PRT 2009

Chapter 4
Genetic Resources In
Agriculture
Origin and distribution of crop plants

• A centre of origin: a geographical area where

a plant species (domesticated or wild), first
developed its distinctive properties
• Domesticated ?

• Wild ?
 Domesticated
• Domestication refers to the process of
taming a population of animals (although it
can also be used to refer to plants)

• Domesticated: These species or varieties are

bred and raised under human control for
many generations and are substantially
altered as a group in appearance or
behavior
• Humans have brought these populations
under their care for a wide range of
reasons: to produce food or valuable
commodities
• The earliest human attempts at plant
domestication occurred in Asia : rye grain

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rye
 Wild plants

• Wild: These species experience

their full life cycles without
deliberate human intervention
Six independent centre of crop origin are recognized

1. Mesoamerica (Southern Mexico, and North

Central America): El- Salvador, Guatemala
Maize, beans, sweet potato, tomatoes, cotton,
papaya, guava, peppers, sunflowers,
strawberry, grapes, avocado.

Avocado
Sweet Potato Sunflower http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avocado

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:5aday_sweet_potato.jpg http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sunflower
 2. Andes and South America
(Peru, Chile, Brazil)
• Tapioca, pineapple, groundnut,
cotton, papaya, guava, pepper,
rubber, cocoa.

Guava
http://rasamalaysia.com/malaysian-guava-
guava-bidor/

Pineapple
Tapioca http://www.etawau.com/H
TML/Agriculture/Pineapple
http://ajourneytobrasil.blogspot.co .htm
m/2010/07/culinary-experience-5-
tapioca.html

Cocoa
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coco Peanuts
a_bean http://merricksmanagement.com/i/index.php/peanuts
 3. Southeast Asia
• Asian rice, peas and beans, yam, breadfruit,
mango, nutmeg, brinjal, cucumber, banana,
plantain, coconut, orange, lime, grapefruit

Paddy tree Nutmeg

http://shw.amal5041.fotopages.com/18818109.html http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nutmeg

Brinjal Grapefruit
http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/brinjal http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grapefruit
 4. China
• Asian rice, soybean, green gram, orange,
apricot, peach, tea, cabbage, ginger,
ginseng, rape seed, chestnut, turnip,
yam.
Soybean Yam
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yam
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soybean

Cabbage
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cabbage
Chestnut
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chestnut
 5. Africa (Sahel Region including Ethiopian
Highlands).
• Sorghum, cowpea, coffee, melon, watermelon,
yam, oil palm, okra, kenaf, brinjal
Oil palm
http://toptropicals.com/cgi-
bin/garden_catalog/cat.cgi?uid=Elaeis_guineens
is

Sorghum
http://mbp.generationcp.org/confluence/display Coffee
/MBP/Improved+Sorghum http://www.ajambule.com/category/coffee/

Watermelon
http://home.howstuffworks.com/watermelo
n1.htm
Kenaf
http://www.ciphercarbon.com/about%20us.htm
6. Southwest Asia (Middle East: UAE, Saudi
Arabia, Iran, Iraq, Israel).
• Wheat, barley, rye, oat, pea, lentil, carrot,
radish, safflower, olive, rape seed, walnut,
date palm, almond, grape, apple, pear,
plum, onion, lettuce

Carrot Date palm

http://askfreud.org/tag/carrot/
http://www.egyptian-palm-
trees.com/datepalmtrees.
htm
Oat
http://www.liferollercoaster.com/index.php/
2008/04/18/why-do-i-forced-myself-to-eat-
oat
 Origin and distribution of livestock,
poultry and fish
• Since domestication of livestock, several
breeds or species of livestock, fish and poultry
are reared mainly as sources of food and non-
food products.
• When men migrated from one place to
another they brought with them live animals
to continue the farming activities in the new
land.
• advancement of genetic engineering and
reproductive biotechnology, genetic materials
in the forms of frozen semen and embryos are
commonly moved from one part of the world
to another.
• Therefore, same breed of cattle, goats, sheep,
fish and poultry are farmed globally.
• Development and selling of animal genetics
has become a big agricultural business
globally.
 Livestock: Beef cattle breeds
(high growth rate and excellent meat quality)

1) Angus
•Originally from the highlands of northern Scotland

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angus_cattle http://www.metoffice.gov.uk/climate/uk/ns/
2) Brahman
•typical tropical breed
•largely found in the hot and wet tropics.
•Originally from in India. American Brahman,
Australian Brahman, Thai Brahman and Pakistan
Brahman and others.

http://www.scenicreflections.com/download/502007/Red_Brahm
http://www.embryoplus.com/cattle_brahman.html an_Bull_Wallpaper/
3) Hereford
• brown body coat and white face
• Established in Hereford, West Midlands region
of England

