ruled at times as an independent Chiefdom and at
other times as a vassal of the Mysore Kingdom, Mughal Empire and Maratha Empire.
 Finally their territories merged into the province of Mysore under the British.

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Background:
 Chitradurga was one of several central Karnataka regions governed by local chieftains well before the
rise of Vijayanagara, which inherited control of the region from the Hoysalas in the 1300s.
 By the 1500s, it was largely dominated by Bedar (Valmiki) families who traced their origins to
southern Andhra Pradesh from which they had emigrated with their herds.
 Like most of the families that rose to power in the 1500s, the Chitradurga nayakas based the
legitimacy of their rule on their relationship with the Vijayanagara kings, who appointed several of
their line as local governors after they attracted the attention of the Vijayanagara rulers through acts of
daring and bravery.
 The Chitradurga Fort was their stronghold and the very heart of the province. Important Rulers: •
Timmana Nayaka or Thimmappa Nayaka, a chieftain from Matti during the rule of Saluva Narasimha,
was the first ruler in the hierarchy of the Nayakas of Chitradurga.
 Initially, he was a chieftain under the Vijayangara Empire but was soon elevated to the rank of
Governor of Chitradurga by the Vijayangara ruler in recognition of his excellent military service to
the empire.
 He controlled areas of the Chitradurga District including Davangere, Jaglur and Harihar in the present
Davangere District.
 His rule lasted for a brief period and ended with his incarceration and death as a prisoner of the
Vijayangara Empire.
 His son Obana Nayaka or Madakari Nayaka I (1588–1602) succeeded him. followed by a series of
hierarchical or other adopted forms of successions of the same clan.
 Bharamappa Nayaka, who ruled from 1689 until 1722, is regarded as the greatest of the Nayaka rulers
famed for building forts, palaces, tanks and temples, including several gateways and bastions. He
fought several battles against the Mughals.
 Madakari Nayaka V was the final ruler of the clan from 1758 to 1779. It was during his reign that the
city of Chitradurga and the fort were besieged by the troops of Hyder Ali.
 Madakari Nayaka used the fort effectively for defense during three battles against Hyder Ali, at times
allying himself with Hyder Ali of Mysore Kingdom and at others with the Marathas.
 Hyder Ali attacked the Chitradurga Fort the first time in 1760, the second time in 1770 and the third
time successfully in 1779 when he defeated Madakari Nayaka.
 Nayaka was taken a prisoner and killed.
 Nayaka's gamble of playing with both Hyder Ali and the Marathas was not successful; he was
betrayed by the Marathas and some local Muhammadan officers in his service.
 Subsequent to his death the treasury at the fort is said to have yielded a rich bounty. It was during one
such war that the heroics of Onake Obavva, the wife of a soldier guarding the fort, became a
legendary event.
 Onake Obavva (18th Century) was a woman who fought the forces of Hyder Ali single-handedly with
a pestle (Onake) in the kingdom of Chitradurga of Karnataka, Her husband was a guard of a
watchtower in the rocky fort of Chitradurga. In the state of Karnataka, she is celebrated along with
Abbakka Rani, Keladi Chennamma and Kittur Chennamma, as the foremost women warriors and
patriots
 The hole through which Hyder Ali's soldiers sneaked is called Onake Obavvana Kindi (kindi=hole) or
Onake kindi

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THE NAYAKAS OF KELADI

Chaudappa Nayaka
 Chaudappa Nayaka, originally Chauda Gowda, (1499–1530), was from a village called Pallibailu near
Keladi. He was the son of Lingayat couple Basavappa and Basavamambe, who were into farming.
 He was the earliest chieftain to rule the area surrounding Shimoga, rose through self-capability and
acumen and was a feudatory of Vijayangara Empire. Sadashiva Nayaka
 Sadashiva Nayaka (1530–1566) was an important chieftain in the Vijayangara Empire and earned the
title Kotekolahala from emperor Aliya Rama Raya for his heroics in the battle of Kalyani.
 The coastal provinces of Karnataka came under his direct rule. He moved the capital to Ikkeri some
20 km. from Keladi.
Shivappa Nayaka
 Shivappa Nayaka (1645–1660) is widely considered as the ablest and greatest of the Keladi rulers.
 He was the uncle of Virabhadra Nayaka. Shivappa deposed his nephew to gain the throne of Keladi.
 He was not only an able administrator; he also patronised literature and fine arts.
 His successful campaigns against the Bijapur sultans, the Mysore kings, the Portuguese, and other
Nayakas of the neighbouring territories east of the Western Ghats helped expand the kingdom to its
greatest extent, covering large areas of present-day Karnataka.
 He gave importance to agriculture and developed new schemes for collection of taxes and revenues
which earned him much praise from later British officials.
 He destroyed the Portuguese political power in the canara region by capturing all the Portuguese forts
of the coastal region.
 He was known as Sistina Shivappa Nayaka because he introduced a tax system called Sist.
 The growing threat of the Portuguese was eliminated by 1653 and the ports of Mangalore, Kundapura
and Honnavar were brought under Keladi control
 Having conquered the Kannada coast, he marched down to Kasargod region of modern Kerala and
installed a pillar of victory at Nileshvara.
Keladi Chennamma • 1672–1697.
 She was an able ruler who some scholars claim was allied with the Maratha Shivaji and later his son
Sambhaji to defeat all rival claimants to the throne.
 She gave shelter to Chhatrapathi Raja ram when he fled from the Mughal army.
 Chennamma of Keladi is well remembered by local people through tales of her bravery.
Legacy
 For more than two hundred years the kingdom controlled the coastal and malnad regions of present-
day Karnataka and fostered a rich tradition of trade with the English, the Portuguese, and the Dutch
 The Keladi rulers contributed considerably to the development of art and architecture, literature and
religion, amidst their continuous wars with the paleyagars, the Bijapur rulers, the Marathas, the
Naymars, the Wodeyars and the Portuguese.
 The role of this feudatory family in the absence of a strong Hindu empire during the disturbed
political conditions of south India is noteworthy.
 Apart from the increasing influence of Sultans of Bijapur, they had to withstand and check the
growing power of the European traders and missionaries.

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 Thus, the Keladi kings played their part successfully in safeguarding native Hindu Dharma.
HYDER ALI
 Since the end of the Vijayanagar Empire, the kingdom of Mysore had maintained its precarious
independence and had only been a nominal part of the Mughal Empire. Nanjaraj (the Sarvadhikari)
and Devraj (the Dulwai) had seized power in Mysore early in the eighteenth century, reducing King
Chikka Krishna Raj to a puppet.
 Haidar Ali began his military career as a petty officer in the Mysore army, where he was born in 1721
to a poor family. He was a man of great energy, daring, and determination, despite his lack of formal
education. He was also a shrewd diplomat and a brilliant commander.
 Haidar Ali found his opportunity in the Mysore wars, which lasted more than two decades. He rose
through the ranks of the Mysore army by deftly utilising the opportunities that came his way.
 He quickly recognised the benefits of Western military training and implemented it for his own
troops. With the help of French experts, he built a modern arsenal in Dindigal in 1755. In 1761, he
deposed Nanjaraj and established his rule over the state of Mysore.
 He conquered the territories of Bidnur, Sunda, Sera, Canara, and Malabar and established complete
control over the rebellious poligars (warrior chieftains and zamindars). His desire to have access to
the Indian Ocean was a major factor in his occupation of Malabar.
 Despite his illiteracy, he was a capable administrator. In his dominions, he was responsible for
introducing the Mughal administrative and revenue system. He took over Mysore when it was a weak
and divided state and quickly transformed it into one of India's most powerful states. His first Dewan
and many other officials were Hindus, and he practised religious tolerance.
 He was involved in wars with the Maratha sardars, the Nizam, and the British almost from the
beginning of his rise to power. In 1769, he defeated the British forces several times and reached the
Madras walls. In the second Anglo-Mysore War, he died in 1782 and was succeeded by his son Tipu.
First Anglo-Mysore War (1767-69)
 In 1612, the Wodeyars established a Hindu state in the Mysore area. From 1734 until 1766, Chikka
Krishnaraja Wodeyar II governed.
 With his tremendous administrative abilities and military tactics, Haider Ali, a soldier in the army of
the Wodeyars, became the de-facto king of Mysore.
 The English political and commercial interests, as well as their influence over Madras, were
jeopardized by Mysore's proximity to the French and Haidar Ali's dominance over the
lucrative Malabar coast trade.
 After defeating the Nawab of Bengal in the Battle of Buxar, the British persuaded the Nizam of
Hyderabad to sign a contract giving them the Northern Circars in exchange for safeguarding the
Nizam against Haidar Ali, who was already embroiled in a feud with the Marathas.
 The British launched a war against Mysore, allied with the Marathas and the Nizam of Hyderabad.
 With clever diplomacy, Hyder Ali was able to win over the Marathas and the Nizam.
 He bribed the Marathas to neutralize them.
 The war dragged on for another year and a half with no end in sight.
 Haidar shifted his approach and came to the Madras gates.
 Following full chaos and fear in Madras, the English were compelled to sign a humiliating settlement
with Haidar on April 4, 1769, known as the Treaty of Madras, which ended the war.

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 The seized regions were returned to their rightful owners, and it was decided that they would aid one
another in the event of a foreign assault.
Second Anglo-Mysore War (1780–84)
 When the Maratha army attacked Mysore in 1771, the British failed to follow the treaty of Madras.
 Haider Ali accused them of betraying their trust.
 Furthermore, Haider Ali found the French to be more inventive in meeting the army's needs for
firearms, saltpetre, and lead.
 As a result, he began bringing French military supplies to Mysore via Mahe, a French territory on the
Malabar Coast.
 The British were concerned about the growing relationship between the two.
 As a result, the British attempted to seize Mahe, which was protected by Haider Ali.
 In 1771, the Marathas attacked Mysore. The British, on the other hand, refused to honor the Treaty
of Madras and refused to help Hyder Ali.
 As a consequence, the Marathas seized Hyder Ali's territory. For a price of Rs.36 lakh and another
annual tribute, he had to buy peace with the Marathas.
 This enraged Hyder Ali, who began to despise the British.
 Hyder Ali waged war on the English in 1780 after the English assaulted Mahe, a French colony under
his authority.
 Hyder Ali formed an alliance with the Nizam and the Marathas and beat the British forces in Arcot.
 Hyder Ali died in 1782, and his son Tipu Sultan Sir Eyre Coote, who had already fought Hyder Ali
numerous times, continued the war.
 The Treaty of Mangalore concluded the war inconclusively.
 Both sides negotiated peace after an inconclusive war, concluding the Treaty of Mangalore (March
1784) in which both parties returned the areas they had acquired from each other.
Tipu Sultan – Wars and Battles
Tipu Sultan fought many battles and wars against the British East India Company, Marathas, rulers of
Travancore, Carnatic, Malabar, Bednore, Kodagu.
 Tipu fought against the Marathas between 1775 and 1779.
 Tipu had signed a Peace treaty with the British in 1784.
 The British attacked Tipu Sultan, when the ruler of Travancore was attacked by the army of Tipu
Sultan. The ruler of Travancore was the ally of the British.
 In 1792, Tipu signed the Treaty of Seringapatam (now known as Srirangapatna) and he lost half of his
dominion to the British.
 Battle of Pollilur or Battle of Perambakam, took place on 10 September 1780 at Pollilur near
Conjeevaram, the city of Kanchipuram in present-day Tamil Nadu state, India, as part of the Second
Anglo-Mysore War.
 Tipu defeated Lt. Colonel William Baillie of the British East India Company in the Battle of Pollilur.
Anglo Mysore Wars
In the last three decades of the 18th century, a series of wars were fought between the Kingdom of
Mysore under the rule of Hyder Ali and Tipu Sultan on one side and the British East India Company,
Nizam of Hyderabad, Maratha Empire on the other side.

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First Anglo Mysore War

 The first Anglo Mysore war was fought between the Kingdom of Mysore (under Hyder Ali) and the
British East India Company, which also had the assistance of the Nizam of Hyderabad.
 First Anglo Mysore War was fought from 1767 to 1769.
 First Anglo Mysore War ended with the Treaty of Madras.
Second Anglo Mysore War
 The Second Anglo Mysore War was fought from 1780 to 1784.
 At the Battle of Porto Novo, Hyder Ali was defeated by British Commander Sir Eyre Coote. This war
was part of the Second Anglo Mysore War.
 The Second Anglo Mysore War came to an end with the signing of the Treaty of Mangalore on 11th
March 1784.
Third Anglo-Mysore War
 The Third Anglo Mysore War was fought from 1790 to 1792.
 This war started when the ally of the British, the ruler of Travancore, was attacked by Tipu Sultan.
 This war ended with the Treaty of Seringapatam (now Shrirangapattana) in 1792. Tipu was defeated.
Fourth Anglo-Mysore War
 The Kingdom of Mysore was attacked from four different sides.
 Northern part of Mysore saw the invasion of the Marathas and the Nizam of Hyderabad.
 The final battle, the Siege of Seringapatam, resulted in the complete defeat of Mysore Kingdom.
 Tipu Sultan died in the war.
 The Mysore kingdom was restored to the Wodeyar Dynasty by a way of the subsidiary alliance.
Death of Tipu Sultan
 Tipu Sultan died on 4th May 1799, in Srirangapatna, located in the present-day Mandya district of
Karnataka.
 He was defeated in the Fourth Anglo-Mysore War. This war was fought from 1798 to 1799.
Subsidiary Alliance
 After Tipu Sultan was defeated by the British, the Mysore Kingdom was handed over to the Wodeyar
Dynasty, but they were forced to get into the Subsidiary Alliance with the British.
 Lord Wellesley devised the Subsidiary Alliance in 1798.
 As per the Subsidiary Alliance, the ally would be protected from the internal and external threats by
the British.
 The Kingdom, which gets into the Subsidiary Alliance with the British, has to station the British
Army within their Kingdom.
 The Indian rulers had to pay for the British Army. If there was a failure in making payments, then part
of their territory will be taken over by the British.
 The ruler of Hyderabad, Nawab of Awadh also lost their territories to the British due to their failure to
make payments, as per Subsidiary Alliance.
 The Indian ally could not enter into any sort of warfare or agreement without the permission of the
British.

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UNIT – 5
Modern Mysore (1799-1947)
Krishna raja Wodeyar lll – his contributions;
Krishnaraja Wodeyar III: the Cultural founder of modern Mysore state Perhaps the Wodeyar dynasty is
the longest and most continuous empire to ever rule howsoever tiny a part of the erstwhile Mysore state,
now known as Karnataka. From 1399 when it was established by Yaduraya Wodeyar till 1947—that is,
548 years of near-continuous reign by a single dynasty is really an unparalleled feat. The continuity was
broken only for a short but nightmarish spell in the 18th Century.
Like any royal lineage, the Wodeyar dynasty too has its share of ups and downs but the overall record is
quite excellent. In so long a period, it boasts of an astonishing number of superb statesmen, warriors,
administrators, and patrons of art and culture. A short list of the Wodeyar dynasty greats would include
Raja Wodeyar, responsible for making Srirangapattana his capital and building its fort. Much of the
Mysore kingdom’s expansion occurred during his time. Apart from him, other luminaires include
Chamaraja Wodeyar VI, Narasaraja Wodeyar (he epitomized the title Ranadhira Kantheerava—Lion-like
hero of the battle –bestowed on him) fabled for his strength, ferocity and wrestling skills, Chikka
Devaraja Wodeyar, Narasaraja Wodeyar II, and Krishnaraja Wodeyar III.

Krishnaraja Wodeyar III

Krishnaraja Wodeyar III, who was born at Srirangapatna, was the son of Chamaraja Wodeyar IX and his
first wife, Maharani Kempa Nanja Ammani. He was the longest ruling Wodeyar king, for nearly 70 years,
from 30 June 1799 to 27 March 1868, and laid the foundation on which his successors, chiefly
Krishnaraja Wodeyar IV, built, and transformed Mysore into a modern and model state.
The credit for making Krishnaraja Wodeyar III the king of Mysore under extraordinarily difficult and
dangerous circumstances goes fully to Maharani Lakshmi Ammani Devi, his grandmother. He was
Lakshmi Ammani’s adopted grandson, and he was only five when he ascended the throne of Mysore on
30 June 1799.

