(Ebook PDF) Essentials of Oceanography 7Th Edition
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About the Author
Copyright 2015 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
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Brief Contents
vii
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Contents
1.1 Earth Is an Ocean World 2 Insight from a National Geographic Explorer 2.1 36
viii
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Ocean Basins Form at Divergent Plate Boundaries 63
Island Arcs Form, Continents Collide, and Crust Recycles at
Convergent Plate Boundaries 65
Crust Fractures and Slides at Transform Plate
Boundaries 71
3.5 Confirmation of Plate Tectonics 72
A History of Plate Movement Has Been Captured in
Residual Magnetic Fields 72
Plate Movement above Mantle Plumes and Hot Spots
Provides Evidence of Plate Tectonics 73
Sediment Age and Distribution, Oceanic Ridges, and
Terranes Are Explained by Plate Tectonics 74
3.6 S cientists Still Have Much to Learn about the
Tectonic Process 78
Questions from Students 79
Terms and Concepts to Remember 80
Study Questions 80
Global Environment Watch 80 N. Atlantic
Gyre
Chapter in Perspective 81
S. Atlantic
ic Gyre
4 Ocean Basins 82
4.1 The Ocean Floor Is Mapped by Bathymetry 84
Echo Sounders Bounce Sound off the Seabed 85
Multibeam Systems Combine Many Echo Sounders 85
Satellites Can Be Used to Map Seabed Contours 86
Robots Descend to Observe the Details 87
Insight from a National Geographic Explorer 4.1 88
4.2 cean-Floor Topography Varies with
O
Location 88
4.3 ontinental Margins May Be Active or
C
Passive 90
Continental Shelves Are Seaward Extensions of the
Continents 91
Continental Slopes Connect Continental Shelves to the
Deep-Ocean Floor 91
SPOTLIGHT FIGURE 4.8: Major Features of Ocean Basins 92
Submarine Canyons Form at the Junction between
Continental Shelf and Continental Slope 94
Continental Rises Form As Sediments Accumulate at the
Base of the Continental Slope 95
©David Doubilet/National Geographic Creative
Contents ix
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Abyssal Plains and Abyssal Hills Cover Most of Earth’s
Surface 103
Volcanic Seamounts and Guyots Project above the
Seabed 104
Trenches and Island Arcs Form in Subduction Zones 104
4.5 The Grand Tour 107
Questions from Students 110
Terms and Concepts to Remember 110
Chapter in Perspective 111
Study Questions 111
Global Environment Watch 111
x con te nts
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Questions from Students 130 Insight from a National Geographic Explorer 6.1 155
Chapter in Perspective 131 6.10 S ound Travels Much Farther Than Light in the
Terms and Concepts to Remember 131 Ocean 155
Refraction Can Bend the Paths of Light and Sound through
Study Questions 131 Water 156
Global Environment Watch 131 Refraction Causes SOFAR Layers and Shadow Zones 157
Sonar Systems Use Sound to Detect Underwater
Objects 158
Questions from Students 159
6 Water and Ocean Structure 132
Chapter in Perspective 160
6.1 Familiar, Abundant, and Odd 134
Terms and Concepts to Remember 160
6.2 The Water Molecule 134
Study Questions 160
A CLOSER LOOK 6.1: How Do We Know the Nature of
Water? 135
Global Environment Watch 161
contents xi
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Questions from Students 184
Terms and Concepts to Remember 184
Chapter in Perspective 185
Study Questions 185
Global Environment Watch 185
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9 Waves 212 10 Tides 240
9.1 cean Waves Move Energy across the Sea
O 10.1 Tides Are the Longest of All Ocean Waves 242
Surface 214 10.2 T
ides Are Forced Waves Formed by Gravity and
9.2 aves Are Classified by Their Physical
W Inertia 242
Characteristics 215 The Movement of the Moon Generates Strong Tractive
Ocean Waves Are Formed by a Disturbing Force 215 Forces 243
Waves Are Reduced by a Restoring Force 216 The Sun Also Generates Tractive Forces 245
Wavelength Is the Most Useful Measure of Wave Size 216 Sun and Moon Influence the Tides Together 246
