AbulFazal-Monarchy

INTRODUCTION

• ABUL FAZL is the most noted historian and poli cal thinker of Mughal period, was one of the nine
jewlls in Akbar's court
• His poli cal thoughts are spread across in his Ain-i-Akbari, 3rd volume of Akbarnama
• He supported social contract and need for social order as basis of sovereignty but also gave divine
authority to the King through his theory of divine light
• Through his idea of Sulh-i-Kul as state policy, he liberated the temporal sovereign from any
par cular faith, religious laws, dictates of the theologians
• He combined both temporal & spiritual sovereignty in the Godly King- the just sovereign, who not
only maintain his state but promote social harmony, religious tolerance, and becomes spiritual guide
to the na on
• Along with Sulh-i-Kul, promo ng science, reason, ra onality also duty of the King/state.

• Like Plato, he proposed 4-fold division of society and state/kingship; raised State as highest moral &
spiritual ins tu on
• Despite such path breaking poli cal ideas he cri cized for being contradictory, idealis c/utopic, not
original, and having li le impact on later Mughals
• He had given us a clear descrip on of the Mughal State system with clear historiography and & It's
very important source for present genera on to have acquaintance of Mughal Empire under the king
Akbar.

ABU'L-FAZL

• ABU'L-FAZL ibn Mubarak (1551-1602) popularly called ABUL FAZL, was born in Agra, where his
father shi ed from Nagaur (Rajasthan)
• Family of scholars: his father, Shaikh Mubarak was influen al liberal scholar who dra ed the decree
('mahzar') giving right of final arbiter of Shari ‘a to Akbar; His elder brother Abu'l Faizi was court poet
in Akbar's reign
• Received extensive educa on in all the branches of Islamic sciences from his father, had deep
influence of Sufi Philosophers ibn Arabi (Truth and unity of existence) and Shihabuddin Suhrawardi
(Israq- theory of light and illuminated wisdom)
• For his liberal and secular views, his father had to face wrath of theologians (Ulma) and had to live
life of fugi ve for some me a er 1569-70
• Gained access to Akbar's court through his brother Faizi in 1575. Soon became friend and
philosopher to Akbar and was his secretary and companion
• Abu'l Fazl was assassinated in 1602 by Vir Singh Bundela by a plot hatched by Prince Salim
• He was also one of the Nine Jewels (Navaratnas) of Akbar's royal court
• Social contract theory as basis of Sovereignty, theory of divine light, religious tolerance (Sulh-i-Kul),
state promo ng science & reason, are his las ng poli cal thoughts

● He was known for his intellectual themes and a commitment to reason.

● He was a historian, officer, chief secretary, and confidant of the Mughal emperor Akbar.
● Fazl’s wri ngs appeal to reason against religious and cultural tradi ons .
● His interpreta on of history was linked to the poli cal, social, economic and religious reali es of
that period and addressed the plurality and diversity of Indian society.
● Fazl was against the hardline Islam and challenged the conserva ve, narrow views of olama. He
was with Akbar for 2.5 decades.
● Fazl was influenced by the works and thoughts of ibn arabi who spoke about tracedental unity
once its reality is recognised, the differences seen in the sensory world are bound to lose their
significance and become illusory.
● While not presen ng a formal trea se on poli cal theory, Fazal is recognized as a poli cal thinker.
● His major works, Akbar-Nama and Ain-i-Akbari, provide insights into poli cal philosophy and
historical events.
● He supported social contract and need for social order as basis of sovereignty but also gave divine
authority to the King through his theory of divine light.
● In Ain-i-Akbari, Fazal adopts a ma er-of-fact and straigh orward approach to presen ng
informa on.
● Fazal's influence on Akbar's poli cal theory should be understood without exaggera on,
considering Akbar's character and various influencing factors.
● Poli cal concepts in Islam have diverse origins, including pre-Islamic sources and teachings of the
Prophet Muhammad.
● The incep on of the Mughal Empire in India faced poli cal instability due to the division of the
region into smaller kingdoms.
● Abul Fazal approached history with logic and a secular perspec ve, introducing a novel
methodology for collec ng and presen ng facts.
● His contribu ons substan ally expanded the scope of historical research and wri ng, covering
administra ve norms, methods, and topographical accounts.

METHODOLOGY

● Abul Fazal had a ra onal and secular approach to history which is the hallmark of his wri ngs

● He adopted new methodology to collect the facts and make them the basis of cri cal inves ga on.
● He recorded facts pertaining to socio-economic poli cal life.
● He collected the material, and facts a er careful inquiry and inves ga on, and presented them in a
clear and systema c manner.
● He ques oned the validity of a source also, cross-examined them, and then reached to
conclusions.
● Reports, memoranda, minutes prepared by the offices, imperial Farmans, and other records were
carefully consulted by him before racing to any conclusions.

WORKS OF ABU'L-FAZL

1.The Akbarnama
The Akbarnama is a document of history of Akbar's reign and his ancestors spread over three
volumes. It contains the history of Akbar's ancestors from Timur to Humayun, Akbar's reign up to the
46th regnal year (1602), and an administra ve report of Akbar's empire, the Ain-i-Akbari, which itself
is in three volumes. The third volume of Ain-i-Akbari gives an account of the ancestry and life of the
author. The Ain-i-Akbari was completed in the 42nd regnal year, but a slight addi on was made to it
in the 43rd regnal year on the account of the conquest of Berar
2.Ruqa āt
ʿ The Ruqa āt or the Ruqa āt-i-Abu'l Fazl is a collec on of priva ʿ ʿ te le ers from Abū al-Fażl to Murad,
Daniyal, Akbar, Mariam Makani, Salim (Jahangir), Akbar's queens and daughters, his father, mother
and brothers and several other notable contemporaries compiled by his nephew Nūr al-Dīn Mu am ḥ
mad.
3.Inshā-i-Abu'l Fazl
The Inshā-i-Abu'l Fazl or the Maqtubāt-i-Allami contains the official despatches wri en by Abu'l Fazl.
It is divided into two parts. The first part contains Akbar's le ers to Abdullah Khan Uzbeg of Turan,
Shah Abbas of Persia, Raja Ali Khan of Khandesh, Burhan-ul-Mulk of Ahmadnagar and his own nobles
such as Abdur Rahim Khan Khanan. The second part consists Abu'l Fazl's le ers to Akbar, Daniyal,
Mirza Shah Rukh and Khan Khanan. This collec on was compiled by Abd-us-samad, son of Afzal
Muhammad, who claims that he was Abu'l Fazl's sister's son as well as his son-in-law.
4. Abul Fazl, a contemporary of Abdul Qadir Badauni, was a cour er, historian and also a friend to
Akbar, the greatest of all Mughal rulers. He finished his massive and defini ve work, the Akbar Nama
and Ain-i-Akbari, in the waning years of the sixteenth century. It marks a decisive and schema c
departure from the predominant historiographic format of the me, as it does in several other
aspects of the construc on of an alterna ve world view. The Akbar Nama opens with the praise of
Allah, for sure, and then moves to Adam and traces Akbar’s lineage back to fi y-three genera ons of
his ancestors. It dislocates the historiographic axis from the groove of Islam and seeks to construct an
alterna ve teleology of universal history in which Akbar is the heir not of Muhammad and the
caliphs, but of Adam himself, the first human being, and thus the ruler of all humanity.
5. The text therefore promotes the idea of a powerful sovereign and a centralized state structure.

ABUL FAZL: theory of kingship and sovereignty

•Akbar's theory of kingship was influenced by Turko-Mongol theory of kingship, his liberal ancestral
and paternal legacy, broad mindedness of his teachers like Abul La f and Pir Mohammad, liberal
environment created by Sufi and Bhak movement and poli cal necessity of the me.
• Akbar's theory of Kingship was presented by Abul Fazl in Akbarnama.
• Abul Fazl says: "No dignity is higher in the eyes of God than royalty. Royalty is a remedy for the
spirit of rebellion...."
• Even the meaning of the word Padshah shows this for pad signifies stability and possession and
shah means origin, Lord .
•Highly exhaulted status of the king and Abul Fazl presented this through many symbols, metaphors
and miniature pain ng which depicts Akbar as divine, enlightened and infallible personality.
• He presents the view that kingship is the gi of god.
•The ruler was not dependent on it on the ulama, and everyone had to submit to one who possessed
it.
• Abul Fazl adds: "Royalty is a light emana ng from God, and a ray from the sun"
• Modern language calls this light farri izidi (the divine light) and the tongue of an quity called it
kiyan khwarah (the sublime halo).
•Kingship is Farr-i-Izidi i.e. divine light or light emana ng from God. Hence no one can stand between
God and the ruler.
• It is communicated by God to kings without the intermediate assistance of anyone.
•Again many excellent quali es flow from the possession of divine light/ Farr-iIzidi, e.g.,
• a paternal love towards the subjects,
• a large heart i.e. benevolent, generous, receives li le and give more.
•trust in God, prayer and devo on, etc.

• He is not upset by adversity, punishes the tyrant and behaves with modera on and with reason.
• At another place, Abul Fazl repeats that "The shamsa of the arch of royalty is a divine light, which
God directly transfers to kings, without the assistance of men..."
• The king was therefore deemed divinely guided and divinely protected.
•Presented dynas c ideology linking it with supernatural i.e. his ancestors came from heaven as
kings. Thus, he established divine origin of Akbar.
•The sight of the king is the part of divine worship and to behold is a mean of calling to mind the
creator and such percep on gave birth to prac ces like Zharoka-i-darshan, Jameen Bes- forms of
saluta on in court.
• Abul Fazl's basic concept was of a liberal absolu sm under a ruler of high endeavour endowed with
the highest moral and spiritual quali es, and enjoying heaven's mandate, so that he was not
dependent on any set of religious leaders for legi miza on.
•It is significant that the absolute tradi ons of sovereignty and conjunc on of spiritual and temporal
rulership was developed at many courts as a defence mechanism against undue encroachment upon
king's authority by lesser mortals.
• The philosophy and the spirit of the concepts of Farr-i izidi, kiyan khwarah, etc. were the same, that
is, the inten on was to guard against any direct or indirect share in king's authority.
• The theory of sovereignty propounded by Abul Fazl on behalf of Akbar and reflected in his mahzar
and "Ai'n-i rahnamuni" seems to be as close to the Central Asian and Perso-Islamic concepts as to the
Chingizi tradi ons of sovereignty.
•Alauddin Khalji had tried to abide by the "Law of expediency". Akbar went ahead of him.
• By the mahzar (dra ed by Shaikh Mubarak and his two sons), the Emperor was cer fied to be a just
ruler (Imam Adil) and was as such assigned the rank of mujtahid, i.e. "infallible authority".
• Akbar through Mahazar became the supreme interpreter of Shariyat, subordina ng Ulemmas.

Sovereignty as a social contract

● Abul Fazl, akin to Ziauddin Barani, aimed for social stability but approached sovereignty differently.
● In Ain-i-Akbari, Abul Fazl advocated sovereignty based on a social contract rather than Shariah law,
emphasizing the emergence of poli cal authority.
● He highlighted that a lack of a strong ruler could lead to lawlessness and rebellion, reflec ng a pre-
state society resembling Thomas Hobbes' nega ve view of the pre-contract state.
● Abul Fazl promoted the theory of a 'Social Contract' wherein sovereignty was an agreement
between the king and subjects. The king protected life, property, honor, and religion in exchange for
obedience and resources from the subjects.
● He believed only a just ruler, guided by power and divine guidance, could honor these contracts,
viewing the king as the protector and well-wisher of his subjects.
● The principle of public interest was sustained by Akbar's successors, aligning with the idea of a just,
fair, and caring king.

● Abul Fazl rooted sovereignty in the needs of social order, integra ng reasoning, philosophy, and
divine light (Farr-i-Izadi), somewhat rejec ng the tradi onal no on of the king as the shadow of God
(Zill-i-Ilahi)

•He defined sovereignty as a contract under which the Emperor protects 4 essences of his subjects:

• Jaan (life) • Maal (property) • Namus (honour) • Din (religion) • In return demand obedience and a
share of resources. He says: "Only a just sovereign is able to honour this contract with power and
divine guidance."

Features of his social contract theory:

● No contract among the people themselves; people didn’t form any poli cal community out of such
contract.
● Absolute sovereignty to the King- no restraint on his power- like Leviathan of Hobbes.
● No men on of op ons to people to change the king in case he becomes tyrannical, cruel and
unjust or not able to protect them.
● Only just sovereigns are able to honour the contract with power and Divine guidance/blessings.
Thus, no guarantee that the King would honour the contract.
● Not well developed like social the social contract theory of origin of state by modern western
poli cal thinkers such as Hobbes, Locke and Rousseau\

Divine Light Theory of Kingship:

● Based on Ishraq theory: the theory of divine light emana ng from the Sun was developed by 12th
century Sufi philosopher Shihabuddin Suhrawardi.
● Abul Fazl says: "No dignity is higher in the eyes of God than royalty. Royalty is a remedy for the
spirit of rebellion...."
● He says that the king was something more than an average human being. He was the
representa ve of God on earth and His shadow. He was given greater knowledge and wisdom than
any other human being.

● According to him, “state-power is the light emana ng from God and the ray emana ng from the
sun.”
● Akbar and other Mughal rulers assumed the tle of Zill-i-Ilahi i.e. ‘Shadow of God’.
● Fazl believed The term Padshahat (Badshahat) meant ‘an established owner’ where Pad stands for
stability and shah stands for the owner.
● Padshahat means a powerful, established owner who cannot be eliminated by anyone.
● According to Abul Fazl, ‘Badshahat is the light derived from God which has been sent by God
himself. God throws his kindness on Badshah; who works as the agent of god’
● The possession of this divine light, according to Abul Fazl, brings forth quali es such as paternal
love towards subjects, generosity, trust in God, and devo on.
● Kingship is Farr-i-Izidi i.e. divine light or light emana ng from God. Hence no one can stand
between God and the ruler.
● King is not shadow of the God, but "light of God “, directly linked to God, part of God not merely
his shadow. The sublime halo represents the divine light.
● He was the ul mate authority on all social, economic, poli cal and judicial powers. The ruler was
not dependent on the ulama
● The king was the final authority in governance, administra on, agriculture, educa on, and other
fields, but he had no say if they were related to religious ma ers.
● The ray of divine wisdom banishes from his heart everything that is conflic ng, guide him to be just
like Sun, like rain, maintain harmony raising above mean conflicts/differences, makes him ‘perfect
man’ ( İnsan-ı Kâmil ) and spiritual guide to the na on.

FAZL’S IDEAL SULTAN – AKBAR

• His ideal king is just and sovereign monarch, receiving divine light directly from God
•By virtue of the divine light, heart of the ideal King is free from any conflict, disunity, and dis
harmony
• He has the Godly vision to see truth and act justly without any decima on between his subject, for
which he is the spiritual guide
• Ideal Kingship is based on the principle of Universal peace, religious tolerance and social harmony
(Sulh-i-kul)
• Ideal king is able to honour the social contract with just force and Divine guidance.
• The ideal king has Strong will, does God worship, is wise, not wrathful, considerate, believe in
science & reason, and provide quick relief to poor/needy/jus ce seeker
• Rule of the ideal king is long las ng, just, and peaceful; Jus ce is the highest virtue of the ideal
ruler

• Thus, Abul fazl's ideal king, divinely inspired perfect man, who has supreme sovereignty- both
temporal & spiritual-over his people and complete control over his enemies

THE POLICY OF SULH-E-KUL

● Abul Fazl supported the policy of Sulh-i-kul, or universal peace, a key element in Mughal kingship.
● This policy advocated religious tolerance, emphasizing that the ruler should not discriminate
among various faiths.
● Under Sulh-i-kul, religions had freedom of expression as long as they didn't harm the monarchy or
incite conflict.
● Abul Fazl believed that in a diverse country like India, monarchial sovereignty was more relevant,
placing the monarch above any par cular religion.
● He endorsed the good values of different faiths to maintain peace and unity, emphasizing the
sovereign's tolerance toward exis ng beliefs.
● This policy was implemented through state prac ces, integra ng nobles of various backgrounds
into the Mughal aristocracy based on talent and loyalty, not religion or caste .
● Akbar's rule demonstrated religious impar ality by abolishing taxes based on pilgrimage and
religious affilia on( pilgrimage tax in 1563 CE and jizya in 1564 CE.), promo ng the principles of Sulh-
i-kul in administra on, and funding the construc on of places of worship.

FAZL’S SOCIETAL DIVISION

● Abul Fazl proposed a four-fold societal division, similar to Plato's three-fold model, emphasizing
dis nct classes with designated roles.
● His societal structure comprised: a. Warriors: Equivalent to Plato's Guardian or warrior class,
entrusted with protec on and defense. b. Learned Men: Comparable to Plato's rulers or the official
class, focused on intellectual pursuits and governance. c. Husbandmen & Laborers: Represen ng
agricultural and labour-oriented roles essen al for societal sustenance. d. Ar ficers & Merchants:
Similar to Plato's third class, encompassing ar sans and traders, contribu ng to economic func ons.
● Abul Fazl linked these societal divisions to the four elements of Fire, Air, Water, and Earth,
highligh ng their interdependence for societal balance.
● He mirrored this division within the realm of royalty or the state, delinea ng classes as:

a. Nobles of the State

b. Assistants of Victory
c. Companions of the King d. Servants
● Emphasized the crucial role of the King in establishing and maintaining societal order, stressing the
need for equilibrium among these four divisions for the welfare and stability of the state.
● Indicated that the harmonious func oning of these societal divisions was pivotal for the state's
prosperity and peace, before considering other elements like the military, economy, or
administra on.
● Abul Fazl envisioned a moral and poli cal convergence in the state, with the King serving as its
spiritual guide, aligning the state's aims with moral and spiritual ideals

THEORY OF JUSTICE

● Abul Fazl emphasized the king's duty to administer jus ce to the people, punishing wrongdoers
and ensuring fairness for the innocent.
● He believed a king should dispense jus ce with kindness and harmony, trea ng his subjects like his
own children, embodying a fatherly role in governance.
● According to him, the king should perceive himself as a medium for the welfare of his people, sent
by God to establish peace and jus ce.
● Abul Fazl advocated that the ruler must maintain impar ality, ensuring that no one is harmed by
his decisions or ac ons.
● He stressed the ruler's independence from religious figures, highligh ng the importance of high
moral and spiritual quali es
● His vision of jus ce relied on reason as a crucial element in a aining an ideal concept of fairness
and righteousness in governance.

while dispensing Jus ce Badshah should always keep in mind that the repas is rent by God on Earth
to ensure peace and jus ce for all.

while dispensing Jus ce, King should equally treat everyone and should not hurt amyme.

For Farl, Jus ce also meant to take care of basic needs of the people

while dispensing Jus ce i Badshah should Keep himself in the Shoe e of Crime and make judgments
a er knowing the condi on and situa on in which Crime was Commi ed.

To increase the Goodness of the Stare, King should reward good people and punish wrongdoers

Thus, Badshah was the highert Judiciary and he does not needed any religious assistance; while
dispensing Jus ce.

Administrative structure of the Mughal Empire.

The **Mughal Empire’s administra ve structure** was a highly organized and hierarchical
system, ensuring the smooth governance of a vast and diverse empire. It combined **Persian, Turco-
Mongol, and Indian tradi ons**, balancing centralized authority with local autonomy.

### 1. **Central Administra on**

- **Emperor**: At the top of the structure, the emperor was the **supreme authority**, with
control over poli cal, military, and religious ma ers. His word was law.

- **Council of Ministers**:

- **Wazir (Prime Minister)**: Headed the revenue and finance departments.

- **Mir Bakshi**: Managed the military and soldier recruitment.

- **Sadr-us-Sudoor**: Handled religious ma ers and charity (like waqfs).

- **Mir Saman**: Managed the royal household and supply of goods for the court.

The **emperor** appointed ministers based on loyalty and merit, ensuring efficient governance.

### 2. **Provincial Administra on**

- **Subas (Provinces)**: The empire was divided into **15 to 20 provinces** under different
emperors.

- **Subedar (Governor)**: Managed law and order, revenue collec on, and military in the province.

- **Diwan**: Oversaw **revenue administra on** in the province.

 - **Bakshi**: Managed military pay and logis cs at the provincial level.

- **Qazi**: Acted as the chief judicial officer, ensuring legal disputes were resolved fairly.

This division ensured the empire could manage distant regions effec vely.

### 3. **District and Local Administra on**

- Each province (suba) was divided into **sarkars (districts)**, further divided into **parganas**
(sub-districts), and finally into **villages**.

- **Faujdar**: Military officer at the district level to maintain law and order.

- **Amil**: Revenue collector at the pargana level.

- **Patwari**: Maintained village-level land records.

This mul - ered structure allowed the Mughals to maintain control and ensure tax collec on
throughout the empire.

### 4. **Revenue Administra on: The Mansabdari System**

- **Mansabdari System**: Officials were ranked based on the **number of soldiers (zat)** they
maintained and were granted **jagirs** (land assignments) as a reward.

- **Raja Todar Mal’s Dahsala System**: A land revenue system that assessed taxes based on a **10-
year average** of crop yields and ensured tax fairness.

Revenue from agriculture was the backbone of the Mughal economy, with **tax collec on**
managed at various levels.

### 5. **Judicial Administra on**

- **Qazi**: Handled Islamic law (Sharia) and civil disputes.

- **Kotwal**: Managed city police and market regula on, ensuring law and order in urban areas.

- The emperor could **intervene as the highest court of appeal** in significant cases.

This system provided both central and local avenues for jus ce, combining **Islamic law** with local
tradi ons.

### 6. **Military Administra on**

- **Mir Bakshi**: Head of military administra on, responsible for recrui ng and paying soldiers.
- **Mansabdars**: Nobles and officials maintained **private armies**, contribu ng to the imperial
forces.

- The military structure ensured that **Mughals had a large, standing army** without burdening the
treasury.

### 7. **Religious and Cultural Policies**

- **Sadr-us-Sudoor** oversaw religious endowments and promoted cultural ac vi es.

- Akbar’s **Sulh-i-Kul** (universal peace) policy ensured religious tolerance and harmony among
different communi es, fostering poli cal stability.

### **Conclusion**

The **Mughal administra ve structure** was a sophis cated and efficient system that ensured
**control, jus ce, and revenue collec on**. The **centralized authority** of the emperor was
complemented by **local administra on**, balancing power to manage a vast and diverse empire.
This structure enabled the Mughal Empire to thrive for centuries.

ARMY IN MUGAL ADMINISTRATION

The **Mughal army** was one of the most powerful military systems of its me, with a
sophis cated structure that combined **Turco-Mongol, Persian, and Indian military tradi ons**. It
was organized to ensure both **centralized control and flexibility** for expansion and defense.
Below is an overview of the Mughal military system.

### 1. **Composi on of the Mughal Army**

The Mughal army was divided into several key components:

- **Infantry (Paidal)**: Composed of archers, swordsmen, and matchlock (musketeers). Though

rela vely less significant compared to cavalry, they played key roles in sieges and urban combat.

- **Cavalry (Sawars)**: The most important part of the Mughal military. Soldiers on horseback were
armed with bows, swords, and firearms. The Mughals relied heavily on **horse-mounted troops**
for quick mobility.

- **Ar llery**: Under Emperor Akbar, the use of **heavy ar llery** became crucial. Cannons were
employed in ba les and sieges, giving the Mughals an edge against Indian rulers who lacked
advanced firearms.

- **Elephants**: Used both as **war animals** and for transporta on of supplies. In ba le, they
were in mida ng but also served as pla orms for archers and commanders.

- **Navy**: Though the Mughals were primarily a land power, they maintained a navy for **riverine
opera ons and coastal defense**, par cularly under Akbar and Aurangzeb.
### 2. **The Mansabdari System**

The **mansabdari system** was a unique feature of the Mughal military structure. It was a **rank-
based system** where nobles (mansabdars) provided **troops and horses** in exchange for jagirs
(land assignments). The system also regulated the size of the army without burdening the central
treasury.

- **Zat**: The personal rank of a mansabdar, determining their salary and status.

- **Sawar**: Denoted the number of cavalry troops a mansabdar was expected to maintain.

- **Jagir**: A land grant given to mansabdars to cover the cost of maintaining their soldiers.

This system ensured that the army was **meritocra c** and that nobles stayed loyal to the emperor
by tying their income to the soldiers they fielded.

### 3. **Recruitment and Pay**

- The army was **mul -ethnic**, recrui ng soldiers from various communi es, including **Turks,
Afghans, Rajputs, and Indian Muslims**.

- Soldiers were paid either through **cash salaries** or **jagir grants**, with higher-ranking officials
receiving land revenues to support their troops.

- The **Mir Bakshi**, an important official, was in charge of military recruitment, promo ons, and
pay.

### 4. **Military Campaigns and Tac cs**

The Mughal military was known for its **effec ve use of both tradi onal and modern warfare
techniques**. Some key aspects of the Mughal strategy included:

- **Mobile warfare**: The Mughals emphasized mobility through their cavalry, ensuring rapid
movement in ba le.

- **Use of ar llery**: Akbar's use of cannons in ba les like the siege of **Chi or Fort (1568)** was
revolu onary for Indian warfare.

- **Diplomacy and Alliances**: Akbar’s policy of **marrying Rajput princesses** helped integrate
Rajput warriors into the Mughal military, strengthening their forces.

### 5. **Challenges and Decline**

- **Aurangzeb's Deccan campaigns** stretched the Mughal military to its limits, leading to fa gue
and financial strain.

- By the **18th century**, the quality of the army declined as **mansabdars** became more
focused on personal wealth rather than military efficiency.
- The rise of **regional powers** like the **Marathas** and **Bri sh forces** exposed the
limita ons of the Mughal military, which struggled to adapt to modern European warfare.

### **Conclusion**

The **Mughal army** was a cornerstone of the empire’s strength, enabling it to expand and
consolidate power over large parts of India. However, while the **mansabdari system** ini ally
ensured efficiency and loyalty, over me it became a liability, contribu ng to the eventual decline of
the Mughal military. Their ability to **blend tradi onal cavalry warfare with ar llery and
diplomacy** remains a significant legacy in military history.

This structure reflects the **military sophis ca on** and challenges of maintaining a large empire
across a diverse region

The end
 AbulFazal-Monarchy

INTRODUCTION

• ABUL FAZL is the most noted historian and poli cal thinker of Mughal period, was one of the nine
jewlls in Akbar's court
• His poli cal thoughts are spread across in his Ain-i-Akbari, 3rd volume of Akbarnama
• He supported social contract and need for social order as basis of sovereignty but also gave divine
authority to the King through his theory of divine light
• Through his idea of Sulh-i-Kul as state policy, he liberated the temporal sovereign from any
par cular faith, religious laws, dictates of the theologians
• He combined both temporal & spiritual sovereignty in the Godly King- the just sovereign, who not
only maintain his state but promote social harmony, religious tolerance, and becomes spiritual guide
to the na on
• Along with Sulh-i-Kul, promo ng science, reason, ra onality also duty of the King/state.

• Like Plato, he proposed 4-fold division of society and state/kingship; raised State as highest moral &
spiritual ins tu on
• Despite such path breaking poli cal ideas he cri cized for being contradictory, idealis c/utopic, not
original, and having li le impact on later Mughals
• He had given us a clear descrip on of the Mughal State system with clear historiography and & It's
very important source for present genera on to have acquaintance of Mughal Empire under the king
Akbar.

ABU'L-FAZL

• ABU'L-FAZL ibn Mubarak (1551-1602) popularly called ABUL FAZL, was born in Agra, where his
father shi ed from Nagaur (Rajasthan)
• Family of scholars: his father, Shaikh Mubarak was influen al liberal scholar who dra ed the decree
('mahzar') giving right of final arbiter of Shari ‘a to Akbar; His elder brother Abu'l Faizi was court poet
in Akbar's reign
• Received extensive educa on in all the branches of Islamic sciences from his father, had deep
influence of Sufi Philosophers ibn Arabi (Truth and unity of existence) and Shihabuddin Suhrawardi
(Israq- theory of light and illuminated wisdom)
• For his liberal and secular views, his father had to face wrath of theologians (Ulma) and had to live
life of fugi ve for some me a er 1569-70
• Gained access to Akbar's court through his brother Faizi in 1575. Soon became friend and
philosopher to Akbar and was his secretary and companion
• Abu'l Fazl was assassinated in 1602 by Vir Singh Bundela by a plot hatched by Prince Salim
• He was also one of the Nine Jewels (Navaratnas) of Akbar's royal court
• Social contract theory as basis of Sovereignty, theory of divine light, religious tolerance (Sulh-i-Kul),
state promo ng science & reason, are his las ng poli cal thoughts

● He was known for his intellectual themes and a commitment to reason.

● He was a historian, officer, chief secretary, and confidant of the Mughal emperor Akbar.
● Fazl’s wri ngs appeal to reason against religious and cultural tradi ons .
● His interpreta on of history was linked to the poli cal, social, economic and religious reali es of
that period and addressed the plurality and diversity of Indian society.
● Fazl was against the hardline Islam and challenged the conserva ve, narrow views of olama. He
was with Akbar for 2.5 decades.
● Fazl was influenced by the works and thoughts of ibn arabi who spoke about tracedental unity
once its reality is recognised, the differences seen in the sensory world are bound to lose their
significance and become illusory.
● While not presen ng a formal trea se on poli cal theory, Fazal is recognized as a poli cal thinker.
● His major works, Akbar-Nama and Ain-i-Akbari, provide insights into poli cal philosophy and
historical events.
● He supported social contract and need for social order as basis of sovereignty but also gave divine
authority to the King through his theory of divine light.
● In Ain-i-Akbari, Fazal adopts a ma er-of-fact and straigh orward approach to presen ng
informa on.
● Fazal's influence on Akbar's poli cal theory should be understood without exaggera on,
considering Akbar's character and various influencing factors.
● Poli cal concepts in Islam have diverse origins, including pre-Islamic sources and teachings of the
Prophet Muhammad.
● The incep on of the Mughal Empire in India faced poli cal instability due to the division of the
region into smaller kingdoms.
● Abul Fazal approached history with logic and a secular perspec ve, introducing a novel
methodology for collec ng and presen ng facts.
● His contribu ons substan ally expanded the scope of historical research and wri ng, covering
administra ve norms, methods, and topographical accounts.

METHODOLOGY

● Abul Fazal had a ra onal and secular approach to history which is the hallmark of his wri ngs

● He adopted new methodology to collect the facts and make them the basis of cri cal inves ga on.
● He recorded facts pertaining to socio-economic poli cal life.
● He collected the material, and facts a er careful inquiry and inves ga on, and presented them in a
clear and systema c manner.
● He ques oned the validity of a source also, cross-examined them, and then reached to
conclusions.
● Reports, memoranda, minutes prepared by the offices, imperial Farmans, and other records were
carefully consulted by him before racing to any conclusions.

WORKS OF ABU'L-FAZL

1.The Akbarnama
The Akbarnama is a document of history of Akbar's reign and his ancestors spread over three
volumes. It contains the history of Akbar's ancestors from Timur to Humayun, Akbar's reign up to the
46th regnal year (1602), and an administra ve report of Akbar's empire, the Ain-i-Akbari, which itself
is in three volumes. The third volume of Ain-i-Akbari gives an account of the ancestry and life of the
author. The Ain-i-Akbari was completed in the 42nd regnal year, but a slight addi on was made to it
in the 43rd regnal year on the account of the conquest of Berar
2.Ruqa āt
ʿ The Ruqa āt or the Ruqa āt-i-Abu'l Fazl is a collec on of priva ʿ ʿ te le ers from Abū al-Fażl to Murad,
Daniyal, Akbar, Mariam Makani, Salim (Jahangir), Akbar's queens and daughters, his father, mother
and brothers and several other notable contemporaries compiled by his nephew Nūr al-Dīn Mu am ḥ
mad.
3.Inshā-i-Abu'l Fazl
The Inshā-i-Abu'l Fazl or the Maqtubāt-i-Allami contains the official despatches wri en by Abu'l Fazl.
It is divided into two parts. The first part contains Akbar's le ers to Abdullah Khan Uzbeg of Turan,
Shah Abbas of Persia, Raja Ali Khan of Khandesh, Burhan-ul-Mulk of Ahmadnagar and his own nobles
such as Abdur Rahim Khan Khanan. The second part consists Abu'l Fazl's le ers to Akbar, Daniyal,
Mirza Shah Rukh and Khan Khanan. This collec on was compiled by Abd-us-samad, son of Afzal
Muhammad, who claims that he was Abu'l Fazl's sister's son as well as his son-in-law.
4. Abul Fazl, a contemporary of Abdul Qadir Badauni, was a cour er, historian and also a friend to
Akbar, the greatest of all Mughal rulers. He finished his massive and defini ve work, the Akbar Nama
and Ain-i-Akbari, in the waning years of the sixteenth century. It marks a decisive and schema c
departure from the predominant historiographic format of the me, as it does in several other
aspects of the construc on of an alterna ve world view. The Akbar Nama opens with the praise of
Allah, for sure, and then moves to Adam and traces Akbar’s lineage back to fi y-three genera ons of
his ancestors. It dislocates the historiographic axis from the groove of Islam and seeks to construct an
alterna ve teleology of universal history in which Akbar is the heir not of Muhammad and the
caliphs, but of Adam himself, the first human being, and thus the ruler of all humanity.
5. The text therefore promotes the idea of a powerful sovereign and a centralized state structure.

ABUL FAZL: theory of kingship and sovereignty

•Akbar's theory of kingship was influenced by Turko-Mongol theory of kingship, his liberal ancestral
and paternal legacy, broad mindedness of his teachers like Abul La f and Pir Mohammad, liberal
environment created by Sufi and Bhak movement and poli cal necessity of the me.
• Akbar's theory of Kingship was presented by Abul Fazl in Akbarnama.
• Abul Fazl says: "No dignity is higher in the eyes of God than royalty. Royalty is a remedy for the
spirit of rebellion...."
• Even the meaning of the word Padshah shows this for pad signifies stability and possession and
shah means origin, Lord .
•Highly exhaulted status of the king and Abul Fazl presented this through many symbols, metaphors
and miniature pain ng which depicts Akbar as divine, enlightened and infallible personality.
• He presents the view that kingship is the gi of god.
•The ruler was not dependent on it on the ulama, and everyone had to submit to one who possessed
it.
• Abul Fazl adds: "Royalty is a light emana ng from God, and a ray from the sun"
• Modern language calls this light farri izidi (the divine light) and the tongue of an quity called it
kiyan khwarah (the sublime halo).
•Kingship is Farr-i-Izidi i.e. divine light or light emana ng from God. Hence no one can stand between
God and the ruler.
• It is communicated by God to kings without the intermediate assistance of anyone.
•Again many excellent quali es flow from the possession of divine light/ Farr-iIzidi, e.g.,
• a paternal love towards the subjects,
• a large heart i.e. benevolent, generous, receives li le and give more.
•trust in God, prayer and devo on, etc.

• He is not upset by adversity, punishes the tyrant and behaves with modera on and with reason.
• At another place, Abul Fazl repeats that "The shamsa of the arch of royalty is a divine light, which
God directly transfers to kings, without the assistance of men..."
• The king was therefore deemed divinely guided and divinely protected.
•Presented dynas c ideology linking it with supernatural i.e. his ancestors came from heaven as
kings. Thus, he established divine origin of Akbar.
•The sight of the king is the part of divine worship and to behold is a mean of calling to mind the
creator and such percep on gave birth to prac ces like Zharoka-i-darshan, Jameen Bes- forms of
saluta on in court.
• Abul Fazl's basic concept was of a liberal absolu sm under a ruler of high endeavour endowed with
the highest moral and spiritual quali es, and enjoying heaven's mandate, so that he was not
dependent on any set of religious leaders for legi miza on.
•It is significant that the absolute tradi ons of sovereignty and conjunc on of spiritual and temporal
rulership was developed at many courts as a defence mechanism against undue encroachment upon
king's authority by lesser mortals.
• The philosophy and the spirit of the concepts of Farr-i izidi, kiyan khwarah, etc. were the same, that
is, the inten on was to guard against any direct or indirect share in king's authority.
• The theory of sovereignty propounded by Abul Fazl on behalf of Akbar and reflected in his mahzar
and "Ai'n-i rahnamuni" seems to be as close to the Central Asian and Perso-Islamic concepts as to the
Chingizi tradi ons of sovereignty.
•Alauddin Khalji had tried to abide by the "Law of expediency". Akbar went ahead of him.
• By the mahzar (dra ed by Shaikh Mubarak and his two sons), the Emperor was cer fied to be a just
ruler (Imam Adil) and was as such assigned the rank of mujtahid, i.e. "infallible authority".
• Akbar through Mahazar became the supreme interpreter of Shariyat, subordina ng Ulemmas.

Sovereignty as a social contract

● Abul Fazl, akin to Ziauddin Barani, aimed for social stability but approached sovereignty differently.
● In Ain-i-Akbari, Abul Fazl advocated sovereignty based on a social contract rather than Shariah law,
emphasizing the emergence of poli cal authority.
● He highlighted that a lack of a strong ruler could lead to lawlessness and rebellion, reflec ng a pre-
state society resembling Thomas Hobbes' nega ve view of the pre-contract state.
● Abul Fazl promoted the theory of a 'Social Contract' wherein sovereignty was an agreement
between the king and subjects. The king protected life, property, honor, and religion in exchange for
obedience and resources from the subjects.
● He believed only a just ruler, guided by power and divine guidance, could honor these contracts,
viewing the king as the protector and well-wisher of his subjects.
● The principle of public interest was sustained by Akbar's successors, aligning with the idea of a just,
fair, and caring king.

● Abul Fazl rooted sovereignty in the needs of social order, integra ng reasoning, philosophy, and
divine light (Farr-i-Izadi), somewhat rejec ng the tradi onal no on of the king as the shadow of God
(Zill-i-Ilahi)

•He defined sovereignty as a contract under which the Emperor protects 4 essences of his subjects:

• Jaan (life) • Maal (property) • Namus (honour) • Din (religion) • In return demand obedience and a
share of resources. He says: "Only a just sovereign is able to honour this contract with power and
divine guidance."

Features of his social contract theory:

● No contract among the people themselves; people didn’t form any poli cal community out of such
contract.
● Absolute sovereignty to the King- no restraint on his power- like Leviathan of Hobbes.
● No men on of op ons to people to change the king in case he becomes tyrannical, cruel and
unjust or not able to protect them.
● Only just sovereigns are able to honour the contract with power and Divine guidance/blessings.
Thus, no guarantee that the King would honour the contract.
● Not well developed like social the social contract theory of origin of state by modern western
poli cal thinkers such as Hobbes, Locke and Rousseau\

Divine Light Theory of Kingship:

● Based on Ishraq theory: the theory of divine light emana ng from the Sun was developed by 12th
century Sufi philosopher Shihabuddin Suhrawardi.
● Abul Fazl says: "No dignity is higher in the eyes of God than royalty. Royalty is a remedy for the
spirit of rebellion...."
● He says that the king was something more than an average human being. He was the
representa ve of God on earth and His shadow. He was given greater knowledge and wisdom than
any other human being.