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Krishnaraja Wodeyar III’s ascendancy is also significant because he was the first Wodeyar king to resume
the rule of Mysore by the Wodeyar lineage after a gap of nearly 40 years. In 1761, a freelance mercenary
who was promoted as the general of the Mysore army backstabbed the Wodeyars and usurped the throne
of Mysore.
Hyder Ali was followed by his son Tipu Sultan who unleashed a reign of terror, savagery, and Islamic
fanaticism for about 17 years throughout South India. Tipu kept the surviving members of the Wodeyar
dynasty in a state of house arrest, depriving them of even a modicum of dignified existence.
It was only the courage, patience and sacrifice of Lakshmi Ammani that kept the Wodeyar dynasty still
alive. She bided her time and watched as Tipu’s excesses became excessive and he made enemies with
every king and power in South India including the British. She opened up discreet communication
channels with all enemies of Tipu, and finally concluded a successful negotiation with the British who
promised to restore the Wodeyar dynasty to the throne of Mysore if Tipu was defeated. The fateful day
arrived on 4 May 1799 when an ordinary British soldier shot Tipu in the head with his musket.
On their part, the British honoured their promise. On 30 June 1799, the five-year-old Krishnaraja
Wodeyar III was crowned the king of Mysore in a traditional coronation ceremony that took place in a
special pavilion constructed near the Lakshmiramana Swamy temple in Mysore. The young boy was led
by the Duke of Wellington on his right. Dewan Purnaiah was selected as the Dewan of Mysore.
Krishnaraja Wodeyar III attained the age of 16 in 1810, also known as the “age of discretion.‖ In other
words, he was fit to rule independently. After discussing with the British Resident, A. H. Cole, the reins
of the state were transferred from Dewan Purnaiah to the new king.
However, Krishnaraja Wodeyar III lost his grandmother in the same year. Two years later, in 1812, he
also lost Purnaiah.Krishnaraja Wodeyar III’s early years as king witnessed amicable relations with the
British. However, relations began to get strained by the 1820s with A.H. Cole alleging financial
impropriety, in his letters and reports to the British Governor at Madras, Thomas Munro. Despite an
independent investigation absolving the king, things did not improve. This reached a head when a serious
insurrection broke out in 1830-31. The British administration at Madras then took direct control of
Mysore for about 50 years appointing Commissioners who administered the state. The most famous
Commissioner was Sir Mark Cubbon in whose honour the Cubbon Park at Bangalore is named.
In a way, the British decision to directly administer Mysore came as a huge boon for Krishnaraja
Wodeyar III. Freed from the pains and concerns of administrative matters, he set upon a path that not only
transformed Mysore in every positive way imaginable, but bequeathed a legacy that the Karnataka of
today continues to enjoy.
If the city of Mysore still boasts of being the cultural capital of Karnataka, majority of the credit for it
goes to Krishnaraja Wodeyar III.
Krishnaraja Wodeyar III was a multifaceted, multitalented genius. He was a polyglot, scholar, an
accomplished poet, writer, artist, and musician among other things. He has to his credit at least 50 literary
works on various subjects.
His Sritattvanidhi (literally: The Illustrious Treasure of Realities) is an encyclopaedic treatise interspersed
liberally with iconography. We can only imagine the magnitude of the effort to put together this treatise

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when we realize the fact that the objective of the work was to collate and combine all available
information about the iconography and iconometry of divine figures in South India.
He assembled scholars and experts in these subjects and then commenced the writing of the treatise. In
parallel, he also assembled famed miniaturists from his palace and asked them to provide the
accompanying illustrations. The final body of work brings together several forms of Shiva, Vishnu,
Skanda, Ganesha, different goddesses, the nine planets (navagraha), and the eight protectors
(aṣṭadikpālakas). Sritattvanidhi, the final work is in nine parts, and each part is called a nidhi (“treasure‖).
Krishnaraja Wodeyar III also wrote the illustrated epic prose-romance, Sougandhikaparinaya. It was a
new prose style he devised, breaking away from the styles handed down until his time. The theme was
neither borrowed nor adapted from any earlier work. However, it has a mythological theme written in the
puranic style infused with puranic, Vedic and other epic characters like the sage Durvasa, and the God
Indra. In true classical style, the work expounds on such diverse topics as philosophy, Yoga, astronomy,
erotics, zoology, botany, music, horse and elephant-lore, horticulture, and even the digging of wells and
lakes. Another little-known exists about this liberally-illustrated work: the pictures in the book are from
Krishnaraja Wodeyar’s lithograph press, which he had installed in the premises of the Mysore palace. He
personally experimented with colour pictures.
Of the most distinctive and unique regional dance forms in India hailing from Karnataka, Yakshagana
(literally, song of the demigods) perhaps occupies the top spot. And its survival, resurgence and growth
owes a huge debt of gratitude to Krishnaraja Wodeyar III. It was during his reign that he patronized Parti
Subba, a renowned Yakshagana writer and performer from South Canara. This legacy has endured: the
Karnataka state government, long ago instituted a Parti Subba award for Yakshagana artistes, a tradition
that continues till date.
Krishnaraja Wodeyar III was an accomplished player of the Veena and patronized great musicians and
composers of his time like Sadashiva Rao, Veena Venkatasubbayya and Doddaseshanna. Like in other
areas, it was under Krishnaraja Wodeyar III who created a sprawling cultural ecosystem where musicians
received patronage, honour, and recognition for their talent and were able to live comfortably. This
ecosystem existed even in the modern time all the way up to Mysore Vasudevachar in whose presence
legendary contemporary musicians like M.S Subbulakshmi and M. Balamuralikrishna proved their mettle.
Krishnaraja Wodeyar III also encouraged graphic arts. He had an army of accomplished artists under his
patronage. Among other things, they were engaged to paint court-life in all its grandeur. Apart from this,
portraiture developed as a fine art in Mysore during Krishnaraja Wodeyar’s rule. He had several portraits
of well-known people of the kingdom painted by the best artists of the time. Along with the paintings of
court life, these form a very valuable resource for researchers because of the visual clues they provide to
the past. He was also responsible for the creation of the Jaganmohan art gallery of Mysore, and built
the original building in 1861. The grandfather of the renowned K. Venkatappa (after whom the famed
Venkatappa art gallery in Bangalore is named) was Krishnaraja Wodeyar’s personal friend.

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Krishnaraja Wodeyar III also introduced English education in the Mysore state by starting Maharaja’s
English School which paved way for the famous Maharaja’s college and finally, the Mysore University
later under Sir M. Vishweshwarayya.
The nearly-70 year long rule of Krishnaraja Wodeyar III witnessed at least three generations of a galaxy
of poets and other literary figures mainly in Kannada and Sanskrit. These litterateurs have stood the test
of time, and their writings, plays, and poems are still read and recited in the state.
Devachandra, Venkatarama Shastri, Basavappa Shastri, Aliya Lingaraja, Srinivasa Kavisarvabhouma,
Thammaya Kavi, Nanjunda Kavi, Shantaraja Pandita, and Kempu Narayana are some of the more famous
names.
Of these, Basavappa Sastri perhaps stands tallest. He is still honoured with the titles of Abhinava Kalidasa
(Modern Kalidasa) and Kannada Nataka Pitamaha (Progenitor of Kannada drama). He translated almost
all the celebrated works of Kalidasa. Kempu Narayana wrote his celebrataed Mudra Manjusha (the
Kannada version of Vishakhadatta’s Mudra Rakshasa), the play based on Chanakya’s life and
achievements.
Together, these litterateurs contributed to the development of modern Kannada prose, which had a style
different from the Champu style of prose which in vogue till then.
Other important literary works that emerged during Krishanraja Wodeyar’s rule include Kalavati
Parinaya by Yadava and Vachana Kadamabari.
Krishnaraja Wodeyar III was also an expert player of board games and is credited to have revived
the Ganjifa card game, which originated in Persia. It was wildly popular during the Mughal rule.
Perhaps one significant administrative decision he took was to transfer the capital city of the Mysore state
from Srirangapattana to Mysore city. The original Mysore city had been razed to the ground earlier by
Tipu Sultan.
In closing, Krishnaraja Wodeyar III did not distinguish himself as a great administrator but his life and
long rule indicates that it is possible to earn immortality by showing a humane side and encouraging
refinement and culture like culture, art, music, and so on.
Like most things in the history of India, it is unfortunate that not too many people today remember this
foundational ruler of the Mysore state who gave it so much, and with such selflessness.
Postscript: Excluding this postscript, the word count of this piece is 1799, as a mark of respect to
Krishnaraja Wodeyar III who as a mere boy of five ascended the throne of Mysore in 1799.

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Armed rebellion in Karnataka against the British in Karnataka

Dhondaji a Maratha Sardar of Channagiri, Shimoga district, later came to be known as 'Wagh',which
means 'Tiger ‘in Marathi, was a great revolutionary.
 He served in the army of Patavardhan of Miraj, Chatrapati of Kolhapur. Subsequently he raided
territories on the Maratha-Mysore border. After the Marathas forced him to retreat, he sought
refugefrom Tipu and converted to Islam, changing his name to Malik Jahan Khan.
 After the British East India Company defeated Tipu Sultan in 1799, Dhondia Wagh and
otherprisoners were freed by the British troops.
 Wagh reached Shikaripur, where he raised a band of soldiers from Tipu's former army. He gained
support of Krishnappa Nayaka of Balam, and declared himself Ubhaya- Lokadheeshwara (Lord of
two lokas or worlds).
 He also assumed the title of Nayaka (governor) of Bidnur.
 While the British were busy strengthening their hold over Mysore, Wagh started collecting taxes from
traders and cultivators in and around Shimoga.
 The polygars (feudal lords) of Hangal, Harpanahalli, Ranebennuru, Savanur, Sodhe and
Vittalacknowledged his suzerainty.
 At the height of his power, he is believed to have gathered an army of 90,000 cavalry and
80,000infantry.
 By July 1799, he had become enough of a nuisance for the British to send a force against him.
 He sought the help of Gopal Nayak of Tamil Nadu, Kerala Varma of Malabar andthe French in Mahe
in 1800, to fight against the British.
 The British, with the help of Dhondo Pant Gokhale of Peshwe, were ready to face Wagh. In the battle
of Londa, Wagh killed Dhondo Pant Gokhale.
 Alarmed at his rising power, the British decided to send a strong force against him. In May 1800, the
newly-appointed British Governor of Mysore General Wellesley was given his first
independentcommand.
 Wagh was killed by the large army headed by Arthur Wellesley at Konagal (nearpresent day Raichur)
Venkatadri Nayak (1803)
 Aigur (Ballam) Venkatadri Nayak was another leader who started his revolt when the British weretied
down by Dhondiya Wagh.
 His father Krishnappa Nayak, was made the ruler of Aigur by Hyder Ali. But Krishnappa betrayed
him and joined the Marathas in 1792 and helped the British.
 After the war he was scared of Tipu and ran away to Kodagu (Coorg). However Tipu did notpunish
him but instead reinstated him.
 On Tipu‘s defeat in 1799, Krishnappa‘s son Venkatadri Nayak became the ruler of Aigur. He
wasambitious and started expanding his territory.
 Venkatadri Nayak captured Subrahmanya Ghat, a crucial pass in the Sahyadris with access to
Mangalore. He attacked the British troops at Arakere and also defeated a 2500 strong army sent
byWodeyar of Mysore.
 Venkatadri Nayak came to be known as the Bull Raja and Ballam Raja.

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 Wellesley took his revolt very seriously and made an elaborate plan to capture him by gettingtroops
from Mangalore as well as Bombay, Bidnur and Sondha.
 The British tried to organise all the Patels of surrounding villages against him and also terrorisedthe
population by executing many of his sympathisers.
 They generally followed a scorched earth policy to prevent him getting any food supplies.
 The campaign lasted nearly three years and finally on February 10, 1803 he and his 6 followers were
arrested when they were in search of food supplies. All the insurgents were later executed.
Rebellion of Koppal 1819
 Karnataka was torn between Nizam, Marathas and the British after Tipu‘s defeat.
 The North eastern parts were taken over by Nizam, who put unbearable burden on the peasantry. As
Nizam‘s unbridled oppression with heavy taxation increased, there was no way but for the peasantry
to revolt.
 One such revolt was led by Veerappa in Koppal in 1818. Veerapaa was a small landowner in Koppal,
he built a force and captured Koppal and Bahadur Veerappa of Koppal rose in revolt in1819.
 British forces led by Major Doughton and Brig General Pritzler rushed to crush Veerappa and
Nizam‘s general Idruskhan also joined them.
 Veerappa fought valiantly for five days with only 500 men and died in battle.
 Even though Veerappa‘s rebellion was confined to a small area around Koppal, it represented
apopular peasant revolt and inspired many more in the region.
 Sindagi in Bijapur district which was under the British rule, faced revolts from Diwakar Dixit,Rawji
Raste, Balaji Deshpande and Settiyappa Tukkali. Deshmukhs of Bidar (1820).
 After Tipu‘s defeat the remnants of the old Bahmani Kingdom of Bidar too were incorporated
intoNizam‘s rule and burdened with heavy taxation.
 As a result revolts started appearing in 1820 in Udgir. The leaders of these outbreaks were
shivalingappa, Tirumal Rao and Megharam. They were the local Deshmukhs. Hence this revolt is
known as the revolt of Deshmukhs. The Nizam relied on British help to suppress the Deshmukhs.
 Lt. Gen. Sutherland was assigned for the same and he defeated them in a campaign lasting twomonths
and imprisoned them.
Sindagi Revolt (1824)
 The popular revolt against the British spread to Bijapur too and in Sindagi, 40 km from 87 Bijapurthe
local people led by Chidambar Dikshit, his son Diwakar Dikshit and Diwakar‘s comrades Shettyappa,
Raoji and Rastiya declared sovereignty of people of Sindagi.
 They took over Sindagi Taluk and boldly declared that ―British Raj does not exist here and
weanyway do not recognise it. We are sovereign‖.
 British could not tolerate this challenge to their rule in such a brazen way even if though it
wasconfined to a Taluk in North Karnataka.
 They sent forces led by Lt. Stevenson to capture the leaders. However the forces could not locatethe
leaders. A traitor Annappa Patne however showed the hiding place to the British.
 The local people who came to know the same lynched Annappa on the spot.
 However the British were able to capture the leaders and imprison them. The revolt was confinedto a
Taluk, but showed advanced consciousness.

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Armed struggle by Kittur 1824

 Rani Channamma of Kittur was the first Indian woman who rose against the British. The courageous
spirited warriors like Sardar Gurusiddappa, Balappa, Sangolli Rayanna, Bicchugatti Chanabasappa,
Gajaveer and others stood by the Rani to fight against the British.
 Kittur was a principality (samsthana) covering large parts of Dharwad and Belgavi districts andwas
paying tributes to Marathas after the fall of Tipu.
 However after the fall of Marathas in 1818, Kittur came under British rule. Shivalinga Rudra Sarja did
not have children and when he fell sick, he asked his close confidant Gurusiddappa to choose a boy
from the surrounding region to be adopted as the heir to the throne.
 Shivalingappa was such a boy who was then trained in appropriate manner, renamed Mallasarja and
adopted as the heir to Kittur. Shivalinga Rudra Sarja died soon after on September 11, 1824.
 Chennamma started ruling the kingdom in the name of the minor prince.
 However Thackeray the then collector and political agent in Dharwad arbitrarily refused to recognise
this and asked the British Governor, Elphinstone in Bombay to take over the kingdom under
paramountcy—a ruse three decades later formalised by Dalhousie as the Doctrine of Lapse.
 But Rani Channamma, the widow of the late Mallasarja and step mother of the late
Shivalingarudrasarja, tried with great patience to avert the crisis.
 In a clear act of provocation Thackeray declared that the treasury of the kingdom was not safe
andhence brought in his own guards and administrators to ―protect‖ the same. He even left a few
soldiers to ―guard‖ the main gate of Kittur Fort. These provocations enraged the people of Kittur.
Chennamma patiently tried to get justice and sent her emissaries to talk to the ―Company Sarkar‖
(British East India Company) and at the same time started strengthening the fort and carrying out
various military preparations anticipating a conflict.
 She called all the loyal fighters from the surrounding region and discussed the situation with
them,sought their advice and loyalty. Thackeray was surprised by the Rani‘s gumption. He 88 invited
the Rani for talks, which she refused.
 While Thackeray was gathering his forces the fighters of Kittur readied themselves inside the fortand
carried out a daring attack on the British forces. Chennamma directed the battle from the ramparts of
the fort.
 On her orders, Balasaheb Sayyad, Rani Chennamma‘s loyal sharpshooter, killed Thackeray. British
forces were roundly defeated and many were taken prisoners by the insurgents.
 British soon gathered forces from Sholapur, Mysore and Bombay and neared Kittur. Rani sent them a
message that if they attack Kittur then all British prisoners of war will be put to death and then the
people of Kittur will fight to death. Taken aback, Chaplin, Commissioner of Deccan sent amessage
that if the British prisoners are released and Sardar Gurusiddappa is handed over then the status quo
will prevail.
 Chennamma refused to hand over Gurusiddappa but released British prisoners as an act of goodfaith.
 However Chaplin had no intention of keeping his end of the deal and sent his forces under
theleadership of Lt.. Col Deacon to siege Kittur on Dec. 3, 1824.
 The fighters of Kittur fought bravely for three days, however due to treachery they foundthat theirgun
powder had been mixed with cow dung and made useless.