Tsunami Are Always Shallow-Water Waves 231 11.3 Beaches Dominate Depositional Coasts 265
Tsunami Move at High Speed 231 Beaches Consist of Loose Particles 266
What Is It Like to Encounter a Tsunami? 231 Wave Action, Particle Size, and Beach Permeability
Combine to Build Beaches 267
Tsunami Have a Long and Destructive History 235
Beaches Often Have a Distinct Profile 267
Tsunami Warning Networks Can Save Lives 235
Waves Transport Sediment on Beaches 268
Questions from Students 237
11.4 L arger-Scale Features Accumulate on
Terms and Concepts to Remember 238
Depositional Coasts 269
Study Questions 238 Sand Spits and Bay Mouth Bars Form When the Longshore
Global Environment Watch 238 Current Slows 269
contents xiii
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Barrier Islands and Sea Islands Are Separated from
Land 270
Deltas Can Form at River Mouths 272
11.5 C
oasts Are Formed and Modified by Biological
Activity 273
11.6 Freshwater Meets the Ocean in Estuaries 274
Estuaries Are Classified by Their Origins 274
Estuary Characteristics Are Influenced by Water Density
and Flow 274
Estuaries Support Complex Marine Communities 276
11.7 The Characteristics of U.S. Coasts 277
The Pacific Coast 277
The Atlantic Coast 277
The Gulf Coast 278
11.8 H
umans Have Interfered in Coastal
Processes 278
A CLOSER LOOK 11.1: What Happens When Humans
Change a Coast? 280
Questions from Students 282
Chapter in Perspective 283
Terms and Concepts to Remember 283
Study Questions 283
Global Environment Watch 283
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12.6 E
nvironmental Factors Influence the Success of Fishes Are the Most Abundant and Successful
Marine Organisms 296 Vertebrates 324
Photosynthesis Depends on Light 297 Insight from a National Geographic Explorer 13.1 325
Temperature Influences Metabolic Rate 299 Fishes Are Successful Because of Unique Adaptations 326
Dissolved Nutrients Are Required for the Production of A CLOSER LOOK 13.1: What Is the Most Expensive
Organic Matter 299 Fish? 328
Salinity Influences the Function of Cell Membranes 300
Sea Turtle and Marine Crocodiles Are Ocean-Going
Dissolved Gas Concentrations Vary with Temperature 300 Reptiles 329
The Ocean’s Acid-Base Balance Is Influenced by Dissolved Some Marine Birds Are the World’s Most Efficient
Carbon Dioxide 300 Flyers 330
Hydrostatic Pressure Is Rarely Limiting 301 Marine Mammals Include the Largest Animals Ever to Have
Substances Move through Cells by Diffusion, Osmosis, and Lived on Earth 331
Active Transport 301
Questions from Students 336
12.7 R
apid, Violent Change Causes Mass
Terms and Concepts to Remember 336
Extinctions 303
Chapter in Perspective 337
Questions from Students 305
Study Questions 337
Chapter in Perspective 306
Global Environment Watch 337
Terms and Concepts to Remember 306
Study Questions 307
Global Environment Watch 307
14 Benthic Communities 338
14.1 B
enthic Organisms Live on or in the
Seafloor 340
13 Pelagic Communities 308
14.2 T
he Distribution of Benthic Organisms Is Rarely
13.1 Marine Organisms Live in Communities 310 Random 340
Organisms Interact within Communities 310
14.3 S eaweeds and Marine Plants Are Diverse and
Competition Determines Each Organism’s Success in a
Effective Primary Producers 341
Community 310
Seaweeds Are Nonvascular Organisms 341
Physical and Biological Environmental Factors Affect
Communities 311 Seaweeds Are Classified by Their Photosynthetic
Pigments 342
Marine Communities Change through Time 311
Seaweed Communities Shield and Feed Benthic
13.2 T
he Marine Environment Is Classified in Distinct Animals 342
Zones 312 True Marine Plants Are Vascular Plants 343
13.3 P
elagic Communities Occupy the Open 14.4 S alt Marshes and Estuaries Are Highly
Ocean 313 Productive Benthic Habitats 344
13.4 Plankton Drift with Ocean Currents 313 14.5 R
ocky Intertidal Communities Can Thrive
13.5 P
lankton Collection Methods Depend on the Despite Wave Shock 345
Organism’s Size 313 14.6 S and Beach and Cobble Beach Communities
13.6 M
ost Phytoplankton Are Photosynthetic Exist in One of Earth’s Most Rigorous