● According to him, “state-power is the light emana ng from God and the ray emana ng from the
sun.”
● Akbar and other Mughal rulers assumed the tle of Zill-i-Ilahi i.e. ‘Shadow of God’.
● Fazl believed The term Padshahat (Badshahat) meant ‘an established owner’ where Pad stands for
stability and shah stands for the owner.
● Padshahat means a powerful, established owner who cannot be eliminated by anyone.
● According to Abul Fazl, ‘Badshahat is the light derived from God which has been sent by God
himself. God throws his kindness on Badshah; who works as the agent of god’
● The possession of this divine light, according to Abul Fazl, brings forth quali es such as paternal
love towards subjects, generosity, trust in God, and devo on.
● Kingship is Farr-i-Izidi i.e. divine light or light emana ng from God. Hence no one can stand
between God and the ruler.
● King is not shadow of the God, but "light of God “, directly linked to God, part of God not merely
his shadow. The sublime halo represents the divine light.
● He was the ul mate authority on all social, economic, poli cal and judicial powers. The ruler was
not dependent on the ulama
● The king was the final authority in governance, administra on, agriculture, educa on, and other
fields, but he had no say if they were related to religious ma ers.
● The ray of divine wisdom banishes from his heart everything that is conflic ng, guide him to be just
like Sun, like rain, maintain harmony raising above mean conflicts/differences, makes him ‘perfect
man’ ( İnsan-ı Kâmil ) and spiritual guide to the na on.

FAZL’S IDEAL SULTAN – AKBAR

• His ideal king is just and sovereign monarch, receiving divine light directly from God
•By virtue of the divine light, heart of the ideal King is free from any conflict, disunity, and dis
harmony
• He has the Godly vision to see truth and act justly without any decima on between his subject, for
which he is the spiritual guide
• Ideal Kingship is based on the principle of Universal peace, religious tolerance and social harmony
(Sulh-i-kul)
• Ideal king is able to honour the social contract with just force and Divine guidance.
• The ideal king has Strong will, does God worship, is wise, not wrathful, considerate, believe in
science & reason, and provide quick relief to poor/needy/jus ce seeker
• Rule of the ideal king is long las ng, just, and peaceful; Jus ce is the highest virtue of the ideal
ruler

• Thus, Abul fazl's ideal king, divinely inspired perfect man, who has supreme sovereignty- both
temporal & spiritual-over his people and complete control over his enemies

THE POLICY OF SULH-E-KUL

● Abul Fazl supported the policy of Sulh-i-kul, or universal peace, a key element in Mughal kingship.
● This policy advocated religious tolerance, emphasizing that the ruler should not discriminate
among various faiths.
● Under Sulh-i-kul, religions had freedom of expression as long as they didn't harm the monarchy or
incite conflict.
● Abul Fazl believed that in a diverse country like India, monarchial sovereignty was more relevant,
placing the monarch above any par cular religion.
● He endorsed the good values of different faiths to maintain peace and unity, emphasizing the
sovereign's tolerance toward exis ng beliefs.
● This policy was implemented through state prac ces, integra ng nobles of various backgrounds
into the Mughal aristocracy based on talent and loyalty, not religion or caste .
● Akbar's rule demonstrated religious impar ality by abolishing taxes based on pilgrimage and
religious affilia on( pilgrimage tax in 1563 CE and jizya in 1564 CE.), promo ng the principles of Sulh-
i-kul in administra on, and funding the construc on of places of worship.

FAZL’S SOCIETAL DIVISION

● Abul Fazl proposed a four-fold societal division, similar to Plato's three-fold model, emphasizing
dis nct classes with designated roles.
● His societal structure comprised: a. Warriors: Equivalent to Plato's Guardian or warrior class,
entrusted with protec on and defense. b. Learned Men: Comparable to Plato's rulers or the official
class, focused on intellectual pursuits and governance. c. Husbandmen & Laborers: Represen ng
agricultural and labour-oriented roles essen al for societal sustenance. d. Ar ficers & Merchants:
Similar to Plato's third class, encompassing ar sans and traders, contribu ng to economic func ons.
● Abul Fazl linked these societal divisions to the four elements of Fire, Air, Water, and Earth,
highligh ng their interdependence for societal balance.
● He mirrored this division within the realm of royalty or the state, delinea ng classes as:

a. Nobles of the State

b. Assistants of Victory
c. Companions of the King d. Servants
● Emphasized the crucial role of the King in establishing and maintaining societal order, stressing the
need for equilibrium among these four divisions for the welfare and stability of the state.
● Indicated that the harmonious func oning of these societal divisions was pivotal for the state's
prosperity and peace, before considering other elements like the military, economy, or
administra on.
● Abul Fazl envisioned a moral and poli cal convergence in the state, with the King serving as its
spiritual guide, aligning the state's aims with moral and spiritual ideals

THEORY OF JUSTICE

● Abul Fazl emphasized the king's duty to administer jus ce to the people, punishing wrongdoers
and ensuring fairness for the innocent.
● He believed a king should dispense jus ce with kindness and harmony, trea ng his subjects like his
own children, embodying a fatherly role in governance.
● According to him, the king should perceive himself as a medium for the welfare of his people, sent
by God to establish peace and jus ce.
● Abul Fazl advocated that the ruler must maintain impar ality, ensuring that no one is harmed by
his decisions or ac ons.
● He stressed the ruler's independence from religious figures, highligh ng the importance of high
moral and spiritual quali es
● His vision of jus ce relied on reason as a crucial element in a aining an ideal concept of fairness
and righteousness in governance.

while dispensing Jus ce Badshah should always keep in mind that the repas is rent by God on Earth
to ensure peace and jus ce for all.

while dispensing Jus ce, King should equally treat everyone and should not hurt amyme.

For Farl, Jus ce also meant to take care of basic needs of the people

while dispensing Jus ce i Badshah should Keep himself in the Shoe e of Crime and make judgments
a er knowing the condi on and situa on in which Crime was Commi ed.

To increase the Goodness of the Stare, King should reward good people and punish wrongdoers

Thus, Badshah was the highert Judiciary and he does not needed any religious assistance; while
dispensing Jus ce.

Administrative structure of the Mughal Empire.

The **Mughal Empire’s administra ve structure** was a highly organized and hierarchical
system, ensuring the smooth governance of a vast and diverse empire. It combined **Persian, Turco-
Mongol, and Indian tradi ons**, balancing centralized authority with local autonomy.

### 1. **Central Administra on**

- **Emperor**: At the top of the structure, the emperor was the **supreme authority**, with
control over poli cal, military, and religious ma ers. His word was law.

- **Council of Ministers**:

- **Wazir (Prime Minister)**: Headed the revenue and finance departments.

- **Mir Bakshi**: Managed the military and soldier recruitment.

- **Sadr-us-Sudoor**: Handled religious ma ers and charity (like waqfs).

- **Mir Saman**: Managed the royal household and supply of goods for the court.

The **emperor** appointed ministers based on loyalty and merit, ensuring efficient governance.

### 2. **Provincial Administra on**

- **Subas (Provinces)**: The empire was divided into **15 to 20 provinces** under different
emperors.

- **Subedar (Governor)**: Managed law and order, revenue collec on, and military in the province.

- **Diwan**: Oversaw **revenue administra on** in the province.

 - **Bakshi**: Managed military pay and logis cs at the provincial level.

- **Qazi**: Acted as the chief judicial officer, ensuring legal disputes were resolved fairly.

This division ensured the empire could manage distant regions effec vely.

### 3. **District and Local Administra on**

- Each province (suba) was divided into **sarkars (districts)**, further divided into **parganas**
(sub-districts), and finally into **villages**.

- **Faujdar**: Military officer at the district level to maintain law and order.

- **Amil**: Revenue collector at the pargana level.

- **Patwari**: Maintained village-level land records.

This mul - ered structure allowed the Mughals to maintain control and ensure tax collec on
throughout the empire.

### 4. **Revenue Administra on: The Mansabdari System**

- **Mansabdari System**: Officials were ranked based on the **number of soldiers (zat)** they
maintained and were granted **jagirs** (land assignments) as a reward.

- **Raja Todar Mal’s Dahsala System**: A land revenue system that assessed taxes based on a **10-
year average** of crop yields and ensured tax fairness.

Revenue from agriculture was the backbone of the Mughal economy, with **tax collec on**
managed at various levels.

### 5. **Judicial Administra on**

- **Qazi**: Handled Islamic law (Sharia) and civil disputes.

- **Kotwal**: Managed city police and market regula on, ensuring law and order in urban areas.

- The emperor could **intervene as the highest court of appeal** in significant cases.

This system provided both central and local avenues for jus ce, combining **Islamic law** with local
tradi ons.

### 6. **Military Administra on**

- **Mir Bakshi**: Head of military administra on, responsible for recrui ng and paying soldiers.
- **Mansabdars**: Nobles and officials maintained **private armies**, contribu ng to the imperial
forces.

- The military structure ensured that **Mughals had a large, standing army** without burdening the
treasury.

### 7. **Religious and Cultural Policies**

- **Sadr-us-Sudoor** oversaw religious endowments and promoted cultural ac vi es.

- Akbar’s **Sulh-i-Kul** (universal peace) policy ensured religious tolerance and harmony among
different communi es, fostering poli cal stability.

### **Conclusion**

The **Mughal administra ve structure** was a sophis cated and efficient system that ensured
**control, jus ce, and revenue collec on**. The **centralized authority** of the emperor was
complemented by **local administra on**, balancing power to manage a vast and diverse empire.
This structure enabled the Mughal Empire to thrive for centuries.

ARMY IN MUGAL ADMINISTRATION

The **Mughal army** was one of the most powerful military systems of its me, with a
sophis cated structure that combined **Turco-Mongol, Persian, and Indian military tradi ons**. It
was organized to ensure both **centralized control and flexibility** for expansion and defense.
Below is an overview of the Mughal military system.

### 1. **Composi on of the Mughal Army**

The Mughal army was divided into several key components:

- **Infantry (Paidal)**: Composed of archers, swordsmen, and matchlock (musketeers). Though

rela vely less significant compared to cavalry, they played key roles in sieges and urban combat.

- **Cavalry (Sawars)**: The most important part of the Mughal military. Soldiers on horseback were
armed with bows, swords, and firearms. The Mughals relied heavily on **horse-mounted troops**
for quick mobility.

- **Ar llery**: Under Emperor Akbar, the use of **heavy ar llery** became crucial. Cannons were
employed in ba les and sieges, giving the Mughals an edge against Indian rulers who lacked
advanced firearms.

- **Elephants**: Used both as **war animals** and for transporta on of supplies. In ba le, they
were in mida ng but also served as pla orms for archers and commanders.

- **Navy**: Though the Mughals were primarily a land power, they maintained a navy for **riverine
opera ons and coastal defense**, par cularly under Akbar and Aurangzeb.
### 2. **The Mansabdari System**

The **mansabdari system** was a unique feature of the Mughal military structure. It was a **rank-
based system** where nobles (mansabdars) provided **troops and horses** in exchange for jagirs
(land assignments). The system also regulated the size of the army without burdening the central
treasury.

- **Zat**: The personal rank of a mansabdar, determining their salary and status.

- **Sawar**: Denoted the number of cavalry troops a mansabdar was expected to maintain.

- **Jagir**: A land grant given to mansabdars to cover the cost of maintaining their soldiers.

This system ensured that the army was **meritocra c** and that nobles stayed loyal to the emperor
by tying their income to the soldiers they fielded.

### 3. **Recruitment and Pay**

- The army was **mul -ethnic**, recrui ng soldiers from various communi es, including **Turks,
Afghans, Rajputs, and Indian Muslims**.

- Soldiers were paid either through **cash salaries** or **jagir grants**, with higher-ranking officials
receiving land revenues to support their troops.

- The **Mir Bakshi**, an important official, was in charge of military recruitment, promo ons, and
pay.

### 4. **Military Campaigns and Tac cs**

The Mughal military was known for its **effec ve use of both tradi onal and modern warfare
techniques**. Some key aspects of the Mughal strategy included:

- **Mobile warfare**: The Mughals emphasized mobility through their cavalry, ensuring rapid
movement in ba le.

- **Use of ar llery**: Akbar's use of cannons in ba les like the siege of **Chi or Fort (1568)** was
revolu onary for Indian warfare.

- **Diplomacy and Alliances**: Akbar’s policy of **marrying Rajput princesses** helped integrate
Rajput warriors into the Mughal military, strengthening their forces.

### 5. **Challenges and Decline**

- **Aurangzeb's Deccan campaigns** stretched the Mughal military to its limits, leading to fa gue
and financial strain.

- By the **18th century**, the quality of the army declined as **mansabdars** became more
focused on personal wealth rather than military efficiency.
- The rise of **regional powers** like the **Marathas** and **Bri sh forces** exposed the
limita ons of the Mughal military, which struggled to adapt to modern European warfare.

### **Conclusion**

The **Mughal army** was a cornerstone of the empire’s strength, enabling it to expand and
consolidate power over large parts of India. However, while the **mansabdari system** ini ally
ensured efficiency and loyalty, over me it became a liability, contribu ng to the eventual decline of
the Mughal military. Their ability to **blend tradi onal cavalry warfare with ar llery and
diplomacy** remains a significant legacy in military history.

This structure reflects the **military sophis ca on** and challenges of maintaining a large empire
across a diverse region

The end
 AbulFazal-Monarchy

INTRODUCTION

• ABUL FAZL is the most noted historian and poli cal thinker of Mughal period, was one of the nine
jewlls in Akbar's court
• His poli cal thoughts are spread across in his Ain-i-Akbari, 3rd volume of Akbarnama
• He supported social contract and need for social order as basis of sovereignty but also gave divine
authority to the King through his theory of divine light
• Through his idea of Sulh-i-Kul as state policy, he liberated the temporal sovereign from any
par cular faith, religious laws, dictates of the theologians
• He combined both temporal & spiritual sovereignty in the Godly King- the just sovereign, who not
only maintain his state but promote social harmony, religious tolerance, and becomes spiritual guide
to the na on
• Along with Sulh-i-Kul, promo ng science, reason, ra onality also duty of the King/state.

• Like Plato, he proposed 4-fold division of society and state/kingship; raised State as highest moral &
spiritual ins tu on
• Despite such path breaking poli cal ideas he cri cized for being contradictory, idealis c/utopic, not
original, and having li le impact on later Mughals
• He had given us a clear descrip on of the Mughal State system with clear historiography and & It's
very important source for present genera on to have acquaintance of Mughal Empire under the king
Akbar.

ABU'L-FAZL

• ABU'L-FAZL ibn Mubarak (1551-1602) popularly called ABUL FAZL, was born in Agra, where his
father shi ed from Nagaur (Rajasthan)
• Family of scholars: his father, Shaikh Mubarak was influen al liberal scholar who dra ed the decree
('mahzar') giving right of final arbiter of Shari ‘a to Akbar; His elder brother Abu'l Faizi was court poet
in Akbar's reign
• Received extensive educa on in all the branches of Islamic sciences from his father, had deep
influence of Sufi Philosophers ibn Arabi (Truth and unity of existence) and Shihabuddin Suhrawardi
(Israq- theory of light and illuminated wisdom)
• For his liberal and secular views, his father had to face wrath of theologians (Ulma) and had to live
life of fugi ve for some me a er 1569-70
• Gained access to Akbar's court through his brother Faizi in 1575. Soon became friend and
philosopher to Akbar and was his secretary and companion
• Abu'l Fazl was assassinated in 1602 by Vir Singh Bundela by a plot hatched by Prince Salim
• He was also one of the Nine Jewels (Navaratnas) of Akbar's royal court
• Social contract theory as basis of Sovereignty, theory of divine light, religious tolerance (Sulh-i-Kul),
state promo ng science & reason, are his las ng poli cal thoughts

● He was known for his intellectual themes and a commitment to reason.

● He was a historian, officer, chief secretary, and confidant of the Mughal emperor Akbar.
● Fazl’s wri ngs appeal to reason against religious and cultural tradi ons .
● His interpreta on of history was linked to the poli cal, social, economic and religious reali es of
that period and addressed the plurality and diversity of Indian society.
● Fazl was against the hardline Islam and challenged the conserva ve, narrow views of olama. He
was with Akbar for 2.5 decades.
● Fazl was influenced by the works and thoughts of ibn arabi who spoke about tracedental unity
once its reality is recognised, the differences seen in the sensory world are bound to lose their
significance and become illusory.
● While not presen ng a formal trea se on poli cal theory, Fazal is recognized as a poli cal thinker.
● His major works, Akbar-Nama and Ain-i-Akbari, provide insights into poli cal philosophy and
historical events.
● He supported social contract and need for social order as basis of sovereignty but also gave divine
authority to the King through his theory of divine light.
● In Ain-i-Akbari, Fazal adopts a ma er-of-fact and straigh orward approach to presen ng
informa on.
● Fazal's influence on Akbar's poli cal theory should be understood without exaggera on,
considering Akbar's character and various influencing factors.
● Poli cal concepts in Islam have diverse origins, including pre-Islamic sources and teachings of the
Prophet Muhammad.
● The incep on of the Mughal Empire in India faced poli cal instability due to the division of the
region into smaller kingdoms.
● Abul Fazal approached history with logic and a secular perspec ve, introducing a novel
methodology for collec ng and presen ng facts.
● His contribu ons substan ally expanded the scope of historical research and wri ng, covering
administra ve norms, methods, and topographical accounts.

METHODOLOGY

● Abul Fazal had a ra onal and secular approach to history which is the hallmark of his wri ngs

● He adopted new methodology to collect the facts and make them the basis of cri cal inves ga on.
● He recorded facts pertaining to socio-economic poli cal life.
● He collected the material, and facts a er careful inquiry and inves ga on, and presented them in a
clear and systema c manner.
● He ques oned the validity of a source also, cross-examined them, and then reached to
conclusions.
● Reports, memoranda, minutes prepared by the offices, imperial Farmans, and other records were
carefully consulted by him before racing to any conclusions.

WORKS OF ABU'L-FAZL

1.The Akbarnama
The Akbarnama is a document of history of Akbar's reign and his ancestors spread over three
volumes. It contains the history of Akbar's ancestors from Timur to Humayun, Akbar's reign up to the
46th regnal year (1602), and an administra ve report of Akbar's empire, the Ain-i-Akbari, which itself
is in three volumes. The third volume of Ain-i-Akbari gives an account of the ancestry and life of the
author. The Ain-i-Akbari was completed in the 42nd regnal year, but a slight addi on was made to it
in the 43rd regnal year on the account of the conquest of Berar
2.Ruqa āt
ʿ The Ruqa āt or the Ruqa āt-i-Abu'l Fazl is a collec on of priva ʿ ʿ te le ers from Abū al-Fażl to Murad,
Daniyal, Akbar, Mariam Makani, Salim (Jahangir), Akbar's queens and daughters, his father, mother
and brothers and several other notable contemporaries compiled by his nephew Nūr al-Dīn Mu am ḥ
mad.
3.Inshā-i-Abu'l Fazl
The Inshā-i-Abu'l Fazl or the Maqtubāt-i-Allami contains the official despatches wri en by Abu'l Fazl.
It is divided into two parts. The first part contains Akbar's le ers to Abdullah Khan Uzbeg of Turan,
Shah Abbas of Persia, Raja Ali Khan of Khandesh, Burhan-ul-Mulk of Ahmadnagar and his own nobles
such as Abdur Rahim Khan Khanan. The second part consists Abu'l Fazl's le ers to Akbar, Daniyal,
Mirza Shah Rukh and Khan Khanan. This collec on was compiled by Abd-us-samad, son of Afzal
Muhammad, who claims that he was Abu'l Fazl's sister's son as well as his son-in-law.
4. Abul Fazl, a contemporary of Abdul Qadir Badauni, was a cour er, historian and also a friend to
Akbar, the greatest of all Mughal rulers. He finished his massive and defini ve work, the Akbar Nama
and Ain-i-Akbari, in the waning years of the sixteenth century. It marks a decisive and schema c
departure from the predominant historiographic format of the me, as it does in several other
aspects of the construc on of an alterna ve world view. The Akbar Nama opens with the praise of
Allah, for sure, and then moves to Adam and traces Akbar’s lineage back to fi y-three genera ons of
his ancestors. It dislocates the historiographic axis from the groove of Islam and seeks to construct an
alterna ve teleology of universal history in which Akbar is the heir not of Muhammad and the
caliphs, but of Adam himself, the first human being, and thus the ruler of all humanity.
5. The text therefore promotes the idea of a powerful sovereign and a centralized state structure.

ABUL FAZL: theory of kingship and sovereignty

•Akbar's theory of kingship was influenced by Turko-Mongol theory of kingship, his liberal ancestral
and paternal legacy, broad mindedness of his teachers like Abul La f and Pir Mohammad, liberal
environment created by Sufi and Bhak movement and poli cal necessity of the me.
• Akbar's theory of Kingship was presented by Abul Fazl in Akbarnama.
• Abul Fazl says: "No dignity is higher in the eyes of God than royalty. Royalty is a remedy for the
spirit of rebellion...."
• Even the meaning of the word Padshah shows this for pad signifies stability and possession and
shah means origin, Lord .
•Highly exhaulted status of the king and Abul Fazl presented this through many symbols, metaphors
and miniature pain ng which depicts Akbar as divine, enlightened and infallible personality.
• He presents the view that kingship is the gi of god.
•The ruler was not dependent on it on the ulama, and everyone had to submit to one who possessed
it.
• Abul Fazl adds: "Royalty is a light emana ng from God, and a ray from the sun"
• Modern language calls this light farri izidi (the divine light) and the tongue of an quity called it
kiyan khwarah (the sublime halo).
•Kingship is Farr-i-Izidi i.e. divine light or light emana ng from God. Hence no one can stand between
God and the ruler.
• It is communicated by God to kings without the intermediate assistance of anyone.
•Again many excellent quali es flow from the possession of divine light/ Farr-iIzidi, e.g.,
• a paternal love towards the subjects,
• a large heart i.e. benevolent, generous, receives li le and give more.
•trust in God, prayer and devo on, etc.

• He is not upset by adversity, punishes the tyrant and behaves with modera on and with reason.
• At another place, Abul Fazl repeats that "The shamsa of the arch of royalty is a divine light, which
God directly transfers to kings, without the assistance of men..."
• The king was therefore deemed divinely guided and divinely protected.
•Presented dynas c ideology linking it with supernatural i.e. his ancestors came from heaven as
kings. Thus, he established divine origin of Akbar.
•The sight of the king is the part of divine worship and to behold is a mean of calling to mind the
creator and such percep on gave birth to prac ces like Zharoka-i-darshan, Jameen Bes- forms of
saluta on in court.
• Abul Fazl's basic concept was of a liberal absolu sm under a ruler of high endeavour endowed with
the highest moral and spiritual quali es, and enjoying heaven's mandate, so that he was not
dependent on any set of religious leaders for legi miza on.
•It is significant that the absolute tradi ons of sovereignty and conjunc on of spiritual and temporal
rulership was developed at many courts as a defence mechanism against undue encroachment upon
king's authority by lesser mortals.
• The philosophy and the spirit of the concepts of Farr-i izidi, kiyan khwarah, etc. were the same, that
is, the inten on was to guard against any direct or indirect share in king's authority.
• The theory of sovereignty propounded by Abul Fazl on behalf of Akbar and reflected in his mahzar
and "Ai'n-i rahnamuni" seems to be as close to the Central Asian and Perso-Islamic concepts as to the
Chingizi tradi ons of sovereignty.
•Alauddin Khalji had tried to abide by the "Law of expediency". Akbar went ahead of him.
• By the mahzar (dra ed by Shaikh Mubarak and his two sons), the Emperor was cer fied to be a just
ruler (Imam Adil) and was as such assigned the rank of mujtahid, i.e. "infallible authority".
• Akbar through Mahazar became the supreme interpreter of Shariyat, subordina ng Ulemmas.

Sovereignty as a social contract

● Abul Fazl, akin to Ziauddin Barani, aimed for social stability but approached sovereignty differently.
● In Ain-i-Akbari, Abul Fazl advocated sovereignty based on a social contract rather than Shariah law,
emphasizing the emergence of poli cal authority.
● He highlighted that a lack of a strong ruler could lead to lawlessness and rebellion, reflec ng a pre-
state society resembling Thomas Hobbes' nega ve view of the pre-contract state.
● Abul Fazl promoted the theory of a 'Social Contract' wherein sovereignty was an agreement
between the king and subjects. The king protected life, property, honor, and religion in exchange for
obedience and resources from the subjects.
● He believed only a just ruler, guided by power and divine guidance, could honor these contracts,
viewing the king as the protector and well-wisher of his subjects.
● The principle of public interest was sustained by Akbar's successors, aligning with the idea of a just,
fair, and caring king.

● Abul Fazl rooted sovereignty in the needs of social order, integra ng reasoning, philosophy, and
divine light (Farr-i-Izadi), somewhat rejec ng the tradi onal no on of the king as the shadow of God
(Zill-i-Ilahi)

•He defined sovereignty as a contract under which the Emperor protects 4 essences of his subjects:

• Jaan (life) • Maal (property) • Namus (honour) • Din (religion) • In return demand obedience and a
share of resources. He says: "Only a just sovereign is able to honour this contract with power and
divine guidance."

Features of his social contract theory:

● No contract among the people themselves; people didn’t form any poli cal community out of such
contract.
● Absolute sovereignty to the King- no restraint on his power- like Leviathan of Hobbes.
● No men on of op ons to people to change the king in case he becomes tyrannical, cruel and
unjust or not able to protect them.
● Only just sovereigns are able to honour the contract with power and Divine guidance/blessings.
Thus, no guarantee that the King would honour the contract.
● Not well developed like social the social contract theory of origin of state by modern western
poli cal thinkers such as Hobbes, Locke and Rousseau\

Divine Light Theory of Kingship:

● Based on Ishraq theory: the theory of divine light emana ng from the Sun was developed by 12th
century Sufi philosopher Shihabuddin Suhrawardi.
● Abul Fazl says: "No dignity is higher in the eyes of God than royalty. Royalty is a remedy for the
spirit of rebellion...."
● He says that the king was something more than an average human being. He was the
representa ve of God on earth and His shadow. He was given greater knowledge and wisdom than
any other human being.

● According to him, “state-power is the light emana ng from God and the ray emana ng from the
sun.”
● Akbar and other Mughal rulers assumed the tle of Zill-i-Ilahi i.e. ‘Shadow of God’.
● Fazl believed The term Padshahat (Badshahat) meant ‘an established owner’ where Pad stands for
stability and shah stands for the owner.
● Padshahat means a powerful, established owner who cannot be eliminated by anyone.
● According to Abul Fazl, ‘Badshahat is the light derived from God which has been sent by God
himself. God throws his kindness on Badshah; who works as the agent of god’
● The possession of this divine light, according to Abul Fazl, brings forth quali es such as paternal
love towards subjects, generosity, trust in God, and devo on.
● Kingship is Farr-i-Izidi i.e. divine light or light emana ng from God. Hence no one can stand
between God and the ruler.
● King is not shadow of the God, but "light of God “, directly linked to God, part of God not merely
his shadow. The sublime halo represents the divine light.
● He was the ul mate authority on all social, economic, poli cal and judicial powers. The ruler was
not dependent on the ulama
● The king was the final authority in governance, administra on, agriculture, educa on, and other
fields, but he had no say if they were related to religious ma ers.
● The ray of divine wisdom banishes from his heart everything that is conflic ng, guide him to be just
like Sun, like rain, maintain harmony raising above mean conflicts/differences, makes him ‘perfect
man’ ( İnsan-ı Kâmil ) and spiritual guide to the na on.

FAZL’S IDEAL SULTAN – AKBAR

• His ideal king is just and sovereign monarch, receiving divine light directly from God
•By virtue of the divine light, heart of the ideal King is free from any conflict, disunity, and dis
harmony
• He has the Godly vision to see truth and act justly without any decima on between his subject, for
which he is the spiritual guide
• Ideal Kingship is based on the principle of Universal peace, religious tolerance and social harmony
(Sulh-i-kul)
• Ideal king is able to honour the social contract with just force and Divine guidance.
• The ideal king has Strong will, does God worship, is wise, not wrathful, considerate, believe in
science & reason, and provide quick relief to poor/needy/jus ce seeker
• Rule of the ideal king is long las ng, just, and peaceful; Jus ce is the highest virtue of the ideal
ruler

• Thus, Abul fazl's ideal king, divinely inspired perfect man, who has supreme sovereignty- both
temporal & spiritual-over his people and complete control over his enemies

THE POLICY OF SULH-E-KUL

● Abul Fazl supported the policy of Sulh-i-kul, or universal peace, a key element in Mughal kingship.
● This policy advocated religious tolerance, emphasizing that the ruler should not discriminate
among various faiths.
● Under Sulh-i-kul, religions had freedom of expression as long as they didn't harm the monarchy or
incite conflict.
● Abul Fazl believed that in a diverse country like India, monarchial sovereignty was more relevant,
placing the monarch above any par cular religion.
● He endorsed the good values of different faiths to maintain peace and unity, emphasizing the
sovereign's tolerance toward exis ng beliefs.
● This policy was implemented through state prac ces, integra ng nobles of various backgrounds
into the Mughal aristocracy based on talent and loyalty, not religion or caste .
● Akbar's rule demonstrated religious impar ality by abolishing taxes based on pilgrimage and
religious affilia on( pilgrimage tax in 1563 CE and jizya in 1564 CE.), promo ng the principles of Sulh-
i-kul in administra on, and funding the construc on of places of worship.

FAZL’S SOCIETAL DIVISION

● Abul Fazl proposed a four-fold societal division, similar to Plato's three-fold model, emphasizing
dis nct classes with designated roles.
● His societal structure comprised: a. Warriors: Equivalent to Plato's Guardian or warrior class,
entrusted with protec on and defense. b. Learned Men: Comparable to Plato's rulers or the official
class, focused on intellectual pursuits and governance. c. Husbandmen & Laborers: Represen ng
agricultural and labour-oriented roles essen al for societal sustenance. d. Ar ficers & Merchants:
Similar to Plato's third class, encompassing ar sans and traders, contribu ng to economic func ons.
● Abul Fazl linked these societal divisions to the four elements of Fire, Air, Water, and Earth,
highligh ng their interdependence for societal balance.
● He mirrored this division within the realm of royalty or the state, delinea ng classes as:

a. Nobles of the State

b. Assistants of Victory
c. Companions of the King d. Servants
● Emphasized the crucial role of the King in establishing and maintaining societal order, stressing the
need for equilibrium among these four divisions for the welfare and stability of the state.
● Indicated that the harmonious func oning of these societal divisions was pivotal for the state's
prosperity and peace, before considering other elements like the military, economy, or
administra on.
● Abul Fazl envisioned a moral and poli cal convergence in the state, with the King serving as its
spiritual guide, aligning the state's aims with moral and spiritual ideals

THEORY OF JUSTICE

● Abul Fazl emphasized the king's duty to administer jus ce to the people, punishing wrongdoers
and ensuring fairness for the innocent.
● He believed a king should dispense jus ce with kindness and harmony, trea ng his subjects like his
own children, embodying a fatherly role in governance.
● According to him, the king should perceive himself as a medium for the welfare of his people, sent
by God to establish peace and jus ce.
● Abul Fazl advocated that the ruler must maintain impar ality, ensuring that no one is harmed by
his decisions or ac ons.
● He stressed the ruler's independence from religious figures, highligh ng the importance of high
moral and spiritual quali es
● His vision of jus ce relied on reason as a crucial element in a aining an ideal concept of fairness
and righteousness in governance.

while dispensing Jus ce Badshah should always keep in mind that the repas is rent by God on Earth
to ensure peace and jus ce for all.

while dispensing Jus ce, King should equally treat everyone and should not hurt amyme.

For Farl, Jus ce also meant to take care of basic needs of the people

while dispensing Jus ce i Badshah should Keep himself in the Shoe e of Crime and make judgments
a er knowing the condi on and situa on in which Crime was Commi ed.

To increase the Goodness of the Stare, King should reward good people and punish wrongdoers

Thus, Badshah was the highert Judiciary and he does not needed any religious assistance; while
dispensing Jus ce.

Administrative structure of the Mughal Empire.

The **Mughal Empire’s administra ve structure** was a highly organized and hierarchical
system, ensuring the smooth governance of a vast and diverse empire. It combined **Persian, Turco-
Mongol, and Indian tradi ons**, balancing centralized authority with local autonomy.

### 1. **Central Administra on**

- **Emperor**: At the top of the structure, the emperor was the **supreme authority**, with
control over poli cal, military, and religious ma ers. His word was law.

- **Council of Ministers**:

- **Wazir (Prime Minister)**: Headed the revenue and finance departments.

- **Mir Bakshi**: Managed the military and soldier recruitment.

- **Sadr-us-Sudoor**: Handled religious ma ers and charity (like waqfs).

- **Mir Saman**: Managed the royal household and supply of goods for the court.

The **emperor** appointed ministers based on loyalty and merit, ensuring efficient governance.

### 2. **Provincial Administra on**

- **Subas (Provinces)**: The empire was divided into **15 to 20 provinces** under different
emperors.

- **Subedar (Governor)**: Managed law and order, revenue collec on, and military in the province.

- **Diwan**: Oversaw **revenue administra on** in the province.

 - **Bakshi**: Managed military pay and logis cs at the provincial level.

- **Qazi**: Acted as the chief judicial officer, ensuring legal disputes were resolved fairly.

This division ensured the empire could manage distant regions effec vely.

### 3. **District and Local Administra on**

- Each province (suba) was divided into **sarkars (districts)**, further divided into **parganas**
(sub-districts), and finally into **villages**.

- **Faujdar**: Military officer at the district level to maintain law and order.

- **Amil**: Revenue collector at the pargana level.

- **Patwari**: Maintained village-level land records.

This mul - ered structure allowed the Mughals to maintain control and ensure tax collec on
throughout the empire.

### 4. **Revenue Administra on: The Mansabdari System**

- **Mansabdari System**: Officials were ranked based on the **number of soldiers (zat)** they
maintained and were granted **jagirs** (land assignments) as a reward.

- **Raja Todar Mal’s Dahsala System**: A land revenue system that assessed taxes based on a **10-
year average** of crop yields and ensured tax fairness.

Revenue from agriculture was the backbone of the Mughal economy, with **tax collec on**
managed at various levels.

### 5. **Judicial Administra on**

- **Qazi**: Handled Islamic law (Sharia) and civil disputes.

- **Kotwal**: Managed city police and market regula on, ensuring law and order in urban areas.

- The emperor could **intervene as the highest court of appeal** in significant cases.

This system provided both central and local avenues for jus ce, combining **Islamic law** with local
tradi ons.

### 6. **Military Administra on**

- **Mir Bakshi**: Head of military administra on, responsible for recrui ng and paying soldiers.
- **Mansabdars**: Nobles and officials maintained **private armies**, contribu ng to the imperial
forces.

- The military structure ensured that **Mughals had a large, standing army** without burdening the
treasury.

### 7. **Religious and Cultural Policies**

- **Sadr-us-Sudoor** oversaw religious endowments and promoted cultural ac vi es.

- Akbar’s **Sulh-i-Kul** (universal peace) policy ensured religious tolerance and harmony among
different communi es, fostering poli cal stability.

### **Conclusion**

The **Mughal administra ve structure** was a sophis cated and efficient system that ensured
**control, jus ce, and revenue collec on**. The **centralized authority** of the emperor was
complemented by **local administra on**, balancing power to manage a vast and diverse empire.
This structure enabled the Mughal Empire to thrive for centuries.

ARMY IN MUGAL ADMINISTRATION

The **Mughal army** was one of the most powerful military systems of its me, with a
sophis cated structure that combined **Turco-Mongol, Persian, and Indian military tradi ons**. It
was organized to ensure both **centralized control and flexibility** for expansion and defense.
Below is an overview of the Mughal military system.

### 1. **Composi on of the Mughal Army**

The Mughal army was divided into several key components:

- **Infantry (Paidal)**: Composed of archers, swordsmen, and matchlock (musketeers). Though

rela vely less significant compared to cavalry, they played key roles in sieges and urban combat.

- **Cavalry (Sawars)**: The most important part of the Mughal military. Soldiers on horseback were
armed with bows, swords, and firearms. The Mughals relied heavily on **horse-mounted troops**
for quick mobility.

- **Ar llery**: Under Emperor Akbar, the use of **heavy ar llery** became crucial. Cannons were
employed in ba les and sieges, giving the Mughals an edge against Indian rulers who lacked
advanced firearms.

- **Elephants**: Used both as **war animals** and for transporta on of supplies. In ba le, they
were in mida ng but also served as pla orms for archers and commanders.

- **Navy**: Though the Mughals were primarily a land power, they maintained a navy for **riverine
opera ons and coastal defense**, par cularly under Akbar and Aurangzeb.
### 2. **The Mansabdari System**

The **mansabdari system** was a unique feature of the Mughal military structure. It was a **rank-
based system** where nobles (mansabdars) provided **troops and horses** in exchange for jagirs
(land assignments). The system also regulated the size of the army without burdening the central
treasury.

- **Zat**: The personal rank of a mansabdar, determining their salary and status.

- **Sawar**: Denoted the number of cavalry troops a mansabdar was expected to maintain.

- **Jagir**: A land grant given to mansabdars to cover the cost of maintaining their soldiers.

This system ensured that the army was **meritocra c** and that nobles stayed loyal to the emperor
by tying their income to the soldiers they fielded.

### 3. **Recruitment and Pay**

- The army was **mul -ethnic**, recrui ng soldiers from various communi es, including **Turks,
Afghans, Rajputs, and Indian Muslims**.

- Soldiers were paid either through **cash salaries** or **jagir grants**, with higher-ranking officials
receiving land revenues to support their troops.

- The **Mir Bakshi**, an important official, was in charge of military recruitment, promo ons, and
pay.

### 4. **Military Campaigns and Tac cs**

The Mughal military was known for its **effec ve use of both tradi onal and modern warfare
techniques**. Some key aspects of the Mughal strategy included:

- **Mobile warfare**: The Mughals emphasized mobility through their cavalry, ensuring rapid
movement in ba le.

- **Use of ar llery**: Akbar's use of cannons in ba les like the siege of **Chi or Fort (1568)** was
revolu onary for Indian warfare.

- **Diplomacy and Alliances**: Akbar’s policy of **marrying Rajput princesses** helped integrate
Rajput warriors into the Mughal military, strengthening their forces.

### 5. **Challenges and Decline**

- **Aurangzeb's Deccan campaigns** stretched the Mughal military to its limits, leading to fa gue
and financial strain.

- By the **18th century**, the quality of the army declined as **mansabdars** became more
focused on personal wealth rather than military efficiency.
- The rise of **regional powers** like the **Marathas** and **Bri sh forces** exposed the
limita ons of the Mughal military, which struggled to adapt to modern European warfare.

### **Conclusion**

The **Mughal army** was a cornerstone of the empire’s strength, enabling it to expand and
consolidate power over large parts of India. However, while the **mansabdari system** ini ally
ensured efficiency and loyalty, over me it became a liability, contribu ng to the eventual decline of
the Mughal military. Their ability to **blend tradi onal cavalry warfare with ar llery and
diplomacy** remains a significant legacy in military history.