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 The fort fell. Rani Chennamma escaped with the younger Rani Veeramma through a secret passage
towards Sangolli where she had supporters. However British were able to intercept her onher way and
capture her.
 She was imprisoned in Bailhongal prison. After incarceration of four years Chennamma died in prison
on February 3, 1829. The Kittur countryside was full of rebellion for over five years. Theleader of this
rebellion was Rani Chennamma‘s ardent admirer Rayanna of Sangolli.
Sangolli Rayanna (1829)
 Rayanna was born in a shepherd family in Sangolli, a village in Belgavi district. The family had
afighting tradition and was loyal to the Desais of Kittur.
 Rayanna fought with the Kittur army in 1824 and was captured by the British after the defeat of Rani.
However soon he was released as a part of British pacification program. His family members had
generous tax free lands given as Inam by the Desais, for their earlier bravery and loyalty.
 However the Company Sarkar now increased the taxes and eventually confiscated his lands.
 In November-December 1829, when he was restless, some of his friends invited him to lead a revolt
against the British.
 Rayanna soon started a guerrilla war suitable to the surrounding landscape. He gathered a compact
group of fighters and started attacking treasuries and rich land owners who were British collaborators.
He seized mortgage and debt documents of peasantry from them and burnt them. He soon gathered
over 1000 fighters and harassed the British and their collaborators relentlessly.
 Realising that it was not possible to capture Rayanna by conventional warfare, British adopted other
means to do so. They sent in some spies into his army and caught him unarmed when he wasbathing
in a river.
 Interestingly though British rewarded the traitors who betrayed Rayanna very generously throughland
grants, the entire community socially boycotted them.
 Rayanna‘s revolt inspired other loyalists of Kittur too to rise up time and again. Gurusiddappa,
Shankaranna, Gajapati, Savai Shetti, Kotagi, Shaikh Suleiman, Bheemanna, Kaddigudda Balanna,
Waddar Yellannaetcled several uprisings against the British in support of Kittur for almost a decade.
 The rebels executed the traitors who had betrayed Rayanna and rose up time and again demonstrating
their love and pride for the Rani Chennamma of Kittur.
Nagar Peasant Revolt (1830-31)
 Nagar comprised of the taluks of Sagar, Nagar, Kowlidurga, Koppa, Lakwally, Sorab, Shikarpur,
Shivamogga, Honnaly, Harihar, Chennagiri, Tarikere, Kadur, and Chickamagalur.
 The Ikkeri dynasty ruled this region and gained respect and prestige through an independent
distinguished rule from the Vijaynagar times to late 18th century when they were taken over byHyder
Ali and Tipu.
 The region had a fighting tradition.
 When the Wodeyars and Diwan Poornaiah were installed in Mysore by East India Company
afterTipu‘s defeat, the region came under heavy taxation.
 In fact nearly 60% of the Kingdom‘s revenues were coming from this region alone. After
sufferingfrom the duo‘s arbitrariness for three decades, 1800- 1830, the region was ripe for rebellion
against the Wodeyars and their protectors—the ―Company Sarkar‖.

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 The administration was entirely corrupt and filled with nepotism and casteism.
 The local Nayak‘s and Patels and ryots were fed up of this state of affairs and the heavy tax burden.
 The greatest burden to cultivators was an advance payment of money to the government before the
grain was harvested. As no renter, or cultivator had money to advance, he was obliged to take
recourse to the Sahukars, who explointed the peasants. Unable to pay the instalments peasants had to
sell their crops to the money lenders at very low cost.
 In February 1826 the peasant debt to Sahukarsin Nagar was estimated at 4 lakh. This sorry state of
affairs depicted a weak and ignorant government managed by corrupt officers, unable to correct
thesources of evil.
 As the Wodeyar‘s Government was corrupt, no control was exercised over the district officers.
 This situation was utilised by Boodi Basavappa, who assumed leadership of the uprising anddeclared
himself the new ruler.
 He declared sovereignty and pardoned the heavy taxes and peasant debt to Sahukars (money lenders).
The result was one of the largest peasant revolts in colonial India.
 Many inflammatory speeches were made by supporters of Boodi Basavappa in August 1830,asking
ryots to join them.
 One of his supporters, made an unsuccessful attempt to capture the fort of Anandapur in
Nagarprovince.
 On 23rd August the ryots of Nagar circulated a letter in the other fouzdaris, inviting other ryots
toassemble in a koota (assembly).
 On 23rd September the ryots of Chennagiri refused to pay their taxes, and other taluks in
Nagarfouzdari followed them.
 In December, Fouzdar Viraraj Urs employed troops to disperse demonstrators at Holehonnur.
 The ryots of the Chitradurg and Bangalore Divisions also refused to pay taxes and joined
themovement.
 In the meantime efforts were made by Diwan Venkat Raj in Bangalore and Chitradurg Divisions
topacify the ryots.
 The Maharaja himself under took to tour some of the taluks in December 1830.
 However he was humiliated by the ryots in Channarayapattana and in many other places.
 The rebels gave a good fight to the troops. They captured some of the forts in Nagar, and in
manyplaces they repulsed the Mysore troops.
 On the 21st of December 1830 a Proclamation was issued directing all persons carrying bones and
Neem leaves (the symbols of insurrection) to be seized, tried and if convicted, to be hanged.
 Many of the rebels were caught and hanged.
 The reverses to the Mysore troops led to the employment of Company‘s forces to quell the revolt. On
31st May 1831, the stronghold of the rebels, Nagar, was captured and therevolt was practically
quelled. But stray bands of insurgency continued till 1832 when it was completely suppressed.
 The rebellion was spontaneous and did not have a visionary leadership but it however demonstrated
the widespread anger among different sections of Kannadigas against the British ruleand as well as
their puppets king and dewan.
 The Company used the occasion to further strip any element of autonomy from the Wodeyars
andGovernor General William Bentinck, appointed commissioners to administer the region.

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Revolt in Coorg 1833-37

 After the defeat of Tipu, the East India Company could not directly rule Kodagu. They had to restore
the kingdom to the traditional kings of Haleri dynasty who were earlier displaced by Hyderand Tipu.
 However these Haleri kings were fiercely independent and particularly Chikka Veera Rajendra (1820-
34) was a proud and independent king. He refused to follow British diktat and instead armedhis
population and built up his forces to resist any British attack.
 He corresponded with Maharaja Ranjit Singh of Punjab and sought his support against the British.
 There were constant skirmishes between him and the British administration, which was based in
Bangalore and Mysore and finally a war between the British and Kodava forces was inevitable.
 Despite brave fight put up by the Kodavas the British were able to capture the Madikeri fort through
treachery in 1834 and depose the king.
 He was sent in Exile to Bangalore, Kashi and later London.
 However the brave people of Kodagu did not take this lying down and several revolts took place. This
led to 84 disturbance in Coorg. Jangam Swamy Aparampara revolted against the Britishers andthey
installed him in power in 1835.
 But he did not carry on administration according to the British. He was therefore arrested. Then under
the leadership of Kalyanaswamy and Puttabasappa of Kodagu dynasty, the people fought against the
British.
 The flames of revolution spread to Puttur, Sulya, Bellare, Bantwala, Mangalore and Kasargod.
 The revolutionaries looted the treasury of Kasargod, Bellare and Bantwal. At this very time theBritish
regiment arrested Puttabasappa and hanged him at Mangalore.
 It was the same fate for the revolutionary Guddemani Ayyappa of Kodagu.
UPRISINGS DURING REVOLT OF 1857
There were several uprisings in Karnataka during the Ghadar in 1857 and went on till 1860. Unlike the
Gangetic belt, where the revolt was signalled by mutiny of British Indian Army, which were then
followed by revolts led by Nanasaheb, Zeenat Mahal, Rani Laxmibai of Jhansi, Kunwar Singh etc, the
Karnataka revolts were popular uprisings led by local peasant leaders, or small principalitieswho linked
their local struggles with the larger national one.
The area of uprising covered the entire districts from the coastal Canara (present day Karwar and
Mangalore) in the Madras Presidency, to the eastern Raichur and Koppal districts under the Nizam; from
Bijapurand Dharwadin the North in Bombay Presidency to Sringeri and Hassan in the south. Notable
among them are the uprisings of: Bedasin Halagali near Bijapur; revolt of Nargund near Gadag and
Dharwad; revolt of Mundargi Bhimaraya; revolt of Venkatappa Nayak of Surpur near Gulburga and Supa
revolts near Karwar.
Bedas of Halagali
 One of the fighting tribes which fought the British tooth and nail from 1820‘s to 1942 and formedthe
backbone of many uprisings in the Deccan (comprising Maharashtra, Karnataka and Andhra) were
Bedas who descended from hunters.
 They have been called Ramoshis, Berad, or Bedas, Boya, Dorabiddu and Valmiki in differentareas.
 Bearing arms to protect themselves and the community and their king was part of their life andthey
did it with great pride.

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 The prince of Mudhol had accepted British overlordship and the Bedas in the area were seethingwith
dissatisfaction.
 The East India Company announced on 11 September, 1857 that all Indians should disarm,
submittheir arms to the company and then get licences to carry arms.
 There was a determined and desperate opposition against the Arms Act by the Bedas in Halagali,
asmall town in the Mudhol princely state, now in Bijapur District.
 They refused to submit to the order demanding registration and licences for their weapons.
 Lt.Colonel Malcolm received intimation of the recalcitrance of these Bedas and he ordered Lt.Seton
Kerr to go there with cavalry. He also sent a word that all the people should surrender theirarms and if
they refused they will be treated as rebels.
 But the Bedas defied this order. So the whole of Halagali town was burnt. Many Bedas lost theirlives
and also a large number of innocent people.
 On 11th January 1858, 19 people were publicly hanged at Mudhol on a market day. Three dayslater 6
more were hanged in Halagali.
Revolt in Surpur
 Surpur or Shorapuris situated in the hills, about 50 km west of Yadgiri.
 It was ruled by Beda Nayak kings who had a fighting tradition. They had resisted even the mighty
Mughals under Aurangzeb.
 Later they were harassed by the Nizam, the Peshwas and the British and the kingdom was reducedin
size toonly Surpur and Shapur taluks.
 When Raja Krishnappa Nayak died in 1842, prince Venkatappa Nayak the 4th,was only 8 years old.
So the British created regency where the prince was enthroned but Meadows Taylor a
Britishadministrator was appointed as the Regent.
 Taylor was a scholar-administrator and greatly improved the condition of the kingdom in terms of
treasury, accounts, clearing the old debts owed to the Nizam and Peshwa, public works, irrigation etc.
 In 1853 Taylor handed over the reins to 19 year old Venkatappa Nayak and retreated into the
background.
 In 1857, British got wind that some representatives of Nana Saheb came to Surpur and had secret
meetings with young Raja Venkatappa Nayak. In the meanwhile, Mahipal Singh, a rebel from 1857
revolt, was captured by the British and he disclosed to them that he was carrying out instructions of
Raja Venkatappa Nayak.
 So they started interfering more and more in the affairs of the kingdom. Finally in February 1858,they
sent troops led by Capt. Windham and Maj Hughes to attack Surpur, but the fort of Surpur wasvery
strong and a fierce battle ensued.
 When they were outnumbered, the Raja escaped to Hyderabad and tried to get Nizam and his Diwan‘s
support for the uprising. Unfortunately however, they handed him over to the British.
 The Raja was sentenced to life imprisonment and while he was being transported to Chenglepetjail
from Sikandarabad, he was killed.
 The Raja Venkatappa Nayak of Surpur was a lynchpin in a coordinated uprising covering
Miraj,Kolhapur, Koppal, Raichur and Surpur and hence the British were greatly relieved by his defeat
and the kingdom was given to Nizam for the services rendered to the East India Company.

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Baba saheb of Nargund (Dharwad district)

 The principality of Nargund used to be under the Peshwas after the defeat of Tipu. After the defeatof
Peshwas in 1818, it came under British overlordship.
 Bhaskar Rao Bhave also known as Baba Saheb rose to the throne of Nargund in 1842 and
administered this region efficiently.
 However he did not have a son and told the British that he would adopt a son to create an heir
forNargund. The British refused permission and asked him to return some of the land received as
Inam.
 Secondly, he was asked to surrender his arms and ammunition.
 This enraged Baba Saheb and he got in touch with several rulers in Karnataka like Mundaragi
Bhimaraya, Surpur Venkatappa Nayakaand many others.
 He was aware of the north Indian uprising and wanted to time his revolt also in June of 1857.However
he postponed the date at the last moment.
 When British came to know that he had accumulated a large amount of artillery and ammunition in
his fort in Nargund, they asked him to deposit the same in Dharwad. He readily agreed and sent them
with an escort to Dharwad. Simultaneously he secretly organised an attack on the convoy and brought
them back to Nargund, while claiming innocence.
 In May 1858 when the British sent a force to prevent his networking with other rulers, he attacked
them and brought the decapitated head of officer Manson, the head of British force sentto suppress
him, to his fort and displayed it to the people.
 Meanwhile he discovered treachery within his fort leading to sabotage and adulteration of gunpowder
with cow dung.
 While he went to attack the fort in Amargol near Hubballi, British came to Nargund with a largeforce.
 Baba Saheb had over 2500 soldiers within the fort who fought valiantly, when the defeat
wasimminent, Baba Saheb consulted his comrades and decided to escape to a nearby forest.
 However in the forest near Torgal he was betrayed by some camp followers. This led to his capture
and later execution in Belagavi on June 12, 1858.
Mundaragi Bheemarao
 There are many lavanis (ballads) written about him. He was not a Raja but a commoner with
extraordinary vision and organising and mobilising ability.
 His father was a local judge and Bhimaraya himself served as a Mamledar (a land revenue official) in
Bellary, Hoovina Hadagali and Harapana Halli.
 He could not stand the exploitation of peasantry under British rule and in protest he resigned andcame
back to Benne Halli, his village.
 He had observed the development of anti-colonial movement in Karnataka and networked withvarious
like-minded leaders.
 Nana Saheb‘s call to the people of India and all Desais, Deshmukhs, Deshpandes, Jahagirdars,Patels
and Kulkarnis of Karnataka greatly influenced him.
 He had sent many emissaries in the garb of Sadhus and Swamijis to contact others. He is also
rumoured to have secretly visited Bangalore and written a letter in vain to the Maharaja of
Mysore,Krishna Raja Wodeyar 3rd.
 Bhimaraya encouraged people in various areas to refuse to pay taxes to Company Sarkar.

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 AKKA IAS ACADEMY, BENGALURU

 He contacted various groups of Beda fighters and started accumulating arms and creating ammunition
dumps at various places.
 On 23 May 1858 the fouzdar of Dambal raided one such arms cache and sealed it. On hearing
thenews Bhimaraya came with his army attacked the armoury and took back all his arms and
ammunition and shifted to a safer place in Shirahatti. Then he started raiding British armouries in
various places.
 Many local land owners and kings supported Bhimaraya and joined him in the revolt.
 British gathered a large force from their stations at Dharwad, Raichur, Hyderabad and Bellary
andmarched on Koppal fort. After a fierce fight Bhimaraya fell to British bullets on 1 June, 1858.
Canara Revolts
 The district of Canara consisted of present Mangalore (Dakshina Kannada) and Karwar
(UttaraKannada) districts and after Tipu, they were made a part of Madras presidency.
 However these coastal districts were thickly forested and mountainous and the large distance
fromMadras led to further reasons for a weak British colonial state in the area.
 As uprisings in coastal Maharashtra spread during 1857, Canara too became a refuge for
revolutionaries and also a centre of resistance.
 Here the revolutionaries who came from Savantwadi played a major role.
 They also tried to get support from some Goans as well as Portugese and moved into Khanapur, Supa,
Ulavi, Dandeli etc. They were also joined by Siddis (African slaves brought to India by Portugese and
who had escaped to the dense forests of Canara near Karwar).
 These revolts were caused by the increased land and salt taxes as well as the stories of 1857 uprising
in the North
 Despite the death and capture of many leaders, new ones kept springing up in this region for nearly
three years. Finally British divided the district into two and attached Karwar to Bombaypresidency in
1862.