Autotrophs 313 Habitats 348
13.7 P
hytoplankton Productivity Varies with Local 14.7 T
ropical Coral Reef Communities Are Productive
Conditions 320 Because Nutrients Are Quickly and Efficiently
13.8 Zooplankton Consume Primary Producers 321 Recycled 349
Coral Animals Build Reefs 349
13.9 Nekton Swim Actively 323
Tropical Coral Reefs Support Large Numbers of
Squids and Nautiluses Are Molluscs 323 Species 350
Shrimps and Their Relatives Are the Most Successful
Nektonic Invertebrates 324
contents xv
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Coral Reef Are Classified by Their History 351
Coral Reefs Are Stressed by Environmental Change 351
14.8 T
he Deep Seafloor Is Earth’s Most Uniform
Community 351
14.9 E
xtremophiles Dwell in Deep Rock
Communities 353
SPOTLIGHT FIGURE 14.14: The Development of an Atoll 354
Insight from a National Geographic Explorer 14.1 356
14.10 V
ent and Seep Communities Depend on
Chemosynthetic Producers 358
14.11 S pecialized Communities Form around Whale
Falls 360
Questions from Students 360
Chapter in Perspective 361
Terms and Concepts to Remember 361
Study Questions 361
Global Environment Watch 361
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Much of the Commercial Catch Is Discarded as SPOTLIGHT FIGURE 15.50: Human Impact on the World
“Bycatch” 373 Ocean 400
Marine Botanical Resources Have Many Uses 374 Questions from Students 402
Organisms Can Be Grown in Controlled Environments 374
Terms and Concepts to Remember 403
Whaling Continues 375
New Drugs and Bioproducts of Oceanic Origin Are Being Study Questions 403
Discovered 376 Chapter in Perspective 404
15.5 Nonextractive Resources Use the Ocean in Global Environment Watch 404
Place 377
15.6 A
n Introduction to Marine Environmental
Afterword 405
Issues 377
SPOTLIGHT FIGURE 15.22: The Container Cycle 378
APPENDIX 1
15.7 M
arine Pollutants May Be Natural or Human Measurements and Conversions 406
Generated 380
Pollutants Interfere with an Organism’s Biochemical
APPENDIX 2
Processes 380
Geologic Time 410
Oil Enters the Ocean from Many Sources 381
Cleaning a Spill Always Involves Trade-offs 382
Toxic Synthetic Organic Chemicals May Be Biologically APPENDIX 3
Amplified 384 Absolute and Relative Dating 411
Heavy Metals Can Be Toxic in Very Small Quantities 384
Eutrophication Stimulates the Growth of Some Species to APPENDIX 4
the Detriment of Others 385
Maps and Charts 412
Plastic and Other Forms of Solid Waste Can Be Especially
Hazardous to Marine Life 385
Pollution Is Costly 387 APPENDIX 5
15.8 O
rganisms Cannot Prosper If Their Habitats Are
Latitude and Longitude, Time, and Navigation 416
Disturbed 387
Bays and Estuaries Are Especially Sensitive to the Effects of APPENDIX 6
Pollution 387 Working in Marine Science 419
Rising Ocean Acidity Is Jeopardizing Habitats and Food
Webs 388
Glossary 423
Introduced Species Can Disrupt Established
Ecosystems 388
Index 441
15.9 M
arine Protected Areas Offer a Glimmer of
Hope 389
15.10 Earth’s Climate Is Changing 389
Earth’s Surface Temperature Is Rising 390
Sea Level Is Rising 392
Mathematical Models Predict Future Climates 392
Can Global Warming Be Curtailed? Should It Be
Curtailed? 393
SPOTLIGHT FIGURE 15.46: Sea Level Rise 394
15.11 What Can Be Done? 398
Insight from a National Geographic Explorer 15.1 399
contents xvii
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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
Preface for Students and Instructors
The Seventh Edition charts and maps, explorers’ diaries, data compilations, artifact
collections, and historic photographs have been winnowed and
My aim in writing this book was to produce a text that would included when appropriate. The experience has been exhilarat-
enhance students’ interest in the ocean. Students bring a natural ing. Indeed, the National Geographic staff in Washington, D.C.,
enthusiasm to their study of this subject, an enthusiasm that will has been very patient in tolerating this author whose every other
be greatly enhanced by our partnership with the National Geo- word seemed to be “wow!”