This structure reflects the **military sophis ca on** and challenges of maintaining a large empire
across a diverse region

The end
 AbulFazal-Monarchy

INTRODUCTION

• ABUL FAZL is the most noted historian and poli cal thinker of Mughal period, was one of the nine
jewlls in Akbar's court
• His poli cal thoughts are spread across in his Ain-i-Akbari, 3rd volume of Akbarnama
• He supported social contract and need for social order as basis of sovereignty but also gave divine
authority to the King through his theory of divine light
• Through his idea of Sulh-i-Kul as state policy, he liberated the temporal sovereign from any
par cular faith, religious laws, dictates of the theologians
• He combined both temporal & spiritual sovereignty in the Godly King- the just sovereign, who not
only maintain his state but promote social harmony, religious tolerance, and becomes spiritual guide
to the na on
• Along with Sulh-i-Kul, promo ng science, reason, ra onality also duty of the King/state.

• Like Plato, he proposed 4-fold division of society and state/kingship; raised State as highest moral &
spiritual ins tu on
• Despite such path breaking poli cal ideas he cri cized for being contradictory, idealis c/utopic, not
original, and having li le impact on later Mughals
• He had given us a clear descrip on of the Mughal State system with clear historiography and & It's
very important source for present genera on to have acquaintance of Mughal Empire under the king
Akbar.

ABU'L-FAZL

• ABU'L-FAZL ibn Mubarak (1551-1602) popularly called ABUL FAZL, was born in Agra, where his
father shi ed from Nagaur (Rajasthan)
• Family of scholars: his father, Shaikh Mubarak was influen al liberal scholar who dra ed the decree
('mahzar') giving right of final arbiter of Shari ‘a to Akbar; His elder brother Abu'l Faizi was court poet
in Akbar's reign
• Received extensive educa on in all the branches of Islamic sciences from his father, had deep
influence of Sufi Philosophers ibn Arabi (Truth and unity of existence) and Shihabuddin Suhrawardi
(Israq- theory of light and illuminated wisdom)
• For his liberal and secular views, his father had to face wrath of theologians (Ulma) and had to live
life of fugi ve for some me a er 1569-70
• Gained access to Akbar's court through his brother Faizi in 1575. Soon became friend and
philosopher to Akbar and was his secretary and companion
• Abu'l Fazl was assassinated in 1602 by Vir Singh Bundela by a plot hatched by Prince Salim
• He was also one of the Nine Jewels (Navaratnas) of Akbar's royal court
• Social contract theory as basis of Sovereignty, theory of divine light, religious tolerance (Sulh-i-Kul),
state promo ng science & reason, are his las ng poli cal thoughts

● He was known for his intellectual themes and a commitment to reason.

● He was a historian, officer, chief secretary, and confidant of the Mughal emperor Akbar.
● Fazl’s wri ngs appeal to reason against religious and cultural tradi ons .
● His interpreta on of history was linked to the poli cal, social, economic and religious reali es of
that period and addressed the plurality and diversity of Indian society.
● Fazl was against the hardline Islam and challenged the conserva ve, narrow views of olama. He
was with Akbar for 2.5 decades.
● Fazl was influenced by the works and thoughts of ibn arabi who spoke about tracedental unity
once its reality is recognised, the differences seen in the sensory world are bound to lose their
significance and become illusory.
● While not presen ng a formal trea se on poli cal theory, Fazal is recognized as a poli cal thinker.
● His major works, Akbar-Nama and Ain-i-Akbari, provide insights into poli cal philosophy and
historical events.
● He supported social contract and need for social order as basis of sovereignty but also gave divine
authority to the King through his theory of divine light.
● In Ain-i-Akbari, Fazal adopts a ma er-of-fact and straigh orward approach to presen ng
informa on.
● Fazal's influence on Akbar's poli cal theory should be understood without exaggera on,
considering Akbar's character and various influencing factors.
● Poli cal concepts in Islam have diverse origins, including pre-Islamic sources and teachings of the
Prophet Muhammad.
● The incep on of the Mughal Empire in India faced poli cal instability due to the division of the
region into smaller kingdoms.
● Abul Fazal approached history with logic and a secular perspec ve, introducing a novel
methodology for collec ng and presen ng facts.
● His contribu ons substan ally expanded the scope of historical research and wri ng, covering
administra ve norms, methods, and topographical accounts.

METHODOLOGY

● Abul Fazal had a ra onal and secular approach to history which is the hallmark of his wri ngs

● He adopted new methodology to collect the facts and make them the basis of cri cal inves ga on.
● He recorded facts pertaining to socio-economic poli cal life.
● He collected the material, and facts a er careful inquiry and inves ga on, and presented them in a
clear and systema c manner.
● He ques oned the validity of a source also, cross-examined them, and then reached to
conclusions.
● Reports, memoranda, minutes prepared by the offices, imperial Farmans, and other records were
carefully consulted by him before racing to any conclusions.

WORKS OF ABU'L-FAZL

1.The Akbarnama
The Akbarnama is a document of history of Akbar's reign and his ancestors spread over three
volumes. It contains the history of Akbar's ancestors from Timur to Humayun, Akbar's reign up to the
46th regnal year (1602), and an administra ve report of Akbar's empire, the Ain-i-Akbari, which itself
is in three volumes. The third volume of Ain-i-Akbari gives an account of the ancestry and life of the
author. The Ain-i-Akbari was completed in the 42nd regnal year, but a slight addi on was made to it
in the 43rd regnal year on the account of the conquest of Berar
2.Ruqa āt
ʿ The Ruqa āt or the Ruqa āt-i-Abu'l Fazl is a collec on of priva ʿ ʿ te le ers from Abū al-Fażl to Murad,
Daniyal, Akbar, Mariam Makani, Salim (Jahangir), Akbar's queens and daughters, his father, mother
and brothers and several other notable contemporaries compiled by his nephew Nūr al-Dīn Mu am ḥ
mad.
3.Inshā-i-Abu'l Fazl
The Inshā-i-Abu'l Fazl or the Maqtubāt-i-Allami contains the official despatches wri en by Abu'l Fazl.
It is divided into two parts. The first part contains Akbar's le ers to Abdullah Khan Uzbeg of Turan,
Shah Abbas of Persia, Raja Ali Khan of Khandesh, Burhan-ul-Mulk of Ahmadnagar and his own nobles
such as Abdur Rahim Khan Khanan. The second part consists Abu'l Fazl's le ers to Akbar, Daniyal,
Mirza Shah Rukh and Khan Khanan. This collec on was compiled by Abd-us-samad, son of Afzal
Muhammad, who claims that he was Abu'l Fazl's sister's son as well as his son-in-law.
4. Abul Fazl, a contemporary of Abdul Qadir Badauni, was a cour er, historian and also a friend to
Akbar, the greatest of all Mughal rulers. He finished his massive and defini ve work, the Akbar Nama
and Ain-i-Akbari, in the waning years of the sixteenth century. It marks a decisive and schema c
departure from the predominant historiographic format of the me, as it does in several other
aspects of the construc on of an alterna ve world view. The Akbar Nama opens with the praise of
Allah, for sure, and then moves to Adam and traces Akbar’s lineage back to fi y-three genera ons of
his ancestors. It dislocates the historiographic axis from the groove of Islam and seeks to construct an
alterna ve teleology of universal history in which Akbar is the heir not of Muhammad and the
caliphs, but of Adam himself, the first human being, and thus the ruler of all humanity.
5. The text therefore promotes the idea of a powerful sovereign and a centralized state structure.

ABUL FAZL: theory of kingship and sovereignty

•Akbar's theory of kingship was influenced by Turko-Mongol theory of kingship, his liberal ancestral
and paternal legacy, broad mindedness of his teachers like Abul La f and Pir Mohammad, liberal
environment created by Sufi and Bhak movement and poli cal necessity of the me.
• Akbar's theory of Kingship was presented by Abul Fazl in Akbarnama.
• Abul Fazl says: "No dignity is higher in the eyes of God than royalty. Royalty is a remedy for the
spirit of rebellion...."
• Even the meaning of the word Padshah shows this for pad signifies stability and possession and
shah means origin, Lord .
•Highly exhaulted status of the king and Abul Fazl presented this through many symbols, metaphors
and miniature pain ng which depicts Akbar as divine, enlightened and infallible personality.
• He presents the view that kingship is the gi of god.
•The ruler was not dependent on it on the ulama, and everyone had to submit to one who possessed
it.
• Abul Fazl adds: "Royalty is a light emana ng from God, and a ray from the sun"
• Modern language calls this light farri izidi (the divine light) and the tongue of an quity called it
kiyan khwarah (the sublime halo).
•Kingship is Farr-i-Izidi i.e. divine light or light emana ng from God. Hence no one can stand between
God and the ruler.
• It is communicated by God to kings without the intermediate assistance of anyone.
•Again many excellent quali es flow from the possession of divine light/ Farr-iIzidi, e.g.,
• a paternal love towards the subjects,
• a large heart i.e. benevolent, generous, receives li le and give more.
•trust in God, prayer and devo on, etc.

• He is not upset by adversity, punishes the tyrant and behaves with modera on and with reason.
• At another place, Abul Fazl repeats that "The shamsa of the arch of royalty is a divine light, which
God directly transfers to kings, without the assistance of men..."
• The king was therefore deemed divinely guided and divinely protected.
•Presented dynas c ideology linking it with supernatural i.e. his ancestors came from heaven as
kings. Thus, he established divine origin of Akbar.
•The sight of the king is the part of divine worship and to behold is a mean of calling to mind the
creator and such percep on gave birth to prac ces like Zharoka-i-darshan, Jameen Bes- forms of
saluta on in court.
• Abul Fazl's basic concept was of a liberal absolu sm under a ruler of high endeavour endowed with
the highest moral and spiritual quali es, and enjoying heaven's mandate, so that he was not
dependent on any set of religious leaders for legi miza on.
•It is significant that the absolute tradi ons of sovereignty and conjunc on of spiritual and temporal
rulership was developed at many courts as a defence mechanism against undue encroachment upon
king's authority by lesser mortals.
• The philosophy and the spirit of the concepts of Farr-i izidi, kiyan khwarah, etc. were the same, that
is, the inten on was to guard against any direct or indirect share in king's authority.
• The theory of sovereignty propounded by Abul Fazl on behalf of Akbar and reflected in his mahzar
and "Ai'n-i rahnamuni" seems to be as close to the Central Asian and Perso-Islamic concepts as to the
Chingizi tradi ons of sovereignty.
•Alauddin Khalji had tried to abide by the "Law of expediency". Akbar went ahead of him.
• By the mahzar (dra ed by Shaikh Mubarak and his two sons), the Emperor was cer fied to be a just
ruler (Imam Adil) and was as such assigned the rank of mujtahid, i.e. "infallible authority".
• Akbar through Mahazar became the supreme interpreter of Shariyat, subordina ng Ulemmas.

Sovereignty as a social contract

● Abul Fazl, akin to Ziauddin Barani, aimed for social stability but approached sovereignty differently.
● In Ain-i-Akbari, Abul Fazl advocated sovereignty based on a social contract rather than Shariah law,
emphasizing the emergence of poli cal authority.
● He highlighted that a lack of a strong ruler could lead to lawlessness and rebellion, reflec ng a pre-
state society resembling Thomas Hobbes' nega ve view of the pre-contract state.
● Abul Fazl promoted the theory of a 'Social Contract' wherein sovereignty was an agreement
between the king and subjects. The king protected life, property, honor, and religion in exchange for
obedience and resources from the subjects.
● He believed only a just ruler, guided by power and divine guidance, could honor these contracts,
viewing the king as the protector and well-wisher of his subjects.
● The principle of public interest was sustained by Akbar's successors, aligning with the idea of a just,
fair, and caring king.

● Abul Fazl rooted sovereignty in the needs of social order, integra ng reasoning, philosophy, and
divine light (Farr-i-Izadi), somewhat rejec ng the tradi onal no on of the king as the shadow of God
(Zill-i-Ilahi)

•He defined sovereignty as a contract under which the Emperor protects 4 essences of his subjects:

• Jaan (life) • Maal (property) • Namus (honour) • Din (religion) • In return demand obedience and a
share of resources. He says: "Only a just sovereign is able to honour this contract with power and
divine guidance."

Features of his social contract theory:

● No contract among the people themselves; people didn’t form any poli cal community out of such
contract.
● Absolute sovereignty to the King- no restraint on his power- like Leviathan of Hobbes.
● No men on of op ons to people to change the king in case he becomes tyrannical, cruel and
unjust or not able to protect them.
● Only just sovereigns are able to honour the contract with power and Divine guidance/blessings.
Thus, no guarantee that the King would honour the contract.
● Not well developed like social the social contract theory of origin of state by modern western
poli cal thinkers such as Hobbes, Locke and Rousseau\

Divine Light Theory of Kingship:

● Based on Ishraq theory: the theory of divine light emana ng from the Sun was developed by 12th
century Sufi philosopher Shihabuddin Suhrawardi.
● Abul Fazl says: "No dignity is higher in the eyes of God than royalty. Royalty is a remedy for the
spirit of rebellion...."
● He says that the king was something more than an average human being. He was the
representa ve of God on earth and His shadow. He was given greater knowledge and wisdom than
any other human being.

● According to him, “state-power is the light emana ng from God and the ray emana ng from the
sun.”
● Akbar and other Mughal rulers assumed the tle of Zill-i-Ilahi i.e. ‘Shadow of God’.
● Fazl believed The term Padshahat (Badshahat) meant ‘an established owner’ where Pad stands for
stability and shah stands for the owner.
● Padshahat means a powerful, established owner who cannot be eliminated by anyone.
● According to Abul Fazl, ‘Badshahat is the light derived from God which has been sent by God
himself. God throws his kindness on Badshah; who works as the agent of god’
● The possession of this divine light, according to Abul Fazl, brings forth quali es such as paternal
love towards subjects, generosity, trust in God, and devo on.
● Kingship is Farr-i-Izidi i.e. divine light or light emana ng from God. Hence no one can stand
between God and the ruler.
● King is not shadow of the God, but "light of God “, directly linked to God, part of God not merely
his shadow. The sublime halo represents the divine light.
● He was the ul mate authority on all social, economic, poli cal and judicial powers. The ruler was
not dependent on the ulama
● The king was the final authority in governance, administra on, agriculture, educa on, and other
fields, but he had no say if they were related to religious ma ers.
● The ray of divine wisdom banishes from his heart everything that is conflic ng, guide him to be just
like Sun, like rain, maintain harmony raising above mean conflicts/differences, makes him ‘perfect
man’ ( İnsan-ı Kâmil ) and spiritual guide to the na on.

FAZL’S IDEAL SULTAN – AKBAR

• His ideal king is just and sovereign monarch, receiving divine light directly from God
•By virtue of the divine light, heart of the ideal King is free from any conflict, disunity, and dis
harmony
• He has the Godly vision to see truth and act justly without any decima on between his subject, for
which he is the spiritual guide
• Ideal Kingship is based on the principle of Universal peace, religious tolerance and social harmony
(Sulh-i-kul)
• Ideal king is able to honour the social contract with just force and Divine guidance.
• The ideal king has Strong will, does God worship, is wise, not wrathful, considerate, believe in
science & reason, and provide quick relief to poor/needy/jus ce seeker
• Rule of the ideal king is long las ng, just, and peaceful; Jus ce is the highest virtue of the ideal
ruler

• Thus, Abul fazl's ideal king, divinely inspired perfect man, who has supreme sovereignty- both
temporal & spiritual-over his people and complete control over his enemies

THE POLICY OF SULH-E-KUL

● Abul Fazl supported the policy of Sulh-i-kul, or universal peace, a key element in Mughal kingship.
● This policy advocated religious tolerance, emphasizing that the ruler should not discriminate
among various faiths.
● Under Sulh-i-kul, religions had freedom of expression as long as they didn't harm the monarchy or
incite conflict.
● Abul Fazl believed that in a diverse country like India, monarchial sovereignty was more relevant,
placing the monarch above any par cular religion.
● He endorsed the good values of different faiths to maintain peace and unity, emphasizing the
sovereign's tolerance toward exis ng beliefs.
● This policy was implemented through state prac ces, integra ng nobles of various backgrounds
into the Mughal aristocracy based on talent and loyalty, not religion or caste .
● Akbar's rule demonstrated religious impar ality by abolishing taxes based on pilgrimage and
religious affilia on( pilgrimage tax in 1563 CE and jizya in 1564 CE.), promo ng the principles of Sulh-
i-kul in administra on, and funding the construc on of places of worship.

FAZL’S SOCIETAL DIVISION

● Abul Fazl proposed a four-fold societal division, similar to Plato's three-fold model, emphasizing
dis nct classes with designated roles.
● His societal structure comprised: a. Warriors: Equivalent to Plato's Guardian or warrior class,
entrusted with protec on and defense. b. Learned Men: Comparable to Plato's rulers or the official
class, focused on intellectual pursuits and governance. c. Husbandmen & Laborers: Represen ng
agricultural and labour-oriented roles essen al for societal sustenance. d. Ar ficers & Merchants:
Similar to Plato's third class, encompassing ar sans and traders, contribu ng to economic func ons.
● Abul Fazl linked these societal divisions to the four elements of Fire, Air, Water, and Earth,
highligh ng their interdependence for societal balance.
● He mirrored this division within the realm of royalty or the state, delinea ng classes as:

a. Nobles of the State

b. Assistants of Victory
c. Companions of the King d. Servants
● Emphasized the crucial role of the King in establishing and maintaining societal order, stressing the
need for equilibrium among these four divisions for the welfare and stability of the state.
● Indicated that the harmonious func oning of these societal divisions was pivotal for the state's
prosperity and peace, before considering other elements like the military, economy, or
administra on.
● Abul Fazl envisioned a moral and poli cal convergence in the state, with the King serving as its
spiritual guide, aligning the state's aims with moral and spiritual ideals

THEORY OF JUSTICE

● Abul Fazl emphasized the king's duty to administer jus ce to the people, punishing wrongdoers
and ensuring fairness for the innocent.
● He believed a king should dispense jus ce with kindness and harmony, trea ng his subjects like his
own children, embodying a fatherly role in governance.
● According to him, the king should perceive himself as a medium for the welfare of his people, sent
by God to establish peace and jus ce.
● Abul Fazl advocated that the ruler must maintain impar ality, ensuring that no one is harmed by
his decisions or ac ons.
● He stressed the ruler's independence from religious figures, highligh ng the importance of high
moral and spiritual quali es
● His vision of jus ce relied on reason as a crucial element in a aining an ideal concept of fairness
and righteousness in governance.

while dispensing Jus ce Badshah should always keep in mind that the repas is rent by God on Earth
to ensure peace and jus ce for all.

while dispensing Jus ce, King should equally treat everyone and should not hurt amyme.

For Farl, Jus ce also meant to take care of basic needs of the people

while dispensing Jus ce i Badshah should Keep himself in the Shoe e of Crime and make judgments
a er knowing the condi on and situa on in which Crime was Commi ed.

To increase the Goodness of the Stare, King should reward good people and punish wrongdoers

Thus, Badshah was the highert Judiciary and he does not needed any religious assistance; while
dispensing Jus ce.

Administrative structure of the Mughal Empire.

The **Mughal Empire’s administra ve structure** was a highly organized and hierarchical
system, ensuring the smooth governance of a vast and diverse empire. It combined **Persian, Turco-
Mongol, and Indian tradi ons**, balancing centralized authority with local autonomy.

### 1. **Central Administra on**

- **Emperor**: At the top of the structure, the emperor was the **supreme authority**, with
control over poli cal, military, and religious ma ers. His word was law.

- **Council of Ministers**:

- **Wazir (Prime Minister)**: Headed the revenue and finance departments.

- **Mir Bakshi**: Managed the military and soldier recruitment.

- **Sadr-us-Sudoor**: Handled religious ma ers and charity (like waqfs).

- **Mir Saman**: Managed the royal household and supply of goods for the court.

The **emperor** appointed ministers based on loyalty and merit, ensuring efficient governance.

### 2. **Provincial Administra on**

- **Subas (Provinces)**: The empire was divided into **15 to 20 provinces** under different
emperors.

- **Subedar (Governor)**: Managed law and order, revenue collec on, and military in the province.

- **Diwan**: Oversaw **revenue administra on** in the province.

 - **Bakshi**: Managed military pay and logis cs at the provincial level.

- **Qazi**: Acted as the chief judicial officer, ensuring legal disputes were resolved fairly.

This division ensured the empire could manage distant regions effec vely.

### 3. **District and Local Administra on**

- Each province (suba) was divided into **sarkars (districts)**, further divided into **parganas**
(sub-districts), and finally into **villages**.

- **Faujdar**: Military officer at the district level to maintain law and order.

- **Amil**: Revenue collector at the pargana level.

- **Patwari**: Maintained village-level land records.

This mul - ered structure allowed the Mughals to maintain control and ensure tax collec on
throughout the empire.

### 4. **Revenue Administra on: The Mansabdari System**

- **Mansabdari System**: Officials were ranked based on the **number of soldiers (zat)** they
maintained and were granted **jagirs** (land assignments) as a reward.

- **Raja Todar Mal’s Dahsala System**: A land revenue system that assessed taxes based on a **10-
year average** of crop yields and ensured tax fairness.

Revenue from agriculture was the backbone of the Mughal economy, with **tax collec on**
managed at various levels.

### 5. **Judicial Administra on**

- **Qazi**: Handled Islamic law (Sharia) and civil disputes.

- **Kotwal**: Managed city police and market regula on, ensuring law and order in urban areas.

- The emperor could **intervene as the highest court of appeal** in significant cases.

This system provided both central and local avenues for jus ce, combining **Islamic law** with local
tradi ons.

### 6. **Military Administra on**

- **Mir Bakshi**: Head of military administra on, responsible for recrui ng and paying soldiers.
- **Mansabdars**: Nobles and officials maintained **private armies**, contribu ng to the imperial
forces.

- The military structure ensured that **Mughals had a large, standing army** without burdening the
treasury.

### 7. **Religious and Cultural Policies**

- **Sadr-us-Sudoor** oversaw religious endowments and promoted cultural ac vi es.

- Akbar’s **Sulh-i-Kul** (universal peace) policy ensured religious tolerance and harmony among
different communi es, fostering poli cal stability.

### **Conclusion**

The **Mughal administra ve structure** was a sophis cated and efficient system that ensured
**control, jus ce, and revenue collec on**. The **centralized authority** of the emperor was
complemented by **local administra on**, balancing power to manage a vast and diverse empire.
This structure enabled the Mughal Empire to thrive for centuries.

ARMY IN MUGAL ADMINISTRATION

The **Mughal army** was one of the most powerful military systems of its me, with a
sophis cated structure that combined **Turco-Mongol, Persian, and Indian military tradi ons**. It
was organized to ensure both **centralized control and flexibility** for expansion and defense.
Below is an overview of the Mughal military system.

### 1. **Composi on of the Mughal Army**

The Mughal army was divided into several key components:

- **Infantry (Paidal)**: Composed of archers, swordsmen, and matchlock (musketeers). Though

rela vely less significant compared to cavalry, they played key roles in sieges and urban combat.

- **Cavalry (Sawars)**: The most important part of the Mughal military. Soldiers on horseback were
armed with bows, swords, and firearms. The Mughals relied heavily on **horse-mounted troops**
for quick mobility.

- **Ar llery**: Under Emperor Akbar, the use of **heavy ar llery** became crucial. Cannons were
employed in ba les and sieges, giving the Mughals an edge against Indian rulers who lacked
advanced firearms.

- **Elephants**: Used both as **war animals** and for transporta on of supplies. In ba le, they
were in mida ng but also served as pla orms for archers and commanders.

- **Navy**: Though the Mughals were primarily a land power, they maintained a navy for **riverine
opera ons and coastal defense**, par cularly under Akbar and Aurangzeb.
### 2. **The Mansabdari System**

The **mansabdari system** was a unique feature of the Mughal military structure. It was a **rank-
based system** where nobles (mansabdars) provided **troops and horses** in exchange for jagirs
(land assignments). The system also regulated the size of the army without burdening the central
treasury.

- **Zat**: The personal rank of a mansabdar, determining their salary and status.

- **Sawar**: Denoted the number of cavalry troops a mansabdar was expected to maintain.

- **Jagir**: A land grant given to mansabdars to cover the cost of maintaining their soldiers.

This system ensured that the army was **meritocra c** and that nobles stayed loyal to the emperor
by tying their income to the soldiers they fielded.

### 3. **Recruitment and Pay**

- The army was **mul -ethnic**, recrui ng soldiers from various communi es, including **Turks,
Afghans, Rajputs, and Indian Muslims**.

- Soldiers were paid either through **cash salaries** or **jagir grants**, with higher-ranking officials
receiving land revenues to support their troops.

- The **Mir Bakshi**, an important official, was in charge of military recruitment, promo ons, and
pay.

### 4. **Military Campaigns and Tac cs**

The Mughal military was known for its **effec ve use of both tradi onal and modern warfare
techniques**. Some key aspects of the Mughal strategy included:

- **Mobile warfare**: The Mughals emphasized mobility through their cavalry, ensuring rapid
movement in ba le.

- **Use of ar llery**: Akbar's use of cannons in ba les like the siege of **Chi or Fort (1568)** was
revolu onary for Indian warfare.

- **Diplomacy and Alliances**: Akbar’s policy of **marrying Rajput princesses** helped integrate
Rajput warriors into the Mughal military, strengthening their forces.

### 5. **Challenges and Decline**

- **Aurangzeb's Deccan campaigns** stretched the Mughal military to its limits, leading to fa gue
and financial strain.

- By the **18th century**, the quality of the army declined as **mansabdars** became more
focused on personal wealth rather than military efficiency.
- The rise of **regional powers** like the **Marathas** and **Bri sh forces** exposed the
limita ons of the Mughal military, which struggled to adapt to modern European warfare.

### **Conclusion**

The **Mughal army** was a cornerstone of the empire’s strength, enabling it to expand and
consolidate power over large parts of India. However, while the **mansabdari system** ini ally
ensured efficiency and loyalty, over me it became a liability, contribu ng to the eventual decline of
the Mughal military. Their ability to **blend tradi onal cavalry warfare with ar llery and
diplomacy** remains a significant legacy in military history.

This structure reflects the **military sophis ca on** and challenges of maintaining a large empire
across a diverse region

The end
 AbulFazal-Monarchy

INTRODUCTION

• ABUL FAZL is the most noted historian and poli cal thinker of Mughal period, was one of the nine
jewlls in Akbar's court
• His poli cal thoughts are spread across in his Ain-i-Akbari, 3rd volume of Akbarnama
• He supported social contract and need for social order as basis of sovereignty but also gave divine
authority to the King through his theory of divine light
• Through his idea of Sulh-i-Kul as state policy, he liberated the temporal sovereign from any
par cular faith, religious laws, dictates of the theologians
• He combined both temporal & spiritual sovereignty in the Godly King- the just sovereign, who not
only maintain his state but promote social harmony, religious tolerance, and becomes spiritual guide
to the na on
• Along with Sulh-i-Kul, promo ng science, reason, ra onality also duty of the King/state.

• Like Plato, he proposed 4-fold division of society and state/kingship; raised State as highest moral &
spiritual ins tu on
• Despite such path breaking poli cal ideas he cri cized for being contradictory, idealis c/utopic, not
original, and having li le impact on later Mughals
• He had given us a clear descrip on of the Mughal State system with clear historiography and & It's
very important source for present genera on to have acquaintance of Mughal Empire under the king
Akbar.

ABU'L-FAZL

• ABU'L-FAZL ibn Mubarak (1551-1602) popularly called ABUL FAZL, was born in Agra, where his
father shi ed from Nagaur (Rajasthan)
• Family of scholars: his father, Shaikh Mubarak was influen al liberal scholar who dra ed the decree
('mahzar') giving right of final arbiter of Shari ‘a to Akbar; His elder brother Abu'l Faizi was court poet
in Akbar's reign
• Received extensive educa on in all the branches of Islamic sciences from his father, had deep
influence of Sufi Philosophers ibn Arabi (Truth and unity of existence) and Shihabuddin Suhrawardi
(Israq- theory of light and illuminated wisdom)
• For his liberal and secular views, his father had to face wrath of theologians (Ulma) and had to live
life of fugi ve for some me a er 1569-70
• Gained access to Akbar's court through his brother Faizi in 1575. Soon became friend and
philosopher to Akbar and was his secretary and companion
• Abu'l Fazl was assassinated in 1602 by Vir Singh Bundela by a plot hatched by Prince Salim
• He was also one of the Nine Jewels (Navaratnas) of Akbar's royal court
• Social contract theory as basis of Sovereignty, theory of divine light, religious tolerance (Sulh-i-Kul),
state promo ng science & reason, are his las ng poli cal thoughts

● He was known for his intellectual themes and a commitment to reason.

● He was a historian, officer, chief secretary, and confidant of the Mughal emperor Akbar.
● Fazl’s wri ngs appeal to reason against religious and cultural tradi ons .
● His interpreta on of history was linked to the poli cal, social, economic and religious reali es of
that period and addressed the plurality and diversity of Indian society.
● Fazl was against the hardline Islam and challenged the conserva ve, narrow views of olama. He
was with Akbar for 2.5 decades.
● Fazl was influenced by the works and thoughts of ibn arabi who spoke about tracedental unity
once its reality is recognised, the differences seen in the sensory world are bound to lose their
significance and become illusory.
● While not presen ng a formal trea se on poli cal theory, Fazal is recognized as a poli cal thinker.
● His major works, Akbar-Nama and Ain-i-Akbari, provide insights into poli cal philosophy and
historical events.
● He supported social contract and need for social order as basis of sovereignty but also gave divine
authority to the King through his theory of divine light.
● In Ain-i-Akbari, Fazal adopts a ma er-of-fact and straigh orward approach to presen ng
informa on.
● Fazal's influence on Akbar's poli cal theory should be understood without exaggera on,
considering Akbar's character and various influencing factors.
● Poli cal concepts in Islam have diverse origins, including pre-Islamic sources and teachings of the
Prophet Muhammad.
● The incep on of the Mughal Empire in India faced poli cal instability due to the division of the
region into smaller kingdoms.
● Abul Fazal approached history with logic and a secular perspec ve, introducing a novel
methodology for collec ng and presen ng facts.
● His contribu ons substan ally expanded the scope of historical research and wri ng, covering
administra ve norms, methods, and topographical accounts.

METHODOLOGY

● Abul Fazal had a ra onal and secular approach to history which is the hallmark of his wri ngs

● He adopted new methodology to collect the facts and make them the basis of cri cal inves ga on.
● He recorded facts pertaining to socio-economic poli cal life.
● He collected the material, and facts a er careful inquiry and inves ga on, and presented them in a
clear and systema c manner.
● He ques oned the validity of a source also, cross-examined them, and then reached to
conclusions.
● Reports, memoranda, minutes prepared by the offices, imperial Farmans, and other records were
carefully consulted by him before racing to any conclusions.

WORKS OF ABU'L-FAZL

1.The Akbarnama
The Akbarnama is a document of history of Akbar's reign and his ancestors spread over three
volumes. It contains the history of Akbar's ancestors from Timur to Humayun, Akbar's reign up to the
46th regnal year (1602), and an administra ve report of Akbar's empire, the Ain-i-Akbari, which itself
is in three volumes. The third volume of Ain-i-Akbari gives an account of the ancestry and life of the
author. The Ain-i-Akbari was completed in the 42nd regnal year, but a slight addi on was made to it
in the 43rd regnal year on the account of the conquest of Berar
2.Ruqa āt
ʿ The Ruqa āt or the Ruqa āt-i-Abu'l Fazl is a collec on of priva ʿ ʿ te le ers from Abū al-Fażl to Murad,
Daniyal, Akbar, Mariam Makani, Salim (Jahangir), Akbar's queens and daughters, his father, mother
and brothers and several other notable contemporaries compiled by his nephew Nūr al-Dīn Mu am ḥ
mad.
3.Inshā-i-Abu'l Fazl
The Inshā-i-Abu'l Fazl or the Maqtubāt-i-Allami contains the official despatches wri en by Abu'l Fazl.
It is divided into two parts. The first part contains Akbar's le ers to Abdullah Khan Uzbeg of Turan,
Shah Abbas of Persia, Raja Ali Khan of Khandesh, Burhan-ul-Mulk of Ahmadnagar and his own nobles
such as Abdur Rahim Khan Khanan. The second part consists Abu'l Fazl's le ers to Akbar, Daniyal,
Mirza Shah Rukh and Khan Khanan. This collec on was compiled by Abd-us-samad, son of Afzal
Muhammad, who claims that he was Abu'l Fazl's sister's son as well as his son-in-law.
4. Abul Fazl, a contemporary of Abdul Qadir Badauni, was a cour er, historian and also a friend to
Akbar, the greatest of all Mughal rulers. He finished his massive and defini ve work, the Akbar Nama
and Ain-i-Akbari, in the waning years of the sixteenth century. It marks a decisive and schema c
departure from the predominant historiographic format of the me, as it does in several other
aspects of the construc on of an alterna ve world view. The Akbar Nama opens with the praise of
Allah, for sure, and then moves to Adam and traces Akbar’s lineage back to fi y-three genera ons of
his ancestors. It dislocates the historiographic axis from the groove of Islam and seeks to construct an
alterna ve teleology of universal history in which Akbar is the heir not of Muhammad and the
caliphs, but of Adam himself, the first human being, and thus the ruler of all humanity.
5. The text therefore promotes the idea of a powerful sovereign and a centralized state structure.

ABUL FAZL: theory of kingship and sovereignty

•Akbar's theory of kingship was influenced by Turko-Mongol theory of kingship, his liberal ancestral
and paternal legacy, broad mindedness of his teachers like Abul La f and Pir Mohammad, liberal
environment created by Sufi and Bhak movement and poli cal necessity of the me.
• Akbar's theory of Kingship was presented by Abul Fazl in Akbarnama.
• Abul Fazl says: "No dignity is higher in the eyes of God than royalty. Royalty is a remedy for the
spirit of rebellion...."
• Even the meaning of the word Padshah shows this for pad signifies stability and possession and
shah means origin, Lord .
•Highly exhaulted status of the king and Abul Fazl presented this through many symbols, metaphors
and miniature pain ng which depicts Akbar as divine, enlightened and infallible personality.
• He presents the view that kingship is the gi of god.
•The ruler was not dependent on it on the ulama, and everyone had to submit to one who possessed
it.
• Abul Fazl adds: "Royalty is a light emana ng from God, and a ray from the sun"
• Modern language calls this light farri izidi (the divine light) and the tongue of an quity called it
kiyan khwarah (the sublime halo).
•Kingship is Farr-i-Izidi i.e. divine light or light emana ng from God. Hence no one can stand between
God and the ruler.
• It is communicated by God to kings without the intermediate assistance of anyone.
•Again many excellent quali es flow from the possession of divine light/ Farr-iIzidi, e.g.,
• a paternal love towards the subjects,
• a large heart i.e. benevolent, generous, receives li le and give more.
•trust in God, prayer and devo on, etc.

• He is not upset by adversity, punishes the tyrant and behaves with modera on and with reason.
• At another place, Abul Fazl repeats that "The shamsa of the arch of royalty is a divine light, which
God directly transfers to kings, without the assistance of men..."
• The king was therefore deemed divinely guided and divinely protected.
•Presented dynas c ideology linking it with supernatural i.e. his ancestors came from heaven as
kings. Thus, he established divine origin of Akbar.
•The sight of the king is the part of divine worship and to behold is a mean of calling to mind the
creator and such percep on gave birth to prac ces like Zharoka-i-darshan, Jameen Bes- forms of
saluta on in court.
• Abul Fazl's basic concept was of a liberal absolu sm under a ruler of high endeavour endowed with
the highest moral and spiritual quali es, and enjoying heaven's mandate, so that he was not
dependent on any set of religious leaders for legi miza on.
•It is significant that the absolute tradi ons of sovereignty and conjunc on of spiritual and temporal
rulership was developed at many courts as a defence mechanism against undue encroachment upon
king's authority by lesser mortals.
• The philosophy and the spirit of the concepts of Farr-i izidi, kiyan khwarah, etc. were the same, that
is, the inten on was to guard against any direct or indirect share in king's authority.
• The theory of sovereignty propounded by Abul Fazl on behalf of Akbar and reflected in his mahzar
and "Ai'n-i rahnamuni" seems to be as close to the Central Asian and Perso-Islamic concepts as to the
Chingizi tradi ons of sovereignty.
•Alauddin Khalji had tried to abide by the "Law of expediency". Akbar went ahead of him.
• By the mahzar (dra ed by Shaikh Mubarak and his two sons), the Emperor was cer fied to be a just
ruler (Imam Adil) and was as such assigned the rank of mujtahid, i.e. "infallible authority".
• Akbar through Mahazar became the supreme interpreter of Shariyat, subordina ng Ulemmas.

Sovereignty as a social contract

● Abul Fazl, akin to Ziauddin Barani, aimed for social stability but approached sovereignty differently.
● In Ain-i-Akbari, Abul Fazl advocated sovereignty based on a social contract rather than Shariah law,
emphasizing the emergence of poli cal authority.
● He highlighted that a lack of a strong ruler could lead to lawlessness and rebellion, reflec ng a pre-
state society resembling Thomas Hobbes' nega ve view of the pre-contract state.
● Abul Fazl promoted the theory of a 'Social Contract' wherein sovereignty was an agreement
between the king and subjects. The king protected life, property, honor, and religion in exchange for
obedience and resources from the subjects.
● He believed only a just ruler, guided by power and divine guidance, could honor these contracts,
viewing the king as the protector and well-wisher of his subjects.
● The principle of public interest was sustained by Akbar's successors, aligning with the idea of a just,
fair, and caring king.

● Abul Fazl rooted sovereignty in the needs of social order, integra ng reasoning, philosophy, and
divine light (Farr-i-Izadi), somewhat rejec ng the tradi onal no on of the king as the shadow of God
(Zill-i-Ilahi)

•He defined sovereignty as a contract under which the Emperor protects 4 essences of his subjects:

• Jaan (life) • Maal (property) • Namus (honour) • Din (religion) • In return demand obedience and a
share of resources. He says: "Only a just sovereign is able to honour this contract with power and
divine guidance."

Features of his social contract theory:

● No contract among the people themselves; people didn’t form any poli cal community out of such
contract.
● Absolute sovereignty to the King- no restraint on his power- like Leviathan of Hobbes.
● No men on of op ons to people to change the king in case he becomes tyrannical, cruel and
unjust or not able to protect them.
● Only just sovereigns are able to honour the contract with power and Divine guidance/blessings.
Thus, no guarantee that the King would honour the contract.
● Not well developed like social the social contract theory of origin of state by modern western
poli cal thinkers such as Hobbes, Locke and Rousseau\

Divine Light Theory of Kingship:

● Based on Ishraq theory: the theory of divine light emana ng from the Sun was developed by 12th
century Sufi philosopher Shihabuddin Suhrawardi.
● Abul Fazl says: "No dignity is higher in the eyes of God than royalty. Royalty is a remedy for the
spirit of rebellion...."
● He says that the king was something more than an average human being. He was the
representa ve of God on earth and His shadow. He was given greater knowledge and wisdom than
any other human being.