Commissioners Rule in Karnataka

Commissioners Rule (1831-1881):
Of the Commissioners who ruled Mysore Mark Cubbon and Lewin Bowring are Notable:
Mark Cubbon:
 Modernized the system of Administration in Mysore during his rule of 27 years.
 Laid a strong foundation for the economic growth of the state by his reformist nature
Administrative Reforms:
 Re-organised the administrative units i.e a new administrative unit of Bangalore was added for
efficiency along with the earlier ones of Ashtagrama, Bidanur and Chitradurga.
 for each of the 4 administrative units a European superintendent was appointed.
 Each of 120 taluks were under one Amaldar.
 next smaller unit of administration was Hobli i.e consisting of many villages.
 Nine departments in commissioners office and with a head called chief officer for each department.
 Major Change of Shifted administrative office to Bangalore

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 AKKA IAS ACADEMY, BENGALURU

Development Works:
 up to 1600 miles of road laid, as a result all important towns in the state were connected by roads to
Bangalore ,Some of the major bridges were constructed at Maddur Hoskote, Bhadravathi, Shimoga
etc.
 Motivated the Coffee plantations and to increase forest wealth of state forest conservator was
appointed.
 Improved the system of tax by abolishing around 769 minor taxes and contributed to the Income of
state.
Lewin Bowring(1862-1870 )
Administrative reforms:
 Replaced administrative divisions from 4 to 3 i.e now the units were Nandidurga, Ashtagrama and
Nagara.
 A Commissioner was appointed over each division, each division divided into 8 districts with a
deputy Commissioner as a head for district to look after the revenue administration.
Land Revenue reforms:
 Land measurement and assessment of land revenue with much faults was rectified by giving
importance to Revenue department during his times.
Reforms in Judiciary:
 Indian Penal code and criminal procedure code was introduced .
 Instead of cash payment to courts Stamp papers were introduced
Educational reforms:
 credit of encouraging educatiion on largescale goes to Bowring Central Education agency was set up ,
some of major works are set up of Bangalore high school which later became Bangalore centrral
college.
 Other Achievements are building of jails in Important towns, appointment of medical staff in large
numbers in hospitals. Bangalore Museum and central college building are his creations.

NIZAM OF HYDERABAD
Of the princely states in India under British rule, the territory of the Hyderabad Nizam was the largest. Of
this trilingual state, the Kannada-speaking districts included Gulbarga, Bidar and Raichur (now Koppal
district is carved out from Raichur district). This state was the remnant of Mughul rule in the Deccan. The
familyof the Nizam was known as Asafzahi. till1948.
MOVEMENT IN HYDERABAD KARNATAKA
 In 1920, Pandit Taranath of Hamdard National School at Raichur in the Hyderabad Karnataka area
was banished by the Nizam, who was on the side of the Britishers.
 Hyderabad Karnataka Parishad was formed under the leadership of Shrinivas in 1934 and it started the
Satyagrah.
 Hyderabad Congress was launched in 1938. Later in 1938, Hyderabad Karnataka Parishad joined the
Hyderabad Congress party and it continued its satyagrah under the leadership of Janardhan Desai.

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 AKKA IAS ACADEMY, BENGALURU

 Under his Presidentship itself, the Bidar Congress session was held and it gave a new dimension to
the freedom struggle.
 In 1942-43, the struggle continued in North Karnataka and nearly 7000 volunteers were arrested.
Among them were Swami Ramanand, Vishwanath Mudnal and others.
 In the year 1939 when World War-II broke out the British wanted Indians to support them in the war
efforts. But, the Provincial Congress Governments established under the Government of India Act,
1935, resigned aid many people revolted and were imprisoned.
 Mir Usman Ali Khan was the last Nizam of HyderabadMir Usman Ali Khan was the last Nizam of
Hyderabad.
 Mir Usman Ali Khan was the last Nizam of Hyderabad.
 After India gained independence, the Nizam declared his intention to remain independent rather than
become part of the Indian Union.
 Entire nation had got freedom from British in 1947 but people of Hyderabad Karnataka region were
under the clutches of despotic rule of Nizam of Hyderabad.
 The Hyderabad State Congress, with the support of the Indian National Congress and the Communist
Party of India, began agitating against Nizam in 1948.
 The people were subject to all sorts of restrictions. The civil liberty were totally denied, there was
neither freedom of speech nor freedom of association nor freedom of press were leading a precarious
life with so many handicaps in economic, religious, educational, cultural and even in social fields.
Naturally there was a growing discontent in the minds of the people who wanted to assert themselves
for their own rights.
 The people of Gulbarga struggled hard for freedom their aim was to fight against the feudal autocratic
rule of the Nizam.
 The Nizam and his associates tried their best to rule the state neglecting the wishes of people.
 The Nizam hoped to maintain independence with an irregular army recruited from the Muslim
aristocracy, known as the Razakars.
 As many as 30 camps were set up by the freedom fighters of Hyderabad- Karnataka region along the
borders of Raichur (which also included the present day Koppal) and Kalaburagi (including Yadgir)
to wage an armed struggle against the Razaakars and to liberate their region from Nizam rule.
 While hundreds of Hindus were murdered, more than 125 women were raped, some in public places
mainly by the Razaakars.
 The Gorta village in Basavakalyana taluk bore the brunt of Razaakars attack. More than 200 Hindus
in the village were massacred and their residences set on fire. This massacre is called the “Jalianwala
Bagh‖ massacre of Karnataka.
 In November 1947, Hyderabad signed a standstill agreement with the dominion of India, continuing
all previous arrangements except for the stationing of Indian troops in the state.
 However, with the rise of militant razakars, India found it necessary to station Indian troops and
invaded the state in September 1948 to compel the Nizam.
 The Indian armed forces launched operation polo, entered the Nizam state on September 13 and
completed an operation within 109 hours.
 At around 4 pm of September 17, 1948 General Al Edroos, Commander in Chief of the Nizam's army,
surrendered to General A.M. Choudhary of the Indian army.

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 AKKA IAS ACADEMY, BENGALURU

 On 17 September that year, the Indian Army took control of Hyderabad State. With the defeat of his
forces, Nizam VII capitulated to the Indian Union by signing an Instrument of Accession, which made
him the Rajpramukh (Princely Governor) of the state until 31 October 1956.

Progress of Mysore under the Dewans.

THE DIWANS OF MYSORE

In 1881, following a strong lobby favouring rendition the Privy Council of the United Kingdom ordered
the reversal of the British East India Company's decision to annexe Mysore. By the Rendition Act of
1881, the princely state of Mysore was reconstituted and restored to the Wadiyar dynasty. Chamarajendra
Wadiyar X was groomed by the British to take charge of the administration. He was officially handed the
reins of governance on 25 March 1881. The post of commissioner was abolished and replaced by a
Diwan, his two advisers and a British resident in the Mysore court

The Wodeyars of Mysore were fortunate enough to have wise and able men as Divans. These Divans
worked hard to make the state progressive progressive and model.

Krishnacharya Purniya
 Purniya was the Dewan of Mysore. He served under Hyder Ali, Tipu Sultan, the English, and
Maharaja Mummadi Krishnaraja Wodeyar.
 After Tipu Sultan's defeat, Mummadi Krishnaraja Wodeyar was educated and trained by Purniah.
 From 1799 till 1810 (when Krishnaraja Wodeyar III came of age), he governed the Kingdom of
Mysore together with the English resident of the East India Company.
 Krishnaraja Wodeyar attained the age of 16 in early 1810 and hence attained the age of discretion.
After discussing with the British Resident, A. H. Cole, the reins of the state were transferred from
Dewan Purnaiah to the king.
 Purniah retired from service in 1811.

Rangacharlu
Rangacharlu moved to Mysore in 1868 to take over as the Comptroller of Mysore Palace. As comptroller,
he wrote a pamphlet titled The British Administration of Mysore which was published in London in 1874.
Soon after, Sir James Gordon, the Commissioner of Mysore, appointed Rungacharlu as his Revenue
Secretary. As Revenue Secretary, Rungacharlu revamped the entire team of Commissioners and Deputy
Commissioners: he substituted efficient Indians on moderate pay for inefficient Europeans drawing high
salaries. As a result, state expenditure during the first year of his service (1879-1880) was reduced by one
and a half lakh ruppes. In appreciation of his services, Rungacharlu was made a Companion of the Order
of the Indian Empire in the year 1880.

At about this time, an inquiry was launched into the disappearance of certain jewels from the royal
household when Rungacharlu was the Palace Comptroller. After a detailed enquiry, the disappearance of
the jewels was attributed to a clerical error and Rungacharlu was absolved of all the accusations. He was
eventually appointed Diwan of Mysore on 25 March 1881.

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 AKKA IAS ACADEMY, BENGALURU

Diwan of Mysore
When Rungacharlu took over as Diwan in March 1881, Mysore was in a poor financial, agricultural, and
industrial condition. The kingdom was devastated by the famine of 1877 and faced with a debt of eight
lakh rupees.
Soon after Rungacharlu took over as Diwan, he disbanded Hassan and Chitradurga districts and
downgraded nine taluks into deputy amildar sections. The number of munsiff courts, sub-courts, and
district jails were also reduced. These measures caused a drastic reduction in the expenses of the
kingdom. He also lifted the ban of the sale of sandalwood and sandalwood products. With the revenue
generated by the sale of sandalwood, Rungacharlu developed an elaborate railway system for the princely
state. He constructed a railway line from Bangalore to Tiptur and established a legislative assembly for
the state.
Sir Kumarapuram Seshadri Iyer
Sir Kumarapuram Seshadri Iyer (also spelled Aiyar) (1 June 1845 – 13 September 1901), was an Indian
advocate who served as the 15th Diwan of Mysore from 1883 to 1901. He was the second longest serving
diwan of Mysore after Diwan Purnaiah. He is regarded by most as the maker of Modern Bangalore.
Seshadri Iyer joined the services of the Mysore kingdom in 1868 and served as a district magistrate and
later as Personal Secretary to the Diwan, Rungacharlu before being appointed Diwan himself. Seshadri
Iyer was the longest serving Diwan of Mysore kingdom and served from 1883 to 1901.
He started the Mysore Civil Service Examinations which were held for the first time in 1891 and the
Department of Geology and the Department of Agriculture were founded in 1894 and 1898. Other notable
achievements include the construction of the Vanivilas Sagar dam across Vedavati river, the initiation of
the Shivanasamudra hydroelectric project in 1899 (the first such major attempt in India), electricity and
drinking water (the latter through pipes) being supplied to Bangalore and the founding of the
Archaeological Survey of Mysore (1890) and the Oriental Manuscripts Library.
Seshadri Iyer established the Kolar gold fields and Victoria Hospital and commissioned the
Shivanasamudra hydel-electric power project. Seshadri Iyer had to deal with a devastating plague which
afflicted Bangalore in 1898 and was responsible for the decongestion of streets and reconstructing the city
in the aftermath of the plague.
Service in the Mysore Kingdom
In 1868, Seshadri Iyer was appointed Judicial Secretary in the Ashtagram division of the Mysore
kingdom. He later served as Head Sheristadar of the Court of the Judicial Commissioner, Assistant
Commissioner of Mysore, Deputy Commissioner and District Magistrate of Tumkur and District and
Sessions Judge of Ashtagram division.
He obtained his B. L. degree from the University of Madras in 1874. From 1881 to 1883, he served as an
officer on special duty in Mysore. In 1883, when Rangacharlu's period of service came to an end,
Seshadri Iyer was appointed Diwan of Mysore.
As Dewan
Seshadri Iyer succeeded Rangacharlu as Dewan of Mysore in the year 1883 and administered Mysore for
a span of eighteen years. He remains the longest serving Diwan of the princely state. He worked to

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 AKKA IAS ACADEMY, BENGALURU

improve the transport, irrigation and mining sectors in the kingdom. Seshadri Iyer extended the railway
lines in the kingdom by 270 kilometres (170 mi)The Kolar gold fields of Karnataka were established
during his tenure. He constructed the famous Glass House at Lalbagh in 1889 and the Victoria Hospital at
Bangalore in the year 1900.
Sir Sheshadri Hydel Station
Seshadri Iyer was responsible for initiating the first hydro-electric project in Asia, at Shivanasamudra,
which began generating power in 1902 for the Kolar gold fields, and in 1905 for Bangalore. The gold
fields were 147 km away, making the transmission line the longest in the world at the time. Later on,
when construction of the Mettur dam in Tamil Nadu began in the 1930s, power was supplied from
Shivanasamudra. The Sir Sheshadri Hydel Station was granted the status of a National Heritage Centre in
May 2006.

Statue of Sir K.Seshadri Iyer at Cubbon Park, Bangalore

 In 1898, a plague devastated Bangalore city and wiped out a large proportion of its population. The
remaining population moved into camps set up on open farmland in the countryside until the plague
abated. The highly congested old city area, consisting of tiny houses built along very narrow and
irregular lanes, was where most Indians lived, and this area was badly hit by the plague. The Mysore
government, in consultation with the British Raj, decided to depopulate and demolish this area to
prevent recurrence of plague and other infectious diseases which were common in those days.
 Iyer's administration developed the extensions of Basavanagudi and Malleswaram from 1898 onwards
in order to house the displaced population. Housing plots were allotted and other help extended to the
displaced families to enable them to build airy new houses. Not only did the extensions alleviate the
congestion of the city, but also, many new industrial units came to be established in the vicinity, and
people got more employment opportunities. Hotels and eateries made their first appearance.
Meanwhile, the old city was demolished and developed anew. Streets were decongested, roads were
widened and straightened; sanitation was improved.
 In 1894, Seshadri Iyer started the Chamarajendra Water Works to supply water to the city from
Hesaraghatta Lake, which at that time eas 18 km outside the city.

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 AKKA IAS ACADEMY, BENGALURU

 During the plague, Iyer also observed the need for a large and well-equipped hospital which would
provide treatment in the European style of medicine. The Victoria Hospital was begun by him in
1900. Previously, he had commissioned the glass house in Lal Bagh in 1889.
 The private residence of Seshadri Iyer, Kumara Krupa, is now the State Guest House. The city
remembers him through the names of Seshadripuram (a city extension created in 1892), Sheshadri
Road, Sheshadri Memorial Library, and a statue in Cubbon Park.
P. N. Krishnamurthy
 Sir Purniah Narasinga Rao Krishnamurti (12 August 1849 – 1911) was an Indian lawyer and
administrator who served as the 16th Diwan of Mysore from 1901 to 1906. He was a direct
descendant of Diwan Purnaiah, the first Dewan of Mysore.
 P. N. Krishnamurthy, a descendant of Divan Purnaiah, took office in 1901.
 The founding of The Secretariat Manual to maintain records, the introduction of British administrative
methods and the founding of the Co-operative Department in 1905 are credited to him.
V. P. Madhava Rao
 Rao served as the Diwan of Mysore from 30 June 1906 to 31 March 1909. In 1906, a bill was passed
empowering members of the Mysore Legislative Assembly to pass laws. The new legislature was
constituted on 6 March 1907.
 The Land Revenue Code was amended to make the Revenue Commissioner the chief revenue
authority and was also given charge of the treasury. Department of Public Health was created and
competitive exams for the Mysore Civil Services were revived. Taxes on arecanut were revoked.
 V. P. Madhava Rao, who became the Divan in 1906, paid attention to conservation of forests.
 He started the Legislative Council in 1907, the Central Co-operative Bank in Bangalore, aided the
Vokkaligara Sangha in 1906 Created the Mysore News Paper Regulation Act of 1908.
 Kindergarten schools were introduced in the kingdom and primary education was made free. A
number of irrigation projects were undertaken. The Vani Vilas Dam was completed in 1906/1907 and
the Cauvery Power Works at Belagola in 1907/1908. The government sanctioned a free grant of land
to the Indian Institute of Science at Bangalore.
 Electric lighting was introduced in the civil and military station of Bangalore city on 1 January 1908
and for all of Mysore city on 26 September 1908.
T. Ananda Rao
 Rao served as the Diwan of Mysore from 1 April 1909 till 10 November 1912. During his tenure, a lot
of measures were taken for the economic development of Mysore.
 A reservoir was constructed in 1910 for the power station at Shivanasamudra. In the same year, the
Mysore-Hassan railway line of Mysore Railways was extended, linking Saligrama and Yedatur with
the line at Arsikere.
 The first Mysore Economic Conference was inaugurated on 10 June 1910 and met once every year. In
1911/1912, construction of Krishnaraja Sagara Dam across the Kaveri at Kannambadi village was
commenced.
 It was Rao who invited Sir M. Visvesvaraya to be the chief engineer and secretary to the government
of Mysore in 1909.
 Inaugurated the Mysore Economic Conference, finalised the Krishna Raja Sagara dam.