graphic Society. Access to 125 years of archival resources make Oceanography (also called marine science) is broadly inter-
this National Geographic Learning text uniquely appealing. disciplinary. As always in my books, connections between dis-
The most indifferent lecture hall occupant will perk up when ciplines are emphasized throughout. Marine science draws on
presented with stories of encounters with huge waves, photos of several fields of study, integrating the work of specialists into
giant squid, tales of exploration under the best and worst of cir- a unified whole. For example, a geologist studying the compo-
cumstances, evidence that vast chunks of Earth’s surface slowly sition of marine sediments on the deep seabed must be aware
move, news of Earth’s past battering by asteroids, micrographs of the biology and life histories of the organisms in the water
of glistening diatoms, and data showing the growing economic above, the chemistry that affects the shells and skeletons of the
importance of seafood and marine materials. If pure spectacle is creatures as they fall to the ocean floor, the physics of particle
required to generate an initial interest in the study of science, settling and water density and ocean currents, and the age and
oceanography wins hands down! underlying geology of the study area. This book is organized
In the end, however, it is subtlety that triumphs. Study- to make those connections from the first. Readers are invited
ing the ocean reinstills in us the sense of wonder we all felt as to see the connections between astronomy, economics, physics,
children when we first encountered the natural world. There chemistry, history, meteorology, geology, and ecology—areas of
is much to tell. The story of the ocean is a story of change and study they may once have considered separate.
chance—its history is written in the rocks, the water, and the The book’s plan is straightforward: Because all matter on
genes of the millions of organisms that have evolved here. Earth except hydrogen and some helium was generated in stars,
My students have been involved in this book from the very our story of the ocean starts with stars. The history of marine
beginning—indeed, it was their request for a readable, engag- science follows (with additional historical information sprinkled
ing, and thorough text that initiated the project a long time ago. through later chapters). The theories of Earth’s structure and
Through the years I have been writing textbooks, my enthu- plate tectonics are presented next, as a base on which to build
siasm for oceanic knowledge has increased (if that is possible), the explanation of bottom features that follow. A survey of ocean
forcing my patient reviewers and editors to weed out an exces- physics and chemistry prepares us for discussions of atmospheric
sive number of exclamation points. But that enthusiasm does circulation, classical physical oceanography, and coastal pro-
shine through. One student reading the final manuscript of an cesses. Our look at marine biology begins with an overview of
earlier edition commented, “At last, a textbook that does not the problems and benefits of living in seawater, continues with a
read like stereo instructions.” Good! discussion of the production and consumption of food, and ends
As were its predecessors, this new edition is designed for with taxonomic and ecological surveys of marine organisms.
students who are curious about Earth’s largest feature, but who The last chapter surveys marine resources and environmental
may have little formal background in science. As before, a great concerns, and strongly suggests our present rates of economic
many students have participated alongside professional marine growth and environmental degradation are unsustainable.
scientists in the writing and reviewing process. I have responded This icon appears when our discussion turns toward the
to their recommendations, as well as those of instructors who topic of global climate change. Oceanography is central to an
have adopted previous editions of this book. It is my sincere understanding of this interesting and controversial set of ideas,
hope that the resulting work accurately reflects the present state so those areas have been expanded, emphasized, and clearly
of our fast-moving field of science. marked in this edition.
xviii
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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
chapter begins with a list of Paddlers change sides in an open-
the four or five most impor- ocean outrigger canoe race, one
tant concepts highlighted by of the most physically demanding
a small illustration. An en- ocean sports.
gaging chapter opener photo
and caption whets the appetite for the material to come.
Chapters often include “Insights from an Explorer.” These
text boxes highlight the experiences of National Geographic
Explorers, men and women whose research has been sup-
ported by the National Geographic Society. They are among
the top scientists in their respective fields, and their discov-
©clearviewstock/Shutterstock.com
preface xix
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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
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Jean ajatteli:
*****
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parkettilattialla. Päivän kysymykset alkoivat, kuten kevyt vaahto,
nousta pinnalle viinin ja valon virkistämissä mielissä. Professori
Knäpple, jolla oli verhottu ääni, mutta sangen selvä ääntämistapa,
voitti keskustelujen humun vastatessaan vierustoverilleen, rouva
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EPÄTIETOISUUDESSA.
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— En.
HUMALANKORJUU.
— Ei juuri.