● According to him, “state-power is the light emana ng from God and the ray emana ng from the
sun.”
● Akbar and other Mughal rulers assumed the tle of Zill-i-Ilahi i.e. ‘Shadow of God’.
● Fazl believed The term Padshahat (Badshahat) meant ‘an established owner’ where Pad stands for
stability and shah stands for the owner.
● Padshahat means a powerful, established owner who cannot be eliminated by anyone.
● According to Abul Fazl, ‘Badshahat is the light derived from God which has been sent by God
himself. God throws his kindness on Badshah; who works as the agent of god’
● The possession of this divine light, according to Abul Fazl, brings forth quali es such as paternal
love towards subjects, generosity, trust in God, and devo on.
● Kingship is Farr-i-Izidi i.e. divine light or light emana ng from God. Hence no one can stand
between God and the ruler.
● King is not shadow of the God, but "light of God “, directly linked to God, part of God not merely
his shadow. The sublime halo represents the divine light.
● He was the ul mate authority on all social, economic, poli cal and judicial powers. The ruler was
not dependent on the ulama
● The king was the final authority in governance, administra on, agriculture, educa on, and other
fields, but he had no say if they were related to religious ma ers.
● The ray of divine wisdom banishes from his heart everything that is conflic ng, guide him to be just
like Sun, like rain, maintain harmony raising above mean conflicts/differences, makes him ‘perfect
man’ ( İnsan-ı Kâmil ) and spiritual guide to the na on.

FAZL’S IDEAL SULTAN – AKBAR

• His ideal king is just and sovereign monarch, receiving divine light directly from God
•By virtue of the divine light, heart of the ideal King is free from any conflict, disunity, and dis
harmony
• He has the Godly vision to see truth and act justly without any decima on between his subject, for
which he is the spiritual guide
• Ideal Kingship is based on the principle of Universal peace, religious tolerance and social harmony
(Sulh-i-kul)
• Ideal king is able to honour the social contract with just force and Divine guidance.
• The ideal king has Strong will, does God worship, is wise, not wrathful, considerate, believe in
science & reason, and provide quick relief to poor/needy/jus ce seeker
• Rule of the ideal king is long las ng, just, and peaceful; Jus ce is the highest virtue of the ideal
ruler

• Thus, Abul fazl's ideal king, divinely inspired perfect man, who has supreme sovereignty- both
temporal & spiritual-over his people and complete control over his enemies

THE POLICY OF SULH-E-KUL

● Abul Fazl supported the policy of Sulh-i-kul, or universal peace, a key element in Mughal kingship.
● This policy advocated religious tolerance, emphasizing that the ruler should not discriminate
among various faiths.
● Under Sulh-i-kul, religions had freedom of expression as long as they didn't harm the monarchy or
incite conflict.
● Abul Fazl believed that in a diverse country like India, monarchial sovereignty was more relevant,
placing the monarch above any par cular religion.
● He endorsed the good values of different faiths to maintain peace and unity, emphasizing the
sovereign's tolerance toward exis ng beliefs.
● This policy was implemented through state prac ces, integra ng nobles of various backgrounds
into the Mughal aristocracy based on talent and loyalty, not religion or caste .
● Akbar's rule demonstrated religious impar ality by abolishing taxes based on pilgrimage and
religious affilia on( pilgrimage tax in 1563 CE and jizya in 1564 CE.), promo ng the principles of Sulh-
i-kul in administra on, and funding the construc on of places of worship.

FAZL’S SOCIETAL DIVISION

● Abul Fazl proposed a four-fold societal division, similar to Plato's three-fold model, emphasizing
dis nct classes with designated roles.
● His societal structure comprised: a. Warriors: Equivalent to Plato's Guardian or warrior class,
entrusted with protec on and defense. b. Learned Men: Comparable to Plato's rulers or the official
class, focused on intellectual pursuits and governance. c. Husbandmen & Laborers: Represen ng
agricultural and labour-oriented roles essen al for societal sustenance. d. Ar ficers & Merchants:
Similar to Plato's third class, encompassing ar sans and traders, contribu ng to economic func ons.
● Abul Fazl linked these societal divisions to the four elements of Fire, Air, Water, and Earth,
highligh ng their interdependence for societal balance.
● He mirrored this division within the realm of royalty or the state, delinea ng classes as:

a. Nobles of the State

b. Assistants of Victory
c. Companions of the King d. Servants
● Emphasized the crucial role of the King in establishing and maintaining societal order, stressing the
need for equilibrium among these four divisions for the welfare and stability of the state.
● Indicated that the harmonious func oning of these societal divisions was pivotal for the state's
prosperity and peace, before considering other elements like the military, economy, or
administra on.
● Abul Fazl envisioned a moral and poli cal convergence in the state, with the King serving as its
spiritual guide, aligning the state's aims with moral and spiritual ideals

THEORY OF JUSTICE

● Abul Fazl emphasized the king's duty to administer jus ce to the people, punishing wrongdoers
and ensuring fairness for the innocent.
● He believed a king should dispense jus ce with kindness and harmony, trea ng his subjects like his
own children, embodying a fatherly role in governance.
● According to him, the king should perceive himself as a medium for the welfare of his people, sent
by God to establish peace and jus ce.
● Abul Fazl advocated that the ruler must maintain impar ality, ensuring that no one is harmed by
his decisions or ac ons.
● He stressed the ruler's independence from religious figures, highligh ng the importance of high
moral and spiritual quali es
● His vision of jus ce relied on reason as a crucial element in a aining an ideal concept of fairness
and righteousness in governance.

while dispensing Jus ce Badshah should always keep in mind that the repas is rent by God on Earth
to ensure peace and jus ce for all.

while dispensing Jus ce, King should equally treat everyone and should not hurt amyme.

For Farl, Jus ce also meant to take care of basic needs of the people

while dispensing Jus ce i Badshah should Keep himself in the Shoe e of Crime and make judgments
a er knowing the condi on and situa on in which Crime was Commi ed.

To increase the Goodness of the Stare, King should reward good people and punish wrongdoers

Thus, Badshah was the highert Judiciary and he does not needed any religious assistance; while
dispensing Jus ce.

Administrative structure of the Mughal Empire.

The **Mughal Empire’s administra ve structure** was a highly organized and hierarchical
system, ensuring the smooth governance of a vast and diverse empire. It combined **Persian, Turco-
Mongol, and Indian tradi ons**, balancing centralized authority with local autonomy.

### 1. **Central Administra on**

- **Emperor**: At the top of the structure, the emperor was the **supreme authority**, with
control over poli cal, military, and religious ma ers. His word was law.

- **Council of Ministers**:

- **Wazir (Prime Minister)**: Headed the revenue and finance departments.

- **Mir Bakshi**: Managed the military and soldier recruitment.

- **Sadr-us-Sudoor**: Handled religious ma ers and charity (like waqfs).

- **Mir Saman**: Managed the royal household and supply of goods for the court.

The **emperor** appointed ministers based on loyalty and merit, ensuring efficient governance.

### 2. **Provincial Administra on**

- **Subas (Provinces)**: The empire was divided into **15 to 20 provinces** under different
emperors.

- **Subedar (Governor)**: Managed law and order, revenue collec on, and military in the province.

- **Diwan**: Oversaw **revenue administra on** in the province.

 - **Bakshi**: Managed military pay and logis cs at the provincial level.

- **Qazi**: Acted as the chief judicial officer, ensuring legal disputes were resolved fairly.

This division ensured the empire could manage distant regions effec vely.

### 3. **District and Local Administra on**

- Each province (suba) was divided into **sarkars (districts)**, further divided into **parganas**
(sub-districts), and finally into **villages**.

- **Faujdar**: Military officer at the district level to maintain law and order.

- **Amil**: Revenue collector at the pargana level.

- **Patwari**: Maintained village-level land records.

This mul - ered structure allowed the Mughals to maintain control and ensure tax collec on
throughout the empire.

### 4. **Revenue Administra on: The Mansabdari System**

- **Mansabdari System**: Officials were ranked based on the **number of soldiers (zat)** they
maintained and were granted **jagirs** (land assignments) as a reward.

- **Raja Todar Mal’s Dahsala System**: A land revenue system that assessed taxes based on a **10-
year average** of crop yields and ensured tax fairness.

Revenue from agriculture was the backbone of the Mughal economy, with **tax collec on**
managed at various levels.

### 5. **Judicial Administra on**

- **Qazi**: Handled Islamic law (Sharia) and civil disputes.

- **Kotwal**: Managed city police and market regula on, ensuring law and order in urban areas.

- The emperor could **intervene as the highest court of appeal** in significant cases.

This system provided both central and local avenues for jus ce, combining **Islamic law** with local
tradi ons.

### 6. **Military Administra on**

- **Mir Bakshi**: Head of military administra on, responsible for recrui ng and paying soldiers.
- **Mansabdars**: Nobles and officials maintained **private armies**, contribu ng to the imperial
forces.

- The military structure ensured that **Mughals had a large, standing army** without burdening the
treasury.

### 7. **Religious and Cultural Policies**

- **Sadr-us-Sudoor** oversaw religious endowments and promoted cultural ac vi es.

- Akbar’s **Sulh-i-Kul** (universal peace) policy ensured religious tolerance and harmony among
different communi es, fostering poli cal stability.

### **Conclusion**

The **Mughal administra ve structure** was a sophis cated and efficient system that ensured
**control, jus ce, and revenue collec on**. The **centralized authority** of the emperor was
complemented by **local administra on**, balancing power to manage a vast and diverse empire.
This structure enabled the Mughal Empire to thrive for centuries.

ARMY IN MUGAL ADMINISTRATION

The **Mughal army** was one of the most powerful military systems of its me, with a
sophis cated structure that combined **Turco-Mongol, Persian, and Indian military tradi ons**. It
was organized to ensure both **centralized control and flexibility** for expansion and defense.
Below is an overview of the Mughal military system.

### 1. **Composi on of the Mughal Army**

The Mughal army was divided into several key components:

- **Infantry (Paidal)**: Composed of archers, swordsmen, and matchlock (musketeers). Though

rela vely less significant compared to cavalry, they played key roles in sieges and urban combat.

- **Cavalry (Sawars)**: The most important part of the Mughal military. Soldiers on horseback were
armed with bows, swords, and firearms. The Mughals relied heavily on **horse-mounted troops**
for quick mobility.

- **Ar llery**: Under Emperor Akbar, the use of **heavy ar llery** became crucial. Cannons were
employed in ba les and sieges, giving the Mughals an edge against Indian rulers who lacked
advanced firearms.

- **Elephants**: Used both as **war animals** and for transporta on of supplies. In ba le, they
were in mida ng but also served as pla orms for archers and commanders.

- **Navy**: Though the Mughals were primarily a land power, they maintained a navy for **riverine
opera ons and coastal defense**, par cularly under Akbar and Aurangzeb.
### 2. **The Mansabdari System**

The **mansabdari system** was a unique feature of the Mughal military structure. It was a **rank-
based system** where nobles (mansabdars) provided **troops and horses** in exchange for jagirs
(land assignments). The system also regulated the size of the army without burdening the central
treasury.

- **Zat**: The personal rank of a mansabdar, determining their salary and status.

- **Sawar**: Denoted the number of cavalry troops a mansabdar was expected to maintain.

- **Jagir**: A land grant given to mansabdars to cover the cost of maintaining their soldiers.

This system ensured that the army was **meritocra c** and that nobles stayed loyal to the emperor
by tying their income to the soldiers they fielded.

### 3. **Recruitment and Pay**

- The army was **mul -ethnic**, recrui ng soldiers from various communi es, including **Turks,
Afghans, Rajputs, and Indian Muslims**.

- Soldiers were paid either through **cash salaries** or **jagir grants**, with higher-ranking officials
receiving land revenues to support their troops.

- The **Mir Bakshi**, an important official, was in charge of military recruitment, promo ons, and
pay.

### 4. **Military Campaigns and Tac cs**

The Mughal military was known for its **effec ve use of both tradi onal and modern warfare
techniques**. Some key aspects of the Mughal strategy included:

- **Mobile warfare**: The Mughals emphasized mobility through their cavalry, ensuring rapid
movement in ba le.

- **Use of ar llery**: Akbar's use of cannons in ba les like the siege of **Chi or Fort (1568)** was
revolu onary for Indian warfare.

- **Diplomacy and Alliances**: Akbar’s policy of **marrying Rajput princesses** helped integrate
Rajput warriors into the Mughal military, strengthening their forces.

### 5. **Challenges and Decline**

- **Aurangzeb's Deccan campaigns** stretched the Mughal military to its limits, leading to fa gue
and financial strain.

- By the **18th century**, the quality of the army declined as **mansabdars** became more
focused on personal wealth rather than military efficiency.
- The rise of **regional powers** like the **Marathas** and **Bri sh forces** exposed the
limita ons of the Mughal military, which struggled to adapt to modern European warfare.

### **Conclusion**

The **Mughal army** was a cornerstone of the empire’s strength, enabling it to expand and
consolidate power over large parts of India. However, while the **mansabdari system** ini ally
ensured efficiency and loyalty, over me it became a liability, contribu ng to the eventual decline of
the Mughal military. Their ability to **blend tradi onal cavalry warfare with ar llery and
diplomacy** remains a significant legacy in military history.

This structure reflects the **military sophis ca on** and challenges of maintaining a large empire
across a diverse region

The end
 AbulFazal-Monarchy

INTRODUCTION

• ABUL FAZL is the most noted historian and poli cal thinker of Mughal period, was one of the nine
jewlls in Akbar's court
• His poli cal thoughts are spread across in his Ain-i-Akbari, 3rd volume of Akbarnama
• He supported social contract and need for social order as basis of sovereignty but also gave divine
authority to the King through his theory of divine light
• Through his idea of Sulh-i-Kul as state policy, he liberated the temporal sovereign from any
par cular faith, religious laws, dictates of the theologians
• He combined both temporal & spiritual sovereignty in the Godly King- the just sovereign, who not
only maintain his state but promote social harmony, religious tolerance, and becomes spiritual guide
to the na on
• Along with Sulh-i-Kul, promo ng science, reason, ra onality also duty of the King/state.

• Like Plato, he proposed 4-fold division of society and state/kingship; raised State as highest moral &
spiritual ins tu on
• Despite such path breaking poli cal ideas he cri cized for being contradictory, idealis c/utopic, not
original, and having li le impact on later Mughals
• He had given us a clear descrip on of the Mughal State system with clear historiography and & It's
very important source for present genera on to have acquaintance of Mughal Empire under the king
Akbar.

ABU'L-FAZL

• ABU'L-FAZL ibn Mubarak (1551-1602) popularly called ABUL FAZL, was born in Agra, where his
father shi ed from Nagaur (Rajasthan)
• Family of scholars: his father, Shaikh Mubarak was influen al liberal scholar who dra ed the decree
('mahzar') giving right of final arbiter of Shari ‘a to Akbar; His elder brother Abu'l Faizi was court poet
in Akbar's reign
• Received extensive educa on in all the branches of Islamic sciences from his father, had deep
influence of Sufi Philosophers ibn Arabi (Truth and unity of existence) and Shihabuddin Suhrawardi
(Israq- theory of light and illuminated wisdom)
• For his liberal and secular views, his father had to face wrath of theologians (Ulma) and had to live
life of fugi ve for some me a er 1569-70
• Gained access to Akbar's court through his brother Faizi in 1575. Soon became friend and
philosopher to Akbar and was his secretary and companion
• Abu'l Fazl was assassinated in 1602 by Vir Singh Bundela by a plot hatched by Prince Salim
• He was also one of the Nine Jewels (Navaratnas) of Akbar's royal court
• Social contract theory as basis of Sovereignty, theory of divine light, religious tolerance (Sulh-i-Kul),
state promo ng science & reason, are his las ng poli cal thoughts

● He was known for his intellectual themes and a commitment to reason.

● He was a historian, officer, chief secretary, and confidant of the Mughal emperor Akbar.
● Fazl’s wri ngs appeal to reason against religious and cultural tradi ons .
● His interpreta on of history was linked to the poli cal, social, economic and religious reali es of
that period and addressed the plurality and diversity of Indian society.
● Fazl was against the hardline Islam and challenged the conserva ve, narrow views of olama. He
was with Akbar for 2.5 decades.
● Fazl was influenced by the works and thoughts of ibn arabi who spoke about tracedental unity
once its reality is recognised, the differences seen in the sensory world are bound to lose their
significance and become illusory.
● While not presen ng a formal trea se on poli cal theory, Fazal is recognized as a poli cal thinker.
● His major works, Akbar-Nama and Ain-i-Akbari, provide insights into poli cal philosophy and
historical events.
● He supported social contract and need for social order as basis of sovereignty but also gave divine
authority to the King through his theory of divine light.
● In Ain-i-Akbari, Fazal adopts a ma er-of-fact and straigh orward approach to presen ng
informa on.
● Fazal's influence on Akbar's poli cal theory should be understood without exaggera on,
considering Akbar's character and various influencing factors.
● Poli cal concepts in Islam have diverse origins, including pre-Islamic sources and teachings of the
Prophet Muhammad.
● The incep on of the Mughal Empire in India faced poli cal instability due to the division of the
region into smaller kingdoms.
● Abul Fazal approached history with logic and a secular perspec ve, introducing a novel
methodology for collec ng and presen ng facts.
● His contribu ons substan ally expanded the scope of historical research and wri ng, covering
administra ve norms, methods, and topographical accounts.

METHODOLOGY

● Abul Fazal had a ra onal and secular approach to history which is the hallmark of his wri ngs

● He adopted new methodology to collect the facts and make them the basis of cri cal inves ga on.
● He recorded facts pertaining to socio-economic poli cal life.
● He collected the material, and facts a er careful inquiry and inves ga on, and presented them in a
clear and systema c manner.
● He ques oned the validity of a source also, cross-examined them, and then reached to
conclusions.
● Reports, memoranda, minutes prepared by the offices, imperial Farmans, and other records were
carefully consulted by him before racing to any conclusions.

WORKS OF ABU'L-FAZL

1.The Akbarnama
The Akbarnama is a document of history of Akbar's reign and his ancestors spread over three
volumes. It contains the history of Akbar's ancestors from Timur to Humayun, Akbar's reign up to the
46th regnal year (1602), and an administra ve report of Akbar's empire, the Ain-i-Akbari, which itself
is in three volumes. The third volume of Ain-i-Akbari gives an account of the ancestry and life of the
author. The Ain-i-Akbari was completed in the 42nd regnal year, but a slight addi on was made to it
in the 43rd regnal year on the account of the conquest of Berar
2.Ruqa āt
ʿ The Ruqa āt or the Ruqa āt-i-Abu'l Fazl is a collec on of priva ʿ ʿ te le ers from Abū al-Fażl to Murad,
Daniyal, Akbar, Mariam Makani, Salim (Jahangir), Akbar's queens and daughters, his father, mother
and brothers and several other notable contemporaries compiled by his nephew Nūr al-Dīn Mu am ḥ
mad.
3.Inshā-i-Abu'l Fazl
The Inshā-i-Abu'l Fazl or the Maqtubāt-i-Allami contains the official despatches wri en by Abu'l Fazl.
It is divided into two parts. The first part contains Akbar's le ers to Abdullah Khan Uzbeg of Turan,
Shah Abbas of Persia, Raja Ali Khan of Khandesh, Burhan-ul-Mulk of Ahmadnagar and his own nobles
such as Abdur Rahim Khan Khanan. The second part consists Abu'l Fazl's le ers to Akbar, Daniyal,
Mirza Shah Rukh and Khan Khanan. This collec on was compiled by Abd-us-samad, son of Afzal
Muhammad, who claims that he was Abu'l Fazl's sister's son as well as his son-in-law.
4. Abul Fazl, a contemporary of Abdul Qadir Badauni, was a cour er, historian and also a friend to
Akbar, the greatest of all Mughal rulers. He finished his massive and defini ve work, the Akbar Nama
and Ain-i-Akbari, in the waning years of the sixteenth century. It marks a decisive and schema c
departure from the predominant historiographic format of the me, as it does in several other
aspects of the construc on of an alterna ve world view. The Akbar Nama opens with the praise of
Allah, for sure, and then moves to Adam and traces Akbar’s lineage back to fi y-three genera ons of
his ancestors. It dislocates the historiographic axis from the groove of Islam and seeks to construct an
alterna ve teleology of universal history in which Akbar is the heir not of Muhammad and the
caliphs, but of Adam himself, the first human being, and thus the ruler of all humanity.
5. The text therefore promotes the idea of a powerful sovereign and a centralized state structure.

ABUL FAZL: theory of kingship and sovereignty

•Akbar's theory of kingship was influenced by Turko-Mongol theory of kingship, his liberal ancestral
and paternal legacy, broad mindedness of his teachers like Abul La f and Pir Mohammad, liberal
environment created by Sufi and Bhak movement and poli cal necessity of the me.
• Akbar's theory of Kingship was presented by Abul Fazl in Akbarnama.
• Abul Fazl says: "No dignity is higher in the eyes of God than royalty. Royalty is a remedy for the
spirit of rebellion...."
• Even the meaning of the word Padshah shows this for pad signifies stability and possession and
shah means origin, Lord .
•Highly exhaulted status of the king and Abul Fazl presented this through many symbols, metaphors
and miniature pain ng which depicts Akbar as divine, enlightened and infallible personality.
• He presents the view that kingship is the gi of god.
•The ruler was not dependent on it on the ulama, and everyone had to submit to one who possessed
it.
• Abul Fazl adds: "Royalty is a light emana ng from God, and a ray from the sun"
• Modern language calls this light farri izidi (the divine light) and the tongue of an quity called it
kiyan khwarah (the sublime halo).
•Kingship is Farr-i-Izidi i.e. divine light or light emana ng from God. Hence no one can stand between
God and the ruler.
• It is communicated by God to kings without the intermediate assistance of anyone.
•Again many excellent quali es flow from the possession of divine light/ Farr-iIzidi, e.g.,
• a paternal love towards the subjects,
• a large heart i.e. benevolent, generous, receives li le and give more.
•trust in God, prayer and devo on, etc.

• He is not upset by adversity, punishes the tyrant and behaves with modera on and with reason.
• At another place, Abul Fazl repeats that "The shamsa of the arch of royalty is a divine light, which
God directly transfers to kings, without the assistance of men..."
• The king was therefore deemed divinely guided and divinely protected.
•Presented dynas c ideology linking it with supernatural i.e. his ancestors came from heaven as
kings. Thus, he established divine origin of Akbar.
•The sight of the king is the part of divine worship and to behold is a mean of calling to mind the
creator and such percep on gave birth to prac ces like Zharoka-i-darshan, Jameen Bes- forms of
saluta on in court.
• Abul Fazl's basic concept was of a liberal absolu sm under a ruler of high endeavour endowed with
the highest moral and spiritual quali es, and enjoying heaven's mandate, so that he was not
dependent on any set of religious leaders for legi miza on.
•It is significant that the absolute tradi ons of sovereignty and conjunc on of spiritual and temporal
rulership was developed at many courts as a defence mechanism against undue encroachment upon
king's authority by lesser mortals.
• The philosophy and the spirit of the concepts of Farr-i izidi, kiyan khwarah, etc. were the same, that
is, the inten on was to guard against any direct or indirect share in king's authority.
• The theory of sovereignty propounded by Abul Fazl on behalf of Akbar and reflected in his mahzar
and "Ai'n-i rahnamuni" seems to be as close to the Central Asian and Perso-Islamic concepts as to the
Chingizi tradi ons of sovereignty.
•Alauddin Khalji had tried to abide by the "Law of expediency". Akbar went ahead of him.
• By the mahzar (dra ed by Shaikh Mubarak and his two sons), the Emperor was cer fied to be a just
ruler (Imam Adil) and was as such assigned the rank of mujtahid, i.e. "infallible authority".
• Akbar through Mahazar became the supreme interpreter of Shariyat, subordina ng Ulemmas.

Sovereignty as a social contract

● Abul Fazl, akin to Ziauddin Barani, aimed for social stability but approached sovereignty differently.
● In Ain-i-Akbari, Abul Fazl advocated sovereignty based on a social contract rather than Shariah law,
emphasizing the emergence of poli cal authority.
● He highlighted that a lack of a strong ruler could lead to lawlessness and rebellion, reflec ng a pre-
state society resembling Thomas Hobbes' nega ve view of the pre-contract state.
● Abul Fazl promoted the theory of a 'Social Contract' wherein sovereignty was an agreement
between the king and subjects. The king protected life, property, honor, and religion in exchange for
obedience and resources from the subjects.
● He believed only a just ruler, guided by power and divine guidance, could honor these contracts,
viewing the king as the protector and well-wisher of his subjects.
● The principle of public interest was sustained by Akbar's successors, aligning with the idea of a just,
fair, and caring king.

● Abul Fazl rooted sovereignty in the needs of social order, integra ng reasoning, philosophy, and
divine light (Farr-i-Izadi), somewhat rejec ng the tradi onal no on of the king as the shadow of God
(Zill-i-Ilahi)

•He defined sovereignty as a contract under which the Emperor protects 4 essences of his subjects:

• Jaan (life) • Maal (property) • Namus (honour) • Din (religion) • In return demand obedience and a
share of resources. He says: "Only a just sovereign is able to honour this contract with power and
divine guidance."

Features of his social contract theory:

● No contract among the people themselves; people didn’t form any poli cal community out of such
contract.
● Absolute sovereignty to the King- no restraint on his power- like Leviathan of Hobbes.
● No men on of op ons to people to change the king in case he becomes tyrannical, cruel and
unjust or not able to protect them.
● Only just sovereigns are able to honour the contract with power and Divine guidance/blessings.
Thus, no guarantee that the King would honour the contract.
● Not well developed like social the social contract theory of origin of state by modern western
poli cal thinkers such as Hobbes, Locke and Rousseau\

Divine Light Theory of Kingship:

● Based on Ishraq theory: the theory of divine light emana ng from the Sun was developed by 12th
century Sufi philosopher Shihabuddin Suhrawardi.
● Abul Fazl says: "No dignity is higher in the eyes of God than royalty. Royalty is a remedy for the
spirit of rebellion...."
● He says that the king was something more than an average human being. He was the
representa ve of God on earth and His shadow. He was given greater knowledge and wisdom than
any other human being.

● According to him, “state-power is the light emana ng from God and the ray emana ng from the
sun.”
● Akbar and other Mughal rulers assumed the tle of Zill-i-Ilahi i.e. ‘Shadow of God’.
● Fazl believed The term Padshahat (Badshahat) meant ‘an established owner’ where Pad stands for
stability and shah stands for the owner.
● Padshahat means a powerful, established owner who cannot be eliminated by anyone.
● According to Abul Fazl, ‘Badshahat is the light derived from God which has been sent by God
himself. God throws his kindness on Badshah; who works as the agent of god’
● The possession of this divine light, according to Abul Fazl, brings forth quali es such as paternal
love towards subjects, generosity, trust in God, and devo on.
● Kingship is Farr-i-Izidi i.e. divine light or light emana ng from God. Hence no one can stand
between God and the ruler.
● King is not shadow of the God, but "light of God “, directly linked to God, part of God not merely
his shadow. The sublime halo represents the divine light.
● He was the ul mate authority on all social, economic, poli cal and judicial powers. The ruler was
not dependent on the ulama
● The king was the final authority in governance, administra on, agriculture, educa on, and other
fields, but he had no say if they were related to religious ma ers.
● The ray of divine wisdom banishes from his heart everything that is conflic ng, guide him to be just
like Sun, like rain, maintain harmony raising above mean conflicts/differences, makes him ‘perfect
man’ ( İnsan-ı Kâmil ) and spiritual guide to the na on.

FAZL’S IDEAL SULTAN – AKBAR

• His ideal king is just and sovereign monarch, receiving divine light directly from God
•By virtue of the divine light, heart of the ideal King is free from any conflict, disunity, and dis
harmony
• He has the Godly vision to see truth and act justly without any decima on between his subject, for
which he is the spiritual guide
• Ideal Kingship is based on the principle of Universal peace, religious tolerance and social harmony
(Sulh-i-kul)
• Ideal king is able to honour the social contract with just force and Divine guidance.
• The ideal king has Strong will, does God worship, is wise, not wrathful, considerate, believe in
science & reason, and provide quick relief to poor/needy/jus ce seeker
• Rule of the ideal king is long las ng, just, and peaceful; Jus ce is the highest virtue of the ideal
ruler

• Thus, Abul fazl's ideal king, divinely inspired perfect man, who has supreme sovereignty- both
temporal & spiritual-over his people and complete control over his enemies

THE POLICY OF SULH-E-KUL

● Abul Fazl supported the policy of Sulh-i-kul, or universal peace, a key element in Mughal kingship.
● This policy advocated religious tolerance, emphasizing that the ruler should not discriminate
among various faiths.
● Under Sulh-i-kul, religions had freedom of expression as long as they didn't harm the monarchy or
incite conflict.
● Abul Fazl believed that in a diverse country like India, monarchial sovereignty was more relevant,
placing the monarch above any par cular religion.
● He endorsed the good values of different faiths to maintain peace and unity, emphasizing the
sovereign's tolerance toward exis ng beliefs.
● This policy was implemented through state prac ces, integra ng nobles of various backgrounds
into the Mughal aristocracy based on talent and loyalty, not religion or caste .
● Akbar's rule demonstrated religious impar ality by abolishing taxes based on pilgrimage and
religious affilia on( pilgrimage tax in 1563 CE and jizya in 1564 CE.), promo ng the principles of Sulh-
i-kul in administra on, and funding the construc on of places of worship.

FAZL’S SOCIETAL DIVISION

● Abul Fazl proposed a four-fold societal division, similar to Plato's three-fold model, emphasizing
dis nct classes with designated roles.
● His societal structure comprised: a. Warriors: Equivalent to Plato's Guardian or warrior class,
entrusted with protec on and defense. b. Learned Men: Comparable to Plato's rulers or the official
class, focused on intellectual pursuits and governance. c. Husbandmen & Laborers: Represen ng
agricultural and labour-oriented roles essen al for societal sustenance. d. Ar ficers & Merchants:
Similar to Plato's third class, encompassing ar sans and traders, contribu ng to economic func ons.
● Abul Fazl linked these societal divisions to the four elements of Fire, Air, Water, and Earth,
highligh ng their interdependence for societal balance.
● He mirrored this division within the realm of royalty or the state, delinea ng classes as:

a. Nobles of the State

b. Assistants of Victory
c. Companions of the King d. Servants
● Emphasized the crucial role of the King in establishing and maintaining societal order, stressing the
need for equilibrium among these four divisions for the welfare and stability of the state.
● Indicated that the harmonious func oning of these societal divisions was pivotal for the state's
prosperity and peace, before considering other elements like the military, economy, or
administra on.
● Abul Fazl envisioned a moral and poli cal convergence in the state, with the King serving as its
spiritual guide, aligning the state's aims with moral and spiritual ideals

THEORY OF JUSTICE

● Abul Fazl emphasized the king's duty to administer jus ce to the people, punishing wrongdoers
and ensuring fairness for the innocent.
● He believed a king should dispense jus ce with kindness and harmony, trea ng his subjects like his
own children, embodying a fatherly role in governance.
● According to him, the king should perceive himself as a medium for the welfare of his people, sent
by God to establish peace and jus ce.
● Abul Fazl advocated that the ruler must maintain impar ality, ensuring that no one is harmed by
his decisions or ac ons.
● He stressed the ruler's independence from religious figures, highligh ng the importance of high
moral and spiritual quali es
● His vision of jus ce relied on reason as a crucial element in a aining an ideal concept of fairness
and righteousness in governance.

while dispensing Jus ce Badshah should always keep in mind that the repas is rent by God on Earth
to ensure peace and jus ce for all.

while dispensing Jus ce, King should equally treat everyone and should not hurt amyme.

For Farl, Jus ce also meant to take care of basic needs of the people

while dispensing Jus ce i Badshah should Keep himself in the Shoe e of Crime and make judgments
a er knowing the condi on and situa on in which Crime was Commi ed.

To increase the Goodness of the Stare, King should reward good people and punish wrongdoers

Thus, Badshah was the highert Judiciary and he does not needed any religious assistance; while
dispensing Jus ce.

Administrative structure of the Mughal Empire.

The **Mughal Empire’s administra ve structure** was a highly organized and hierarchical
system, ensuring the smooth governance of a vast and diverse empire. It combined **Persian, Turco-
Mongol, and Indian tradi ons**, balancing centralized authority with local autonomy.

### 1. **Central Administra on**

- **Emperor**: At the top of the structure, the emperor was the **supreme authority**, with
control over poli cal, military, and religious ma ers. His word was law.

- **Council of Ministers**:

- **Wazir (Prime Minister)**: Headed the revenue and finance departments.

- **Mir Bakshi**: Managed the military and soldier recruitment.

- **Sadr-us-Sudoor**: Handled religious ma ers and charity (like waqfs).

- **Mir Saman**: Managed the royal household and supply of goods for the court.

The **emperor** appointed ministers based on loyalty and merit, ensuring efficient governance.

### 2. **Provincial Administra on**

- **Subas (Provinces)**: The empire was divided into **15 to 20 provinces** under different
emperors.

- **Subedar (Governor)**: Managed law and order, revenue collec on, and military in the province.

- **Diwan**: Oversaw **revenue administra on** in the province.

 - **Bakshi**: Managed military pay and logis cs at the provincial level.

- **Qazi**: Acted as the chief judicial officer, ensuring legal disputes were resolved fairly.

This division ensured the empire could manage distant regions effec vely.

### 3. **District and Local Administra on**

- Each province (suba) was divided into **sarkars (districts)**, further divided into **parganas**
(sub-districts), and finally into **villages**.

- **Faujdar**: Military officer at the district level to maintain law and order.

- **Amil**: Revenue collector at the pargana level.

- **Patwari**: Maintained village-level land records.

This mul - ered structure allowed the Mughals to maintain control and ensure tax collec on
throughout the empire.

### 4. **Revenue Administra on: The Mansabdari System**

- **Mansabdari System**: Officials were ranked based on the **number of soldiers (zat)** they
maintained and were granted **jagirs** (land assignments) as a reward.

- **Raja Todar Mal’s Dahsala System**: A land revenue system that assessed taxes based on a **10-
year average** of crop yields and ensured tax fairness.

Revenue from agriculture was the backbone of the Mughal economy, with **tax collec on**
managed at various levels.

### 5. **Judicial Administra on**

- **Qazi**: Handled Islamic law (Sharia) and civil disputes.

- **Kotwal**: Managed city police and market regula on, ensuring law and order in urban areas.

- The emperor could **intervene as the highest court of appeal** in significant cases.

This system provided both central and local avenues for jus ce, combining **Islamic law** with local
tradi ons.

### 6. **Military Administra on**

- **Mir Bakshi**: Head of military administra on, responsible for recrui ng and paying soldiers.
- **Mansabdars**: Nobles and officials maintained **private armies**, contribu ng to the imperial
forces.

- The military structure ensured that **Mughals had a large, standing army** without burdening the
treasury.

### 7. **Religious and Cultural Policies**

- **Sadr-us-Sudoor** oversaw religious endowments and promoted cultural ac vi es.

- Akbar’s **Sulh-i-Kul** (universal peace) policy ensured religious tolerance and harmony among
different communi es, fostering poli cal stability.

### **Conclusion**

The **Mughal administra ve structure** was a sophis cated and efficient system that ensured
**control, jus ce, and revenue collec on**. The **centralized authority** of the emperor was
complemented by **local administra on**, balancing power to manage a vast and diverse empire.
This structure enabled the Mughal Empire to thrive for centuries.

ARMY IN MUGAL ADMINISTRATION

The **Mughal army** was one of the most powerful military systems of its me, with a
sophis cated structure that combined **Turco-Mongol, Persian, and Indian military tradi ons**. It
was organized to ensure both **centralized control and flexibility** for expansion and defense.
Below is an overview of the Mughal military system.

### 1. **Composi on of the Mughal Army**

The Mughal army was divided into several key components:

- **Infantry (Paidal)**: Composed of archers, swordsmen, and matchlock (musketeers). Though

rela vely less significant compared to cavalry, they played key roles in sieges and urban combat.

- **Cavalry (Sawars)**: The most important part of the Mughal military. Soldiers on horseback were
armed with bows, swords, and firearms. The Mughals relied heavily on **horse-mounted troops**
for quick mobility.

- **Ar llery**: Under Emperor Akbar, the use of **heavy ar llery** became crucial. Cannons were
employed in ba les and sieges, giving the Mughals an edge against Indian rulers who lacked
advanced firearms.

- **Elephants**: Used both as **war animals** and for transporta on of supplies. In ba le, they
were in mida ng but also served as pla orms for archers and commanders.

- **Navy**: Though the Mughals were primarily a land power, they maintained a navy for **riverine
opera ons and coastal defense**, par cularly under Akbar and Aurangzeb.
### 2. **The Mansabdari System**

The **mansabdari system** was a unique feature of the Mughal military structure. It was a **rank-
based system** where nobles (mansabdars) provided **troops and horses** in exchange for jagirs
(land assignments). The system also regulated the size of the army without burdening the central
treasury.

- **Zat**: The personal rank of a mansabdar, determining their salary and status.

- **Sawar**: Denoted the number of cavalry troops a mansabdar was expected to maintain.

- **Jagir**: A land grant given to mansabdars to cover the cost of maintaining their soldiers.

This system ensured that the army was **meritocra c** and that nobles stayed loyal to the emperor
by tying their income to the soldiers they fielded.

### 3. **Recruitment and Pay**

- The army was **mul -ethnic**, recrui ng soldiers from various communi es, including **Turks,
Afghans, Rajputs, and Indian Muslims**.

- Soldiers were paid either through **cash salaries** or **jagir grants**, with higher-ranking officials
receiving land revenues to support their troops.

- The **Mir Bakshi**, an important official, was in charge of military recruitment, promo ons, and
pay.

### 4. **Military Campaigns and Tac cs**

The Mughal military was known for its **effec ve use of both tradi onal and modern warfare
techniques**. Some key aspects of the Mughal strategy included:

- **Mobile warfare**: The Mughals emphasized mobility through their cavalry, ensuring rapid
movement in ba le.

- **Use of ar llery**: Akbar's use of cannons in ba les like the siege of **Chi or Fort (1568)** was
revolu onary for Indian warfare.

- **Diplomacy and Alliances**: Akbar’s policy of **marrying Rajput princesses** helped integrate
Rajput warriors into the Mughal military, strengthening their forces.

### 5. **Challenges and Decline**

- **Aurangzeb's Deccan campaigns** stretched the Mughal military to its limits, leading to fa gue
and financial strain.

- By the **18th century**, the quality of the army declined as **mansabdars** became more
focused on personal wealth rather than military efficiency.
- The rise of **regional powers** like the **Marathas** and **Bri sh forces** exposed the
limita ons of the Mughal military, which struggled to adapt to modern European warfare.

### **Conclusion**

The **Mughal army** was a cornerstone of the empire’s strength, enabling it to expand and
consolidate power over large parts of India. However, while the **mansabdari system** ini ally
ensured efficiency and loyalty, over me it became a liability, contribu ng to the eventual decline of
the Mughal military. Their ability to **blend tradi onal cavalry warfare with ar llery and
diplomacy** remains a significant legacy in military history.