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 AKKA IAS ACADEMY, BENGALURU

 Completed the Mysore Palace in 1910.

Sir M. Visveshvaraiah
Sir M. Visveshvaraiah, popularly known as the "Maker of Modern Mysore" holds pride of place in the
history of Karnataka.A visionary by any standard and an engineer by education, he wrote the book A
Vision of Prosperous Mysore in 1902, stressing the need for technological and educational advancement
as a catalyst to industry, commerce and agriculture.
He became the Divan in 1909. Membership of the Mysore Legislative Assembly was increased from 18
to 24 with powers to discuss the state budget.
The Mysore Economic Conference was expanded into three committees; industry and commerce,
education and agriculture, with publications in English and Kannada.Village panchayats, local boards and
municipalities were headed by elected members.
A long list of important projects were Sir M.Visvesvaraiah commissioned during his time including the
construction of the Krishna Raja Sagara dam, the Government Soap Factory and the Mysore Sandal Oil
Factory, the founding of the Iron and Steel Works in Bhadravati, and the Mysore Bank in 1913.
Visveshvaraiah founded the University of Mysore in 1916, the Mysore Chamber of Commerce and
Industry, the Visvesvaraya College of Engineering in Bangalore and the Karnataka Sahitya Parishad.
Visveshvaraiah’s contribution to education
 Encouraged technical education.
 Technical Institutions were Technical Institutions were opened.
 Chamarajendra Technical Institute of Mysore
 The Silk Research Centre of Channapattana.
 Govt. Engineering College at Bangalore.
 School of Agriculture at Hebbal - 1913 (Gandhi Krishi Vijnana Kendra-present Agricultural
University).
 Mysore University in 1916 Mysore University in 1916 – 1st Vice Chancellor – V. Nanjundaih.
 Donation of 2 lacks to Banaras Hindu University.
 Compulsory Primary Education.
 Priority to Women Education.
 Hostel for Harijans.
 Introduced Scholarship Scheme.
 He wrote ‘Reconstructing India’, ‘Rapid Developments of Rapid.
 Developments of Industries’, ‘Planned Economy for India ’and ‘Memories of My working Memories
of My working life’
 He was followed by Sir M. Kantaraj Urs in 1919 and Sir Albion Raj Kumar Banerjee in 1922.
Sir Mirza Ismail (1926-1941 )
Sir Mirza Muhammad Ismail Amin-ul-Mulq (24 October 1883 – 5 January 1959) was an Indian statesman
and police officer who served as the Diwan of Mysore, Jaipur, and Hyderabad.

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 AKKA IAS ACADEMY, BENGALURU

Sir C. P. Ramaswami Iyer considered him "one of the cleverest men in India". His longtime friend Sir C.
V. Raman remarked, "His accessibility and personal charm coupled with his depth of knowledge and his
keen sense of human and cultural values made him a great and highly successful administrator"
 Most outstanding outstanding Dewan of Mysore. • Followed the foot steps of Sir. M.V.
 Maker of modern & model Mysore.
 Graduate of the Bangalore Central College.
 Joined the Mysore Police service-1905.
 Father – Agha Ismail – bodyguard to KRW IV.
 Mirja served as Asst. Commissioner.
 Huzur Secretary & P.S. to Maharaja.
 Appointed Appointed as Dewan in 1926.
 Started various industries.
 Expanded Bhadravati Iron works added steel plant. * Cement and Paper factory at Bhadravati .
 Match factory at Shimoga.
 Khadi Unit (Kendra) at Badanval.
 Sugar factory at Mandya.
 Chemicals and Fertiliser factory at Shravanabelagola.
 Glass factory at Bangalore.
 Famous Hindusthan Aeronatics Ltd. at Bangalore.
 Agricultural equipment factory at Mysore, Bangalore and Hassan.
 Krishnarajendra Electric Goods factory at Bangalore.
 Export of Sandal oil, Sandal Soap, Agarbathi and Mysore silk.
 Appointed Mysore Trade Commissioner at London.
Beautification :
 Mirza had a good aesthetic aesthetic sense.
 Beautification of Towns & Cities by creating Parks & Gardens.
 Famous Brindavan Garden near KRS.
 Mysore, Bangalore became garden cities.
Diplomacy
 Mirja was a Diplomat.
 Harmonious relationship with the British & Indian National Congress.
 Talks with Mahatma in 1927.
 Persuaded Viceroy Irwin to reduce the annual tribute (34 lakhs to 24.5 lakhs). * Attended the Round
Table Conference in 1932. Hydro Electric
Projects :
 Strengthening of Hydro Electric Projects.
 Capacity of the power station of Shivanasamudra was increased.
 Estd. the Shimsha Power Station - 1940.
 The Sharavti Project near Jogfalls -1938 (it led to establish the Mahatma Gandhi Hydro Electric
Station – 1948).
 Rural Electrification started 1st time India – 1940. * 180 villages electrified.

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 AKKA IAS ACADEMY, BENGALURU

Irrigation :
 Built Kaveri high level Canal.
 1,20,000 acres of land under irrigation in Mandya. Other Achievements :
 A griculture college at Hebbal.
 Steps to develop Sericulture.
 Chaluvamba Maternity Hospital at Mysore. * Railway offices at Mysore.
 Radio Station at Mysore.
 Craft Institute at Bangalore.
 Mental Hospital at Bangalore.
 Narasimharaja Hospital at Kolar.
 Mcgann Hospital at Shimoga.
 The freedom movement which had taken the country by storms after 1917 began to engulf the Mysore
state during Mirja’s period. There were disturbances like the Sultanpet Ganapati episode in 1928-29.
 Because of Mirza’s unpopularity, resigned in 1941
 Mirja Ismail was suceeded by Dewan N. Madhav Rao. Jayachamaraja Wodeyar was the last Maharaja
of Mysore. He was the adopted son of KRW IV.
 The last Dewan of Mysore was Arcot Ramaswamy Mudaliyar. The post of Dewan was abolished in
1949.
Madhava Rau
Diwan of Mysore
Madhava Rau succeeded Sir Mirza Ismail on his retirement as the diwan, a post he held between 1941
and 1946. During his premiership, the Kingdom of Mysore was gripped by severe food shortages during
the Second World War. Madhava Rau is credited with having managed the situation quite well and
organised a successful recovery. He also successfully dealt with the damage caused to the Sivasamudram
Electric Power Station by a lightning strike in 1944.
During his tenure as Diwan, the Mysore Legislative Council and the Mysore Representative Assembly
were combined to form a new legislative council. The first elections to the newly reorganised council
were held in February 1941.
Mudaliar
Diwan of Mysore
 Mudaliar was appointed as the Dewan of Mysore in 1946 by Maharaja Jayachamaraja Wadiyar,
succeededing N. Madhava Rao. He presided over a very turbulent period in Mysore's and India's
history.
 On 3 June 1947, Lord Mountbatten made a public declaration about the acceptance by the Indian
leaders of partition of India into two independent dominions. This announcement had a tremendous
impact on Indian states. Early in June 1947, the Mudaliar convened a press conference at Bangalore
and announced that the Mysore Government had taken a decision to accede to the new dominion of
India and to send its representatives to the Indian Constituent Assembly. Thereafter, British
Parliament passed the Indian Independence Act, 1947 on 15 July 1947, and the bill received royal
sssent on 18 July 1947. This act provided for the creation of the independent dominion of India and
Pakistan on 15 Aug 1947. This act also freed the Indian states from the suzerainty of British

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 AKKA IAS ACADEMY, BENGALURU

government. There were a lot of misgivings about the lapse of suzerainty and the resultant freedom
given to the over 560 Indian states. Indian leaders drafted an Instrument of Accession asking the
rulers to accede to the dominion government on the three subjects of defence, communication, and
external affairs.
 Jayachamaraja Wadiyar executed the instrument on 9 August 1947, and the same was accepted by the
Mountbatten on 16 August 1947. But this also gave impetus to the local Congress leaders to renew
their demand for a responsible government. This led to an agitation known as "Mysore Chalo". There
appears to be obfuscation of facts among the agitating public that the maharaja, at the advice of the
diwan and his secretary Sir T. Thamboo Chetty, was refusing to join the Indian Union. The truth of
the matter was that India was not a union yet. India had just become an independent dominion.
 Jayachamaraja Wadiyar was one of the earliest to sign the instrument of accession. Soon, on 24 Sept
1947, he gave his assent to setting up of a government, and on 25 October 1947, K.C. Reddy became
the first chief minister with a cabinet of nine ministers. Mudaliar continued to remain a link between
the cabinet and the maharaja.
 As Jayachamaraja Wadiyar accepted the recommendation of the constituent assembly of Mysore to
accept the Constitution of India for the state, Mysore and become a Part-B state in the soon to be
formed Republic of India, and issued a proclamation to this effect on 25 Nov 1949. With this, the post
of diwan was also abolished.
 During his tenure as Diwan of Mysore, Mudaliar organised a number of Tamil music concerts in the
kingdom in order to raise money for the restoration of the Carnatic musician Tyagaraja's tomb at
Tiruvaiyaru.
 Mudaliar was sent by Jawaharlal Nehru as head of the Indian delegation to New York to argue India's
case in the Security Council when Hyderabad appealed to the council against accession to India and
eloquently argued the case for India. The council eventually decided in favour of India.

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 AKKA IAS ACADEMY, BENGALURU

UNIT - 6
Freedom Movement in Karnataka and
Unification (1885-1956).

FREEDOM MOVEMENT IN KARNATAKA PRE-GANDHIAN PERIOD

Response from Karnataka to Congress activities:
 The Indian National Congress that came into existence in 1885.
 Kolachalam Venkatarao of Bellary, Bhausaheb Bhate of Belgaum and Narayan Chandavarkar of
Karwar were some of the leaders from Karnataka who took active interest in the activities of the
Congress in its earlystage.
 Alur Venkata Rao (Dharwad), Srinivasrao Kaujalgi (Bijapur) and Gangadharrao Deshapande
(Belgaum)were other early Congressmen from Karnataka.
 Kolachalam Venkatarao belonged to a scholarly family and was a leading lawyer. He was a
philanthropist who endowed the widow‘s home in Bellary with Rs 500 and Rs 20,000 for an
orphanage. He constructed theTown Hall at Bellary at a cost of Rs 50,000 and furnished it with a free
library. He also brought a house at a cost of Rs 7,000 to be used as girl‘s school.
 Narayan Chandavarkar was elected President of the Lahore Congress session in 1900.
 Earlier in 1893 A.O.Hume visited North Karnataka and was given a warm welcome in Belgaum
andDharwad.
 His presence among the people of Karnataka infused an intense spirit of nationalism in them.
 In Karnataka Balgangadhar Tilak and his papers Kesari and the Maratha were the real harbingers of
modernnationalism, especially in North Karnataka area.
 Kannada journals like Rajahamsa, Karnataka Vritta, Dhananjaya, Swadeshabhimani,Vrittanata
Chintamani, etc., spread the gospel of nationalism.
1897 Bubonic plague
 Plague broke out in Bombay and then spread to Poona. People fled in panic from their homes and
thusspread the epidemic.
 On 4th February 1897 the Epidemic Disease Act was passed and it gave sweeping and drastic powers
tothe authorities.
 In Karnataka the epidemic spread to Dharwad, Hubli, Gadag and many other places including
Bangalore. Asegregation camp was opened in Dharwad.
 The fear of the soldiers who were entrusted with relief operations may be gauged by the fact that,
when in Dharwad the people in the city‘s market square heard of the arrival of the soldiers, they left
their belongingsand ran away.
 Unable to bear the highhandedness of the military officers, a pious man by name Hayagrivachar
committed suicide in Dharwad. Famine, which followed plague, took heavy toll of lives.

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 AKKA IAS ACADEMY, BENGALURU

 Tilak raised his voice against the highhandedness of the government. He sent volunteers of the
Sarvajanik Sabha to create awareness among the people about the provision of the Famine Code and
asked the people not to be scared by the demands and threats of the collecting officials.
 In June 1897, as a reprisal against the highhandedness of the authorities in carrying out plague
regulations, the Chapekar brothers murdered Plague Commissioner Rand and Lt. Ayerest. The
government charged Tilak for inciting the murders with his writings and sentenced him to 18 months
rigorous imprisonment.
 This move caused a wave of resentment throughout India. In North Karnataka patrioticdramas such
asBhavani Talwar, Simhagad, Bapu Gokhalyachi Pagadi were staged in all the important towns.
 In Dharwad a dramatic troupe called Sri Shivaji Arya Samaj ‘was formed and it enacted nationalist
dramaslike Rana Bheemadeva.
 Another important personality who infused self-confidence among Indians and prepared them to fight
the forces that were undermining their freedom and culture was Swami Vivekananda. According Alur
Venkata Rao, the Swamijis speeches especially during his short stay at Belgaum roused the people of
Karnataka to a pitch of national enthusiasm as nothing else did.
Karnataka and Swadeshi-Boycott Movement:
 The partition of Bengal in 1905 had far reaching repercussion and accelerated the pace of freedom
movement in India. The event led to the launch of swadeshi movement and boycott of British goods.
 Karnataka enthusiastically responded to the call of swadeshi.
 On 5th May 1905 a public meeting presided by Gurunatha Rao Patak was held in the Victoria Theatre
at Dharwad to protest against the partition of Bengal and to encourage swadeshi industries.
 The meeting resolved that everyone should vow not to use foreign cloth, except in unavoidable
circumstances in order to encourage Indian artisans and trade in Indian goods.
 To spread the message of swadeshi and boycott, Tilak toured North Karnataka in 1905-06.
 Then Tilak visited Karnataka and put forth his four principles which were: Swadeshi Prasar',
'VideshiBahiskar*, 'National Education' and 'Demand for Swaraj'.
 Deshpande Gangadhar Rao of Belgaum, Koujalagi Shrinivas Rao of Bijapur, worked as his
trustworthy followers. Gangadhar Rao Deshpande by his roaring lecture became famous throughout
Karnataka and wascalled as 'Karnataka Shimha* (Lion of Karnataka).
 Alur Venkata Rao, Sakkari Balachar, Krishna Rao Mudvedkar, Anantha Rao Dabade and others
undertook extensive tours and delivered speeches on Swarajya, Swadeshi, Boycott and National
Education.
 Swadeshi industries arose in many places. Vittal Rao Deshpande of Hebbal started a weaving factory
at Kittur. Another factory was built in Badami. Cloths made here were sent even to Bengal. Rama Rao
Alagvadi opened a Match factory at Dharwad, while in Laxmeswar a Porcelain factory was
established. Factories for manufacturing bangles, pencils and many other articles of common use
arose in many places.
 A Karnataka Industrial Conference met at Dharwad in 1907 to chalk out plans to develop
Swadeshiindustries in Karnataka. New Banks were established to help these industries.
 Boycott of British goods: Apart from wide support to swadeshi movement, people of Karnataka whole
heartedly participated in the boycott of British goods.
 Ranibennur witnessed one of the biggest bonfires of foreign cloth.