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Herefordshire
_UK_location_map.svg
http://yallaroo.murrayfrancis.com/pix/2004PerthRoyal/3Yallaroo7.10.04.JPG
 Dairy cattle (high milk yield)
1) JERSEY
• Originated from Jersey
the largest Island in the Channel Islands (near
France)

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jersey_cattle http://www.flagsof.net/flags/jersey/
2) Freisian
• Originally from the highlands of northern
Scotland
3) Holstein
• Originated in Holland close to 2,000 years ago

http://photos-for-you.com/friesian-cow/

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holstein_cattle
 Goats and sheep

Merino
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Merino

Dorper
http://dorpers.webs.com/aboutd
orpers.htm

Cheviot
(http://www.heritagesheep.eu/Brecknock%20Hill
%20Cheviot.htm)
 SAANEN ANGLO-NUBIAN
(http://www.alibaba.com/product-
(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Saanenziege.jpg)
free/106477991/Dairy_Goats_Anglo_Nubian.html)

KACANG(LOCAL GOAT) BOER

(http://dombafarm.wordpress.com/ome/tentang-domba/)
(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boer_goat)
 Poultry
• chicken, ducks and turkeys
• first domesticated chickens (fowl) of Indian origin
for the purpose of cockfighting in Asia, Africa,
and Europe
• Classes of chicken are:
(i)American, (ii)Asiatic, (iii)Mediterranean,
(iv)English, (v)Continental, (vi)French,
(vii)Orientals
• chicken is divided into two groups;
(a) Layers (production of eggs)
(b) broiler (production of tender meat)
Below are types of breed of chicken:

SUSSEX
(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sussex_%28chicken%29)
LANGSHANS
(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Croad_Langshan)

CORNISH
(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cornish_%28chicken%29)

LEGHORN
(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leghorn_%28chicken%29)
 Fish
• The Egyptians and the Chinese started
aquaculture (rearing of fish) around
2500BC.
• freshwater (eg catfish/ keli and carp
(common carp) and marine or saltwater
(examples are grouper, Mackerel and
pomfret/bawal).
• Fish are reared in cages along river
banks, lake, sea, ponds, tanks
• Ornamental fish (e.g. aquarium fish) is
also another business
• Malaysia is one of the largest breeder and
exporter of ornamental fishes in the world.

Ornamental fish:
Arowana/kelisa Ornamental fish: Koi
(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Koi)
(http://www.arowanaclub.com.my/)
 Catfish /keli
(Clarias sp.)

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Clarias_garie_080516_9146_td
p.jpg#file

http://www.potretkasih.com/tag/ikan-keli-goreng-bercili/
 Common carp
(Cyprinus carpio)

http://www.siamfishingtours.com/commoncarp.html

http://www.farmanimalspictures.com/Common-Carp.html
 Grouper (ikan kerapu)
(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grouper)

Mackerel
(ikan kembong)
(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mackerel)
 Pomfret (ikan bawal)

(http://www.w-goodway.com/site/gallery_pomfret.php)

http://rasa.karangkraf.com/resipi-menu/tempatan/ikan-bawal-masam-manis-1.26538
 Germplasm and Biodiversity

• Germplasm : a collection of genetic

resources for an organism. For plants, the
germplasm may be stored as a seed
collection or, for trees, in a nursery.

• It is a term used to describe the genetic

resources, or more precisely the DNA of an
organism and collections of the material.
• There are worldwide collections of plant,
animal and bacterial germplasm for use in
breeding new organisms and the
conservation of existing species.

Tropical Plant Germplasm

Bank in China
(http://english.xtbg.cas.cn/rh/ss/sb/200501/t20050127_27762.html)
Svalbard Global Seed Vault
in Norway - to preserve the
seeds of world’s plant life
(http://www.businessinsider.com/svalbard-global-seed-vault-2011-
12?op=1)
 The bank was designed
deep into the mountain to
keep temperatures down
(top)

Seeds are kept in a

library-like system (left)
(http://www.businessinsider.com/svalbard-global-seed-vault-
2011-12?op=1)
 Biological diversity
• Biodiveristy: plant or animal diversity

• the variation of taxonomic life forms within

a given ecosystem, biome, or for the entire
earth.
 Biodiversity
• Biological Diversity: the sum total of life
on earth
FOOD & MEDICINE WATER

BIODIVERSITY AFFECTS
HUMANS NEED
FOR SURVIVAL
AIR

SHELTER
 Significance of Biodiversity

• Indicates healthy functioning of the earth’s

many ecosystems.