This structure reflects the **military sophis ca on** and challenges of maintaining a large empire
across a diverse region

The end
 AbulFazal-Monarchy

INTRODUCTION

• ABUL FAZL is the most noted historian and poli cal thinker of Mughal period, was one of the nine
jewlls in Akbar's court
• His poli cal thoughts are spread across in his Ain-i-Akbari, 3rd volume of Akbarnama
• He supported social contract and need for social order as basis of sovereignty but also gave divine
authority to the King through his theory of divine light
• Through his idea of Sulh-i-Kul as state policy, he liberated the temporal sovereign from any
par cular faith, religious laws, dictates of the theologians
• He combined both temporal & spiritual sovereignty in the Godly King- the just sovereign, who not
only maintain his state but promote social harmony, religious tolerance, and becomes spiritual guide
to the na on
• Along with Sulh-i-Kul, promo ng science, reason, ra onality also duty of the King/state.

• Like Plato, he proposed 4-fold division of society and state/kingship; raised State as highest moral &
spiritual ins tu on
• Despite such path breaking poli cal ideas he cri cized for being contradictory, idealis c/utopic, not
original, and having li le impact on later Mughals
• He had given us a clear descrip on of the Mughal State system with clear historiography and & It's
very important source for present genera on to have acquaintance of Mughal Empire under the king
Akbar.

ABU'L-FAZL

• ABU'L-FAZL ibn Mubarak (1551-1602) popularly called ABUL FAZL, was born in Agra, where his
father shi ed from Nagaur (Rajasthan)
• Family of scholars: his father, Shaikh Mubarak was influen al liberal scholar who dra ed the decree
('mahzar') giving right of final arbiter of Shari ‘a to Akbar; His elder brother Abu'l Faizi was court poet
in Akbar's reign
• Received extensive educa on in all the branches of Islamic sciences from his father, had deep
influence of Sufi Philosophers ibn Arabi (Truth and unity of existence) and Shihabuddin Suhrawardi
(Israq- theory of light and illuminated wisdom)
• For his liberal and secular views, his father had to face wrath of theologians (Ulma) and had to live
life of fugi ve for some me a er 1569-70
• Gained access to Akbar's court through his brother Faizi in 1575. Soon became friend and
philosopher to Akbar and was his secretary and companion
• Abu'l Fazl was assassinated in 1602 by Vir Singh Bundela by a plot hatched by Prince Salim
• He was also one of the Nine Jewels (Navaratnas) of Akbar's royal court
• Social contract theory as basis of Sovereignty, theory of divine light, religious tolerance (Sulh-i-Kul),
state promo ng science & reason, are his las ng poli cal thoughts

● He was known for his intellectual themes and a commitment to reason.

● He was a historian, officer, chief secretary, and confidant of the Mughal emperor Akbar.
● Fazl’s wri ngs appeal to reason against religious and cultural tradi ons .
● His interpreta on of history was linked to the poli cal, social, economic and religious reali es of
that period and addressed the plurality and diversity of Indian society.
● Fazl was against the hardline Islam and challenged the conserva ve, narrow views of olama. He
was with Akbar for 2.5 decades.
● Fazl was influenced by the works and thoughts of ibn arabi who spoke about tracedental unity
once its reality is recognised, the differences seen in the sensory world are bound to lose their
significance and become illusory.
● While not presen ng a formal trea se on poli cal theory, Fazal is recognized as a poli cal thinker.
● His major works, Akbar-Nama and Ain-i-Akbari, provide insights into poli cal philosophy and
historical events.
● He supported social contract and need for social order as basis of sovereignty but also gave divine
authority to the King through his theory of divine light.
● In Ain-i-Akbari, Fazal adopts a ma er-of-fact and straigh orward approach to presen ng
informa on.
● Fazal's influence on Akbar's poli cal theory should be understood without exaggera on,
considering Akbar's character and various influencing factors.
● Poli cal concepts in Islam have diverse origins, including pre-Islamic sources and teachings of the
Prophet Muhammad.
● The incep on of the Mughal Empire in India faced poli cal instability due to the division of the
region into smaller kingdoms.
● Abul Fazal approached history with logic and a secular perspec ve, introducing a novel
methodology for collec ng and presen ng facts.
● His contribu ons substan ally expanded the scope of historical research and wri ng, covering
administra ve norms, methods, and topographical accounts.

METHODOLOGY

● Abul Fazal had a ra onal and secular approach to history which is the hallmark of his wri ngs

● He adopted new methodology to collect the facts and make them the basis of cri cal inves ga on.
● He recorded facts pertaining to socio-economic poli cal life.
● He collected the material, and facts a er careful inquiry and inves ga on, and presented them in a
clear and systema c manner.
● He ques oned the validity of a source also, cross-examined them, and then reached to
conclusions.
● Reports, memoranda, minutes prepared by the offices, imperial Farmans, and other records were
carefully consulted by him before racing to any conclusions.

WORKS OF ABU'L-FAZL

1.The Akbarnama
The Akbarnama is a document of history of Akbar's reign and his ancestors spread over three
volumes. It contains the history of Akbar's ancestors from Timur to Humayun, Akbar's reign up to the
46th regnal year (1602), and an administra ve report of Akbar's empire, the Ain-i-Akbari, which itself
is in three volumes. The third volume of Ain-i-Akbari gives an account of the ancestry and life of the
author. The Ain-i-Akbari was completed in the 42nd regnal year, but a slight addi on was made to it
in the 43rd regnal year on the account of the conquest of Berar
2.Ruqa āt
ʿ The Ruqa āt or the Ruqa āt-i-Abu'l Fazl is a collec on of priva ʿ ʿ te le ers from Abū al-Fażl to Murad,
Daniyal, Akbar, Mariam Makani, Salim (Jahangir), Akbar's queens and daughters, his father, mother
and brothers and several other notable contemporaries compiled by his nephew Nūr al-Dīn Mu am ḥ
mad.
3.Inshā-i-Abu'l Fazl
The Inshā-i-Abu'l Fazl or the Maqtubāt-i-Allami contains the official despatches wri en by Abu'l Fazl.
It is divided into two parts. The first part contains Akbar's le ers to Abdullah Khan Uzbeg of Turan,
Shah Abbas of Persia, Raja Ali Khan of Khandesh, Burhan-ul-Mulk of Ahmadnagar and his own nobles
such as Abdur Rahim Khan Khanan. The second part consists Abu'l Fazl's le ers to Akbar, Daniyal,
Mirza Shah Rukh and Khan Khanan. This collec on was compiled by Abd-us-samad, son of Afzal
Muhammad, who claims that he was Abu'l Fazl's sister's son as well as his son-in-law.
4. Abul Fazl, a contemporary of Abdul Qadir Badauni, was a cour er, historian and also a friend to
Akbar, the greatest of all Mughal rulers. He finished his massive and defini ve work, the Akbar Nama
and Ain-i-Akbari, in the waning years of the sixteenth century. It marks a decisive and schema c
departure from the predominant historiographic format of the me, as it does in several other
aspects of the construc on of an alterna ve world view. The Akbar Nama opens with the praise of
Allah, for sure, and then moves to Adam and traces Akbar’s lineage back to fi y-three genera ons of
his ancestors. It dislocates the historiographic axis from the groove of Islam and seeks to construct an
alterna ve teleology of universal history in which Akbar is the heir not of Muhammad and the
caliphs, but of Adam himself, the first human being, and thus the ruler of all humanity.
5. The text therefore promotes the idea of a powerful sovereign and a centralized state structure.

ABUL FAZL: theory of kingship and sovereignty

•Akbar's theory of kingship was influenced by Turko-Mongol theory of kingship, his liberal ancestral
and paternal legacy, broad mindedness of his teachers like Abul La f and Pir Mohammad, liberal
environment created by Sufi and Bhak movement and poli cal necessity of the me.
• Akbar's theory of Kingship was presented by Abul Fazl in Akbarnama.
• Abul Fazl says: "No dignity is higher in the eyes of God than royalty. Royalty is a remedy for the
spirit of rebellion...."
• Even the meaning of the word Padshah shows this for pad signifies stability and possession and
shah means origin, Lord .
•Highly exhaulted status of the king and Abul Fazl presented this through many symbols, metaphors
and miniature pain ng which depicts Akbar as divine, enlightened and infallible personality.
• He presents the view that kingship is the gi of god.
•The ruler was not dependent on it on the ulama, and everyone had to submit to one who possessed
it.
• Abul Fazl adds: "Royalty is a light emana ng from God, and a ray from the sun"
• Modern language calls this light farri izidi (the divine light) and the tongue of an quity called it
kiyan khwarah (the sublime halo).
•Kingship is Farr-i-Izidi i.e. divine light or light emana ng from God. Hence no one can stand between
God and the ruler.
• It is communicated by God to kings without the intermediate assistance of anyone.
•Again many excellent quali es flow from the possession of divine light/ Farr-iIzidi, e.g.,
• a paternal love towards the subjects,
• a large heart i.e. benevolent, generous, receives li le and give more.
•trust in God, prayer and devo on, etc.

• He is not upset by adversity, punishes the tyrant and behaves with modera on and with reason.
• At another place, Abul Fazl repeats that "The shamsa of the arch of royalty is a divine light, which
God directly transfers to kings, without the assistance of men..."
• The king was therefore deemed divinely guided and divinely protected.
•Presented dynas c ideology linking it with supernatural i.e. his ancestors came from heaven as
kings. Thus, he established divine origin of Akbar.
•The sight of the king is the part of divine worship and to behold is a mean of calling to mind the
creator and such percep on gave birth to prac ces like Zharoka-i-darshan, Jameen Bes- forms of
saluta on in court.
• Abul Fazl's basic concept was of a liberal absolu sm under a ruler of high endeavour endowed with
the highest moral and spiritual quali es, and enjoying heaven's mandate, so that he was not
dependent on any set of religious leaders for legi miza on.
•It is significant that the absolute tradi ons of sovereignty and conjunc on of spiritual and temporal
rulership was developed at many courts as a defence mechanism against undue encroachment upon
king's authority by lesser mortals.
• The philosophy and the spirit of the concepts of Farr-i izidi, kiyan khwarah, etc. were the same, that
is, the inten on was to guard against any direct or indirect share in king's authority.
• The theory of sovereignty propounded by Abul Fazl on behalf of Akbar and reflected in his mahzar
and "Ai'n-i rahnamuni" seems to be as close to the Central Asian and Perso-Islamic concepts as to the
Chingizi tradi ons of sovereignty.
•Alauddin Khalji had tried to abide by the "Law of expediency". Akbar went ahead of him.
• By the mahzar (dra ed by Shaikh Mubarak and his two sons), the Emperor was cer fied to be a just
ruler (Imam Adil) and was as such assigned the rank of mujtahid, i.e. "infallible authority".
• Akbar through Mahazar became the supreme interpreter of Shariyat, subordina ng Ulemmas.

Sovereignty as a social contract

● Abul Fazl, akin to Ziauddin Barani, aimed for social stability but approached sovereignty differently.
● In Ain-i-Akbari, Abul Fazl advocated sovereignty based on a social contract rather than Shariah law,
emphasizing the emergence of poli cal authority.
● He highlighted that a lack of a strong ruler could lead to lawlessness and rebellion, reflec ng a pre-
state society resembling Thomas Hobbes' nega ve view of the pre-contract state.
● Abul Fazl promoted the theory of a 'Social Contract' wherein sovereignty was an agreement
between the king and subjects. The king protected life, property, honor, and religion in exchange for
obedience and resources from the subjects.
● He believed only a just ruler, guided by power and divine guidance, could honor these contracts,
viewing the king as the protector and well-wisher of his subjects.
● The principle of public interest was sustained by Akbar's successors, aligning with the idea of a just,
fair, and caring king.

● Abul Fazl rooted sovereignty in the needs of social order, integra ng reasoning, philosophy, and
divine light (Farr-i-Izadi), somewhat rejec ng the tradi onal no on of the king as the shadow of God
(Zill-i-Ilahi)

•He defined sovereignty as a contract under which the Emperor protects 4 essences of his subjects:

• Jaan (life) • Maal (property) • Namus (honour) • Din (religion) • In return demand obedience and a
share of resources. He says: "Only a just sovereign is able to honour this contract with power and
divine guidance."

Features of his social contract theory:

● No contract among the people themselves; people didn’t form any poli cal community out of such
contract.
● Absolute sovereignty to the King- no restraint on his power- like Leviathan of Hobbes.
● No men on of op ons to people to change the king in case he becomes tyrannical, cruel and
unjust or not able to protect them.
● Only just sovereigns are able to honour the contract with power and Divine guidance/blessings.
Thus, no guarantee that the King would honour the contract.
● Not well developed like social the social contract theory of origin of state by modern western
poli cal thinkers such as Hobbes, Locke and Rousseau\

Divine Light Theory of Kingship:

● Based on Ishraq theory: the theory of divine light emana ng from the Sun was developed by 12th
century Sufi philosopher Shihabuddin Suhrawardi.
● Abul Fazl says: "No dignity is higher in the eyes of God than royalty. Royalty is a remedy for the
spirit of rebellion...."
● He says that the king was something more than an average human being. He was the
representa ve of God on earth and His shadow. He was given greater knowledge and wisdom than
any other human being.

● According to him, “state-power is the light emana ng from God and the ray emana ng from the
sun.”
● Akbar and other Mughal rulers assumed the tle of Zill-i-Ilahi i.e. ‘Shadow of God’.
● Fazl believed The term Padshahat (Badshahat) meant ‘an established owner’ where Pad stands for
stability and shah stands for the owner.
● Padshahat means a powerful, established owner who cannot be eliminated by anyone.
● According to Abul Fazl, ‘Badshahat is the light derived from God which has been sent by God
himself. God throws his kindness on Badshah; who works as the agent of god’
● The possession of this divine light, according to Abul Fazl, brings forth quali es such as paternal
love towards subjects, generosity, trust in God, and devo on.
● Kingship is Farr-i-Izidi i.e. divine light or light emana ng from God. Hence no one can stand
between God and the ruler.
● King is not shadow of the God, but "light of God “, directly linked to God, part of God not merely
his shadow. The sublime halo represents the divine light.
● He was the ul mate authority on all social, economic, poli cal and judicial powers. The ruler was
not dependent on the ulama
● The king was the final authority in governance, administra on, agriculture, educa on, and other
fields, but he had no say if they were related to religious ma ers.
● The ray of divine wisdom banishes from his heart everything that is conflic ng, guide him to be just
like Sun, like rain, maintain harmony raising above mean conflicts/differences, makes him ‘perfect
man’ ( İnsan-ı Kâmil ) and spiritual guide to the na on.

FAZL’S IDEAL SULTAN – AKBAR

• His ideal king is just and sovereign monarch, receiving divine light directly from God
•By virtue of the divine light, heart of the ideal King is free from any conflict, disunity, and dis
harmony
• He has the Godly vision to see truth and act justly without any decima on between his subject, for
which he is the spiritual guide
• Ideal Kingship is based on the principle of Universal peace, religious tolerance and social harmony
(Sulh-i-kul)
• Ideal king is able to honour the social contract with just force and Divine guidance.
• The ideal king has Strong will, does God worship, is wise, not wrathful, considerate, believe in
science & reason, and provide quick relief to poor/needy/jus ce seeker
• Rule of the ideal king is long las ng, just, and peaceful; Jus ce is the highest virtue of the ideal
ruler

• Thus, Abul fazl's ideal king, divinely inspired perfect man, who has supreme sovereignty- both
temporal & spiritual-over his people and complete control over his enemies

THE POLICY OF SULH-E-KUL

● Abul Fazl supported the policy of Sulh-i-kul, or universal peace, a key element in Mughal kingship.
● This policy advocated religious tolerance, emphasizing that the ruler should not discriminate
among various faiths.
● Under Sulh-i-kul, religions had freedom of expression as long as they didn't harm the monarchy or
incite conflict.
● Abul Fazl believed that in a diverse country like India, monarchial sovereignty was more relevant,
placing the monarch above any par cular religion.
● He endorsed the good values of different faiths to maintain peace and unity, emphasizing the
sovereign's tolerance toward exis ng beliefs.
● This policy was implemented through state prac ces, integra ng nobles of various backgrounds
into the Mughal aristocracy based on talent and loyalty, not religion or caste .
● Akbar's rule demonstrated religious impar ality by abolishing taxes based on pilgrimage and
religious affilia on( pilgrimage tax in 1563 CE and jizya in 1564 CE.), promo ng the principles of Sulh-
i-kul in administra on, and funding the construc on of places of worship.

FAZL’S SOCIETAL DIVISION

● Abul Fazl proposed a four-fold societal division, similar to Plato's three-fold model, emphasizing
dis nct classes with designated roles.
● His societal structure comprised: a. Warriors: Equivalent to Plato's Guardian or warrior class,
entrusted with protec on and defense. b. Learned Men: Comparable to Plato's rulers or the official
class, focused on intellectual pursuits and governance. c. Husbandmen & Laborers: Represen ng
agricultural and labour-oriented roles essen al for societal sustenance. d. Ar ficers & Merchants:
Similar to Plato's third class, encompassing ar sans and traders, contribu ng to economic func ons.
● Abul Fazl linked these societal divisions to the four elements of Fire, Air, Water, and Earth,
highligh ng their interdependence for societal balance.
● He mirrored this division within the realm of royalty or the state, delinea ng classes as:

a. Nobles of the State

b. Assistants of Victory
c. Companions of the King d. Servants
● Emphasized the crucial role of the King in establishing and maintaining societal order, stressing the
need for equilibrium among these four divisions for the welfare and stability of the state.
● Indicated that the harmonious func oning of these societal divisions was pivotal for the state's
prosperity and peace, before considering other elements like the military, economy, or
administra on.
● Abul Fazl envisioned a moral and poli cal convergence in the state, with the King serving as its
spiritual guide, aligning the state's aims with moral and spiritual ideals

THEORY OF JUSTICE

● Abul Fazl emphasized the king's duty to administer jus ce to the people, punishing wrongdoers
and ensuring fairness for the innocent.
● He believed a king should dispense jus ce with kindness and harmony, trea ng his subjects like his
own children, embodying a fatherly role in governance.
● According to him, the king should perceive himself as a medium for the welfare of his people, sent
by God to establish peace and jus ce.
● Abul Fazl advocated that the ruler must maintain impar ality, ensuring that no one is harmed by
his decisions or ac ons.
● He stressed the ruler's independence from religious figures, highligh ng the importance of high
moral and spiritual quali es
● His vision of jus ce relied on reason as a crucial element in a aining an ideal concept of fairness
and righteousness in governance.

while dispensing Jus ce Badshah should always keep in mind that the repas is rent by God on Earth
to ensure peace and jus ce for all.

while dispensing Jus ce, King should equally treat everyone and should not hurt amyme.

For Farl, Jus ce also meant to take care of basic needs of the people

while dispensing Jus ce i Badshah should Keep himself in the Shoe e of Crime and make judgments
a er knowing the condi on and situa on in which Crime was Commi ed.

To increase the Goodness of the Stare, King should reward good people and punish wrongdoers

Thus, Badshah was the highert Judiciary and he does not needed any religious assistance; while
dispensing Jus ce.

Administrative structure of the Mughal Empire.

The **Mughal Empire’s administra ve structure** was a highly organized and hierarchical
system, ensuring the smooth governance of a vast and diverse empire. It combined **Persian, Turco-
Mongol, and Indian tradi ons**, balancing centralized authority with local autonomy.

### 1. **Central Administra on**

- **Emperor**: At the top of the structure, the emperor was the **supreme authority**, with
control over poli cal, military, and religious ma ers. His word was law.

- **Council of Ministers**:

- **Wazir (Prime Minister)**: Headed the revenue and finance departments.

- **Mir Bakshi**: Managed the military and soldier recruitment.

- **Sadr-us-Sudoor**: Handled religious ma ers and charity (like waqfs).

- **Mir Saman**: Managed the royal household and supply of goods for the court.

The **emperor** appointed ministers based on loyalty and merit, ensuring efficient governance.

### 2. **Provincial Administra on**

- **Subas (Provinces)**: The empire was divided into **15 to 20 provinces** under different
emperors.

- **Subedar (Governor)**: Managed law and order, revenue collec on, and military in the province.

- **Diwan**: Oversaw **revenue administra on** in the province.

 - **Bakshi**: Managed military pay and logis cs at the provincial level.

- **Qazi**: Acted as the chief judicial officer, ensuring legal disputes were resolved fairly.

This division ensured the empire could manage distant regions effec vely.

### 3. **District and Local Administra on**

- Each province (suba) was divided into **sarkars (districts)**, further divided into **parganas**
(sub-districts), and finally into **villages**.

- **Faujdar**: Military officer at the district level to maintain law and order.

- **Amil**: Revenue collector at the pargana level.

- **Patwari**: Maintained village-level land records.

This mul - ered structure allowed the Mughals to maintain control and ensure tax collec on
throughout the empire.

### 4. **Revenue Administra on: The Mansabdari System**

- **Mansabdari System**: Officials were ranked based on the **number of soldiers (zat)** they
maintained and were granted **jagirs** (land assignments) as a reward.

- **Raja Todar Mal’s Dahsala System**: A land revenue system that assessed taxes based on a **10-
year average** of crop yields and ensured tax fairness.

Revenue from agriculture was the backbone of the Mughal economy, with **tax collec on**
managed at various levels.

### 5. **Judicial Administra on**

- **Qazi**: Handled Islamic law (Sharia) and civil disputes.

- **Kotwal**: Managed city police and market regula on, ensuring law and order in urban areas.

- The emperor could **intervene as the highest court of appeal** in significant cases.

This system provided both central and local avenues for jus ce, combining **Islamic law** with local
tradi ons.

### 6. **Military Administra on**

- **Mir Bakshi**: Head of military administra on, responsible for recrui ng and paying soldiers.
- **Mansabdars**: Nobles and officials maintained **private armies**, contribu ng to the imperial
forces.

- The military structure ensured that **Mughals had a large, standing army** without burdening the
treasury.

### 7. **Religious and Cultural Policies**

- **Sadr-us-Sudoor** oversaw religious endowments and promoted cultural ac vi es.

- Akbar’s **Sulh-i-Kul** (universal peace) policy ensured religious tolerance and harmony among
different communi es, fostering poli cal stability.

### **Conclusion**

The **Mughal administra ve structure** was a sophis cated and efficient system that ensured
**control, jus ce, and revenue collec on**. The **centralized authority** of the emperor was
complemented by **local administra on**, balancing power to manage a vast and diverse empire.
This structure enabled the Mughal Empire to thrive for centuries.

ARMY IN MUGAL ADMINISTRATION

The **Mughal army** was one of the most powerful military systems of its me, with a
sophis cated structure that combined **Turco-Mongol, Persian, and Indian military tradi ons**. It
was organized to ensure both **centralized control and flexibility** for expansion and defense.
Below is an overview of the Mughal military system.

### 1. **Composi on of the Mughal Army**

The Mughal army was divided into several key components:

- **Infantry (Paidal)**: Composed of archers, swordsmen, and matchlock (musketeers). Though

rela vely less significant compared to cavalry, they played key roles in sieges and urban combat.

- **Cavalry (Sawars)**: The most important part of the Mughal military. Soldiers on horseback were
armed with bows, swords, and firearms. The Mughals relied heavily on **horse-mounted troops**
for quick mobility.

- **Ar llery**: Under Emperor Akbar, the use of **heavy ar llery** became crucial. Cannons were
employed in ba les and sieges, giving the Mughals an edge against Indian rulers who lacked
advanced firearms.

- **Elephants**: Used both as **war animals** and for transporta on of supplies. In ba le, they
were in mida ng but also served as pla orms for archers and commanders.

- **Navy**: Though the Mughals were primarily a land power, they maintained a navy for **riverine
opera ons and coastal defense**, par cularly under Akbar and Aurangzeb.
### 2. **The Mansabdari System**

The **mansabdari system** was a unique feature of the Mughal military structure. It was a **rank-
based system** where nobles (mansabdars) provided **troops and horses** in exchange for jagirs
(land assignments). The system also regulated the size of the army without burdening the central
treasury.

- **Zat**: The personal rank of a mansabdar, determining their salary and status.

- **Sawar**: Denoted the number of cavalry troops a mansabdar was expected to maintain.

- **Jagir**: A land grant given to mansabdars to cover the cost of maintaining their soldiers.

This system ensured that the army was **meritocra c** and that nobles stayed loyal to the emperor
by tying their income to the soldiers they fielded.

### 3. **Recruitment and Pay**

- The army was **mul -ethnic**, recrui ng soldiers from various communi es, including **Turks,
Afghans, Rajputs, and Indian Muslims**.

- Soldiers were paid either through **cash salaries** or **jagir grants**, with higher-ranking officials
receiving land revenues to support their troops.

- The **Mir Bakshi**, an important official, was in charge of military recruitment, promo ons, and
pay.

### 4. **Military Campaigns and Tac cs**

The Mughal military was known for its **effec ve use of both tradi onal and modern warfare
techniques**. Some key aspects of the Mughal strategy included:

- **Mobile warfare**: The Mughals emphasized mobility through their cavalry, ensuring rapid
movement in ba le.

- **Use of ar llery**: Akbar's use of cannons in ba les like the siege of **Chi or Fort (1568)** was
revolu onary for Indian warfare.

- **Diplomacy and Alliances**: Akbar’s policy of **marrying Rajput princesses** helped integrate
Rajput warriors into the Mughal military, strengthening their forces.

### 5. **Challenges and Decline**

- **Aurangzeb's Deccan campaigns** stretched the Mughal military to its limits, leading to fa gue
and financial strain.

- By the **18th century**, the quality of the army declined as **mansabdars** became more
focused on personal wealth rather than military efficiency.
- The rise of **regional powers** like the **Marathas** and **Bri sh forces** exposed the
limita ons of the Mughal military, which struggled to adapt to modern European warfare.

### **Conclusion**

The **Mughal army** was a cornerstone of the empire’s strength, enabling it to expand and
consolidate power over large parts of India. However, while the **mansabdari system** ini ally
ensured efficiency and loyalty, over me it became a liability, contribu ng to the eventual decline of
the Mughal military. Their ability to **blend tradi onal cavalry warfare with ar llery and
diplomacy** remains a significant legacy in military history.

This structure reflects the **military sophis ca on** and challenges of maintaining a large empire
across a diverse region

The end
 AbulFazal-Monarchy

INTRODUCTION

• ABUL FAZL is the most noted historian and poli cal thinker of Mughal period, was one of the nine
jewlls in Akbar's court
• His poli cal thoughts are spread across in his Ain-i-Akbari, 3rd volume of Akbarnama
• He supported social contract and need for social order as basis of sovereignty but also gave divine
authority to the King through his theory of divine light
• Through his idea of Sulh-i-Kul as state policy, he liberated the temporal sovereign from any
par cular faith, religious laws, dictates of the theologians
• He combined both temporal & spiritual sovereignty in the Godly King- the just sovereign, who not
only maintain his state but promote social harmony, religious tolerance, and becomes spiritual guide
to the na on
• Along with Sulh-i-Kul, promo ng science, reason, ra onality also duty of the King/state.

• Like Plato, he proposed 4-fold division of society and state/kingship; raised State as highest moral &
spiritual ins tu on
• Despite such path breaking poli cal ideas he cri cized for being contradictory, idealis c/utopic, not
original, and having li le impact on later Mughals
• He had given us a clear descrip on of the Mughal State system with clear historiography and & It's
very important source for present genera on to have acquaintance of Mughal Empire under the king
Akbar.

ABU'L-FAZL

• ABU'L-FAZL ibn Mubarak (1551-1602) popularly called ABUL FAZL, was born in Agra, where his
father shi ed from Nagaur (Rajasthan)
• Family of scholars: his father, Shaikh Mubarak was influen al liberal scholar who dra ed the decree
('mahzar') giving right of final arbiter of Shari ‘a to Akbar; His elder brother Abu'l Faizi was court poet
in Akbar's reign
• Received extensive educa on in all the branches of Islamic sciences from his father, had deep
influence of Sufi Philosophers ibn Arabi (Truth and unity of existence) and Shihabuddin Suhrawardi
(Israq- theory of light and illuminated wisdom)
• For his liberal and secular views, his father had to face wrath of theologians (Ulma) and had to live
life of fugi ve for some me a er 1569-70
• Gained access to Akbar's court through his brother Faizi in 1575. Soon became friend and
philosopher to Akbar and was his secretary and companion
• Abu'l Fazl was assassinated in 1602 by Vir Singh Bundela by a plot hatched by Prince Salim
• He was also one of the Nine Jewels (Navaratnas) of Akbar's royal court
• Social contract theory as basis of Sovereignty, theory of divine light, religious tolerance (Sulh-i-Kul),
state promo ng science & reason, are his las ng poli cal thoughts

● He was known for his intellectual themes and a commitment to reason.

● He was a historian, officer, chief secretary, and confidant of the Mughal emperor Akbar.
● Fazl’s wri ngs appeal to reason against religious and cultural tradi ons .
● His interpreta on of history was linked to the poli cal, social, economic and religious reali es of
that period and addressed the plurality and diversity of Indian society.
● Fazl was against the hardline Islam and challenged the conserva ve, narrow views of olama. He
was with Akbar for 2.5 decades.
● Fazl was influenced by the works and thoughts of ibn arabi who spoke about tracedental unity
once its reality is recognised, the differences seen in the sensory world are bound to lose their
significance and become illusory.
● While not presen ng a formal trea se on poli cal theory, Fazal is recognized as a poli cal thinker.
● His major works, Akbar-Nama and Ain-i-Akbari, provide insights into poli cal philosophy and
historical events.
● He supported social contract and need for social order as basis of sovereignty but also gave divine
authority to the King through his theory of divine light.
● In Ain-i-Akbari, Fazal adopts a ma er-of-fact and straigh orward approach to presen ng
informa on.
● Fazal's influence on Akbar's poli cal theory should be understood without exaggera on,
considering Akbar's character and various influencing factors.
● Poli cal concepts in Islam have diverse origins, including pre-Islamic sources and teachings of the
Prophet Muhammad.
● The incep on of the Mughal Empire in India faced poli cal instability due to the division of the
region into smaller kingdoms.
● Abul Fazal approached history with logic and a secular perspec ve, introducing a novel
methodology for collec ng and presen ng facts.
● His contribu ons substan ally expanded the scope of historical research and wri ng, covering
administra ve norms, methods, and topographical accounts.

METHODOLOGY

● Abul Fazal had a ra onal and secular approach to history which is the hallmark of his wri ngs

● He adopted new methodology to collect the facts and make them the basis of cri cal inves ga on.
● He recorded facts pertaining to socio-economic poli cal life.
● He collected the material, and facts a er careful inquiry and inves ga on, and presented them in a
clear and systema c manner.
● He ques oned the validity of a source also, cross-examined them, and then reached to
conclusions.
● Reports, memoranda, minutes prepared by the offices, imperial Farmans, and other records were
carefully consulted by him before racing to any conclusions.

WORKS OF ABU'L-FAZL

1.The Akbarnama
The Akbarnama is a document of history of Akbar's reign and his ancestors spread over three
volumes. It contains the history of Akbar's ancestors from Timur to Humayun, Akbar's reign up to the
46th regnal year (1602), and an administra ve report of Akbar's empire, the Ain-i-Akbari, which itself
is in three volumes. The third volume of Ain-i-Akbari gives an account of the ancestry and life of the
author. The Ain-i-Akbari was completed in the 42nd regnal year, but a slight addi on was made to it
in the 43rd regnal year on the account of the conquest of Berar
2.Ruqa āt
ʿ The Ruqa āt or the Ruqa āt-i-Abu'l Fazl is a collec on of priva ʿ ʿ te le ers from Abū al-Fażl to Murad,
Daniyal, Akbar, Mariam Makani, Salim (Jahangir), Akbar's queens and daughters, his father, mother
and brothers and several other notable contemporaries compiled by his nephew Nūr al-Dīn Mu am ḥ
mad.
3.Inshā-i-Abu'l Fazl
The Inshā-i-Abu'l Fazl or the Maqtubāt-i-Allami contains the official despatches wri en by Abu'l Fazl.
It is divided into two parts. The first part contains Akbar's le ers to Abdullah Khan Uzbeg of Turan,
Shah Abbas of Persia, Raja Ali Khan of Khandesh, Burhan-ul-Mulk of Ahmadnagar and his own nobles
such as Abdur Rahim Khan Khanan. The second part consists Abu'l Fazl's le ers to Akbar, Daniyal,
Mirza Shah Rukh and Khan Khanan. This collec on was compiled by Abd-us-samad, son of Afzal
Muhammad, who claims that he was Abu'l Fazl's sister's son as well as his son-in-law.
4. Abul Fazl, a contemporary of Abdul Qadir Badauni, was a cour er, historian and also a friend to
Akbar, the greatest of all Mughal rulers. He finished his massive and defini ve work, the Akbar Nama
and Ain-i-Akbari, in the waning years of the sixteenth century. It marks a decisive and schema c
departure from the predominant historiographic format of the me, as it does in several other
aspects of the construc on of an alterna ve world view. The Akbar Nama opens with the praise of
Allah, for sure, and then moves to Adam and traces Akbar’s lineage back to fi y-three genera ons of
his ancestors. It dislocates the historiographic axis from the groove of Islam and seeks to construct an
alterna ve teleology of universal history in which Akbar is the heir not of Muhammad and the
caliphs, but of Adam himself, the first human being, and thus the ruler of all humanity.
5. The text therefore promotes the idea of a powerful sovereign and a centralized state structure.

ABUL FAZL: theory of kingship and sovereignty

•Akbar's theory of kingship was influenced by Turko-Mongol theory of kingship, his liberal ancestral
and paternal legacy, broad mindedness of his teachers like Abul La f and Pir Mohammad, liberal
environment created by Sufi and Bhak movement and poli cal necessity of the me.
• Akbar's theory of Kingship was presented by Abul Fazl in Akbarnama.
• Abul Fazl says: "No dignity is higher in the eyes of God than royalty. Royalty is a remedy for the
spirit of rebellion...."
• Even the meaning of the word Padshah shows this for pad signifies stability and possession and
shah means origin, Lord .
•Highly exhaulted status of the king and Abul Fazl presented this through many symbols, metaphors
and miniature pain ng which depicts Akbar as divine, enlightened and infallible personality.
• He presents the view that kingship is the gi of god.
•The ruler was not dependent on it on the ulama, and everyone had to submit to one who possessed
it.
• Abul Fazl adds: "Royalty is a light emana ng from God, and a ray from the sun"
• Modern language calls this light farri izidi (the divine light) and the tongue of an quity called it
kiyan khwarah (the sublime halo).
•Kingship is Farr-i-Izidi i.e. divine light or light emana ng from God. Hence no one can stand between
God and the ruler.
• It is communicated by God to kings without the intermediate assistance of anyone.
•Again many excellent quali es flow from the possession of divine light/ Farr-iIzidi, e.g.,
• a paternal love towards the subjects,
• a large heart i.e. benevolent, generous, receives li le and give more.
•trust in God, prayer and devo on, etc.

• He is not upset by adversity, punishes the tyrant and behaves with modera on and with reason.
• At another place, Abul Fazl repeats that "The shamsa of the arch of royalty is a divine light, which
God directly transfers to kings, without the assistance of men..."
• The king was therefore deemed divinely guided and divinely protected.
•Presented dynas c ideology linking it with supernatural i.e. his ancestors came from heaven as
kings. Thus, he established divine origin of Akbar.
•The sight of the king is the part of divine worship and to behold is a mean of calling to mind the
creator and such percep on gave birth to prac ces like Zharoka-i-darshan, Jameen Bes- forms of
saluta on in court.
• Abul Fazl's basic concept was of a liberal absolu sm under a ruler of high endeavour endowed with
the highest moral and spiritual quali es, and enjoying heaven's mandate, so that he was not
dependent on any set of religious leaders for legi miza on.
•It is significant that the absolute tradi ons of sovereignty and conjunc on of spiritual and temporal
rulership was developed at many courts as a defence mechanism against undue encroachment upon
king's authority by lesser mortals.
• The philosophy and the spirit of the concepts of Farr-i izidi, kiyan khwarah, etc. were the same, that
is, the inten on was to guard against any direct or indirect share in king's authority.
• The theory of sovereignty propounded by Abul Fazl on behalf of Akbar and reflected in his mahzar
and "Ai'n-i rahnamuni" seems to be as close to the Central Asian and Perso-Islamic concepts as to the
Chingizi tradi ons of sovereignty.
•Alauddin Khalji had tried to abide by the "Law of expediency". Akbar went ahead of him.
• By the mahzar (dra ed by Shaikh Mubarak and his two sons), the Emperor was cer fied to be a just
ruler (Imam Adil) and was as such assigned the rank of mujtahid, i.e. "infallible authority".
• Akbar through Mahazar became the supreme interpreter of Shariyat, subordina ng Ulemmas.

Sovereignty as a social contract

● Abul Fazl, akin to Ziauddin Barani, aimed for social stability but approached sovereignty differently.
● In Ain-i-Akbari, Abul Fazl advocated sovereignty based on a social contract rather than Shariah law,
emphasizing the emergence of poli cal authority.
● He highlighted that a lack of a strong ruler could lead to lawlessness and rebellion, reflec ng a pre-
state society resembling Thomas Hobbes' nega ve view of the pre-contract state.
● Abul Fazl promoted the theory of a 'Social Contract' wherein sovereignty was an agreement
between the king and subjects. The king protected life, property, honor, and religion in exchange for
obedience and resources from the subjects.
● He believed only a just ruler, guided by power and divine guidance, could honor these contracts,
viewing the king as the protector and well-wisher of his subjects.
● The principle of public interest was sustained by Akbar's successors, aligning with the idea of a just,
fair, and caring king.

● Abul Fazl rooted sovereignty in the needs of social order, integra ng reasoning, philosophy, and
divine light (Farr-i-Izadi), somewhat rejec ng the tradi onal no on of the king as the shadow of God
(Zill-i-Ilahi)

•He defined sovereignty as a contract under which the Emperor protects 4 essences of his subjects:

• Jaan (life) • Maal (property) • Namus (honour) • Din (religion) • In return demand obedience and a
share of resources. He says: "Only a just sovereign is able to honour this contract with power and
divine guidance."

Features of his social contract theory:

● No contract among the people themselves; people didn’t form any poli cal community out of such
contract.
● Absolute sovereignty to the King- no restraint on his power- like Leviathan of Hobbes.
● No men on of op ons to people to change the king in case he becomes tyrannical, cruel and
unjust or not able to protect them.
● Only just sovereigns are able to honour the contract with power and Divine guidance/blessings.
Thus, no guarantee that the King would honour the contract.
● Not well developed like social the social contract theory of origin of state by modern western
poli cal thinkers such as Hobbes, Locke and Rousseau\

Divine Light Theory of Kingship:

● Based on Ishraq theory: the theory of divine light emana ng from the Sun was developed by 12th
century Sufi philosopher Shihabuddin Suhrawardi.
● Abul Fazl says: "No dignity is higher in the eyes of God than royalty. Royalty is a remedy for the
spirit of rebellion...."
● He says that the king was something more than an average human being. He was the
representa ve of God on earth and His shadow. He was given greater knowledge and wisdom than
any other human being.