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 AKKA IAS ACADEMY, BENGALURU

 Textile dealers in Belgaum decided not to import foreign cloth and in Dharwad, grocers decided not
topurchase Daboti and Johnson sugar.
 In Alnavar it was decided to smoke batti‘s instead of bidis and anyone found breaking the rule was
fined. Hoteliers stopped the sale of tea and people poured kerosene into gutters and instead began to
use indigenousoil for lighting.
 In one instance after it was noticed that a bangle seller had sold foreign bangles saying that it was
Indian,the bangle seller was not only abused but also had to forego money.
 In Belgaum, along with swadeshi movement, prohibition was also advocated and toddy contractors
had toincur heavy loss.dramas such asBhavani Talwar, Simhagad, Bapu Gokhalyachi Pagadi were
staged in all the important towns.
 In Dharwad a dramatic troupe called Sri Shivaji Arya Samaj ‘was formed and it enacted nationalist
dramaslike Rana Bheemadeva.
 Another important personality who infused self-confidence among Indians and prepared them to fight
the forces that were undermining their freedom and culture was Swami Vivekananda. According Alur
Venkata Rao, the Swamijis speeches especially during his short stay at Belgaum roused the people of
Karnataka to a pitch of national enthusiasm as nothing else did.
Karnataka and Swadeshi-Boycott Movement:
 The partition of Bengal in 1905 had far reaching repercussion and accelerated the pace of freedom
movement in India. The event led to the launch of swadeshi movement and boycott of British goods.
 Karnataka enthusiastically responded to the call of swadeshi.
 On 5th May 1905 a public meeting presided by Gurunatha Rao Patak was held in the Victoria Theatre
at Dharwad to protest against the partition of Bengal and to encourage swadeshi industries.
 The meeting resolved that everyone should vow not to use foreign cloth, except in unavoidable
circumstances in order to encourage Indian artisans and trade in Indian goods.
 To spread the message of swadeshi and boycott, Tilak toured North Karnataka in 1905-06.
 Then Tilak visited Karnataka and put forth his four principles which were: Swadeshi Prasar',
'VideshiBahiskar*, 'National Education' and 'Demand for Swaraj'.
 Deshpande Gangadhar Rao of Belgaum, Koujalagi Shrinivas Rao of Bijapur, worked as his
trustworthy followers. Gangadhar Rao Deshpande by his roaring lecture became famous throughout
Karnataka and wascalled as 'Karnataka Shimha* (Lion of Karnataka).
 Alur Venkata Rao, Sakkari Balachar, Krishna Rao Mudvedkar, Anantha Rao Dabade and others
undertook extensive tours and delivered speeches on Swarajya, Swadeshi, Boycott and National
Education.
 Swadeshi industries arose in many places. Vittal Rao Deshpande of Hebbal started a weaving factory
at Kittur. Another factory was built in Badami. Cloths made here were sent even to Bengal. Rama Rao
Alagvadi opened a Match factory at Dharwad, while in Laxmeswar a Porcelain factory was
established. Factories for manufacturing bangles, pencils and many other articles of common use
arose in many places.
 A Karnataka Industrial Conference met at Dharwad in 1907 to chalk out plans to develop
Swadeshiindustries in Karnataka. New Banks were established to help these industries.
 Boycott of British goods: Apart from wide support to swadeshi movement, people of Karnataka
wholeheartedly participated in the boycott of British goods.

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 AKKA IAS ACADEMY, BENGALURU

 Ranibennur witnessed one of the biggest bonfires of foreign cloth.

 Textile dealers in Belgaum decided not to import foreign cloth and in Dharwad, grocers decided not
topurchase Daboti and Johnson sugar.
 In Alnavar it was decided to smoke batti‘s instead of bidis and anyone found breaking the rule was
fined. Hoteliers stopped the sale of tea and people poured kerosene into gutters and instead began to
use indigenousoil for lighting.
 In one instance after it was noticed that a bangle seller had sold foreign bangles saying that it was
Indian,the bangle seller was not only abused but also had to forego money.
 In Belgaum, along with swadeshi movement, prohibition was also advocated and toddy contractors
had to incur heavy loss.
 In a public meeting held in Bagalkot, It was proposed to establish a Swadeshi Vyaparottejak
Samshtha inBagalkot.
 The movement also saw the establishment of National Schools in various parts 4of Karnataka. Alur
Venkata Rao started the Nutana Vidyalaya at Dharwad with arts and crafts also as subjects in the
curriculum. Another national school arose at Navalgund by the efforts of Dundopanth Sahasrabuddhe.
In Belgaum Kaka Kalelkar established the Ganesh Vidyalaya, while Jaya Rao Nargund started
another at Bagalkot. Similar schools were established at Hanagal, Agadi and other places.
The Revolutionary Activities in Karnataka:
 The youth of Bengal had greatly contributed to the success of the anti-partition movement. By
forming revolutionary clubs called Samitis‘, the Bengali youth proved that they did not lack courage.
Newspapers like Jugnatara‘, Bhawani Mandir‘, Bande Mataram ‘and Sandhya ‘were launched to
preach the cult of revolutionary violence.
 Revolutionary organisations were also established in Karnataka.
 Govindrao Yalagi of Belgaum was the main leader. He had the support of Gangadhar Rao Deshpande.
 The training in arms and the use of ammunitions were taught to the youths in the Mazzini Club which
wasestablished by Yalagi.
 In Belgaum the match factory was situated in the Patil Street in the building of Ushathai Gogate Girls
HighSchool, where also bomb was being prepared.
 The revolutionary centre in Goa had the contact with Karnataka with the revolutionaries like Veera
Sawarkar, Senapati Bapat of Maharashtra, Barindra Ghosh (the brother of Yogi Aurobindo Ghosh
ofBengal) .
 The supporter of Yalagi, Hanumanthrao,Deshpande was imprisoned for many days, in connection
with thebombs and pistols. Gunda Bhat Joshi of Guledgudd was also imprisoned for a year.
Bheemarao Bevur and Dr.Handur were sentenced to rigorous imprisonment.
 Ganapule was in the revolutionary organisation. All these brave Kannadigas were responsible for
bringingup the name of Karnataka in the history of Indian Revolution.
The Home Rule League:
 Mrs Annie Besant and Tilak decided to launch Home rule league demanding for self- government
through constitutional means.
 Tilak visited Belgaum , Sankeshwar and other places in Karnataka and opened the branches of the
League.

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 AKKA IAS ACADEMY, BENGALURU

 The League had its branches also at Dharwad, Siddapur, Bellary , Hubli and Mangalore.
 Dattopant Belvi was the president of the Karnataka unit of Home Rule League.
 The idea of Home Rule appealed to a large section of the population.
 The League aimed at conveying the message of Home Rule to the common man.
 In addition to newspapers, vernacular pamphlets, posters, illustrated post-cards, plays, religious songs
adapted for the purpose were used and missionary style preachers were employed for Home Rule
propaganda.
FREEDOM MOVEMENT IN KARNATAKA GANDHIAN PERIOD
The period 1920-48 has been termed as the Gandhian era in the history of modern India . This was due to
the overwhelming influence of Gandhiji on Indian politics and society. The first major agitation launched
under his leadership was the Non-Cooperation Movement with the triple purpose of winning Swaraj,
rectification of Punjab wrongs and the rehabilitation of the of the Khilafat.
Non-Cooperation Movement
 The first major agitation launched under his leadership was the Non-Cooperation Movement with the
triplepurpose of winning Swaraj, rectification of Punjab wrongs and the rehabilitation of the of the
Khilafat.
 The campaign had two kinds of object: constructive and destructive.
 In the pursuance of the former, it was decided to raise a fund of one crore of rupees in the name of
Tilak to finance the non-cooperation activities; to enroll a volunteer corps of one crore members to
help in the promotion of various boycotts- social, educational, legal and economic and to distribute
twenty lakh spinning wheels to provide work of the unemployed or underemployed and to replace
foreign cloth by hand-made Indian cloth.
 With regards to the latter, the important items were- 1. The surrender of titles, honours, etc. and the
boycottof official functions. 2. The boycott of schools and colleges owned or aided by the government
and the establishment of national educational institutions.3.The boycott of elections to the Central
Assembly and Provincial Councils, 4. The boycott of British goods and encouragement to Swadeshi.
5. The boycott of thelaw courts by the lawyers who would set up popular tribunals for administering
justice and 6. Not to enlist in the army and to give up government service.
Non cooperation movement in Karnataka
 Gandhiji in the year 1920, travelled throughout Karnataka and he propagated the Non-cooperation
movement, and collected money for Tilak's 'Swaraj Fund.
 The Kannadigas contributed whole heartedly. The women folk gave away their ornaments.
 Many Kannadigas resigned their government jobs. The lawyers also boycotted their practice and
thestudents joined the freedom movement.
 In Karnataka many national schools and colleges were established.
 Many foreign cloth centres were burnt down and picketing of liquor shops was in great progress.
Threepeople were injured and 23 were punished.
 Deshpande Gangadhar Rao and Diwakar Rangarao were given punishment for six months and one
yearrespectively, because they had betrayed the Britishers.

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 When the Prince of Wales visited India on November 17th, 1921 there was hartal in many important
places in Karnataka including Bangalore. Two Khilafat workers died of police atrocities at Bangalore
Cantonmenton 18th.
The constructive programme in Karnataka
Constructive work was taken up all over Karnataka.The spread of Khadi and village industries was taken
up all over Karnataka and organizations for Harijan welfare were set up in many places of the state.
National schools were established in Mangalore, Dharwad, Hubli, Hangal, Bagalkot, Bijapur, Gadag,
Belgaum, Sirsi,Hospet, Siddapur and other places.
In the National school run by Alur Venkata Rao at Dharwad, Dr. Bendre and R.R.Diwakar worked as
teachers.Propagation of Khadi, the abolition of untouchability, the anti-drink campaign, village uplift,
theencouragement to village industries were among the chief items of the constructive programme.
They helped to awaken the spirit on national service and prepare the people for the bitter fight of the
comingdays.The authorities in Princely state of Mysore understood the value of spinning and weaving
Khadi in the scheme of rural development and often cooperated with the Congress workers in the
extension of Khadi industries and other village industries sponsored by the Congress.
The Diwan of Mysore, Albion Banerjee not only permitted the Department of Industries to send exhibits
to the Congress exhibition at Belgaum in 1924, but also gave a donation for the expenses.
Salt Sathyagraha in Karnataka
 In April 1930, Gandhiji started the Dandi March, in protest against on salt. This march included many
volunteers from Hubli and Belgaum (Mylar Mahadevappa, Karnad Sadashivrao, N.S.Hardikar,
R.R.Diwakar, Talacherikar, Ramakrishna Kamath and others) took part.
 On 23rd February 1930, a meeting of the Karnataka Provincial Congress Committee presided
byR.R.Diwakar was held at Bellary and a Sathyagraha Committee was formed.
 The Congress leaders of Karnataka undertook tours to explain to the people the objectives and
methods ofthe Congress.
 These leaders submitted the report of their work to the Provincial Congress Committee, which met
inDharwad on 16th March 1930.
 These leaders opined that North Kanara district was the suitable place for launching the civil
disobediencemovement in Karnataka and the villages and the towns on the coast were suited for the
Salt Sathyagraha.
 Karnataka decided to start the Salt Sathyagraha on 13th April the day on which the infamous
Jallianwallabagh massacre had taken place and Ankola was fixed the place of venue wherein
volunteers fromall parts of the state were to participate.
 Earlier in Belguam when Gandhiji broke the Salt laws on 6th, Gangadharrao Deshpande auctioned
contraband salt and Narayanarao Joshi, Jeevanarao Yalagi and Anantha Dabade brought it. All these
four were arrested the next day and hartals, protests and processions followed their arrest in many
parts of Karnataka.

Ankola satyagraha
 On 13th April, in the presence of about 40,000 people M.P.Nadakarni broke the salt law in Ankola.

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 Revu Honnappa Naik brought the first packet of salt auctioned for 30 rupees.
 After the auction Swami Vidyananda addressed the gathering in which leaders like, Karnad Sadashiva
Rao,Smt Umabai Kundapur, Dr Hardikar, T.S.Naik and others participated.
 The police promptly arrested the leaders but the Sathyagraha continued for 45 days with full tempo.
 Salt Sathyagraha was offered in nearly 30 centres like Mangalore,Kundapur, Udupi, Puttur,Padubidre,
etc
No-Tax Campaign in Karnataka:
 The arrest of Gandhiji and other Congress leaders saw the resumption of the no-tax campaign in
NorthKanara district of Karnataka.
 The people of Ankola and Siddapura not only refused to pay the land tax but also allowed their
movableand immovable properties to be seized.
 When auctioned the goods had no bidders and even if some loyalists ‘did buy such goods,
womenvolunteers launched hunger strike in front of their houses.
 These women volunteers had to face ridicule and abuses and hooligans along with police committing
atrocities of the worst kind on them. But these women persisted in their strike and broke fast only
when thebuyers returned the auctioned goods to their original owners.
 As all grown-ups in many families had been arrested for non-payment of land revenue, their houses
werelocked and their children had to take refuge in Balakashramas or shelter homes for children.
 When released from jail many activists found their houses in a dilapidated condition either due to
police excess (the police had dug up inside houses in the hope of obtaining valuables buried) or due to
weather conditions. Thus the sacrifice of the people of Ankola and Siddapura in the no-tax campaign
was immense.
 In February 1934, Gandhiji toured places like Sirsi, Siddapura, Ankola and Karwar.
 In the meanwhile Gandhiji began to undertake the anti-untouchability campaign in a serious way and
hence on 7th April 1934, he announced the final suspension of the Civil Disobedience Movement.
MOVEMENT IN HYDERABAD KARNATAKA
 In 1920, Pandit Taranath of Hamdard National School at Raichur in the Hyderabad Karnataka area
was banished by the Nizam, who was on the side of the Britishers.
 Hyderabad Karnataka Parishad was formed under the leadership of Shrinivas in 1934 and it started the
Satyagrah.
 Hyderabad Congress was launched in 1938. Later in 1938, Hyderabad Karnataka Parishad joined the
Hyderabad Congress party and it continued its satyagrah under the leadership of Janardhan Desai.
 Under his Presidentship itself, the Bidar Congress session was held and it gave a new dimension to
the freedom struggle.
 In 1942-43, the struggle continued in North Karnataka and nearly 7000 volunteers were arrested.
Among them were Swami Ramanand, Vishwanath Mudnal and others.
 In the year 1939 when World War-II broke out the British wanted Indians to support them in the war
efforts. But, the Provincial Congress Governments established under the Government of India Act,
1935, resigned aid many people revolted and were imprisoned.
After World war II
 Mir Usman Ali Khan was the last Nizam of Hyderabad.

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 After India gained independence, the Nizam declared his intention to remain independent rather than
become part of the Indian Union.
 Entire nation had got freedom from British in 1947 but people of Hyderabad Karnataka region were
under the clutches of despotic rule of Nizam of Hyderabad.
 The Hyderabad State Congress, with the support of the Indian National Congress and the Communist
Party of India, began agitating against Nizam in 1948.
 The people were subject to all sorts of restrictions. The civil liberty were totally denied, there was
neither freedom of speech nor freedom of association nor freedom of press were leading a precarious
life with so many handicaps in economic, religious, educational, cultural and even in social fields.
Naturally there was a growing discontent in the minds of the people who wanted to assert themselves
for their own rights.
 The people of Gulbarga struggled hard for freedom their aim was to fight against the feudal autocratic
rule of the Nizam.
 The Nizam and his associates tried their best to rule the state neglecting the wishes of people. The
Nizam hoped to maintain independence with an irregular army recruited from the Muslim aristocracy,
known as the Razakars
 As many as 30 camps were set up by the freedom fighters of Hyderabad- Karnataka region along the
borders of Raichur (which also included the present day Koppal) and Kalaburagi (including Yadgir)
to wage an armed struggle against the Razaakars and to liberate their region from Nizam rule.
 While hundreds of Hindus were murdered, more than 125 women were raped, some in public places
mainly by the Razaakars.
 The Gorta village in Basavakalyana taluk bore the brunt of Razaakars attack. More than 200 Hindus
in the village were massacred and their residences set on fire. This massacre is called the “Jalianwala
Bagh‖ massacre of Karnataka.
 In November 1947, Hyderabad signed a standstill agreement with the dominion of India, continuing
all previous arrangements except for the stationing of Indian troops in the state.
 However, with the rise of militant razakars, India found it necessary to station Indian troops and
invaded the state in September 1948 to compel the Nizam,
 The Indian armed forces launched operation polo, entered the Nizam state on September 13 and
completed an operation within 109 hours.
 At around 4 pm of September 17, 1948 General Al Edroos, Commander in Chief of the Nizam's army,
surrendered to General A.M. Choudhary of the Indian army.
 In 17 September that year, the Indian Army took control of Hyderabad State. With the defeat of his
forces, Nizam VII capitulated to the Indian Union by signing an Instrument of Accession, which made
him the Rajpramukh (Princely Governor) of the state until 31 October 1956.

Important personalities in Freedom Struggle.

Karnad Sadashiva Rao
As a young lawyer he engaged in social activity in 1911 in the advancement of women. He formed the
Mahila Sabha and, with his wife Shantabai, was able to motivate women to come out of their homes.