• economic benefits with respect to crops,

livestock, medicines, natural products
(wildlife, fish, timber)

• aesthetic benefits.
 3 aspects of Biodiversity

• Genetic diversity
• Species diversity
• Ecosystem diversity

http://www.epa.gov/eerd/GeneticDiversityIndicators.htm
 Ecosystem Diversity
• Variety of habitats, biotic communities, and
ecological processes in the ecosystem
• Ecosystem = an area that contains
organisms (e.g., plants, animals, bacteria)
interacting with one another and their non-
living environment
• Ecosystems can be of any size (e.g., forest,
meadow, and log).
 Spesies Diversity
• the variety of living organisms
• estimated 5 and 50 million or more
• about 1.75 million or I 3% have been
described.
 Genetic Diversity
• the sum total of all the genetic information
carried by individual organisms.
• some are obvious to the human eye, but
others are more subtle
• eye colour, colour of skins, susceptibility to
cancer
 Genetic diversity
• This term refers to the variation (diversity)
of genes within a species.
• Genes = a set of segments of nucleic acid
that contains basic information of a
species
• DNA = deoxyribonucleic acid is a double-
stranded helix of nucleotides which carries
the genetic information of a cell.
 Genetic Resource Applications

• Agriculture production is increased

through the use of improved genetic
resources (new variety) created by altering
the genetic constitution.
 Increase in :

1. Yield
2. Pest and disease resistance
3. Ecological tolerance
Eg:
1) Genes from wild relatives - resistance at least
32 major tomato diseases has been discovered.
Insect resistant genes have been also been bred.

2) Foreign genes such as from Bacillus

thuringiensis (Bt), which produces an insect killing
toxin, into maize

3) Genes tolerant to temperature extremes,

salinity, drought and waterlogging.
 Tomatoes that are
resistance to disease
in UPM
(picture courtesy of Unit IT Faculty of Agriculture UPM)

Bacillus thuringiensis may

be extracted as pesticide
in agriculture
(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacillus_thuringiensis)
6 categories of genetic resources :
1. Wild relatives
- species in the wild from the same genus of the crop
or livestock.
2. Weedy relatives
- bridge between wild relatives and domesticated
species. (neglected varieties, evolved to adapt the
natural growing environment.
3. Primitive cultivars/landraces
- the cultivated varieties during earlier times.
4. Modern cultivars
- improved strains bred from primitive cultivars.
5. Advanced breeding lines
- superior germplasm selected from modern cultivars.
6. Genes from other species
- advanced lines which contain specific desired genes
from other species. For example, 90% of the genes
in rice could also be found in corn, wheat and barley
 Biological Diversity Hotspot

• sites where many types of biological

organisms exist and constitute invaluable
genetic resources.
• They contain:
• 1) Higher range or number of species or
subspecies found in a particular area.
• 2) Higher variety of life, including the genetic
diversity among members of a population or
species,
• 3) Higher variety of life forms that inhabit the
earth
 http://morriscourse.com/elements_of_ecology/chapter_28.htm

25 hotspots : North & Central America, South America,

Europe & Central Asia, Africa, Mainland Asia, Asia-Pacific
(Philipines, N.Z)
 Genetic Variation
• Source of variation : mutations and sexual
recombinant
• Mutation : rare and random
• Large amounts of variation are present in
natural populations.
• 1.7 million species have been identified
and named.
• About 1 million are animals (750,000 are
insects),
• 250,000 are plants
• 69,000 are fungi.
• A species name consists of two words
(binomial system), for example Zea mays
(corn)
• New species are discovered everyday
with about 10,000 reported every year
 Traits selection in a
wild mustard
(Brassica oleracea) –
produced variety of
important crop plants
(http://studentreader.com/genotypes-phenotypes/)

New species are

discovered everyday
(http://www.time.com/time/photogallery/0,29307,1926324,00.html/)
 Techniques to Conserve Genetic
Resources
1. In Situ
• on-site conservation.

• It is the process of protecting an

endangered plant or animal species
in its natural habitat,
2. Ex Situ
⚫ off-site conservation".

⚫ It is the process of protecting an endangered

species of plant or animal by removing part of
the population from a threatened habitat and
placing it in a new location, which may be a
wild area or within the care of humans

• in gene banks, long-term storage as seed.

• many important tropical species are

recalcitrant (difficult or impossible to store for
long periods )

• Tissue culture, cryopreservation

Threats to Diversity and Loss of Genetic
Resources (dying sp. caused by):

1. Domestication and use of modern

varieties
2. Wanton (of a cruel or violent action),
irresponsible and thorough wide spread,
and often concentrated habitat
destruction. Natives species often lost
and habitat invaded by exotic weeds.

3. Natural extinctions as a result of

competition and natural disasters.
 Example of habitat
loss due to
deforestation
http://morriscourse.com/elements_of_ecology/chapter_28.htm

National Geographic Magazine. November 2008

Thank You