● According to him, “state-power is the light emana ng from God and the ray emana ng from the
sun.”
● Akbar and other Mughal rulers assumed the tle of Zill-i-Ilahi i.e. ‘Shadow of God’.
● Fazl believed The term Padshahat (Badshahat) meant ‘an established owner’ where Pad stands for
stability and shah stands for the owner.
● Padshahat means a powerful, established owner who cannot be eliminated by anyone.
● According to Abul Fazl, ‘Badshahat is the light derived from God which has been sent by God
himself. God throws his kindness on Badshah; who works as the agent of god’
● The possession of this divine light, according to Abul Fazl, brings forth quali es such as paternal
love towards subjects, generosity, trust in God, and devo on.
● Kingship is Farr-i-Izidi i.e. divine light or light emana ng from God. Hence no one can stand
between God and the ruler.
● King is not shadow of the God, but "light of God “, directly linked to God, part of God not merely
his shadow. The sublime halo represents the divine light.
● He was the ul mate authority on all social, economic, poli cal and judicial powers. The ruler was
not dependent on the ulama
● The king was the final authority in governance, administra on, agriculture, educa on, and other
fields, but he had no say if they were related to religious ma ers.
● The ray of divine wisdom banishes from his heart everything that is conflic ng, guide him to be just
like Sun, like rain, maintain harmony raising above mean conflicts/differences, makes him ‘perfect
man’ ( İnsan-ı Kâmil ) and spiritual guide to the na on.

FAZL’S IDEAL SULTAN – AKBAR

• His ideal king is just and sovereign monarch, receiving divine light directly from God
•By virtue of the divine light, heart of the ideal King is free from any conflict, disunity, and dis
harmony
• He has the Godly vision to see truth and act justly without any decima on between his subject, for
which he is the spiritual guide
• Ideal Kingship is based on the principle of Universal peace, religious tolerance and social harmony
(Sulh-i-kul)
• Ideal king is able to honour the social contract with just force and Divine guidance.
• The ideal king has Strong will, does God worship, is wise, not wrathful, considerate, believe in
science & reason, and provide quick relief to poor/needy/jus ce seeker
• Rule of the ideal king is long las ng, just, and peaceful; Jus ce is the highest virtue of the ideal
ruler

• Thus, Abul fazl's ideal king, divinely inspired perfect man, who has supreme sovereignty- both
temporal & spiritual-over his people and complete control over his enemies

THE POLICY OF SULH-E-KUL

● Abul Fazl supported the policy of Sulh-i-kul, or universal peace, a key element in Mughal kingship.
● This policy advocated religious tolerance, emphasizing that the ruler should not discriminate
among various faiths.
● Under Sulh-i-kul, religions had freedom of expression as long as they didn't harm the monarchy or
incite conflict.
● Abul Fazl believed that in a diverse country like India, monarchial sovereignty was more relevant,
placing the monarch above any par cular religion.
● He endorsed the good values of different faiths to maintain peace and unity, emphasizing the
sovereign's tolerance toward exis ng beliefs.
● This policy was implemented through state prac ces, integra ng nobles of various backgrounds
into the Mughal aristocracy based on talent and loyalty, not religion or caste .
● Akbar's rule demonstrated religious impar ality by abolishing taxes based on pilgrimage and
religious affilia on( pilgrimage tax in 1563 CE and jizya in 1564 CE.), promo ng the principles of Sulh-
i-kul in administra on, and funding the construc on of places of worship.

FAZL’S SOCIETAL DIVISION

● Abul Fazl proposed a four-fold societal division, similar to Plato's three-fold model, emphasizing
dis nct classes with designated roles.
● His societal structure comprised: a. Warriors: Equivalent to Plato's Guardian or warrior class,
entrusted with protec on and defense. b. Learned Men: Comparable to Plato's rulers or the official
class, focused on intellectual pursuits and governance. c. Husbandmen & Laborers: Represen ng
agricultural and labour-oriented roles essen al for societal sustenance. d. Ar ficers & Merchants:
Similar to Plato's third class, encompassing ar sans and traders, contribu ng to economic func ons.
● Abul Fazl linked these societal divisions to the four elements of Fire, Air, Water, and Earth,
highligh ng their interdependence for societal balance.
● He mirrored this division within the realm of royalty or the state, delinea ng classes as:

a. Nobles of the State

b. Assistants of Victory
c. Companions of the King d. Servants
● Emphasized the crucial role of the King in establishing and maintaining societal order, stressing the
need for equilibrium among these four divisions for the welfare and stability of the state.
● Indicated that the harmonious func oning of these societal divisions was pivotal for the state's
prosperity and peace, before considering other elements like the military, economy, or
administra on.
● Abul Fazl envisioned a moral and poli cal convergence in the state, with the King serving as its
spiritual guide, aligning the state's aims with moral and spiritual ideals

THEORY OF JUSTICE

● Abul Fazl emphasized the king's duty to administer jus ce to the people, punishing wrongdoers
and ensuring fairness for the innocent.
● He believed a king should dispense jus ce with kindness and harmony, trea ng his subjects like his
own children, embodying a fatherly role in governance.
● According to him, the king should perceive himself as a medium for the welfare of his people, sent
by God to establish peace and jus ce.
● Abul Fazl advocated that the ruler must maintain impar ality, ensuring that no one is harmed by
his decisions or ac ons.
● He stressed the ruler's independence from religious figures, highligh ng the importance of high
moral and spiritual quali es
● His vision of jus ce relied on reason as a crucial element in a aining an ideal concept of fairness
and righteousness in governance.

while dispensing Jus ce Badshah should always keep in mind that the repas is rent by God on Earth
to ensure peace and jus ce for all.

while dispensing Jus ce, King should equally treat everyone and should not hurt amyme.

For Farl, Jus ce also meant to take care of basic needs of the people

while dispensing Jus ce i Badshah should Keep himself in the Shoe e of Crime and make judgments
a er knowing the condi on and situa on in which Crime was Commi ed.

To increase the Goodness of the Stare, King should reward good people and punish wrongdoers

Thus, Badshah was the highert Judiciary and he does not needed any religious assistance; while
dispensing Jus ce.

Administrative structure of the Mughal Empire.

The **Mughal Empire’s administra ve structure** was a highly organized and hierarchical
system, ensuring the smooth governance of a vast and diverse empire. It combined **Persian, Turco-
Mongol, and Indian tradi ons**, balancing centralized authority with local autonomy.

### 1. **Central Administra on**

- **Emperor**: At the top of the structure, the emperor was the **supreme authority**, with
control over poli cal, military, and religious ma ers. His word was law.

- **Council of Ministers**:

- **Wazir (Prime Minister)**: Headed the revenue and finance departments.

- **Mir Bakshi**: Managed the military and soldier recruitment.

- **Sadr-us-Sudoor**: Handled religious ma ers and charity (like waqfs).

- **Mir Saman**: Managed the royal household and supply of goods for the court.

The **emperor** appointed ministers based on loyalty and merit, ensuring efficient governance.

### 2. **Provincial Administra on**

- **Subas (Provinces)**: The empire was divided into **15 to 20 provinces** under different
emperors.

- **Subedar (Governor)**: Managed law and order, revenue collec on, and military in the province.

- **Diwan**: Oversaw **revenue administra on** in the province.

 - **Bakshi**: Managed military pay and logis cs at the provincial level.

- **Qazi**: Acted as the chief judicial officer, ensuring legal disputes were resolved fairly.

This division ensured the empire could manage distant regions effec vely.

### 3. **District and Local Administra on**

- Each province (suba) was divided into **sarkars (districts)**, further divided into **parganas**
(sub-districts), and finally into **villages**.

- **Faujdar**: Military officer at the district level to maintain law and order.

- **Amil**: Revenue collector at the pargana level.

- **Patwari**: Maintained village-level land records.

This mul - ered structure allowed the Mughals to maintain control and ensure tax collec on
throughout the empire.

### 4. **Revenue Administra on: The Mansabdari System**

- **Mansabdari System**: Officials were ranked based on the **number of soldiers (zat)** they
maintained and were granted **jagirs** (land assignments) as a reward.

- **Raja Todar Mal’s Dahsala System**: A land revenue system that assessed taxes based on a **10-
year average** of crop yields and ensured tax fairness.

Revenue from agriculture was the backbone of the Mughal economy, with **tax collec on**
managed at various levels.

### 5. **Judicial Administra on**

- **Qazi**: Handled Islamic law (Sharia) and civil disputes.

- **Kotwal**: Managed city police and market regula on, ensuring law and order in urban areas.

- The emperor could **intervene as the highest court of appeal** in significant cases.

This system provided both central and local avenues for jus ce, combining **Islamic law** with local
tradi ons.

### 6. **Military Administra on**

- **Mir Bakshi**: Head of military administra on, responsible for recrui ng and paying soldiers.
- **Mansabdars**: Nobles and officials maintained **private armies**, contribu ng to the imperial
forces.

- The military structure ensured that **Mughals had a large, standing army** without burdening the
treasury.

### 7. **Religious and Cultural Policies**

- **Sadr-us-Sudoor** oversaw religious endowments and promoted cultural ac vi es.

- Akbar’s **Sulh-i-Kul** (universal peace) policy ensured religious tolerance and harmony among
different communi es, fostering poli cal stability.

### **Conclusion**

The **Mughal administra ve structure** was a sophis cated and efficient system that ensured
**control, jus ce, and revenue collec on**. The **centralized authority** of the emperor was
complemented by **local administra on**, balancing power to manage a vast and diverse empire.
This structure enabled the Mughal Empire to thrive for centuries.

ARMY IN MUGAL ADMINISTRATION

The **Mughal army** was one of the most powerful military systems of its me, with a
sophis cated structure that combined **Turco-Mongol, Persian, and Indian military tradi ons**. It
was organized to ensure both **centralized control and flexibility** for expansion and defense.
Below is an overview of the Mughal military system.

### 1. **Composi on of the Mughal Army**

The Mughal army was divided into several key components:

- **Infantry (Paidal)**: Composed of archers, swordsmen, and matchlock (musketeers). Though

rela vely less significant compared to cavalry, they played key roles in sieges and urban combat.

- **Cavalry (Sawars)**: The most important part of the Mughal military. Soldiers on horseback were
armed with bows, swords, and firearms. The Mughals relied heavily on **horse-mounted troops**
for quick mobility.

- **Ar llery**: Under Emperor Akbar, the use of **heavy ar llery** became crucial. Cannons were
employed in ba les and sieges, giving the Mughals an edge against Indian rulers who lacked
advanced firearms.

- **Elephants**: Used both as **war animals** and for transporta on of supplies. In ba le, they
were in mida ng but also served as pla orms for archers and commanders.

- **Navy**: Though the Mughals were primarily a land power, they maintained a navy for **riverine
opera ons and coastal defense**, par cularly under Akbar and Aurangzeb.
### 2. **The Mansabdari System**

The **mansabdari system** was a unique feature of the Mughal military structure. It was a **rank-
based system** where nobles (mansabdars) provided **troops and horses** in exchange for jagirs
(land assignments). The system also regulated the size of the army without burdening the central
treasury.

- **Zat**: The personal rank of a mansabdar, determining their salary and status.

- **Sawar**: Denoted the number of cavalry troops a mansabdar was expected to maintain.

- **Jagir**: A land grant given to mansabdars to cover the cost of maintaining their soldiers.

This system ensured that the army was **meritocra c** and that nobles stayed loyal to the emperor
by tying their income to the soldiers they fielded.

### 3. **Recruitment and Pay**

- The army was **mul -ethnic**, recrui ng soldiers from various communi es, including **Turks,
Afghans, Rajputs, and Indian Muslims**.

- Soldiers were paid either through **cash salaries** or **jagir grants**, with higher-ranking officials
receiving land revenues to support their troops.

- The **Mir Bakshi**, an important official, was in charge of military recruitment, promo ons, and
pay.

### 4. **Military Campaigns and Tac cs**

The Mughal military was known for its **effec ve use of both tradi onal and modern warfare
techniques**. Some key aspects of the Mughal strategy included:

- **Mobile warfare**: The Mughals emphasized mobility through their cavalry, ensuring rapid
movement in ba le.

- **Use of ar llery**: Akbar's use of cannons in ba les like the siege of **Chi or Fort (1568)** was
revolu onary for Indian warfare.

- **Diplomacy and Alliances**: Akbar’s policy of **marrying Rajput princesses** helped integrate
Rajput warriors into the Mughal military, strengthening their forces.

### 5. **Challenges and Decline**

- **Aurangzeb's Deccan campaigns** stretched the Mughal military to its limits, leading to fa gue
and financial strain.

- By the **18th century**, the quality of the army declined as **mansabdars** became more
focused on personal wealth rather than military efficiency.
- The rise of **regional powers** like the **Marathas** and **Bri sh forces** exposed the
limita ons of the Mughal military, which struggled to adapt to modern European warfare.

### **Conclusion**

The **Mughal army** was a cornerstone of the empire’s strength, enabling it to expand and
consolidate power over large parts of India. However, while the **mansabdari system** ini ally
ensured efficiency and loyalty, over me it became a liability, contribu ng to the eventual decline of
the Mughal military. Their ability to **blend tradi onal cavalry warfare with ar llery and
diplomacy** remains a significant legacy in military history.

This structure reflects the **military sophis ca on** and challenges of maintaining a large empire
across a diverse region

The end
 AbulFazal-Monarchy

INTRODUCTION

• ABUL FAZL is the most noted historian and poli cal thinker of Mughal period, was one of the nine
jewlls in Akbar's court
• His poli cal thoughts are spread across in his Ain-i-Akbari, 3rd volume of Akbarnama
• He supported social contract and need for social order as basis of sovereignty but also gave divine
authority to the King through his theory of divine light
• Through his idea of Sulh-i-Kul as state policy, he liberated the temporal sovereign from any
par cular faith, religious laws, dictates of the theologians
• He combined both temporal & spiritual sovereignty in the Godly King- the just sovereign, who not
only maintain his state but promote social harmony, religious tolerance, and becomes spiritual guide
to the na on
• Along with Sulh-i-Kul, promo ng science, reason, ra onality also duty of the King/state.

• Like Plato, he proposed 4-fold division of society and state/kingship; raised State as highest moral &
spiritual ins tu on
• Despite such path breaking poli cal ideas he cri cized for being contradictory, idealis c/utopic, not
original, and having li le impact on later Mughals
• He had given us a clear descrip on of the Mughal State system with clear historiography and & It's
very important source for present genera on to have acquaintance of Mughal Empire under the king
Akbar.

ABU'L-FAZL

• ABU'L-FAZL ibn Mubarak (1551-1602) popularly called ABUL FAZL, was born in Agra, where his
father shi ed from Nagaur (Rajasthan)
• Family of scholars: his father, Shaikh Mubarak was influen al liberal scholar who dra ed the decree
('mahzar') giving right of final arbiter of Shari ‘a to Akbar; His elder brother Abu'l Faizi was court poet
in Akbar's reign
• Received extensive educa on in all the branches of Islamic sciences from his father, had deep
influence of Sufi Philosophers ibn Arabi (Truth and unity of existence) and Shihabuddin Suhrawardi
(Israq- theory of light and illuminated wisdom)
• For his liberal and secular views, his father had to face wrath of theologians (Ulma) and had to live
life of fugi ve for some me a er 1569-70
• Gained access to Akbar's court through his brother Faizi in 1575. Soon became friend and
philosopher to Akbar and was his secretary and companion
• Abu'l Fazl was assassinated in 1602 by Vir Singh Bundela by a plot hatched by Prince Salim
• He was also one of the Nine Jewels (Navaratnas) of Akbar's royal court
• Social contract theory as basis of Sovereignty, theory of divine light, religious tolerance (Sulh-i-Kul),
state promo ng science & reason, are his las ng poli cal thoughts

● He was known for his intellectual themes and a commitment to reason.

● He was a historian, officer, chief secretary, and confidant of the Mughal emperor Akbar.
● Fazl’s wri ngs appeal to reason against religious and cultural tradi ons .
● His interpreta on of history was linked to the poli cal, social, economic and religious reali es of
that period and addressed the plurality and diversity of Indian society.
● Fazl was against the hardline Islam and challenged the conserva ve, narrow views of olama. He
was with Akbar for 2.5 decades.
● Fazl was influenced by the works and thoughts of ibn arabi who spoke about tracedental unity
once its reality is recognised, the differences seen in the sensory world are bound to lose their
significance and become illusory.
● While not presen ng a formal trea se on poli cal theory, Fazal is recognized as a poli cal thinker.
● His major works, Akbar-Nama and Ain-i-Akbari, provide insights into poli cal philosophy and
historical events.
● He supported social contract and need for social order as basis of sovereignty but also gave divine
authority to the King through his theory of divine light.
● In Ain-i-Akbari, Fazal adopts a ma er-of-fact and straigh orward approach to presen ng
informa on.
● Fazal's influence on Akbar's poli cal theory should be understood without exaggera on,
considering Akbar's character and various influencing factors.
● Poli cal concepts in Islam have diverse origins, including pre-Islamic sources and teachings of the
Prophet Muhammad.
● The incep on of the Mughal Empire in India faced poli cal instability due to the division of the
region into smaller kingdoms.
● Abul Fazal approached history with logic and a secular perspec ve, introducing a novel
methodology for collec ng and presen ng facts.
● His contribu ons substan ally expanded the scope of historical research and wri ng, covering
administra ve norms, methods, and topographical accounts.

METHODOLOGY

● Abul Fazal had a ra onal and secular approach to history which is the hallmark of his wri ngs

● He adopted new methodology to collect the facts and make them the basis of cri cal inves ga on.
● He recorded facts pertaining to socio-economic poli cal life.
● He collected the material, and facts a er careful inquiry and inves ga on, and presented them in a
clear and systema c manner.
● He ques oned the validity of a source also, cross-examined them, and then reached to
conclusions.
● Reports, memoranda, minutes prepared by the offices, imperial Farmans, and other records were
carefully consulted by him before racing to any conclusions.

WORKS OF ABU'L-FAZL

1.The Akbarnama
The Akbarnama is a document of history of Akbar's reign and his ancestors spread over three
volumes. It contains the history of Akbar's ancestors from Timur to Humayun, Akbar's reign up to the
46th regnal year (1602), and an administra ve report of Akbar's empire, the Ain-i-Akbari, which itself
is in three volumes. The third volume of Ain-i-Akbari gives an account of the ancestry and life of the
author. The Ain-i-Akbari was completed in the 42nd regnal year, but a slight addi on was made to it
in the 43rd regnal year on the account of the conquest of Berar
2.Ruqa āt
ʿ The Ruqa āt or the Ruqa āt-i-Abu'l Fazl is a collec on of priva ʿ ʿ te le ers from Abū al-Fażl to Murad,
Daniyal, Akbar, Mariam Makani, Salim (Jahangir), Akbar's queens and daughters, his father, mother
and brothers and several other notable contemporaries compiled by his nephew Nūr al-Dīn Mu am ḥ
mad.
3.Inshā-i-Abu'l Fazl
The Inshā-i-Abu'l Fazl or the Maqtubāt-i-Allami contains the official despatches wri en by Abu'l Fazl.
It is divided into two parts. The first part contains Akbar's le ers to Abdullah Khan Uzbeg of Turan,
Shah Abbas of Persia, Raja Ali Khan of Khandesh, Burhan-ul-Mulk of Ahmadnagar and his own nobles
such as Abdur Rahim Khan Khanan. The second part consists Abu'l Fazl's le ers to Akbar, Daniyal,
Mirza Shah Rukh and Khan Khanan. This collec on was compiled by Abd-us-samad, son of Afzal
Muhammad, who claims that he was Abu'l Fazl's sister's son as well as his son-in-law.
4. Abul Fazl, a contemporary of Abdul Qadir Badauni, was a cour er, historian and also a friend to
Akbar, the greatest of all Mughal rulers. He finished his massive and defini ve work, the Akbar Nama
and Ain-i-Akbari, in the waning years of the sixteenth century. It marks a decisive and schema c
departure from the predominant historiographic format of the me, as it does in several other
aspects of the construc on of an alterna ve world view. The Akbar Nama opens with the praise of
Allah, for sure, and then moves to Adam and traces Akbar’s lineage back to fi y-three genera ons of
his ancestors. It dislocates the historiographic axis from the groove of Islam and seeks to construct an
alterna ve teleology of universal history in which Akbar is the heir not of Muhammad and the
caliphs, but of Adam himself, the first human being, and thus the ruler of all humanity.
5. The text therefore promotes the idea of a powerful sovereign and a centralized state structure.

ABUL FAZL: theory of kingship and sovereignty

•Akbar's theory of kingship was influenced by Turko-Mongol theory of kingship, his liberal ancestral
and paternal legacy, broad mindedness of his teachers like Abul La f and Pir Mohammad, liberal
environment created by Sufi and Bhak movement and poli cal necessity of the me.
• Akbar's theory of Kingship was presented by Abul Fazl in Akbarnama.
• Abul Fazl says: "No dignity is higher in the eyes of God than royalty. Royalty is a remedy for the
spirit of rebellion...."
• Even the meaning of the word Padshah shows this for pad signifies stability and possession and
shah means origin, Lord .
•Highly exhaulted status of the king and Abul Fazl presented this through many symbols, metaphors
and miniature pain ng which depicts Akbar as divine, enlightened and infallible personality.
• He presents the view that kingship is the gi of god.
•The ruler was not dependent on it on the ulama, and everyone had to submit to one who possessed
it.
• Abul Fazl adds: "Royalty is a light emana ng from God, and a ray from the sun"
• Modern language calls this light farri izidi (the divine light) and the tongue of an quity called it
kiyan khwarah (the sublime halo).
•Kingship is Farr-i-Izidi i.e. divine light or light emana ng from God. Hence no one can stand between
God and the ruler.
• It is communicated by God to kings without the intermediate assistance of anyone.
•Again many excellent quali es flow from the possession of divine light/ Farr-iIzidi, e.g.,
• a paternal love towards the subjects,
• a large heart i.e. benevolent, generous, receives li le and give more.
•trust in God, prayer and devo on, etc.

• He is not upset by adversity, punishes the tyrant and behaves with modera on and with reason.
• At another place, Abul Fazl repeats that "The shamsa of the arch of royalty is a divine light, which
God directly transfers to kings, without the assistance of men..."
• The king was therefore deemed divinely guided and divinely protected.
•Presented dynas c ideology linking it with supernatural i.e. his ancestors came from heaven as
kings. Thus, he established divine origin of Akbar.
•The sight of the king is the part of divine worship and to behold is a mean of calling to mind the
creator and such percep on gave birth to prac ces like Zharoka-i-darshan, Jameen Bes- forms of
saluta on in court.
• Abul Fazl's basic concept was of a liberal absolu sm under a ruler of high endeavour endowed with
the highest moral and spiritual quali es, and enjoying heaven's mandate, so that he was not
dependent on any set of religious leaders for legi miza on.
•It is significant that the absolute tradi ons of sovereignty and conjunc on of spiritual and temporal
rulership was developed at many courts as a defence mechanism against undue encroachment upon
king's authority by lesser mortals.
• The philosophy and the spirit of the concepts of Farr-i izidi, kiyan khwarah, etc. were the same, that
is, the inten on was to guard against any direct or indirect share in king's authority.
• The theory of sovereignty propounded by Abul Fazl on behalf of Akbar and reflected in his mahzar
and "Ai'n-i rahnamuni" seems to be as close to the Central Asian and Perso-Islamic concepts as to the
Chingizi tradi ons of sovereignty.
•Alauddin Khalji had tried to abide by the "Law of expediency". Akbar went ahead of him.
• By the mahzar (dra ed by Shaikh Mubarak and his two sons), the Emperor was cer fied to be a just
ruler (Imam Adil) and was as such assigned the rank of mujtahid, i.e. "infallible authority".
• Akbar through Mahazar became the supreme interpreter of Shariyat, subordina ng Ulemmas.

Sovereignty as a social contract

● Abul Fazl, akin to Ziauddin Barani, aimed for social stability but approached sovereignty differently.
● In Ain-i-Akbari, Abul Fazl advocated sovereignty based on a social contract rather than Shariah law,
emphasizing the emergence of poli cal authority.
● He highlighted that a lack of a strong ruler could lead to lawlessness and rebellion, reflec ng a pre-
state society resembling Thomas Hobbes' nega ve view of the pre-contract state.
● Abul Fazl promoted the theory of a 'Social Contract' wherein sovereignty was an agreement
between the king and subjects. The king protected life, property, honor, and religion in exchange for
obedience and resources from the subjects.
● He believed only a just ruler, guided by power and divine guidance, could honor these contracts,
viewing the king as the protector and well-wisher of his subjects.
● The principle of public interest was sustained by Akbar's successors, aligning with the idea of a just,
fair, and caring king.

● Abul Fazl rooted sovereignty in the needs of social order, integra ng reasoning, philosophy, and
divine light (Farr-i-Izadi), somewhat rejec ng the tradi onal no on of the king as the shadow of God
(Zill-i-Ilahi)

•He defined sovereignty as a contract under which the Emperor protects 4 essences of his subjects:

• Jaan (life) • Maal (property) • Namus (honour) • Din (religion) • In return demand obedience and a
share of resources. He says: "Only a just sovereign is able to honour this contract with power and
divine guidance."

Features of his social contract theory:

● No contract among the people themselves; people didn’t form any poli cal community out of such
contract.
● Absolute sovereignty to the King- no restraint on his power- like Leviathan of Hobbes.
● No men on of op ons to people to change the king in case he becomes tyrannical, cruel and
unjust or not able to protect them.
● Only just sovereigns are able to honour the contract with power and Divine guidance/blessings.
Thus, no guarantee that the King would honour the contract.
● Not well developed like social the social contract theory of origin of state by modern western
poli cal thinkers such as Hobbes, Locke and Rousseau\

Divine Light Theory of Kingship:

● Based on Ishraq theory: the theory of divine light emana ng from the Sun was developed by 12th
century Sufi philosopher Shihabuddin Suhrawardi.
● Abul Fazl says: "No dignity is higher in the eyes of God than royalty. Royalty is a remedy for the
spirit of rebellion...."
● He says that the king was something more than an average human being. He was the
representa ve of God on earth and His shadow. He was given greater knowledge and wisdom than
any other human being.

● According to him, “state-power is the light emana ng from God and the ray emana ng from the
sun.”
● Akbar and other Mughal rulers assumed the tle of Zill-i-Ilahi i.e. ‘Shadow of God’.
● Fazl believed The term Padshahat (Badshahat) meant ‘an established owner’ where Pad stands for
stability and shah stands for the owner.
● Padshahat means a powerful, established owner who cannot be eliminated by anyone.
● According to Abul Fazl, ‘Badshahat is the light derived from God which has been sent by God
himself. God throws his kindness on Badshah; who works as the agent of god’
● The possession of this divine light, according to Abul Fazl, brings forth quali es such as paternal
love towards subjects, generosity, trust in God, and devo on.
● Kingship is Farr-i-Izidi i.e. divine light or light emana ng from God. Hence no one can stand
between God and the ruler.
● King is not shadow of the God, but "light of God “, directly linked to God, part of God not merely
his shadow. The sublime halo represents the divine light.
● He was the ul mate authority on all social, economic, poli cal and judicial powers. The ruler was
not dependent on the ulama
● The king was the final authority in governance, administra on, agriculture, educa on, and other
fields, but he had no say if they were related to religious ma ers.
● The ray of divine wisdom banishes from his heart everything that is conflic ng, guide him to be just
like Sun, like rain, maintain harmony raising above mean conflicts/differences, makes him ‘perfect
man’ ( İnsan-ı Kâmil ) and spiritual guide to the na on.

FAZL’S IDEAL SULTAN – AKBAR

• His ideal king is just and sovereign monarch, receiving divine light directly from God
•By virtue of the divine light, heart of the ideal King is free from any conflict, disunity, and dis
harmony
• He has the Godly vision to see truth and act justly without any decima on between his subject, for
which he is the spiritual guide
• Ideal Kingship is based on the principle of Universal peace, religious tolerance and social harmony
(Sulh-i-kul)
• Ideal king is able to honour the social contract with just force and Divine guidance.
• The ideal king has Strong will, does God worship, is wise, not wrathful, considerate, believe in
science & reason, and provide quick relief to poor/needy/jus ce seeker
• Rule of the ideal king is long las ng, just, and peaceful; Jus ce is the highest virtue of the ideal
ruler

• Thus, Abul fazl's ideal king, divinely inspired perfect man, who has supreme sovereignty- both
temporal & spiritual-over his people and complete control over his enemies

THE POLICY OF SULH-E-KUL

● Abul Fazl supported the policy of Sulh-i-kul, or universal peace, a key element in Mughal kingship.
● This policy advocated religious tolerance, emphasizing that the ruler should not discriminate
among various faiths.
● Under Sulh-i-kul, religions had freedom of expression as long as they didn't harm the monarchy or
incite conflict.
● Abul Fazl believed that in a diverse country like India, monarchial sovereignty was more relevant,
placing the monarch above any par cular religion.
● He endorsed the good values of different faiths to maintain peace and unity, emphasizing the
sovereign's tolerance toward exis ng beliefs.
● This policy was implemented through state prac ces, integra ng nobles of various backgrounds
into the Mughal aristocracy based on talent and loyalty, not religion or caste .
● Akbar's rule demonstrated religious impar ality by abolishing taxes based on pilgrimage and
religious affilia on( pilgrimage tax in 1563 CE and jizya in 1564 CE.), promo ng the principles of Sulh-
i-kul in administra on, and funding the construc on of places of worship.

FAZL’S SOCIETAL DIVISION

● Abul Fazl proposed a four-fold societal division, similar to Plato's three-fold model, emphasizing
dis nct classes with designated roles.
● His societal structure comprised: a. Warriors: Equivalent to Plato's Guardian or warrior class,
entrusted with protec on and defense. b. Learned Men: Comparable to Plato's rulers or the official
class, focused on intellectual pursuits and governance. c. Husbandmen & Laborers: Represen ng
agricultural and labour-oriented roles essen al for societal sustenance. d. Ar ficers & Merchants:
Similar to Plato's third class, encompassing ar sans and traders, contribu ng to economic func ons.
● Abul Fazl linked these societal divisions to the four elements of Fire, Air, Water, and Earth,
highligh ng their interdependence for societal balance.
● He mirrored this division within the realm of royalty or the state, delinea ng classes as:

a. Nobles of the State

b. Assistants of Victory
c. Companions of the King d. Servants
● Emphasized the crucial role of the King in establishing and maintaining societal order, stressing the
need for equilibrium among these four divisions for the welfare and stability of the state.
● Indicated that the harmonious func oning of these societal divisions was pivotal for the state's
prosperity and peace, before considering other elements like the military, economy, or
administra on.
● Abul Fazl envisioned a moral and poli cal convergence in the state, with the King serving as its
spiritual guide, aligning the state's aims with moral and spiritual ideals

THEORY OF JUSTICE

● Abul Fazl emphasized the king's duty to administer jus ce to the people, punishing wrongdoers
and ensuring fairness for the innocent.
● He believed a king should dispense jus ce with kindness and harmony, trea ng his subjects like his
own children, embodying a fatherly role in governance.
● According to him, the king should perceive himself as a medium for the welfare of his people, sent
by God to establish peace and jus ce.
● Abul Fazl advocated that the ruler must maintain impar ality, ensuring that no one is harmed by
his decisions or ac ons.
● He stressed the ruler's independence from religious figures, highligh ng the importance of high
moral and spiritual quali es
● His vision of jus ce relied on reason as a crucial element in a aining an ideal concept of fairness
and righteousness in governance.

while dispensing Jus ce Badshah should always keep in mind that the repas is rent by God on Earth
to ensure peace and jus ce for all.

while dispensing Jus ce, King should equally treat everyone and should not hurt amyme.

For Farl, Jus ce also meant to take care of basic needs of the people

while dispensing Jus ce i Badshah should Keep himself in the Shoe e of Crime and make judgments
a er knowing the condi on and situa on in which Crime was Commi ed.

To increase the Goodness of the Stare, King should reward good people and punish wrongdoers

Thus, Badshah was the highert Judiciary and he does not needed any religious assistance; while
dispensing Jus ce.

Administrative structure of the Mughal Empire.

The **Mughal Empire’s administra ve structure** was a highly organized and hierarchical
system, ensuring the smooth governance of a vast and diverse empire. It combined **Persian, Turco-
Mongol, and Indian tradi ons**, balancing centralized authority with local autonomy.

### 1. **Central Administra on**

- **Emperor**: At the top of the structure, the emperor was the **supreme authority**, with
control over poli cal, military, and religious ma ers. His word was law.

- **Council of Ministers**:

- **Wazir (Prime Minister)**: Headed the revenue and finance departments.

- **Mir Bakshi**: Managed the military and soldier recruitment.

- **Sadr-us-Sudoor**: Handled religious ma ers and charity (like waqfs).

- **Mir Saman**: Managed the royal household and supply of goods for the court.

The **emperor** appointed ministers based on loyalty and merit, ensuring efficient governance.

### 2. **Provincial Administra on**

- **Subas (Provinces)**: The empire was divided into **15 to 20 provinces** under different
emperors.

- **Subedar (Governor)**: Managed law and order, revenue collec on, and military in the province.

- **Diwan**: Oversaw **revenue administra on** in the province.

 - **Bakshi**: Managed military pay and logis cs at the provincial level.

- **Qazi**: Acted as the chief judicial officer, ensuring legal disputes were resolved fairly.

This division ensured the empire could manage distant regions effec vely.

### 3. **District and Local Administra on**

- Each province (suba) was divided into **sarkars (districts)**, further divided into **parganas**
(sub-districts), and finally into **villages**.

- **Faujdar**: Military officer at the district level to maintain law and order.

- **Amil**: Revenue collector at the pargana level.

- **Patwari**: Maintained village-level land records.

This mul - ered structure allowed the Mughals to maintain control and ensure tax collec on
throughout the empire.

### 4. **Revenue Administra on: The Mansabdari System**

- **Mansabdari System**: Officials were ranked based on the **number of soldiers (zat)** they
maintained and were granted **jagirs** (land assignments) as a reward.

- **Raja Todar Mal’s Dahsala System**: A land revenue system that assessed taxes based on a **10-
year average** of crop yields and ensured tax fairness.

Revenue from agriculture was the backbone of the Mughal economy, with **tax collec on**
managed at various levels.

### 5. **Judicial Administra on**

- **Qazi**: Handled Islamic law (Sharia) and civil disputes.

- **Kotwal**: Managed city police and market regula on, ensuring law and order in urban areas.

- The emperor could **intervene as the highest court of appeal** in significant cases.

This system provided both central and local avenues for jus ce, combining **Islamic law** with local
tradi ons.

### 6. **Military Administra on**

- **Mir Bakshi**: Head of military administra on, responsible for recrui ng and paying soldiers.
- **Mansabdars**: Nobles and officials maintained **private armies**, contribu ng to the imperial
forces.

- The military structure ensured that **Mughals had a large, standing army** without burdening the
treasury.

### 7. **Religious and Cultural Policies**

- **Sadr-us-Sudoor** oversaw religious endowments and promoted cultural ac vi es.

- Akbar’s **Sulh-i-Kul** (universal peace) policy ensured religious tolerance and harmony among
different communi es, fostering poli cal stability.

### **Conclusion**

The **Mughal administra ve structure** was a sophis cated and efficient system that ensured
**control, jus ce, and revenue collec on**. The **centralized authority** of the emperor was
complemented by **local administra on**, balancing power to manage a vast and diverse empire.
This structure enabled the Mughal Empire to thrive for centuries.

ARMY IN MUGAL ADMINISTRATION

The **Mughal army** was one of the most powerful military systems of its me, with a
sophis cated structure that combined **Turco-Mongol, Persian, and Indian military tradi ons**. It
was organized to ensure both **centralized control and flexibility** for expansion and defense.
Below is an overview of the Mughal military system.

### 1. **Composi on of the Mughal Army**

The Mughal army was divided into several key components:

- **Infantry (Paidal)**: Composed of archers, swordsmen, and matchlock (musketeers). Though

rela vely less significant compared to cavalry, they played key roles in sieges and urban combat.

- **Cavalry (Sawars)**: The most important part of the Mughal military. Soldiers on horseback were
armed with bows, swords, and firearms. The Mughals relied heavily on **horse-mounted troops**
for quick mobility.

- **Ar llery**: Under Emperor Akbar, the use of **heavy ar llery** became crucial. Cannons were
employed in ba les and sieges, giving the Mughals an edge against Indian rulers who lacked
advanced firearms.

- **Elephants**: Used both as **war animals** and for transporta on of supplies. In ba le, they
were in mida ng but also served as pla orms for archers and commanders.

- **Navy**: Though the Mughals were primarily a land power, they maintained a navy for **riverine
opera ons and coastal defense**, par cularly under Akbar and Aurangzeb.
### 2. **The Mansabdari System**

The **mansabdari system** was a unique feature of the Mughal military structure. It was a **rank-
based system** where nobles (mansabdars) provided **troops and horses** in exchange for jagirs
(land assignments). The system also regulated the size of the army without burdening the central
treasury.

- **Zat**: The personal rank of a mansabdar, determining their salary and status.

- **Sawar**: Denoted the number of cavalry troops a mansabdar was expected to maintain.

- **Jagir**: A land grant given to mansabdars to cover the cost of maintaining their soldiers.

This system ensured that the army was **meritocra c** and that nobles stayed loyal to the emperor
by tying their income to the soldiers they fielded.

### 3. **Recruitment and Pay**

- The army was **mul -ethnic**, recrui ng soldiers from various communi es, including **Turks,
Afghans, Rajputs, and Indian Muslims**.

- Soldiers were paid either through **cash salaries** or **jagir grants**, with higher-ranking officials
receiving land revenues to support their troops.

- The **Mir Bakshi**, an important official, was in charge of military recruitment, promo ons, and
pay.

### 4. **Military Campaigns and Tac cs**

The Mughal military was known for its **effec ve use of both tradi onal and modern warfare
techniques**. Some key aspects of the Mughal strategy included:

- **Mobile warfare**: The Mughals emphasized mobility through their cavalry, ensuring rapid
movement in ba le.

- **Use of ar llery**: Akbar's use of cannons in ba les like the siege of **Chi or Fort (1568)** was
revolu onary for Indian warfare.

- **Diplomacy and Alliances**: Akbar’s policy of **marrying Rajput princesses** helped integrate
Rajput warriors into the Mughal military, strengthening their forces.

### 5. **Challenges and Decline**

- **Aurangzeb's Deccan campaigns** stretched the Mughal military to its limits, leading to fa gue
and financial strain.

- By the **18th century**, the quality of the army declined as **mansabdars** became more
focused on personal wealth rather than military efficiency.
- The rise of **regional powers** like the **Marathas** and **Bri sh forces** exposed the
limita ons of the Mughal military, which struggled to adapt to modern European warfare.

### **Conclusion**

The **Mughal army** was a cornerstone of the empire’s strength, enabling it to expand and
consolidate power over large parts of India. However, while the **mansabdari system** ini ally
ensured efficiency and loyalty, over me it became a liability, contribu ng to the eventual decline of
the Mughal military. Their ability to **blend tradi onal cavalry warfare with ar llery and
diplomacy** remains a significant legacy in military history.