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He was also one of the first volunteers from Karnataka to join Gandhi‘s Satyagraha movement. His role
in the Congress Party‘s growth in Karnataka made him one of its most influential members. He was the
driving force behind the Non-Cooperation Movement in South Kanara District. For the 1937 Provincial
elections, Sadashiva Rao was also a candidate under consideration.
Aluru Venkata Rao
The way that Karnataka appears on the Indian map now is because of this man, thanks to Aluru Venkata
Rao. He was in charge of the Karnataka Ekikarana (unification) movement and an awardee of the title of
Kannada Kula Purohita (High Priest). At the Karnataka Sahitya Parishat, he was the first to introduce a
resolution calling for the fusion of people from all regions. He also had a leading role in uniting people.
 Rao began by contributing articles to newspapers such as Chandrodhaya, Karnataka Patra,
and Rajahamsa, Karnataka Vritta
 In 1906 he began to work as an editor for a monthly magazine, Vagbhushana.
 In November 1922, he started Jaya Karnataka, a monthly magazine that published articles on a variety
of topics. About 27 books written by Rao have been published, the first of which was Vidyaranya
Charitre in 1907.
 His other works include Karnataka Gatha Vaibhava, Karnataka Veeraratnagalu, Karnatakathva
Sutragalu and Karnatakathva Vikasa.
 In 1907 he organised a conference of Kannada writers and the next year started the Karnataka Grantha
Prasarada Mandali.
 In 1930 he presided over the Kannada Sahitya Sammelana held at Mysore. In accordance with the
wishes of Tilak, he translated the former's work Gita Rahasya from Marathi to Kannada.
 He independently interpreted Bhagavad Gita and authored the books Gita Prakasha, Gita
Parimala, Gita Sandesha, Gita Kusuma Manjari in Kannada.
Kamala Devi Chattopadhaya
A notable leader in India‘s quest for independence, Kamala Devi was a champion of the Indian
Renaissance. To collect volunteers for Satyagrahas nationwide, she became a prominent organizer for
Gandhi‘s Congress‘ women‘s and youth section.
Umabai Kundapur
Umabai was one of Karnataka‘s courageous women freedom fighters who voluntarily offered her life as a
sacrifice for the Swadeshi movement and Satyagraha. Many underground workers from the Quit India
campaign showed up at her Hubli home during that time, asking for food and financial support. Umabai
risked her life helping everyone on her own while hiding behind the curtain.
Onake Obavva – One of the Fearless Freedom Fighters of Karnataka
A Karnataka Hindu fighter who, using an onake (pestle), battled Hyder Ali‘s troops in the Karnataka
kingdom of Chitradurga. Her spouse worked as a watchtower guard in the Chitradurga fort. She was a
member of the Holayas (Chalavadi). One of Karnataka‘s freedom fighters, she represents Kannada female
pride.
Kittur Rani Chennamma – The Queen of Kittur

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The queen of the former princely state of Kittur in modern-day Karnataka. In violation of the
Paramountcy, she organized an armed uprising against the British East India Company in 1824 to keep
hold of her realm. In the first insurrection, she overthrew the Company, but in the second rebellion, she
perished as a prisoner of war. She is still a folk hero in Karnataka and a key figure in the Indian
independence movement since she was one of the first and few women freedom fighters of Karnataka to
command rebel forces against British colonial control.
Sangolli Rayanna
Indian rebel, military commander (Shetsanadi), and fighter in the Kittur princely kingdom, in the modern
Indian state of Karnataka, in the nineteenth century. Sangolli Rayanna took part in the 1824 revolt and
was captured by the British; they eventually released him. He persisted in his battle against the British
and sought to appoint Shivalingappa, the adopted son of King Mallasarja and Rani Chennamma, as the
king of Kittur. He organized the locals and launched a guerilla battle against the British.
N. S. Hardikar
The Seva Dal
The Seva Dal was formed in 1923 following the Kakinada session of the Congress in 1923.
Although Jawaharlal Nehru supported Hardikar, the idea of forming a militia like organisation faced
much resistance from Congressman who feared it would lead to the erosion of civilian authority within
the party and who argued that it contravened the principle of non-violence.
K.T.Bhashyam
Bhashyam was involved in Indian independence movement when he was a barrister at Mysore High
Court and was well recognized in White formals with a white Cap and wearing a white shawl on the
shoulder. He participated in a Hunger strike in 1921 and became a member of Indian National
Congress in 1922. He was a member of Mysore Representative Assembly from 1926 to 1939 and was a
popular figure among Mysore Congress members. He wrote the book Hindu Kanooninalli
Mahileyaru (Role of women in Hindu Law) in 1928 and was recognized as a leader who highlights the
problems faced by women at that time.
Gangadharrao Balkrishna Deshpande
Deshpande's work during the Swadeshi Movement of 1905-1906 centered around the boycott
of British goods, encouragement of locally produced goods, promotion of national education, and
opposition to the partition of Bengal.
Freedom fighters Govindrao Yalgi and Gangadhar Rao Deshpande first planned to host Ganesha
festival as a public event in 1905 for the cause of uniting the people of all faiths to fight against the
British. The first 'sarvajanik' Ganesha idol was installed at Govindrao Yalgi's residence. On invitation by
Deshpande, Lokamanya Tilak, who initiated the celebration of Ganapati Festival, visited Belgaum for the
Ganapati festival in 1906.
Deshpande supported the Non-Cooperation Movement.[8] He hosted the Belgaum Congress Session of
1924, over which Mahatma Gandhi presided. The only session chaired by Gandhi, and address
covered Kadhi spinning and Non-Cooperation Movement.

Unification of Karnataka

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The development for Unification of Karnataka had started in Dharwad. Alur Venkata Rao was the man
who skimmed the thought and sustained it. In 1928, a Committee headed by Motilal Nehru was selected
by the Congress to draft a constitution for India. Dr. Hardikar with the assistance of Sevadal gathered
30,000 marks supporting unification and presented a notice on the side of Unification. Diwakar composed
a book entitled "A Case for United Karnataka" for accommodation to the Committee. The Nehru
Committee opined that Karnataka can be a reasonable territory. Indeed, even the Simon Commission too
had acknowledged the possibility of Linguistic States. Be that as it may, the Karnataka Congress didn't
present any update to the Commission, as the Congress had reported the blacklist against Commission, it
pressurized non-congress bunches as well, not to present any notice. This brought about the postponement
of Unification, which could have been affirmed by the commission itself. The Sixth Karnataka
Unification Conference was held at Dharwad in 1936, and Dattopant Belvi of Belgaum managed it.
INTRODUCTION
The battle for the unification of all Kannada talking regions was continued, alongside the battle for
opportunity. The heroes of Indian patriotism likewise utilized language as an instrument to battle against
English control. History specialists call attention to that the inception of the development for semantic
territories can be followed to the furthest limit of the only remaining century itself, e.g., the interest of the
Oriya talking individuals and the interest for Sylhet area to be moved from Bengal to Assam. Ruler
Curzon apportioned Bengal into two out of 1905. That made the subject of language a national issue. A
fomentation was propelled for its wiping out lastly the parcel was revoked in 1911. It was a triumph for
well known opinion. It has been called attention to that even British legislators like Lionel Curtis and H.
H. Risley unequivocally pushed that language ought to be the reason for any regional re-alterations.
After the fall of Tipu Sultan in 1799 and during the time of British standard, territories that currently
include Karnataka were under upwards of 20 diverse managerial units with the regal province of Mysore,
Nizam's Hyderabad, the Bombay Presidency, the Madras Presidency and the region of Kodagu being the
most significant ones. In actuality, almost 66% of what is currently Karnataka fell outside the standard of
the Wodeyar rulers of Mysore. This implied the Kannadigas in these districts regardless of their enormous
numbers they didn't have an authoritative support. Kannadigas in the Hubli-Karnataka area for instance,
went under the standard of the Bombay Presidency where Marathi was the official language. Those in the
Hyderabad-Karnataka area went under the Nizam's standard where Urdu was the primary language. It
was in these conditions that the development that initially began as a dissent against phonetic persecution,
started requesting the making of a different state solidifying all Kannada-talking areas.
The arrangement of discrete areas like Assam, Bihar, Orissa on etymological premise after the isolated
Bengal were joined into one out of 1912, distribution of books on Karnataka‟s history, the opportunity
development and the rousing works of Alur Venkata Rao, Huilgola Narayana Rao, Kuvempu, Bendre and
others made a hunger for freedom and furthermore Unification of the Kannada-talking locales. Alur
Venkat Rao, who was classified "Kannada Kula Purohita", for arousing the cognizance of Kannadigas,
delivered yeoman administration for the reason for Unification.
In 1916 he established the Ekikarana Sabha at Dharwad, with unification of Karnataka as its objective. As
right on time as in 1903, Benagal Rama Rao conveyed a talk at Dharwad, focusing on the requirement for
the unification of Kannada talking areas into a solitary Presidency. In 1920, a different Karnataka Pradesh
Congress Committee was comprised for the Kannada talking areas. In 1924, the allIndia Congress

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 AKKA IAS ACADEMY, BENGALURU

meeting under the Presidentship of Mahatma Gandhi was held at Belgaum. At the meeting, the Kannada
song of praise, "Udayavagali namma cheluva Kannadanadu", requiring the production of wonderful
Kannada state, formed by Huilgol Narayana Rao was sung. The principal Karnataka Unification
Conference was held at a similar setting and managed by Sir Siddappa Kambli. The Karnataka Ekikarana
Sangha was established at the meeting and it held its gatherings over and over. In 1926, the Hindustani
Seva Dal, established by Dr. Hardikar directed a mark battle for Unification and gathered 36,000 marks.
In any case, it was anything but a simple undertaking to bring individuals who were under 20 distinct
organizations in a solitary area and it was felt that with the nation accomplishing the opportunity,
unification could likewise appear. The Karnataka Vidyavardhaka Sangha, Dharwad was set up in 1890 by
R. H. Deshpande with the target of working for the resurgence of the Kannada language which had been
minimized under the standard of the Bombay Presidency where Marathi was the official language.
The causes for the unification of Karnataka:
After the Fourth Anglo-Mysore War in 1799, Mysore State was reduced to a small principality and vast
Kannada speaking areas were merged with Bombay presidency, Madras and Hyderabad and other small
princely states. Kannadigas were subjected to twenty administrations. They were forced to cultivate the
culture of the states in which they lived. They adopted the respective languages like Marathi, Tamil and
Telugu. Thus the Kannadigas did not have cultural, linguistic and political homogeneity. They were not
well received in those states. Discriminatory treatment was meted out to them and they were even
suppressed. For example, in the princely states of Mudhol and Jamakhandi, Kannada had no place in
public life including schools and offices. The misery of the Kannada-speaking people scattered in these
various administrative units was unaccountable. This prompted the Kannadigas to fight for unification of
Karnataka. After 1947, Kannada speaking people were grouped under five different administrations viz.,
Bombay, Madras, Coorg, Hyderabad and Mysore. However, the formation of Karnataka was further
delayed.
At its Jaipur session (1948), the Congress appointed a committee consisting of Jawaharlal Nehru, Sardar
Patel and At its Jaipur session (1948), the Congress appointed a committee consisting of Jawaharlal
Nehru, Sardar Patel and Pattabhi Sitaramayya to study the situation and submit a report. This committee,
popularly known as the J.V.P. Committee, rejected the claims of all states except that of Andhra Pradesh.
Eminent literateurs like Gorur Ramaswamy Iyengar and K. V. Puttappa and leaders like S. Nijalingappa
and K. Hanumanthaiah inspired the people to strive harder to achieve the goal. Meanwhile leaders like
K.R. Karanth who advocated a more aggressive approach formed an organisation named Akhanda
Karnataka Rajya Nirmana Parishad. Nothing concrete was done even after the elections of 1951-52.
Meanwhile in Andhra, Potti Sriramulu died (15-12-1952) on the 58th day of his fast and soon after that.
The formation of Andhra Pradesh was announced.
The various stages in the unification of Karnataka :
In Karnataka state the freedom movement and the movement for the unification of Karnataka went hand
in hand and were often interconnected. it was initiated and supported by a renaissance and rise of
nationalism brought about by educational institutions and spread of English education. Social reform
movements like the Arya Samai and Theosophical society. development of printing and publication of
books and newspapers, Kannada Sahitya Parishat and creation of a pride in Karnataka„s glorious past
represented by Vijayanagara. As the Indian National Congress represented the national movement at the

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 AKKA IAS ACADEMY, BENGALURU

time, the first aim of the movement was to convince the national leadership of the need for bringing all
Kannada Speaking regions under one administrative unit as against the 20 units in which these were
distributed at the time. The Nagpur Congress of 1920 permitted constitution of a separate provincial
Congress Committee for Karnataka. The first Unification Conference was held at Belgaum in 1924 during
the Congress session and it adopted a resolution for unification of Karnataka. This was followed by
founding of the Karnataka Ekikarana Sabha (later renamed Sangha) which held as many as 12
conferences subsequently. the last being at Kasargod in 1947. The Ekikarana Sangha worked in close co-
operation with the Karnataka Provincial Congress Committee. The Nehru Committee of 1928 favored
establishment of Karnataka as a single province. The Congress included this demand in its election
manifesto of 1937. With the establishment of the Constituent Assembly in 1946 efforts were renewed
with redoubled vigor. Two conventions were held at Bombay and Davanagere urging the Constituent.
Assembly to take immediate steps to form Karnataka as a province. The state legislatures of Bombay and
Madras passed resolutions in 1947 favoring formation of linguistic provinces while the Mysore State
Constituent Assembly adopted a resolution inviting neighboring ' Kannada speaking regions to merge
with Mysore. The Dhar Committee appointed by the Central Government to study the issue of formation
of linguistic states disfavored such a step. This was strongly opposed by the Jaipur session of the
Congress in 1948, which set up a three member J.V.P. Committee comprising of the three great national
leaders Jawaharlal Nehru, Vallabhbhai Patel and Pattabhi Sitaramayya. This committee favored early
formation of only Andhra Pradesh. After 1952 Karnataka saw formation of an aggressive body called the
Akhanda Karnataka Rajya Nirmana Parishat which started an agitation in which over 5000 person‟s
courted arrest. Within the Congress party there was conflict. Meanwhile Potti Sriramulu had died fasting
demanding the formation of Andhra and this resulted in riots in the Andhra area. Consequently the State
of Andhra came into being in 1953 and under the report of Wanchoo Commission; several talukas of
Bellary district were merged with Mysore state. This was the first step towards formation of Kamataka.
The history of unification
After 1947, Kannada speaking people were grouped under five different administrations viz., Bombay,
Madras, Coorg, Hyderabad and Mysore. However, the formation of Karnataka was further delayed. At its
Jaipur session (1948), the Congress appointed a committee consisting of Jawaharlal Nehru, Sardar Patel
and at its Jaipur session (1948), the Congress appointed a committee consisting of Jawaharlal Nehru,
Sardar Patel and Pattabhi Sitaramayya to study the situation and submit a report. This committee,
popularly known as the J.V.P. Committee, rejected the claims of all states except that of Andhra Pradesh
The Constitution did not create linguistic states. A non-party Unification Conference was organized at
Haveri by Hosmani Siddappa in May 1951. The newly founded Ekikarana Parishat demanded the
resignation of all people‟s representatives (MLAs, MLCs and MPs), and to implement its resolution, a
committee of three headed by Hosmani was set up. The Parishat put up candidates in the 1951-52, general
elections on behalf of the Karnataka Ekikarana Sabha against the Congress. The Congress mentioned in
its manifesto that Unification of Karnataka was its goal. Therefore, no candidate of the Ekikarana Paksha
won the election.
Kannada-speaking people scattered in administration
The causes for the unification of Karnataka: After the Fourth Anglo-Mysore War in 1799, Mysore State
was reduced to a small principality and vast Kannada speaking areas were merged with Bombay

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 AKKA IAS ACADEMY, BENGALURU

presidency, Madras and Hyderabad Karnatakaand other small princely states. Kannadigas were subjected
to twenty administrations. They were forced to cultivate the culture of the states in which they lived. They
adopted the respective languages like Marathi, Tamil and Telugu. Thus the Kannadigas did not have
cultural, linguistic and political homogeneity. They were not well received in those states. Discriminatory
treatment was meted out to them and they were even suppressed. For example, in the princely states of
Mudhol and Jamakhandi, Kannada had no place in public life including schools and offices. The misery
of the Kannadaspeaking people scattered in these various administrative units was unaccountable. This
prompted the Kannadigas to fight for unification of Karnataka. After 1947, Kannada speaking people
were grouped under five different administrations viz., Bombay, Madras, Coorg, Hyderabad
Karnatakaand Mysore. However, the formation of Karnataka was further delayed. At its Jaipur session
(1948), the Congress appointed a committee consisting of Jawaharlal Nehru, Sardar Patel and At its
Jaipur session (1948), the Congress appointed a committee consisting of Jawaharlal Nehru, Sardar Patel
and Pattabhi Sitaramayya to study the situation and submit a report. This committee, popularly known as
the J.V.P. Committee, rejected the claims of all states except that of Andhra Pradesh. Eminent literateurs
like Gorur Ramaswamy Iyengar and K. V. Puttappa and leaders like S. Nijalingappa and K.
Hanumanthaiah inspired the people to strive harder to achieve the goal. CONCLUSION Thus in
Karnataka nationalist awakening was slow to take an explicit character because of the rule of Maharaja in
one hand & imperative control of British on the other. The move towards Unification integrated itself
with Nationalist Movement because of the measured activities of these committed leaders who
successfully ignited the consciousness of people to unite together & fight for united India.
Aluru Venkata Rayaru
 Aluru Venkata Rayaru was a leader of the Karnataka Ekikarana movement, which was fighting for a
separate state encompassing all Kannada speaking areas of Mysore, Bombay Presidency and Nizam's
Hyderabad.
 The first strains of this movement had started as early as 1856 and the Karnataka Vidyavardhaka
Sangha had been established in 1890, the movement took a dramatic turn with the arrival of Aluru
Venkata Rayaru.
 Notable was the publication of Aluru's magnum opus, Karnataka Gatha Vaibhava in 1912.
 Such was the impact of this work that he came to be known as the Kannada Kula Purohita or the 'High
priest of the Kannada kula(family) '
 Karnataka Gatha Vaibhava: Karnataka Gatha Vaibhava literally means The glory that was Karnataka.
It was a book that recounted in great detail the glorious history that had beenh Karnataka's until the
Marathas, Nizam and the British took over. People started rallying around the Ekikarana movement,
which picked up momentum.
 A chance visit to Anegundi and vast ruins of Hampi provided Alur a clear vision about his future
course of action. The greatness of Vijayanagara empire and glory of Kannada valour which spread
beyond Maharashtra in earlier age, prompted him to awaken Kannada people of his region, who were
still wallowing in the ‗hangover‘ of Peshwai Maratha rule.
 Whereas Bengalis could not tolerate one division of their motherland, how could Kannadigas afford to
be so apathetic to their mother land being divided into five zones? This was the painful reflection of
young Alur. He decided to write a book that could awaken his sleepy people.

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 ‗Karnataka Gatavaibhava‘ was the result. It is a masterpiece bringing out contribution of all Karnataka
dynasties enriching Indian culture by conquests, constructing great temples and monuments,
promoting trade and commerce, encouraging learning, promoting literature, etc.
 It took 13 years to collect material from inscriptions, coins, and old manuscripts to write this book,
which made history.
 He met like-minded people scattered in all the five areas specified earlier. In between he was
imprisoned and his license to practice as pleader was cancelled. This made Alur devote himself
completely for unification of Karnataka. Finally Alur Venkata Rayaru succeeded. Fifty years of his
mission bore fruit. Kannada speaking land became one under the name of Mysore State (1956). It
took another 18 years to have its rightful name of Karnataka (1974).

New literary genres in kannada literature

 The steady maturation and evolution of modern period in Kannada literature can be traced back to the
early 19th century, when Maharaja Krishnaraja Wodeyar III and his court poets shifted away from the
ancient champu form of prose (poems in verses of various metres intermingled with paragraphs of
prose, also acknowledged as champu-kavya) towards prose interpretations and versions of Sanskrit
epics and plays.
 Kempu Narayana's Mudramanjusha ("Seal Casket", 1823) is the first instance of modern novel
penned in Kannada language, prior to British influences and charms of English language. The novel
by Kempu Narayana indeed had ushered in even greater changes.
 With gradual advancement of time, modern period in Kannada literature gathered up pace and pulse
and translations were being produced from English, Bengali and Marathi. Kerur and Galaganatha had
assayed the first novels in Kannada, succeeded by a host of novelists like Shivarama Karanta, K. V.
Puttapa, G P Rajaratnam, Basavaraja Kattimani,
 Nanjanagudu Tirumalamba (the first major woman writer in modern Kannada language) and others.
The short story too made its tremendous advent with Panje Mangesha Rao and Masti Venkatesha
Ayyangar.
 A new trend in drama began to seep in with the employment of colloquial language. Poetry, too, was
not left far behind - B. M. Shrikanthayya took Kannada poetry to peak heights, with innovations and
inventions like the 'blank verse'. Literature in Kannada in present times is a big enterprise, with
bustling and vivacious centres like the University of Mysore, the Karnataka University at Dharwar
and the Kannada Sahitya Parishad of Mysore.
 During the 19th century, Western-styled education, Christian missionaries who depended upon the
local language to circularise their Gospels, and ultimately the arrival of the printing press, incredibly
sped up the development of modern period in Kannada literature. A well-known and distinguished
Christian missionary, Hermann Mögling, had published the first-ever Kannada newspaper named
Mangalore Samachara in 1843.
 Hermann Mögling also had gone ahead to publish Kannada classics as a series, referred to as
Bibliotheca Carnataca during the period from 1848 - 1853. British officers Benjamin L. Rice and J. H.
Fleet also had begun to edit and issue critical editions of surviving literary classics, contemporary folk
ballads and inscriptions. The first Kannada-English dictionary by Ferdinand Kittel was brought out in
1894.

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 Modern period in Kannada literature started to witness a forceful thrust towards original works in
prose narratives and a calibration of prose during the late 19th century.
 Translations of compositions from English, Sanskrit and other Indian regional languages like Marathi
and Bengali continued at such an accelerated pace. Lakshman Gadagkar's Suryakantha (1892) and
Gulvadi Venkata Rao's (1899) Indira Bai signalised the shift away from the exceedingly stylised
mores and aesthetics of antiquated Kannada to contemporary prose, which brought along with it a
plethora of latest genres, encompassing and incorporating the novel, essay, literary criticism and
drama.
Backward Class movement – Miller Committee Report,
The princely state of Mysore was amongst the first to have progressive reservation policies for non-
Brahmins. As early as in the decades between 1851 and 1881, reservations were made for non-Brahmins
in public service. The controversy surrounding this arose as early as in 1874, soon after the passage of the
Caste Disability Act in 1972. Twenty per cent of the lower and mid-level posts in the government were
reserved for Brahmins, and the remaining for non-Brahmins, Muslims and Indian Christians (Miller
Committee Report, 1919: 4). In 1882, the Mysore representative assembly was constituted on limited
franchise to represent concerns that affected communities, but with no legislative powers. In 1895, police
department appointments were made in fixed proportion to Brahmins, Muslims and other Hindu castes.
The Leslie Miller Committee (1919)
The Miller Committee was set up in August 1918 to address the necessity of steps for the adequate
representation of communities in public service. It submitted its report in 1919, and vindicated the claim
made by non-Brahmins that there was inadequate representation of the backward classes in public service.
The report utilized data from the 1911 census, and used the data on caste-wise demographics as well as
literacy in the English language in order to formulate its recommendations. The data revealed that despite
patronage for primary and secondary education for two decades, there was little improvement in the
condition of the depressed classes. This had implications on their numbers in public service, as literacy in
English was a key competency that was tested in the merit-based examination that was conducted in order
to ensure appointments.
The Miller Committee classified all castes and communities as under the general head of caste in the
Census Report of 1911, which contained less than five per cent literates in the English language. This was
the criterion adopted for backwardness, and by this criterion, all communities not belonging to the
Brahmins, Anglo-Indians and Europeans were classified as backward.
One of the key recommendations made by the committee was the following:
 Within a period of not more than seven years not less than one and half of the higher and 2/3 of the
lower appointments in each grade of the service and so far as possible in each office are to be held by
members of communities other than the Brahmin community, preference being given to duly qualified
candidates of the Depressed Classes who are available.
 The Committee also recommended multiple steps to improve the educational system, including
scholarships for backward classes, relaxation of the age limit for appointment to public service, and an
end to the competitive merit-based examination for the selection of candidates.

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 The Government of Mysore accepted the Miller Committee report, and in May 1921, constituted the
Central Recruitment Board and reserved 75 per cent of the posts for backward classes vide a
government order. This report and the government order elucidate the real state of the backward
classes in India, and the strength in their numbers.
 The next significant step in policy in relation to the backward classes was post the formation of the
unified state of Karnataka in 1956. The Dr. R. Nagana Gowda committee was set up in 1960 to
classify backward classes and make suitable recommendations in the aftermath of the Ramakrishna
Singh v. State of Mysore case.

Folk arts of Karnataka.

Mysore region
Bharatnatyam / Bharata Natya
Bharatanatyam is classical dance of Karnataka too. It is referred to as Bharata Natya in Kannada. This
Indian classical dance form was mentioned in the Kannada text Manasollasa written by Someshwara lll.
Dollu Kunitha
Various styles of traditional drums are used in folk music, dance and theater of Karnataka.Dollu
Kunitha is also danced by women.
This is a group dance named after the dollu used in its performance, and performed by the men of
the Kuruba community. The group consists of 16 dancers, each wearing a drum and playing different
rhythms while dancing. The beat is directed by a leader with cymbals in the center. Slow and fast rhythms
alternate, and the group weaves a varied pattern. Costumes are simple; the upper part of the body is
usually left bare, while a black sheet is tied on the lower body over the dhoti. A troupe led by K. S.
Haridas Bhat toured the USSR in 1987, performing in Moscow, Leningrad, Vyborg, Archangelsk, Pskov,
Murmansk, Tashkent and Novograd.
Beesu kamsale and kamsale nritya
This is a group dance performed by village men in the Mysore, Nanjanagudu, Kollegala
and Bangalore regions. It is named after the kamsale, which is played and as a prop by the dancers. The
kamsale is a cymbal in one hand and a bronze disc in the other, producing a rhythmic clang.
The kamsale nritya is connected to a tradition of worship of Male Mahadeshwara (Shiva) by
the Kuruba community, from which most of the dancers are drawn. The dance is performed to rhythmic,
melodious music sung in praise of Shiva. It is part of a diiksha(oath), and is taught by a spiritual leader.
This dance was showcased in Kannada films such as Janumadha Jodi and Jogi, in which the protagonist is
a kamsale dancer.
Somana Kunita
Somana Kunita (the Mask Dance) is a celebratory form of guardian spirit worship popular in southern
Karnataka, performed primarily in village shrines dedicated to the Mother Goddess by the Gangemata
community. The dance is characterised by elaborate masks (somas) painted in a variety of colours, with
each mask's colour indicating the god's nature. A benevolent deity is represented by a red mask, while a
yellow or black mask suggests the opposite. There are many types of masks, differing from region to
region.

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Somana Kunitha is a ritualistic dance associated with worship of the Grama Devate [village deity], and is
primarily celebrated after Ugadi and before the onset of the monsoon at Maha Shivaratri. It is most
popular in the old Mysore region, in districts such as Hassan, Tumkur, Bangalore, Mandya and
Chitradurga.
Suggi Kunita
Suggi Kunita (the Harvest Dance) is performed during the harvest time mostly by the farming
community. Artists in beautiful costumes and wooden headgear adorned with carved birds and flowers
dance to the tune of drums with sticks and peacock feathers. They enhance the dance sometimes, by their
own signing.
North Karnataka
Jaggahalige Kunita
This is a folk art of the Hubballi Dharwad region (particularly the village of Byahatti), which is
performed on occasions such as Ugadi and Holi. The jagghalige is a percussion instrument made from
a bullock cart wheel wrapped in buffalo hide. The villagers roll out the large instruments and march in
procession. The performance is directed by a choreographer playing a much-smaller percussion
instrument called the kanihaligi, made of clay and covered with calf hide. The performance usually
involves about 15 people.
Karadi majalu
This is popular group folk music in north Karnataka, performed during occasions and in processions.
The karadi or karade is the percussion instrument used by the group. It is a palm-sized cymbal producing
metallic sounds, and the shehnai produces the melody.
Krishna Parijatha
Krishna Parijatha is theatre popular in North Karnataka. It is a combination of Yakshagana and Bayalata,
portraying stories or scenes from the Mahabharata
Lavani
This folk dance of Maharashtra is also present in some parts Karnataka
Dakshina Kannada
Jambavanta as depicted in Yakshagana.
Bhootha Aradhane
This dance form is widely performed in coastal regions. The Bhootha Aradhane (Gana) worship includes
a procession of idols and is characterized by drums and firecrackers. At the end of the procession, the
idols are placed on a plinth. A dancer, personifying a bhoota (holy spirit), dances around the plinth with
sword and jingling bells. The dancer dances quickly and then slows, signifying that he is now divine.
Yakshagana
Yakshagana is not folk art but a popular traditional theatre of India performed in coastal and malenadu
regions which is a blend of dance, music, songs, scholarly dialogue and colourful costumes. The word
means "celestial music", and the dance drama is performed during the night (usually after the winter crop
has been harvested).

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Arts common to most regions

Hagalu veshagaararu

Folk artist applying character makeup.

This is a group of itinerant actors in Karnataka who specialise in unscripted miming; no stage or facility is
used. The artists move from place to place, pitching tents and offering to perform. They play a variety of
mythological, legendary and real characters. Performances draw from daily life, and sometimes full-
length plays are staged. They perform vachana sahityas by Sarvagna, Basavanna and others.
Goravara kunita
Goravara kunita is a dance worshipping Shiva which is popular in the Mysore and North Karnataka
regions. In North Karnataka the Goravas worship Mylaralinga. In South Karnataka the Goravas wear
black-and-white woollen garments and a black-bear-fur cap (of black bear), and play the damaru and
the pillangoovi (flute). In North Karnataka the Goravas wear black woollen garments and a leather
shoulder bag; some wear a black coat and white dhoti. The dancers rub crimson powder
and vibhooti (sacred ash) on their foreheads. Traditional Gorava devotees dance in a trance, sometimes
barking like dogs. The dancers move in a clockwise zigzag, with no fixed choreography. The North
Karnataka Goravas wear yellow powder on their foreheads and give Prasada to devotees. Damaru, venu,
small bronze bells and cowbells (paarigante) are played. The dance consists of trance-like movements
with no fixed choreography.
Nagamandala
This ritual dance is performed in south Karnataka to tranquilize the serpent spirit, and is an extravagant
night-long affair. The dancers (Vaidyas) dance all night around a huge figure, drawn on the ground in
natural colors, in a pandal in front of the shrine. The dance is generally performed between December and
April.
Karaga
The karaga, in a dance performed by the Thigalas, is a metal pot on which stands a tall,
floral pyramid and which is balanced on the carrier's head. The contents of the pot are secret. The carrier's
arrival is heralded by hundreds of bare-chested, dhoti-clad, turbaned Veerakumaras with unsheathed
swords.
Gaarudi Gombe

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Gaarudi Gombe is a folk dance in which dancers dress in suits made of bamboo sticks. Gaarudi-
Gombe means "magical puppet" in Kannada. The dance is performed during major festivals and in the
procession held during the Mysore Dasara, and is known as Tattiraya in the coastal
regions. Tattiraya means "someone carrying a doll made of bamboo sticks".[2]
The dance features masks, puppets and colourful regional costumes. The puppets are made from bamboo
and papier mâché, painted with suitable makeup. During the fair and festival procession to the temple, the
giant dolls are the central attraction to spectators. The dolls are hollow and permit a person to get inside,
carry the structure on his shoulders and dance, while being able to see. The dolls are used for fun and to
ward off evil spirits, depicting characters from Indian mythology and folklore. The dance is performed to
the tamate and dholu (a percussion instrument). Each doll weighs 10 to 12 kilograms (22 to 26 pounds),
and stand 10 to 12 feet (3.0 to 3.7 metres) tall. During the procession, some performers wear character
masks and interact with the dolls. Itinerant performers dressed as a tiger (hulivesha) or bear (karadi-
vesha) with dancing monkeys are common in South India.
Joodu Haligi
The Joodu Haligi is performed with two percussion instruments. The Haligi is round, made of buffalo
hide and played with a short stick. The dance is characterised by high energy and exaggerated expressions
by two or three performers.
Togalu Gombeyaata, is a traditional form of shadow puppetry from Karnataka.
Puppetry
Togalu Gombeyaata is a type of shadow puppetry which is unique to Karnataka. The name meaning "a
play with leather dolls" in Kannada.[3] The Karnataka Chitrakala Parishat has researched this art form, and
has an extensive collection of leather puppets.
Veeragaase dance
Veeragase, a vigorous dance based on Hindu mythology, is one of the dances performed at the Mysore
Dasara. It is primarily performed during the Hindu months of Shravana and Karthika.

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