This structure reflects the **military sophis ca on** and challenges of maintaining a large empire
across a diverse region

The end
 AbulFazal-Monarchy

INTRODUCTION

• ABUL FAZL is the most noted historian and poli cal thinker of Mughal period, was one of the nine
jewlls in Akbar's court
• His poli cal thoughts are spread across in his Ain-i-Akbari, 3rd volume of Akbarnama
• He supported social contract and need for social order as basis of sovereignty but also gave divine
authority to the King through his theory of divine light
• Through his idea of Sulh-i-Kul as state policy, he liberated the temporal sovereign from any
par cular faith, religious laws, dictates of the theologians
• He combined both temporal & spiritual sovereignty in the Godly King- the just sovereign, who not
only maintain his state but promote social harmony, religious tolerance, and becomes spiritual guide
to the na on
• Along with Sulh-i-Kul, promo ng science, reason, ra onality also duty of the King/state.

• Like Plato, he proposed 4-fold division of society and state/kingship; raised State as highest moral &
spiritual ins tu on
• Despite such path breaking poli cal ideas he cri cized for being contradictory, idealis c/utopic, not
original, and having li le impact on later Mughals
• He had given us a clear descrip on of the Mughal State system with clear historiography and & It's
very important source for present genera on to have acquaintance of Mughal Empire under the king
Akbar.

ABU'L-FAZL

• ABU'L-FAZL ibn Mubarak (1551-1602) popularly called ABUL FAZL, was born in Agra, where his
father shi ed from Nagaur (Rajasthan)
• Family of scholars: his father, Shaikh Mubarak was influen al liberal scholar who dra ed the decree
('mahzar') giving right of final arbiter of Shari ‘a to Akbar; His elder brother Abu'l Faizi was court poet
in Akbar's reign
• Received extensive educa on in all the branches of Islamic sciences from his father, had deep
influence of Sufi Philosophers ibn Arabi (Truth and unity of existence) and Shihabuddin Suhrawardi
(Israq- theory of light and illuminated wisdom)
• For his liberal and secular views, his father had to face wrath of theologians (Ulma) and had to live
life of fugi ve for some me a er 1569-70
• Gained access to Akbar's court through his brother Faizi in 1575. Soon became friend and
philosopher to Akbar and was his secretary and companion
• Abu'l Fazl was assassinated in 1602 by Vir Singh Bundela by a plot hatched by Prince Salim
• He was also one of the Nine Jewels (Navaratnas) of Akbar's royal court
• Social contract theory as basis of Sovereignty, theory of divine light, religious tolerance (Sulh-i-Kul),
state promo ng science & reason, are his las ng poli cal thoughts

● He was known for his intellectual themes and a commitment to reason.

● He was a historian, officer, chief secretary, and confidant of the Mughal emperor Akbar.
● Fazl’s wri ngs appeal to reason against religious and cultural tradi ons .
● His interpreta on of history was linked to the poli cal, social, economic and religious reali es of
that period and addressed the plurality and diversity of Indian society.
● Fazl was against the hardline Islam and challenged the conserva ve, narrow views of olama. He
was with Akbar for 2.5 decades.
● Fazl was influenced by the works and thoughts of ibn arabi who spoke about tracedental unity
once its reality is recognised, the differences seen in the sensory world are bound to lose their
significance and become illusory.
● While not presen ng a formal trea se on poli cal theory, Fazal is recognized as a poli cal thinker.
● His major works, Akbar-Nama and Ain-i-Akbari, provide insights into poli cal philosophy and
historical events.
● He supported social contract and need for social order as basis of sovereignty but also gave divine
authority to the King through his theory of divine light.
● In Ain-i-Akbari, Fazal adopts a ma er-of-fact and straigh orward approach to presen ng
informa on.
● Fazal's influence on Akbar's poli cal theory should be understood without exaggera on,
considering Akbar's character and various influencing factors.
● Poli cal concepts in Islam have diverse origins, including pre-Islamic sources and teachings of the
Prophet Muhammad.
● The incep on of the Mughal Empire in India faced poli cal instability due to the division of the
region into smaller kingdoms.
● Abul Fazal approached history with logic and a secular perspec ve, introducing a novel
methodology for collec ng and presen ng facts.
● His contribu ons substan ally expanded the scope of historical research and wri ng, covering
administra ve norms, methods, and topographical accounts.

METHODOLOGY

● Abul Fazal had a ra onal and secular approach to history which is the hallmark of his wri ngs

● He adopted new methodology to collect the facts and make them the basis of cri cal inves ga on.
● He recorded facts pertaining to socio-economic poli cal life.
● He collected the material, and facts a er careful inquiry and inves ga on, and presented them in a
clear and systema c manner.
● He ques oned the validity of a source also, cross-examined them, and then reached to
conclusions.
● Reports, memoranda, minutes prepared by the offices, imperial Farmans, and other records were
carefully consulted by him before racing to any conclusions.

WORKS OF ABU'L-FAZL

1.The Akbarnama
The Akbarnama is a document of history of Akbar's reign and his ancestors spread over three
volumes. It contains the history of Akbar's ancestors from Timur to Humayun, Akbar's reign up to the
46th regnal year (1602), and an administra ve report of Akbar's empire, the Ain-i-Akbari, which itself
is in three volumes. The third volume of Ain-i-Akbari gives an account of the ancestry and life of the
author. The Ain-i-Akbari was completed in the 42nd regnal year, but a slight addi on was made to it
in the 43rd regnal year on the account of the conquest of Berar
2.Ruqa āt
ʿ The Ruqa āt or the Ruqa āt-i-Abu'l Fazl is a collec on of priva ʿ ʿ te le ers from Abū al-Fażl to Murad,
Daniyal, Akbar, Mariam Makani, Salim (Jahangir), Akbar's queens and daughters, his father, mother
and brothers and several other notable contemporaries compiled by his nephew Nūr al-Dīn Mu am ḥ
mad.
3.Inshā-i-Abu'l Fazl
The Inshā-i-Abu'l Fazl or the Maqtubāt-i-Allami contains the official despatches wri en by Abu'l Fazl.
It is divided into two parts. The first part contains Akbar's le ers to Abdullah Khan Uzbeg of Turan,
Shah Abbas of Persia, Raja Ali Khan of Khandesh, Burhan-ul-Mulk of Ahmadnagar and his own nobles
such as Abdur Rahim Khan Khanan. The second part consists Abu'l Fazl's le ers to Akbar, Daniyal,
Mirza Shah Rukh and Khan Khanan. This collec on was compiled by Abd-us-samad, son of Afzal
Muhammad, who claims that he was Abu'l Fazl's sister's son as well as his son-in-law.
4. Abul Fazl, a contemporary of Abdul Qadir Badauni, was a cour er, historian and also a friend to
Akbar, the greatest of all Mughal rulers. He finished his massive and defini ve work, the Akbar Nama
and Ain-i-Akbari, in the waning years of the sixteenth century. It marks a decisive and schema c
departure from the predominant historiographic format of the me, as it does in several other
aspects of the construc on of an alterna ve world view. The Akbar Nama opens with the praise of
Allah, for sure, and then moves to Adam and traces Akbar’s lineage back to fi y-three genera ons of
his ancestors. It dislocates the historiographic axis from the groove of Islam and seeks to construct an
alterna ve teleology of universal history in which Akbar is the heir not of Muhammad and the
caliphs, but of Adam himself, the first human being, and thus the ruler of all humanity.
5. The text therefore promotes the idea of a powerful sovereign and a centralized state structure.

ABUL FAZL: theory of kingship and sovereignty

•Akbar's theory of kingship was influenced by Turko-Mongol theory of kingship, his liberal ancestral
and paternal legacy, broad mindedness of his teachers like Abul La f and Pir Mohammad, liberal
environment created by Sufi and Bhak movement and poli cal necessity of the me.
• Akbar's theory of Kingship was presented by Abul Fazl in Akbarnama.
• Abul Fazl says: "No dignity is higher in the eyes of God than royalty. Royalty is a remedy for the
spirit of rebellion...."
• Even the meaning of the word Padshah shows this for pad signifies stability and possession and
shah means origin, Lord .
•Highly exhaulted status of the king and Abul Fazl presented this through many symbols, metaphors
and miniature pain ng which depicts Akbar as divine, enlightened and infallible personality.
• He presents the view that kingship is the gi of god.
•The ruler was not dependent on it on the ulama, and everyone had to submit to one who possessed
it.
• Abul Fazl adds: "Royalty is a light emana ng from God, and a ray from the sun"
• Modern language calls this light farri izidi (the divine light) and the tongue of an quity called it
kiyan khwarah (the sublime halo).
•Kingship is Farr-i-Izidi i.e. divine light or light emana ng from God. Hence no one can stand between
God and the ruler.
• It is communicated by God to kings without the intermediate assistance of anyone.
•Again many excellent quali es flow from the possession of divine light/ Farr-iIzidi, e.g.,
• a paternal love towards the subjects,
• a large heart i.e. benevolent, generous, receives li le and give more.
•trust in God, prayer and devo on, etc.

• He is not upset by adversity, punishes the tyrant and behaves with modera on and with reason.
• At another place, Abul Fazl repeats that "The shamsa of the arch of royalty is a divine light, which
God directly transfers to kings, without the assistance of men..."
• The king was therefore deemed divinely guided and divinely protected.
•Presented dynas c ideology linking it with supernatural i.e. his ancestors came from heaven as
kings. Thus, he established divine origin of Akbar.
•The sight of the king is the part of divine worship and to behold is a mean of calling to mind the
creator and such percep on gave birth to prac ces like Zharoka-i-darshan, Jameen Bes- forms of
saluta on in court.
• Abul Fazl's basic concept was of a liberal absolu sm under a ruler of high endeavour endowed with
the highest moral and spiritual quali es, and enjoying heaven's mandate, so that he was not
dependent on any set of religious leaders for legi miza on.
•It is significant that the absolute tradi ons of sovereignty and conjunc on of spiritual and temporal
rulership was developed at many courts as a defence mechanism against undue encroachment upon
king's authority by lesser mortals.
• The philosophy and the spirit of the concepts of Farr-i izidi, kiyan khwarah, etc. were the same, that
is, the inten on was to guard against any direct or indirect share in king's authority.
• The theory of sovereignty propounded by Abul Fazl on behalf of Akbar and reflected in his mahzar
and "Ai'n-i rahnamuni" seems to be as close to the Central Asian and Perso-Islamic concepts as to the
Chingizi tradi ons of sovereignty.
•Alauddin Khalji had tried to abide by the "Law of expediency". Akbar went ahead of him.
• By the mahzar (dra ed by Shaikh Mubarak and his two sons), the Emperor was cer fied to be a just
ruler (Imam Adil) and was as such assigned the rank of mujtahid, i.e. "infallible authority".
• Akbar through Mahazar became the supreme interpreter of Shariyat, subordina ng Ulemmas.

Sovereignty as a social contract

● Abul Fazl, akin to Ziauddin Barani, aimed for social stability but approached sovereignty differently.
● In Ain-i-Akbari, Abul Fazl advocated sovereignty based on a social contract rather than Shariah law,
emphasizing the emergence of poli cal authority.
● He highlighted that a lack of a strong ruler could lead to lawlessness and rebellion, reflec ng a pre-
state society resembling Thomas Hobbes' nega ve view of the pre-contract state.
● Abul Fazl promoted the theory of a 'Social Contract' wherein sovereignty was an agreement
between the king and subjects. The king protected life, property, honor, and religion in exchange for
obedience and resources from the subjects.
● He believed only a just ruler, guided by power and divine guidance, could honor these contracts,
viewing the king as the protector and well-wisher of his subjects.
● The principle of public interest was sustained by Akbar's successors, aligning with the idea of a just,
fair, and caring king.

● Abul Fazl rooted sovereignty in the needs of social order, integra ng reasoning, philosophy, and
divine light (Farr-i-Izadi), somewhat rejec ng the tradi onal no on of the king as the shadow of God
(Zill-i-Ilahi)

•He defined sovereignty as a contract under which the Emperor protects 4 essences of his subjects:

• Jaan (life) • Maal (property) • Namus (honour) • Din (religion) • In return demand obedience and a
share of resources. He says: "Only a just sovereign is able to honour this contract with power and
divine guidance."

Features of his social contract theory:

● No contract among the people themselves; people didn’t form any poli cal community out of such
contract.
● Absolute sovereignty to the King- no restraint on his power- like Leviathan of Hobbes.
● No men on of op ons to people to change the king in case he becomes tyrannical, cruel and
unjust or not able to protect them.
● Only just sovereigns are able to honour the contract with power and Divine guidance/blessings.
Thus, no guarantee that the King would honour the contract.
● Not well developed like social the social contract theory of origin of state by modern western
poli cal thinkers such as Hobbes, Locke and Rousseau\

Divine Light Theory of Kingship:

● Based on Ishraq theory: the theory of divine light emana ng from the Sun was developed by 12th
century Sufi philosopher Shihabuddin Suhrawardi.
● Abul Fazl says: "No dignity is higher in the eyes of God than royalty. Royalty is a remedy for the
spirit of rebellion...."
● He says that the king was something more than an average human being. He was the
representa ve of God on earth and His shadow. He was given greater knowledge and wisdom than
any other human being.

● According to him, “state-power is the light emana ng from God and the ray emana ng from the
sun.”
● Akbar and other Mughal rulers assumed the tle of Zill-i-Ilahi i.e. ‘Shadow of God’.
● Fazl believed The term Padshahat (Badshahat) meant ‘an established owner’ where Pad stands for
stability and shah stands for the owner.
● Padshahat means a powerful, established owner who cannot be eliminated by anyone.
● According to Abul Fazl, ‘Badshahat is the light derived from God which has been sent by God
himself. God throws his kindness on Badshah; who works as the agent of god’
● The possession of this divine light, according to Abul Fazl, brings forth quali es such as paternal
love towards subjects, generosity, trust in God, and devo on.
● Kingship is Farr-i-Izidi i.e. divine light or light emana ng from God. Hence no one can stand
between God and the ruler.
● King is not shadow of the God, but "light of God “, directly linked to God, part of God not merely
his shadow. The sublime halo represents the divine light.
● He was the ul mate authority on all social, economic, poli cal and judicial powers. The ruler was
not dependent on the ulama
● The king was the final authority in governance, administra on, agriculture, educa on, and other
fields, but he had no say if they were related to religious ma ers.
● The ray of divine wisdom banishes from his heart everything that is conflic ng, guide him to be just
like Sun, like rain, maintain harmony raising above mean conflicts/differences, makes him ‘perfect
man’ ( İnsan-ı Kâmil ) and spiritual guide to the na on.

FAZL’S IDEAL SULTAN – AKBAR

• His ideal king is just and sovereign monarch, receiving divine light directly from God
•By virtue of the divine light, heart of the ideal King is free from any conflict, disunity, and dis
harmony
• He has the Godly vision to see truth and act justly without any decima on between his subject, for
which he is the spiritual guide
• Ideal Kingship is based on the principle of Universal peace, religious tolerance and social harmony
(Sulh-i-kul)
• Ideal king is able to honour the social contract with just force and Divine guidance.
• The ideal king has Strong will, does God worship, is wise, not wrathful, considerate, believe in
science & reason, and provide quick relief to poor/needy/jus ce seeker
• Rule of the ideal king is long las ng, just, and peaceful; Jus ce is the highest virtue of the ideal
ruler

• Thus, Abul fazl's ideal king, divinely inspired perfect man, who has supreme sovereignty- both
temporal & spiritual-over his people and complete control over his enemies

THE POLICY OF SULH-E-KUL

● Abul Fazl supported the policy of Sulh-i-kul, or universal peace, a key element in Mughal kingship.
● This policy advocated religious tolerance, emphasizing that the ruler should not discriminate
among various faiths.
● Under Sulh-i-kul, religions had freedom of expression as long as they didn't harm the monarchy or
incite conflict.
● Abul Fazl believed that in a diverse country like India, monarchial sovereignty was more relevant,
placing the monarch above any par cular religion.
● He endorsed the good values of different faiths to maintain peace and unity, emphasizing the
sovereign's tolerance toward exis ng beliefs.
● This policy was implemented through state prac ces, integra ng nobles of various backgrounds
into the Mughal aristocracy based on talent and loyalty, not religion or caste .
● Akbar's rule demonstrated religious impar ality by abolishing taxes based on pilgrimage and
religious affilia on( pilgrimage tax in 1563 CE and jizya in 1564 CE.), promo ng the principles of Sulh-
i-kul in administra on, and funding the construc on of places of worship.

FAZL’S SOCIETAL DIVISION

● Abul Fazl proposed a four-fold societal division, similar to Plato's three-fold model, emphasizing
dis nct classes with designated roles.
● His societal structure comprised: a. Warriors: Equivalent to Plato's Guardian or warrior class,
entrusted with protec on and defense. b. Learned Men: Comparable to Plato's rulers or the official
class, focused on intellectual pursuits and governance. c. Husbandmen & Laborers: Represen ng
agricultural and labour-oriented roles essen al for societal sustenance. d. Ar ficers & Merchants:
Similar to Plato's third class, encompassing ar sans and traders, contribu ng to economic func ons.
● Abul Fazl linked these societal divisions to the four elements of Fire, Air, Water, and Earth,
highligh ng their interdependence for societal balance.
● He mirrored this division within the realm of royalty or the state, delinea ng classes as:

a. Nobles of the State

b. Assistants of Victory
c. Companions of the King d. Servants
● Emphasized the crucial role of the King in establishing and maintaining societal order, stressing the
need for equilibrium among these four divisions for the welfare and stability of the state.
● Indicated that the harmonious func oning of these societal divisions was pivotal for the state's
prosperity and peace, before considering other elements like the military, economy, or
administra on.
● Abul Fazl envisioned a moral and poli cal convergence in the state, with the King serving as its
spiritual guide, aligning the state's aims with moral and spiritual ideals

THEORY OF JUSTICE

● Abul Fazl emphasized the king's duty to administer jus ce to the people, punishing wrongdoers
and ensuring fairness for the innocent.
● He believed a king should dispense jus ce with kindness and harmony, trea ng his subjects like his
own children, embodying a fatherly role in governance.
● According to him, the king should perceive himself as a medium for the welfare of his people, sent
by God to establish peace and jus ce.
● Abul Fazl advocated that the ruler must maintain impar ality, ensuring that no one is harmed by
his decisions or ac ons.
● He stressed the ruler's independence from religious figures, highligh ng the importance of high
moral and spiritual quali es
● His vision of jus ce relied on reason as a crucial element in a aining an ideal concept of fairness
and righteousness in governance.

while dispensing Jus ce Badshah should always keep in mind that the repas is rent by God on Earth
to ensure peace and jus ce for all.

while dispensing Jus ce, King should equally treat everyone and should not hurt amyme.

For Farl, Jus ce also meant to take care of basic needs of the people

while dispensing Jus ce i Badshah should Keep himself in the Shoe e of Crime and make judgments
a er knowing the condi on and situa on in which Crime was Commi ed.

To increase the Goodness of the Stare, King should reward good people and punish wrongdoers

Thus, Badshah was the highert Judiciary and he does not needed any religious assistance; while
dispensing Jus ce.

Administrative structure of the Mughal Empire.

The **Mughal Empire’s administra ve structure** was a highly organized and hierarchical
system, ensuring the smooth governance of a vast and diverse empire. It combined **Persian, Turco-
Mongol, and Indian tradi ons**, balancing centralized authority with local autonomy.

### 1. **Central Administra on**

- **Emperor**: At the top of the structure, the emperor was the **supreme authority**, with
control over poli cal, military, and religious ma ers. His word was law.

- **Council of Ministers**:

- **Wazir (Prime Minister)**: Headed the revenue and finance departments.

- **Mir Bakshi**: Managed the military and soldier recruitment.

- **Sadr-us-Sudoor**: Handled religious ma ers and charity (like waqfs).

- **Mir Saman**: Managed the royal household and supply of goods for the court.

The **emperor** appointed ministers based on loyalty and merit, ensuring efficient governance.

### 2. **Provincial Administra on**

- **Subas (Provinces)**: The empire was divided into **15 to 20 provinces** under different
emperors.

- **Subedar (Governor)**: Managed law and order, revenue collec on, and military in the province.

- **Diwan**: Oversaw **revenue administra on** in the province.

 - **Bakshi**: Managed military pay and logis cs at the provincial level.

- **Qazi**: Acted as the chief judicial officer, ensuring legal disputes were resolved fairly.

This division ensured the empire could manage distant regions effec vely.

### 3. **District and Local Administra on**

- Each province (suba) was divided into **sarkars (districts)**, further divided into **parganas**
(sub-districts), and finally into **villages**.

- **Faujdar**: Military officer at the district level to maintain law and order.

- **Amil**: Revenue collector at the pargana level.

- **Patwari**: Maintained village-level land records.

This mul - ered structure allowed the Mughals to maintain control and ensure tax collec on
throughout the empire.

### 4. **Revenue Administra on: The Mansabdari System**

- **Mansabdari System**: Officials were ranked based on the **number of soldiers (zat)** they
maintained and were granted **jagirs** (land assignments) as a reward.

- **Raja Todar Mal’s Dahsala System**: A land revenue system that assessed taxes based on a **10-
year average** of crop yields and ensured tax fairness.

Revenue from agriculture was the backbone of the Mughal economy, with **tax collec on**
managed at various levels.

### 5. **Judicial Administra on**

- **Qazi**: Handled Islamic law (Sharia) and civil disputes.

- **Kotwal**: Managed city police and market regula on, ensuring law and order in urban areas.

- The emperor could **intervene as the highest court of appeal** in significant cases.

This system provided both central and local avenues for jus ce, combining **Islamic law** with local
tradi ons.

### 6. **Military Administra on**

- **Mir Bakshi**: Head of military administra on, responsible for recrui ng and paying soldiers.
- **Mansabdars**: Nobles and officials maintained **private armies**, contribu ng to the imperial
forces.

- The military structure ensured that **Mughals had a large, standing army** without burdening the
treasury.

### 7. **Religious and Cultural Policies**

- **Sadr-us-Sudoor** oversaw religious endowments and promoted cultural ac vi es.

- Akbar’s **Sulh-i-Kul** (universal peace) policy ensured religious tolerance and harmony among
different communi es, fostering poli cal stability.

### **Conclusion**

The **Mughal administra ve structure** was a sophis cated and efficient system that ensured
**control, jus ce, and revenue collec on**. The **centralized authority** of the emperor was
complemented by **local administra on**, balancing power to manage a vast and diverse empire.
This structure enabled the Mughal Empire to thrive for centuries.

ARMY IN MUGAL ADMINISTRATION

The **Mughal army** was one of the most powerful military systems of its me, with a
sophis cated structure that combined **Turco-Mongol, Persian, and Indian military tradi ons**. It
was organized to ensure both **centralized control and flexibility** for expansion and defense.
Below is an overview of the Mughal military system.

### 1. **Composi on of the Mughal Army**

The Mughal army was divided into several key components:

- **Infantry (Paidal)**: Composed of archers, swordsmen, and matchlock (musketeers). Though

rela vely less significant compared to cavalry, they played key roles in sieges and urban combat.

- **Cavalry (Sawars)**: The most important part of the Mughal military. Soldiers on horseback were
armed with bows, swords, and firearms. The Mughals relied heavily on **horse-mounted troops**
for quick mobility.

- **Ar llery**: Under Emperor Akbar, the use of **heavy ar llery** became crucial. Cannons were
employed in ba les and sieges, giving the Mughals an edge against Indian rulers who lacked
advanced firearms.

- **Elephants**: Used both as **war animals** and for transporta on of supplies. In ba le, they
were in mida ng but also served as pla orms for archers and commanders.

- **Navy**: Though the Mughals were primarily a land power, they maintained a navy for **riverine
opera ons and coastal defense**, par cularly under Akbar and Aurangzeb.
### 2. **The Mansabdari System**

The **mansabdari system** was a unique feature of the Mughal military structure. It was a **rank-
based system** where nobles (mansabdars) provided **troops and horses** in exchange for jagirs
(land assignments). The system also regulated the size of the army without burdening the central
treasury.

- **Zat**: The personal rank of a mansabdar, determining their salary and status.

- **Sawar**: Denoted the number of cavalry troops a mansabdar was expected to maintain.

- **Jagir**: A land grant given to mansabdars to cover the cost of maintaining their soldiers.

This system ensured that the army was **meritocra c** and that nobles stayed loyal to the emperor
by tying their income to the soldiers they fielded.

### 3. **Recruitment and Pay**

- The army was **mul -ethnic**, recrui ng soldiers from various communi es, including **Turks,
Afghans, Rajputs, and Indian Muslims**.

- Soldiers were paid either through **cash salaries** or **jagir grants**, with higher-ranking officials
receiving land revenues to support their troops.

- The **Mir Bakshi**, an important official, was in charge of military recruitment, promo ons, and
pay.

### 4. **Military Campaigns and Tac cs**

The Mughal military was known for its **effec ve use of both tradi onal and modern warfare
techniques**. Some key aspects of the Mughal strategy included:

- **Mobile warfare**: The Mughals emphasized mobility through their cavalry, ensuring rapid
movement in ba le.

- **Use of ar llery**: Akbar's use of cannons in ba les like the siege of **Chi or Fort (1568)** was
revolu onary for Indian warfare.

- **Diplomacy and Alliances**: Akbar’s policy of **marrying Rajput princesses** helped integrate
Rajput warriors into the Mughal military, strengthening their forces.

### 5. **Challenges and Decline**

- **Aurangzeb's Deccan campaigns** stretched the Mughal military to its limits, leading to fa gue
and financial strain.

- By the **18th century**, the quality of the army declined as **mansabdars** became more
focused on personal wealth rather than military efficiency.
- The rise of **regional powers** like the **Marathas** and **Bri sh forces** exposed the
limita ons of the Mughal military, which struggled to adapt to modern European warfare.

### **Conclusion**

The **Mughal army** was a cornerstone of the empire’s strength, enabling it to expand and
consolidate power over large parts of India. However, while the **mansabdari system** ini ally
ensured efficiency and loyalty, over me it became a liability, contribu ng to the eventual decline of
the Mughal military. Their ability to **blend tradi onal cavalry warfare with ar llery and
diplomacy** remains a significant legacy in military history.

This structure reflects the **military sophis ca on** and challenges of maintaining a large empire
across a diverse region

The end
 AbulFazal-Monarchy

INTRODUCTION

• ABUL FAZL is the most noted historian and poli cal thinker of Mughal period, was one of the nine
jewlls in Akbar's court
• His poli cal thoughts are spread across in his Ain-i-Akbari, 3rd volume of Akbarnama
• He supported social contract and need for social order as basis of sovereignty but also gave divine
authority to the King through his theory of divine light
• Through his idea of Sulh-i-Kul as state policy, he liberated the temporal sovereign from any
par cular faith, religious laws, dictates of the theologians
• He combined both temporal & spiritual sovereignty in the Godly King- the just sovereign, who not
only maintain his state but promote social harmony, religious tolerance, and becomes spiritual guide
to the na on
• Along with Sulh-i-Kul, promo ng science, reason, ra onality also duty of the King/state.

• Like Plato, he proposed 4-fold division of society and state/kingship; raised State as highest moral &
spiritual ins tu on
• Despite such path breaking poli cal ideas he cri cized for being contradictory, idealis c/utopic, not
original, and having li le impact on later Mughals
• He had given us a clear descrip on of the Mughal State system with clear historiography and & It's
very important source for present genera on to have acquaintance of Mughal Empire under the king
Akbar.

ABU'L-FAZL

• ABU'L-FAZL ibn Mubarak (1551-1602) popularly called ABUL FAZL, was born in Agra, where his
father shi ed from Nagaur (Rajasthan)
• Family of scholars: his father, Shaikh Mubarak was influen al liberal scholar who dra ed the decree
('mahzar') giving right of final arbiter of Shari ‘a to Akbar; His elder brother Abu'l Faizi was court poet
in Akbar's reign
• Received extensive educa on in all the branches of Islamic sciences from his father, had deep
influence of Sufi Philosophers ibn Arabi (Truth and unity of existence) and Shihabuddin Suhrawardi
(Israq- theory of light and illuminated wisdom)
• For his liberal and secular views, his father had to face wrath of theologians (Ulma) and had to live
life of fugi ve for some me a er 1569-70
• Gained access to Akbar's court through his brother Faizi in 1575. Soon became friend and
philosopher to Akbar and was his secretary and companion
• Abu'l Fazl was assassinated in 1602 by Vir Singh Bundela by a plot hatched by Prince Salim
• He was also one of the Nine Jewels (Navaratnas) of Akbar's royal court
• Social contract theory as basis of Sovereignty, theory of divine light, religious tolerance (Sulh-i-Kul),
state promo ng science & reason, are his las ng poli cal thoughts

● He was known for his intellectual themes and a commitment to reason.

● He was a historian, officer, chief secretary, and confidant of the Mughal emperor Akbar.
● Fazl’s wri ngs appeal to reason against religious and cultural tradi ons .
● His interpreta on of history was linked to the poli cal, social, economic and religious reali es of
that period and addressed the plurality and diversity of Indian society.
● Fazl was against the hardline Islam and challenged the conserva ve, narrow views of olama. He
was with Akbar for 2.5 decades.
● Fazl was influenced by the works and thoughts of ibn arabi who spoke about tracedental unity
once its reality is recognised, the differences seen in the sensory world are bound to lose their
significance and become illusory.
● While not presen ng a formal trea se on poli cal theory, Fazal is recognized as a poli cal thinker.
● His major works, Akbar-Nama and Ain-i-Akbari, provide insights into poli cal philosophy and
historical events.
● He supported social contract and need for social order as basis of sovereignty but also gave divine
authority to the King through his theory of divine light.
● In Ain-i-Akbari, Fazal adopts a ma er-of-fact and straigh orward approach to presen ng
informa on.
● Fazal's influence on Akbar's poli cal theory should be understood without exaggera on,
considering Akbar's character and various influencing factors.
● Poli cal concepts in Islam have diverse origins, including pre-Islamic sources and teachings of the
Prophet Muhammad.
● The incep on of the Mughal Empire in India faced poli cal instability due to the division of the
region into smaller kingdoms.
● Abul Fazal approached history with logic and a secular perspec ve, introducing a novel
methodology for collec ng and presen ng facts.
● His contribu ons substan ally expanded the scope of historical research and wri ng, covering
administra ve norms, methods, and topographical accounts.

METHODOLOGY

● Abul Fazal had a ra onal and secular approach to history which is the hallmark of his wri ngs

● He adopted new methodology to collect the facts and make them the basis of cri cal inves ga on.
● He recorded facts pertaining to socio-economic poli cal life.
● He collected the material, and facts a er careful inquiry and inves ga on, and presented them in a
clear and systema c manner.
● He ques oned the validity of a source also, cross-examined them, and then reached to
conclusions.
● Reports, memoranda, minutes prepared by the offices, imperial Farmans, and other records were
carefully consulted by him before racing to any conclusions.

WORKS OF ABU'L-FAZL

1.The Akbarnama
The Akbarnama is a document of history of Akbar's reign and his ancestors spread over three
volumes. It contains the history of Akbar's ancestors from Timur to Humayun, Akbar's reign up to the
46th regnal year (1602), and an administra ve report of Akbar's empire, the Ain-i-Akbari, which itself
is in three volumes. The third volume of Ain-i-Akbari gives an account of the ancestry and life of the
author. The Ain-i-Akbari was completed in the 42nd regnal year, but a slight addi on was made to it
in the 43rd regnal year on the account of the conquest of Berar
2.Ruqa āt
ʿ The Ruqa āt or the Ruqa āt-i-Abu'l Fazl is a collec on of priva ʿ ʿ te le ers from Abū al-Fażl to Murad,
Daniyal, Akbar, Mariam Makani, Salim (Jahangir), Akbar's queens and daughters, his father, mother
and brothers and several other notable contemporaries compiled by his nephew Nūr al-Dīn Mu am ḥ
mad.
3.Inshā-i-Abu'l Fazl
The Inshā-i-Abu'l Fazl or the Maqtubāt-i-Allami contains the official despatches wri en by Abu'l Fazl.
It is divided into two parts. The first part contains Akbar's le ers to Abdullah Khan Uzbeg of Turan,
Shah Abbas of Persia, Raja Ali Khan of Khandesh, Burhan-ul-Mulk of Ahmadnagar and his own nobles
such as Abdur Rahim Khan Khanan. The second part consists Abu'l Fazl's le ers to Akbar, Daniyal,
Mirza Shah Rukh and Khan Khanan. This collec on was compiled by Abd-us-samad, son of Afzal
Muhammad, who claims that he was Abu'l Fazl's sister's son as well as his son-in-law.
4. Abul Fazl, a contemporary of Abdul Qadir Badauni, was a cour er, historian and also a friend to
Akbar, the greatest of all Mughal rulers. He finished his massive and defini ve work, the Akbar Nama
and Ain-i-Akbari, in the waning years of the sixteenth century. It marks a decisive and schema c
departure from the predominant historiographic format of the me, as it does in several other
aspects of the construc on of an alterna ve world view. The Akbar Nama opens with the praise of
Allah, for sure, and then moves to Adam and traces Akbar’s lineage back to fi y-three genera ons of
his ancestors. It dislocates the historiographic axis from the groove of Islam and seeks to construct an
alterna ve teleology of universal history in which Akbar is the heir not of Muhammad and the
caliphs, but of Adam himself, the first human being, and thus the ruler of all humanity.
5. The text therefore promotes the idea of a powerful sovereign and a centralized state structure.

ABUL FAZL: theory of kingship and sovereignty

•Akbar's theory of kingship was influenced by Turko-Mongol theory of kingship, his liberal ancestral
and paternal legacy, broad mindedness of his teachers like Abul La f and Pir Mohammad, liberal
environment created by Sufi and Bhak movement and poli cal necessity of the me.
• Akbar's theory of Kingship was presented by Abul Fazl in Akbarnama.
• Abul Fazl says: "No dignity is higher in the eyes of God than royalty. Royalty is a remedy for the
spirit of rebellion...."
• Even the meaning of the word Padshah shows this for pad signifies stability and possession and
shah means origin, Lord .
•Highly exhaulted status of the king and Abul Fazl presented this through many symbols, metaphors
and miniature pain ng which depicts Akbar as divine, enlightened and infallible personality.
• He presents the view that kingship is the gi of god.
•The ruler was not dependent on it on the ulama, and everyone had to submit to one who possessed
it.
• Abul Fazl adds: "Royalty is a light emana ng from God, and a ray from the sun"
• Modern language calls this light farri izidi (the divine light) and the tongue of an quity called it
kiyan khwarah (the sublime halo).
•Kingship is Farr-i-Izidi i.e. divine light or light emana ng from God. Hence no one can stand between
God and the ruler.
• It is communicated by God to kings without the intermediate assistance of anyone.
•Again many excellent quali es flow from the possession of divine light/ Farr-iIzidi, e.g.,
• a paternal love towards the subjects,
• a large heart i.e. benevolent, generous, receives li le and give more.
•trust in God, prayer and devo on, etc.

• He is not upset by adversity, punishes the tyrant and behaves with modera on and with reason.
• At another place, Abul Fazl repeats that "The shamsa of the arch of royalty is a divine light, which
God directly transfers to kings, without the assistance of men..."
• The king was therefore deemed divinely guided and divinely protected.
•Presented dynas c ideology linking it with supernatural i.e. his ancestors came from heaven as
kings. Thus, he established divine origin of Akbar.
•The sight of the king is the part of divine worship and to behold is a mean of calling to mind the
creator and such percep on gave birth to prac ces like Zharoka-i-darshan, Jameen Bes- forms of
saluta on in court.
• Abul Fazl's basic concept was of a liberal absolu sm under a ruler of high endeavour endowed with
the highest moral and spiritual quali es, and enjoying heaven's mandate, so that he was not
dependent on any set of religious leaders for legi miza on.
•It is significant that the absolute tradi ons of sovereignty and conjunc on of spiritual and temporal
rulership was developed at many courts as a defence mechanism against undue encroachment upon
king's authority by lesser mortals.
• The philosophy and the spirit of the concepts of Farr-i izidi, kiyan khwarah, etc. were the same, that
is, the inten on was to guard against any direct or indirect share in king's authority.
• The theory of sovereignty propounded by Abul Fazl on behalf of Akbar and reflected in his mahzar
and "Ai'n-i rahnamuni" seems to be as close to the Central Asian and Perso-Islamic concepts as to the
Chingizi tradi ons of sovereignty.
•Alauddin Khalji had tried to abide by the "Law of expediency". Akbar went ahead of him.
• By the mahzar (dra ed by Shaikh Mubarak and his two sons), the Emperor was cer fied to be a just
ruler (Imam Adil) and was as such assigned the rank of mujtahid, i.e. "infallible authority".
• Akbar through Mahazar became the supreme interpreter of Shariyat, subordina ng Ulemmas.

Sovereignty as a social contract

● Abul Fazl, akin to Ziauddin Barani, aimed for social stability but approached sovereignty differently.
● In Ain-i-Akbari, Abul Fazl advocated sovereignty based on a social contract rather than Shariah law,
emphasizing the emergence of poli cal authority.
● He highlighted that a lack of a strong ruler could lead to lawlessness and rebellion, reflec ng a pre-
state society resembling Thomas Hobbes' nega ve view of the pre-contract state.
● Abul Fazl promoted the theory of a 'Social Contract' wherein sovereignty was an agreement
between the king and subjects. The king protected life, property, honor, and religion in exchange for
obedience and resources from the subjects.
● He believed only a just ruler, guided by power and divine guidance, could honor these contracts,
viewing the king as the protector and well-wisher of his subjects.
● The principle of public interest was sustained by Akbar's successors, aligning with the idea of a just,
fair, and caring king.

● Abul Fazl rooted sovereignty in the needs of social order, integra ng reasoning, philosophy, and
divine light (Farr-i-Izadi), somewhat rejec ng the tradi onal no on of the king as the shadow of God
(Zill-i-Ilahi)

•He defined sovereignty as a contract under which the Emperor protects 4 essences of his subjects:

• Jaan (life) • Maal (property) • Namus (honour) • Din (religion) • In return demand obedience and a
share of resources. He says: "Only a just sovereign is able to honour this contract with power and
divine guidance."

Features of his social contract theory:

● No contract among the people themselves; people didn’t form any poli cal community out of such
contract.
● Absolute sovereignty to the King- no restraint on his power- like Leviathan of Hobbes.
● No men on of op ons to people to change the king in case he becomes tyrannical, cruel and
unjust or not able to protect them.
● Only just sovereigns are able to honour the contract with power and Divine guidance/blessings.
Thus, no guarantee that the King would honour the contract.
● Not well developed like social the social contract theory of origin of state by modern western
poli cal thinkers such as Hobbes, Locke and Rousseau\

Divine Light Theory of Kingship:

● Based on Ishraq theory: the theory of divine light emana ng from the Sun was developed by 12th
century Sufi philosopher Shihabuddin Suhrawardi.
● Abul Fazl says: "No dignity is higher in the eyes of God than royalty. Royalty is a remedy for the
spirit of rebellion...."
● He says that the king was something more than an average human being. He was the
representa ve of God on earth and His shadow. He was given greater knowledge and wisdom than
any other human being.

● According to him, “state-power is the light emana ng from God and the ray emana ng from the
sun.”
● Akbar and other Mughal rulers assumed the tle of Zill-i-Ilahi i.e. ‘Shadow of God’.
● Fazl believed The term Padshahat (Badshahat) meant ‘an established owner’ where Pad stands for
stability and shah stands for the owner.
● Padshahat means a powerful, established owner who cannot be eliminated by anyone.
● According to Abul Fazl, ‘Badshahat is the light derived from God which has been sent by God
himself. God throws his kindness on Badshah; who works as the agent of god’
● The possession of this divine light, according to Abul Fazl, brings forth quali es such as paternal
love towards subjects, generosity, trust in God, and devo on.
● Kingship is Farr-i-Izidi i.e. divine light or light emana ng from God. Hence no one can stand
between God and the ruler.
● King is not shadow of the God, but "light of God “, directly linked to God, part of God not merely
his shadow. The sublime halo represents the divine light.
● He was the ul mate authority on all social, economic, poli cal and judicial powers. The ruler was
not dependent on the ulama
● The king was the final authority in governance, administra on, agriculture, educa on, and other
fields, but he had no say if they were related to religious ma ers.
● The ray of divine wisdom banishes from his heart everything that is conflic ng, guide him to be just
like Sun, like rain, maintain harmony raising above mean conflicts/differences, makes him ‘perfect
man’ ( İnsan-ı Kâmil ) and spiritual guide to the na on.

FAZL’S IDEAL SULTAN – AKBAR

• His ideal king is just and sovereign monarch, receiving divine light directly from God
•By virtue of the divine light, heart of the ideal King is free from any conflict, disunity, and dis
harmony
• He has the Godly vision to see truth and act justly without any decima on between his subject, for
which he is the spiritual guide
• Ideal Kingship is based on the principle of Universal peace, religious tolerance and social harmony
(Sulh-i-kul)
• Ideal king is able to honour the social contract with just force and Divine guidance.
• The ideal king has Strong will, does God worship, is wise, not wrathful, considerate, believe in
science & reason, and provide quick relief to poor/needy/jus ce seeker
• Rule of the ideal king is long las ng, just, and peaceful; Jus ce is the highest virtue of the ideal
ruler

• Thus, Abul fazl's ideal king, divinely inspired perfect man, who has supreme sovereignty- both
temporal & spiritual-over his people and complete control over his enemies

THE POLICY OF SULH-E-KUL

● Abul Fazl supported the policy of Sulh-i-kul, or universal peace, a key element in Mughal kingship.
● This policy advocated religious tolerance, emphasizing that the ruler should not discriminate
among various faiths.
● Under Sulh-i-kul, religions had freedom of expression as long as they didn't harm the monarchy or
incite conflict.
● Abul Fazl believed that in a diverse country like India, monarchial sovereignty was more relevant,
placing the monarch above any par cular religion.
● He endorsed the good values of different faiths to maintain peace and unity, emphasizing the
sovereign's tolerance toward exis ng beliefs.
● This policy was implemented through state prac ces, integra ng nobles of various backgrounds
into the Mughal aristocracy based on talent and loyalty, not religion or caste .
● Akbar's rule demonstrated religious impar ality by abolishing taxes based on pilgrimage and
religious affilia on( pilgrimage tax in 1563 CE and jizya in 1564 CE.), promo ng the principles of Sulh-
i-kul in administra on, and funding the construc on of places of worship.

FAZL’S SOCIETAL DIVISION

● Abul Fazl proposed a four-fold societal division, similar to Plato's three-fold model, emphasizing
dis nct classes with designated roles.
● His societal structure comprised: a. Warriors: Equivalent to Plato's Guardian or warrior class,
entrusted with protec on and defense. b. Learned Men: Comparable to Plato's rulers or the official
class, focused on intellectual pursuits and governance. c. Husbandmen & Laborers: Represen ng
agricultural and labour-oriented roles essen al for societal sustenance. d. Ar ficers & Merchants:
Similar to Plato's third class, encompassing ar sans and traders, contribu ng to economic func ons.
● Abul Fazl linked these societal divisions to the four elements of Fire, Air, Water, and Earth,
highligh ng their interdependence for societal balance.
● He mirrored this division within the realm of royalty or the state, delinea ng classes as:

a. Nobles of the State

b. Assistants of Victory
c. Companions of the King d. Servants
● Emphasized the crucial role of the King in establishing and maintaining societal order, stressing the
need for equilibrium among these four divisions for the welfare and stability of the state.
● Indicated that the harmonious func oning of these societal divisions was pivotal for the state's
prosperity and peace, before considering other elements like the military, economy, or
administra on.
● Abul Fazl envisioned a moral and poli cal convergence in the state, with the King serving as its
spiritual guide, aligning the state's aims with moral and spiritual ideals

THEORY OF JUSTICE

● Abul Fazl emphasized the king's duty to administer jus ce to the people, punishing wrongdoers
and ensuring fairness for the innocent.
● He believed a king should dispense jus ce with kindness and harmony, trea ng his subjects like his
own children, embodying a fatherly role in governance.
● According to him, the king should perceive himself as a medium for the welfare of his people, sent
by God to establish peace and jus ce.
● Abul Fazl advocated that the ruler must maintain impar ality, ensuring that no one is harmed by
his decisions or ac ons.
● He stressed the ruler's independence from religious figures, highligh ng the importance of high
moral and spiritual quali es
● His vision of jus ce relied on reason as a crucial element in a aining an ideal concept of fairness
and righteousness in governance.

while dispensing Jus ce Badshah should always keep in mind that the repas is rent by God on Earth
to ensure peace and jus ce for all.

while dispensing Jus ce, King should equally treat everyone and should not hurt amyme.

For Farl, Jus ce also meant to take care of basic needs of the people

while dispensing Jus ce i Badshah should Keep himself in the Shoe e of Crime and make judgments
a er knowing the condi on and situa on in which Crime was Commi ed.

To increase the Goodness of the Stare, King should reward good people and punish wrongdoers

Thus, Badshah was the highert Judiciary and he does not needed any religious assistance; while
dispensing Jus ce.

Administrative structure of the Mughal Empire.

The **Mughal Empire’s administra ve structure** was a highly organized and hierarchical
system, ensuring the smooth governance of a vast and diverse empire. It combined **Persian, Turco-
Mongol, and Indian tradi ons**, balancing centralized authority with local autonomy.

### 1. **Central Administra on**

- **Emperor**: At the top of the structure, the emperor was the **supreme authority**, with
control over poli cal, military, and religious ma ers. His word was law.

- **Council of Ministers**:

- **Wazir (Prime Minister)**: Headed the revenue and finance departments.

- **Mir Bakshi**: Managed the military and soldier recruitment.

- **Sadr-us-Sudoor**: Handled religious ma ers and charity (like waqfs).

- **Mir Saman**: Managed the royal household and supply of goods for the court.

The **emperor** appointed ministers based on loyalty and merit, ensuring efficient governance.

### 2. **Provincial Administra on**

- **Subas (Provinces)**: The empire was divided into **15 to 20 provinces** under different
emperors.

- **Subedar (Governor)**: Managed law and order, revenue collec on, and military in the province.

- **Diwan**: Oversaw **revenue administra on** in the province.

 - **Bakshi**: Managed military pay and logis cs at the provincial level.

- **Qazi**: Acted as the chief judicial officer, ensuring legal disputes were resolved fairly.

This division ensured the empire could manage distant regions effec vely.

### 3. **District and Local Administra on**

- Each province (suba) was divided into **sarkars (districts)**, further divided into **parganas**
(sub-districts), and finally into **villages**.

- **Faujdar**: Military officer at the district level to maintain law and order.

- **Amil**: Revenue collector at the pargana level.

- **Patwari**: Maintained village-level land records.

This mul - ered structure allowed the Mughals to maintain control and ensure tax collec on
throughout the empire.

### 4. **Revenue Administra on: The Mansabdari System**

- **Mansabdari System**: Officials were ranked based on the **number of soldiers (zat)** they
maintained and were granted **jagirs** (land assignments) as a reward.

- **Raja Todar Mal’s Dahsala System**: A land revenue system that assessed taxes based on a **10-
year average** of crop yields and ensured tax fairness.

Revenue from agriculture was the backbone of the Mughal economy, with **tax collec on**
managed at various levels.

### 5. **Judicial Administra on**

- **Qazi**: Handled Islamic law (Sharia) and civil disputes.

- **Kotwal**: Managed city police and market regula on, ensuring law and order in urban areas.

- The emperor could **intervene as the highest court of appeal** in significant cases.

This system provided both central and local avenues for jus ce, combining **Islamic law** with local
tradi ons.

### 6. **Military Administra on**

- **Mir Bakshi**: Head of military administra on, responsible for recrui ng and paying soldiers.
- **Mansabdars**: Nobles and officials maintained **private armies**, contribu ng to the imperial
forces.

- The military structure ensured that **Mughals had a large, standing army** without burdening the
treasury.

### 7. **Religious and Cultural Policies**

- **Sadr-us-Sudoor** oversaw religious endowments and promoted cultural ac vi es.

- Akbar’s **Sulh-i-Kul** (universal peace) policy ensured religious tolerance and harmony among
different communi es, fostering poli cal stability.

### **Conclusion**

The **Mughal administra ve structure** was a sophis cated and efficient system that ensured
**control, jus ce, and revenue collec on**. The **centralized authority** of the emperor was
complemented by **local administra on**, balancing power to manage a vast and diverse empire.
This structure enabled the Mughal Empire to thrive for centuries.

ARMY IN MUGAL ADMINISTRATION

The **Mughal army** was one of the most powerful military systems of its me, with a
sophis cated structure that combined **Turco-Mongol, Persian, and Indian military tradi ons**. It
was organized to ensure both **centralized control and flexibility** for expansion and defense.
Below is an overview of the Mughal military system.

### 1. **Composi on of the Mughal Army**

The Mughal army was divided into several key components:

- **Infantry (Paidal)**: Composed of archers, swordsmen, and matchlock (musketeers). Though

rela vely less significant compared to cavalry, they played key roles in sieges and urban combat.

- **Cavalry (Sawars)**: The most important part of the Mughal military. Soldiers on horseback were
armed with bows, swords, and firearms. The Mughals relied heavily on **horse-mounted troops**
for quick mobility.

- **Ar llery**: Under Emperor Akbar, the use of **heavy ar llery** became crucial. Cannons were
employed in ba les and sieges, giving the Mughals an edge against Indian rulers who lacked
advanced firearms.

- **Elephants**: Used both as **war animals** and for transporta on of supplies. In ba le, they
were in mida ng but also served as pla orms for archers and commanders.

- **Navy**: Though the Mughals were primarily a land power, they maintained a navy for **riverine
opera ons and coastal defense**, par cularly under Akbar and Aurangzeb.
### 2. **The Mansabdari System**

The **mansabdari system** was a unique feature of the Mughal military structure. It was a **rank-
based system** where nobles (mansabdars) provided **troops and horses** in exchange for jagirs
(land assignments). The system also regulated the size of the army without burdening the central
treasury.

- **Zat**: The personal rank of a mansabdar, determining their salary and status.

- **Sawar**: Denoted the number of cavalry troops a mansabdar was expected to maintain.

- **Jagir**: A land grant given to mansabdars to cover the cost of maintaining their soldiers.

This system ensured that the army was **meritocra c** and that nobles stayed loyal to the emperor
by tying their income to the soldiers they fielded.

### 3. **Recruitment and Pay**

- The army was **mul -ethnic**, recrui ng soldiers from various communi es, including **Turks,
Afghans, Rajputs, and Indian Muslims**.

- Soldiers were paid either through **cash salaries** or **jagir grants**, with higher-ranking officials
receiving land revenues to support their troops.

- The **Mir Bakshi**, an important official, was in charge of military recruitment, promo ons, and
pay.

### 4. **Military Campaigns and Tac cs**

The Mughal military was known for its **effec ve use of both tradi onal and modern warfare
techniques**. Some key aspects of the Mughal strategy included:

- **Mobile warfare**: The Mughals emphasized mobility through their cavalry, ensuring rapid
movement in ba le.

- **Use of ar llery**: Akbar's use of cannons in ba les like the siege of **Chi or Fort (1568)** was
revolu onary for Indian warfare.

- **Diplomacy and Alliances**: Akbar’s policy of **marrying Rajput princesses** helped integrate
Rajput warriors into the Mughal military, strengthening their forces.

### 5. **Challenges and Decline**

- **Aurangzeb's Deccan campaigns** stretched the Mughal military to its limits, leading to fa gue
and financial strain.

- By the **18th century**, the quality of the army declined as **mansabdars** became more
focused on personal wealth rather than military efficiency.
- The rise of **regional powers** like the **Marathas** and **Bri sh forces** exposed the
limita ons of the Mughal military, which struggled to adapt to modern European warfare.

### **Conclusion**

The **Mughal army** was a cornerstone of the empire’s strength, enabling it to expand and
consolidate power over large parts of India. However, while the **mansabdari system** ini ally
ensured efficiency and loyalty, over me it became a liability, contribu ng to the eventual decline of
the Mughal military. Their ability to **blend tradi onal cavalry warfare with ar llery and
diplomacy** remains a significant legacy in military history.

This structure reflects the **military sophis ca on** and challenges of maintaining a large empire
across a diverse region

The end
 AbulFazal-Monarchy

INTRODUCTION

• ABUL FAZL is the most noted historian and poli cal thinker of Mughal period, was one of the nine
jewlls in Akbar's court
• His poli cal thoughts are spread across in his Ain-i-Akbari, 3rd volume of Akbarnama
• He supported social contract and need for social order as basis of sovereignty but also gave divine
authority to the King through his theory of divine light
• Through his idea of Sulh-i-Kul as state policy, he liberated the temporal sovereign from any
par cular faith, religious laws, dictates of the theologians
• He combined both temporal & spiritual sovereignty in the Godly King- the just sovereign, who not
only maintain his state but promote social harmony, religious tolerance, and becomes spiritual guide
to the na on
• Along with Sulh-i-Kul, promo ng science, reason, ra onality also duty of the King/state.

• Like Plato, he proposed 4-fold division of society and state/kingship; raised State as highest moral &
spiritual ins tu on
• Despite such path breaking poli cal ideas he cri cized for being contradictory, idealis c/utopic, not
original, and having li le impact on later Mughals
• He had given us a clear descrip on of the Mughal State system with clear historiography and & It's
very important source for present genera on to have acquaintance of Mughal Empire under the king
Akbar.

ABU'L-FAZL

• ABU'L-FAZL ibn Mubarak (1551-1602) popularly called ABUL FAZL, was born in Agra, where his
father shi ed from Nagaur (Rajasthan)
• Family of scholars: his father, Shaikh Mubarak was influen al liberal scholar who dra ed the decree
('mahzar') giving right of final arbiter of Shari ‘a to Akbar; His elder brother Abu'l Faizi was court poet
in Akbar's reign
• Received extensive educa on in all the branches of Islamic sciences from his father, had deep
influence of Sufi Philosophers ibn Arabi (Truth and unity of existence) and Shihabuddin Suhrawardi
(Israq- theory of light and illuminated wisdom)
• For his liberal and secular views, his father had to face wrath of theologians (Ulma) and had to live
life of fugi ve for some me a er 1569-70
• Gained access to Akbar's court through his brother Faizi in 1575. Soon became friend and
philosopher to Akbar and was his secretary and companion
• Abu'l Fazl was assassinated in 1602 by Vir Singh Bundela by a plot hatched by Prince Salim
• He was also one of the Nine Jewels (Navaratnas) of Akbar's royal court
• Social contract theory as basis of Sovereignty, theory of divine light, religious tolerance (Sulh-i-Kul),
state promo ng science & reason, are his las ng poli cal thoughts

● He was known for his intellectual themes and a commitment to reason.

● He was a historian, officer, chief secretary, and confidant of the Mughal emperor Akbar.
● Fazl’s wri ngs appeal to reason against religious and cultural tradi ons .
● His interpreta on of history was linked to the poli cal, social, economic and religious reali es of
that period and addressed the plurality and diversity of Indian society.
● Fazl was against the hardline Islam and challenged the conserva ve, narrow views of olama. He
was with Akbar for 2.5 decades.
● Fazl was influenced by the works and thoughts of ibn arabi who spoke about tracedental unity
once its reality is recognised, the differences seen in the sensory world are bound to lose their
significance and become illusory.
● While not presen ng a formal trea se on poli cal theory, Fazal is recognized as a poli cal thinker.
● His major works, Akbar-Nama and Ain-i-Akbari, provide insights into poli cal philosophy and
historical events.
● He supported social contract and need for social order as basis of sovereignty but also gave divine
authority to the King through his theory of divine light.
● In Ain-i-Akbari, Fazal adopts a ma er-of-fact and straigh orward approach to presen ng
informa on.
● Fazal's influence on Akbar's poli cal theory should be understood without exaggera on,
considering Akbar's character and various influencing factors.
● Poli cal concepts in Islam have diverse origins, including pre-Islamic sources and teachings of the
Prophet Muhammad.
● The incep on of the Mughal Empire in India faced poli cal instability due to the division of the
region into smaller kingdoms.
● Abul Fazal approached history with logic and a secular perspec ve, introducing a novel
methodology for collec ng and presen ng facts.
● His contribu ons substan ally expanded the scope of historical research and wri ng, covering
administra ve norms, methods, and topographical accounts.

METHODOLOGY

● Abul Fazal had a ra onal and secular approach to history which is the hallmark of his wri ngs

● He adopted new methodology to collect the facts and make them the basis of cri cal inves ga on.
● He recorded facts pertaining to socio-economic poli cal life.
● He collected the material, and facts a er careful inquiry and inves ga on, and presented them in a
clear and systema c manner.
● He ques oned the validity of a source also, cross-examined them, and then reached to
conclusions.
● Reports, memoranda, minutes prepared by the offices, imperial Farmans, and other records were
carefully consulted by him before racing to any conclusions.

WORKS OF ABU'L-FAZL

1.The Akbarnama
The Akbarnama is a document of history of Akbar's reign and his ancestors spread over three
volumes. It contains the history of Akbar's ancestors from Timur to Humayun, Akbar's reign up to the
46th regnal year (1602), and an administra ve report of Akbar's empire, the Ain-i-Akbari, which itself
is in three volumes. The third volume of Ain-i-Akbari gives an account of the ancestry and life of the
author. The Ain-i-Akbari was completed in the 42nd regnal year, but a slight addi on was made to it
in the 43rd regnal year on the account of the conquest of Berar
2.Ruqa āt
ʿ The Ruqa āt or the Ruqa āt-i-Abu'l Fazl is a collec on of priva ʿ ʿ te le ers from Abū al-Fażl to Murad,
Daniyal, Akbar, Mariam Makani, Salim (Jahangir), Akbar's queens and daughters, his father, mother
and brothers and several other notable contemporaries compiled by his nephew Nūr al-Dīn Mu am ḥ
mad.
3.Inshā-i-Abu'l Fazl
The Inshā-i-Abu'l Fazl or the Maqtubāt-i-Allami contains the official despatches wri en by Abu'l Fazl.
It is divided into two parts. The first part contains Akbar's le ers to Abdullah Khan Uzbeg of Turan,
Shah Abbas of Persia, Raja Ali Khan of Khandesh, Burhan-ul-Mulk of Ahmadnagar and his own nobles
such as Abdur Rahim Khan Khanan. The second part consists Abu'l Fazl's le ers to Akbar, Daniyal,
Mirza Shah Rukh and Khan Khanan. This collec on was compiled by Abd-us-samad, son of Afzal
Muhammad, who claims that he was Abu'l Fazl's sister's son as well as his son-in-law.
4. Abul Fazl, a contemporary of Abdul Qadir Badauni, was a cour er, historian and also a friend to
Akbar, the greatest of all Mughal rulers. He finished his massive and defini ve work, the Akbar Nama
and Ain-i-Akbari, in the waning years of the sixteenth century. It marks a decisive and schema c
departure from the predominant historiographic format of the me, as it does in several other
aspects of the construc on of an alterna ve world view. The Akbar Nama opens with the praise of
Allah, for sure, and then moves to Adam and traces Akbar’s lineage back to fi y-three genera ons of
his ancestors. It dislocates the historiographic axis from the groove of Islam and seeks to construct an
alterna ve teleology of universal history in which Akbar is the heir not of Muhammad and the
caliphs, but of Adam himself, the first human being, and thus the ruler of all humanity.
5. The text therefore promotes the idea of a powerful sovereign and a centralized state structure.

ABUL FAZL: theory of kingship and sovereignty

•Akbar's theory of kingship was influenced by Turko-Mongol theory of kingship, his liberal ancestral
and paternal legacy, broad mindedness of his teachers like Abul La f and Pir Mohammad, liberal
environment created by Sufi and Bhak movement and poli cal necessity of the me.
• Akbar's theory of Kingship was presented by Abul Fazl in Akbarnama.
• Abul Fazl says: "No dignity is higher in the eyes of God than royalty. Royalty is a remedy for the
spirit of rebellion...."
• Even the meaning of the word Padshah shows this for pad signifies stability and possession and
shah means origin, Lord .
•Highly exhaulted status of the king and Abul Fazl presented this through many symbols, metaphors
and miniature pain ng which depicts Akbar as divine, enlightened and infallible personality.
• He presents the view that kingship is the gi of god.
•The ruler was not dependent on it on the ulama, and everyone had to submit to one who possessed
it.
• Abul Fazl adds: "Royalty is a light emana ng from God, and a ray from the sun"
• Modern language calls this light farri izidi (the divine light) and the tongue of an quity called it
kiyan khwarah (the sublime halo).
•Kingship is Farr-i-Izidi i.e. divine light or light emana ng from God. Hence no one can stand between
God and the ruler.
• It is communicated by God to kings without the intermediate assistance of anyone.
•Again many excellent quali es flow from the possession of divine light/ Farr-iIzidi, e.g.,
• a paternal love towards the subjects,
• a large heart i.e. benevolent, generous, receives li le and give more.
•trust in God, prayer and devo on, etc.

• He is not upset by adversity, punishes the tyrant and behaves with modera on and with reason.
• At another place, Abul Fazl repeats that "The shamsa of the arch of royalty is a divine light, which
God directly transfers to kings, without the assistance of men..."
• The king was therefore deemed divinely guided and divinely protected.
•Presented dynas c ideology linking it with supernatural i.e. his ancestors came from heaven as
kings. Thus, he established divine origin of Akbar.
•The sight of the king is the part of divine worship and to behold is a mean of calling to mind the
creator and such percep on gave birth to prac ces like Zharoka-i-darshan, Jameen Bes- forms of
saluta on in court.
• Abul Fazl's basic concept was of a liberal absolu sm under a ruler of high endeavour endowed with
the highest moral and spiritual quali es, and enjoying heaven's mandate, so that he was not
dependent on any set of religious leaders for legi miza on.
•It is significant that the absolute tradi ons of sovereignty and conjunc on of spiritual and temporal
rulership was developed at many courts as a defence mechanism against undue encroachment upon
king's authority by lesser mortals.
• The philosophy and the spirit of the concepts of Farr-i izidi, kiyan khwarah, etc. were the same, that
is, the inten on was to guard against any direct or indirect share in king's authority.
• The theory of sovereignty propounded by Abul Fazl on behalf of Akbar and reflected in his mahzar
and "Ai'n-i rahnamuni" seems to be as close to the Central Asian and Perso-Islamic concepts as to the
Chingizi tradi ons of sovereignty.
•Alauddin Khalji had tried to abide by the "Law of expediency". Akbar went ahead of him.
• By the mahzar (dra ed by Shaikh Mubarak and his two sons), the Emperor was cer fied to be a just
ruler (Imam Adil) and was as such assigned the rank of mujtahid, i.e. "infallible authority".
• Akbar through Mahazar became the supreme interpreter of Shariyat, subordina ng Ulemmas.

Sovereignty as a social contract

● Abul Fazl, akin to Ziauddin Barani, aimed for social stability but approached sovereignty differently.
● In Ain-i-Akbari, Abul Fazl advocated sovereignty based on a social contract rather than Shariah law,
emphasizing the emergence of poli cal authority.
● He highlighted that a lack of a strong ruler could lead to lawlessness and rebellion, reflec ng a pre-
state society resembling Thomas Hobbes' nega ve view of the pre-contract state.
● Abul Fazl promoted the theory of a 'Social Contract' wherein sovereignty was an agreement
between the king and subjects. The king protected life, property, honor, and religion in exchange for
obedience and resources from the subjects.
● He believed only a just ruler, guided by power and divine guidance, could honor these contracts,
viewing the king as the protector and well-wisher of his subjects.
● The principle of public interest was sustained by Akbar's successors, aligning with the idea of a just,
fair, and caring king.

● Abul Fazl rooted sovereignty in the needs of social order, integra ng reasoning, philosophy, and
divine light (Farr-i-Izadi), somewhat rejec ng the tradi onal no on of the king as the shadow of God
(Zill-i-Ilahi)

•He defined sovereignty as a contract under which the Emperor protects 4 essences of his subjects:

• Jaan (life) • Maal (property) • Namus (honour) • Din (religion) • In return demand obedience and a
share of resources. He says: "Only a just sovereign is able to honour this contract with power and
divine guidance."

Features of his social contract theory:

● No contract among the people themselves; people didn’t form any poli cal community out of such
contract.
● Absolute sovereignty to the King- no restraint on his power- like Leviathan of Hobbes.
● No men on of op ons to people to change the king in case he becomes tyrannical, cruel and
unjust or not able to protect them.
● Only just sovereigns are able to honour the contract with power and Divine guidance/blessings.
Thus, no guarantee that the King would honour the contract.
● Not well developed like social the social contract theory of origin of state by modern western
poli cal thinkers such as Hobbes, Locke and Rousseau\

Divine Light Theory of Kingship:

● Based on Ishraq theory: the theory of divine light emana ng from the Sun was developed by 12th
century Sufi philosopher Shihabuddin Suhrawardi.
● Abul Fazl says: "No dignity is higher in the eyes of God than royalty. Royalty is a remedy for the
spirit of rebellion...."
● He says that the king was something more than an average human being. He was the
representa ve of God on earth and His shadow. He was given greater knowledge and wisdom than
any other human being.

● According to him, “state-power is the light emana ng from God and the ray emana ng from the
sun.”
● Akbar and other Mughal rulers assumed the tle of Zill-i-Ilahi i.e. ‘Shadow of God’.
● Fazl believed The term Padshahat (Badshahat) meant ‘an established owner’ where Pad stands for
stability and shah stands for the owner.
● Padshahat means a powerful, established owner who cannot be eliminated by anyone.
● According to Abul Fazl, ‘Badshahat is the light derived from God which has been sent by God
himself. God throws his kindness on Badshah; who works as the agent of god’
● The possession of this divine light, according to Abul Fazl, brings forth quali es such as paternal
love towards subjects, generosity, trust in God, and devo on.
● Kingship is Farr-i-Izidi i.e. divine light or light emana ng from God. Hence no one can stand
between God and the ruler.
● King is not shadow of the God, but "light of God “, directly linked to God, part of God not merely
his shadow. The sublime halo represents the divine light.
● He was the ul mate authority on all social, economic, poli cal and judicial powers. The ruler was
not dependent on the ulama
● The king was the final authority in governance, administra on, agriculture, educa on, and other
fields, but he had no say if they were related to religious ma ers.
● The ray of divine wisdom banishes from his heart everything that is conflic ng, guide him to be just
like Sun, like rain, maintain harmony raising above mean conflicts/differences, makes him ‘perfect
man’ ( İnsan-ı Kâmil ) and spiritual guide to the na on.

FAZL’S IDEAL SULTAN – AKBAR

• His ideal king is just and sovereign monarch, receiving divine light directly from God
•By virtue of the divine light, heart of the ideal King is free from any conflict, disunity, and dis
harmony
• He has the Godly vision to see truth and act justly without any decima on between his subject, for
which he is the spiritual guide
• Ideal Kingship is based on the principle of Universal peace, religious tolerance and social harmony
(Sulh-i-kul)
• Ideal king is able to honour the social contract with just force and Divine guidance.
• The ideal king has Strong will, does God worship, is wise, not wrathful, considerate, believe in
science & reason, and provide quick relief to poor/needy/jus ce seeker
• Rule of the ideal king is long las ng, just, and peaceful; Jus ce is the highest virtue of the ideal
ruler

• Thus, Abul fazl's ideal king, divinely inspired perfect man, who has supreme sovereignty- both
temporal & spiritual-over his people and complete control over his enemies

THE POLICY OF SULH-E-KUL

● Abul Fazl supported the policy of Sulh-i-kul, or universal peace, a key element in Mughal kingship.
● This policy advocated religious tolerance, emphasizing that the ruler should not discriminate
among various faiths.
● Under Sulh-i-kul, religions had freedom of expression as long as they didn't harm the monarchy or
incite conflict.
● Abul Fazl believed that in a diverse country like India, monarchial sovereignty was more relevant,
placing the monarch above any par cular religion.
● He endorsed the good values of different faiths to maintain peace and unity, emphasizing the
sovereign's tolerance toward exis ng beliefs.
● This policy was implemented through state prac ces, integra ng nobles of various backgrounds
into the Mughal aristocracy based on talent and loyalty, not religion or caste .
● Akbar's rule demonstrated religious impar ality by abolishing taxes based on pilgrimage and
religious affilia on( pilgrimage tax in 1563 CE and jizya in 1564 CE.), promo ng the principles of Sulh-
i-kul in administra on, and funding the construc on of places of worship.

FAZL’S SOCIETAL DIVISION

● Abul Fazl proposed a four-fold societal division, similar to Plato's three-fold model, emphasizing
dis nct classes with designated roles.
● His societal structure comprised: a. Warriors: Equivalent to Plato's Guardian or warrior class,
entrusted with protec on and defense. b. Learned Men: Comparable to Plato's rulers or the official
class, focused on intellectual pursuits and governance. c. Husbandmen & Laborers: Represen ng
agricultural and labour-oriented roles essen al for societal sustenance. d. Ar ficers & Merchants:
Similar to Plato's third class, encompassing ar sans and traders, contribu ng to economic func ons.
● Abul Fazl linked these societal divisions to the four elements of Fire, Air, Water, and Earth,
highligh ng their interdependence for societal balance.
● He mirrored this division within the realm of royalty or the state, delinea ng classes as:

a. Nobles of the State

b. Assistants of Victory
c. Companions of the King d. Servants
● Emphasized the crucial role of the King in establishing and maintaining societal order, stressing the
need for equilibrium among these four divisions for the welfare and stability of the state.
● Indicated that the harmonious func oning of these societal divisions was pivotal for the state's
prosperity and peace, before considering other elements like the military, economy, or
administra on.
● Abul Fazl envisioned a moral and poli cal convergence in the state, with the King serving as its
spiritual guide, aligning the state's aims with moral and spiritual ideals

THEORY OF JUSTICE

● Abul Fazl emphasized the king's duty to administer jus ce to the people, punishing wrongdoers
and ensuring fairness for the innocent.
● He believed a king should dispense jus ce with kindness and harmony, trea ng his subjects like his
own children, embodying a fatherly role in governance.
● According to him, the king should perceive himself as a medium for the welfare of his people, sent
by God to establish peace and jus ce.
● Abul Fazl advocated that the ruler must maintain impar ality, ensuring that no one is harmed by
his decisions or ac ons.
● He stressed the ruler's independence from religious figures, highligh ng the importance of high
moral and spiritual quali es
● His vision of jus ce relied on reason as a crucial element in a aining an ideal concept of fairness
and righteousness in governance.

while dispensing Jus ce Badshah should always keep in mind that the repas is rent by God on Earth
to ensure peace and jus ce for all.

while dispensing Jus ce, King should equally treat everyone and should not hurt amyme.

For Farl, Jus ce also meant to take care of basic needs of the people

while dispensing Jus ce i Badshah should Keep himself in the Shoe e of Crime and make judgments
a er knowing the condi on and situa on in which Crime was Commi ed.

To increase the Goodness of the Stare, King should reward good people and punish wrongdoers

Thus, Badshah was the highert Judiciary and he does not needed any religious assistance; while
dispensing Jus ce.

Administrative structure of the Mughal Empire.

The **Mughal Empire’s administra ve structure** was a highly organized and hierarchical
system, ensuring the smooth governance of a vast and diverse empire. It combined **Persian, Turco-
Mongol, and Indian tradi ons**, balancing centralized authority with local autonomy.

### 1. **Central Administra on**

- **Emperor**: At the top of the structure, the emperor was the **supreme authority**, with
control over poli cal, military, and religious ma ers. His word was law.

- **Council of Ministers**:

- **Wazir (Prime Minister)**: Headed the revenue and finance departments.

- **Mir Bakshi**: Managed the military and soldier recruitment.

- **Sadr-us-Sudoor**: Handled religious ma ers and charity (like waqfs).

- **Mir Saman**: Managed the royal household and supply of goods for the court.

The **emperor** appointed ministers based on loyalty and merit, ensuring efficient governance.

### 2. **Provincial Administra on**

- **Subas (Provinces)**: The empire was divided into **15 to 20 provinces** under different
emperors.

- **Subedar (Governor)**: Managed law and order, revenue collec on, and military in the province.

- **Diwan**: Oversaw **revenue administra on** in the province.

 - **Bakshi**: Managed military pay and logis cs at the provincial level.

- **Qazi**: Acted as the chief judicial officer, ensuring legal disputes were resolved fairly.

This division ensured the empire could manage distant regions effec vely.

### 3. **District and Local Administra on**

- Each province (suba) was divided into **sarkars (districts)**, further divided into **parganas**
(sub-districts), and finally into **villages**.

- **Faujdar**: Military officer at the district level to maintain law and order.

- **Amil**: Revenue collector at the pargana level.

- **Patwari**: Maintained village-level land records.

This mul - ered structure allowed the Mughals to maintain control and ensure tax collec on
throughout the empire.

### 4. **Revenue Administra on: The Mansabdari System**

- **Mansabdari System**: Officials were ranked based on the **number of soldiers (zat)** they
maintained and were granted **jagirs** (land assignments) as a reward.

- **Raja Todar Mal’s Dahsala System**: A land revenue system that assessed taxes based on a **10-
year average** of crop yields and ensured tax fairness.

Revenue from agriculture was the backbone of the Mughal economy, with **tax collec on**
managed at various levels.

### 5. **Judicial Administra on**

- **Qazi**: Handled Islamic law (Sharia) and civil disputes.

- **Kotwal**: Managed city police and market regula on, ensuring law and order in urban areas.

- The emperor could **intervene as the highest court of appeal** in significant cases.

This system provided both central and local avenues for jus ce, combining **Islamic law** with local
tradi ons.

### 6. **Military Administra on**

- **Mir Bakshi**: Head of military administra on, responsible for recrui ng and paying soldiers.
- **Mansabdars**: Nobles and officials maintained **private armies**, contribu ng to the imperial
forces.

- The military structure ensured that **Mughals had a large, standing army** without burdening the
treasury.

### 7. **Religious and Cultural Policies**

- **Sadr-us-Sudoor** oversaw religious endowments and promoted cultural ac vi es.

- Akbar’s **Sulh-i-Kul** (universal peace) policy ensured religious tolerance and harmony among
different communi es, fostering poli cal stability.

### **Conclusion**

The **Mughal administra ve structure** was a sophis cated and efficient system that ensured
**control, jus ce, and revenue collec on**. The **centralized authority** of the emperor was
complemented by **local administra on**, balancing power to manage a vast and diverse empire.
This structure enabled the Mughal Empire to thrive for centuries.

ARMY IN MUGAL ADMINISTRATION

The **Mughal army** was one of the most powerful military systems of its me, with a
sophis cated structure that combined **Turco-Mongol, Persian, and Indian military tradi ons**. It
was organized to ensure both **centralized control and flexibility** for expansion and defense.
Below is an overview of the Mughal military system.

### 1. **Composi on of the Mughal Army**

The Mughal army was divided into several key components:

- **Infantry (Paidal)**: Composed of archers, swordsmen, and matchlock (musketeers). Though

rela vely less significant compared to cavalry, they played key roles in sieges and urban combat.

- **Cavalry (Sawars)**: The most important part of the Mughal military. Soldiers on horseback were
armed with bows, swords, and firearms. The Mughals relied heavily on **horse-mounted troops**
for quick mobility.

- **Ar llery**: Under Emperor Akbar, the use of **heavy ar llery** became crucial. Cannons were
employed in ba les and sieges, giving the Mughals an edge against Indian rulers who lacked
advanced firearms.

- **Elephants**: Used both as **war animals** and for transporta on of supplies. In ba le, they
were in mida ng but also served as pla orms for archers and commanders.

- **Navy**: Though the Mughals were primarily a land power, they maintained a navy for **riverine
opera ons and coastal defense**, par cularly under Akbar and Aurangzeb.
### 2. **The Mansabdari System**

The **mansabdari system** was a unique feature of the Mughal military structure. It was a **rank-
based system** where nobles (mansabdars) provided **troops and horses** in exchange for jagirs
(land assignments). The system also regulated the size of the army without burdening the central
treasury.

- **Zat**: The personal rank of a mansabdar, determining their salary and status.

- **Sawar**: Denoted the number of cavalry troops a mansabdar was expected to maintain.

- **Jagir**: A land grant given to mansabdars to cover the cost of maintaining their soldiers.

This system ensured that the army was **meritocra c** and that nobles stayed loyal to the emperor
by tying their income to the soldiers they fielded.

### 3. **Recruitment and Pay**

- The army was **mul -ethnic**, recrui ng soldiers from various communi es, including **Turks,
Afghans, Rajputs, and Indian Muslims**.

- Soldiers were paid either through **cash salaries** or **jagir grants**, with higher-ranking officials
receiving land revenues to support their troops.

- The **Mir Bakshi**, an important official, was in charge of military recruitment, promo ons, and
pay.

### 4. **Military Campaigns and Tac cs**

The Mughal military was known for its **effec ve use of both tradi onal and modern warfare
techniques**. Some key aspects of the Mughal strategy included:

- **Mobile warfare**: The Mughals emphasized mobility through their cavalry, ensuring rapid
movement in ba le.

- **Use of ar llery**: Akbar's use of cannons in ba les like the siege of **Chi or Fort (1568)** was
revolu onary for Indian warfare.

- **Diplomacy and Alliances**: Akbar’s policy of **marrying Rajput princesses** helped integrate
Rajput warriors into the Mughal military, strengthening their forces.

### 5. **Challenges and Decline**

- **Aurangzeb's Deccan campaigns** stretched the Mughal military to its limits, leading to fa gue
and financial strain.

- By the **18th century**, the quality of the army declined as **mansabdars** became more
focused on personal wealth rather than military efficiency.
- The rise of **regional powers** like the **Marathas** and **Bri sh forces** exposed the
limita ons of the Mughal military, which struggled to adapt to modern European warfare.

### **Conclusion**

The **Mughal army** was a cornerstone of the empire’s strength, enabling it to expand and
consolidate power over large parts of India. However, while the **mansabdari system** ini ally
ensured efficiency and loyalty, over me it became a liability, contribu ng to the eventual decline of
the Mughal military. Their ability to **blend tradi onal cavalry warfare with ar llery and
diplomacy** remains a significant legacy in military history.

This structure reflects the **military sophis ca on** and challenges of maintaining a large empire
across a diverse region

The end