CHAPTER ONE

1.0 INTRODUCTION

1.1 WATER

Water covers about 71% of the earth surface but available fresh drinking water is only 3% out of

which 69% is trapped as ice in two Polar Regions. The remaining fresh water exist in rivers,

lakes and surface aquifers which human beings, plants and other animal species can use. This

distribution must be carefully managed to avoid irreversible depletion of the resource

(Yeazadani, 2016). Water is one of the most vital natural resources necessary for the existence of

life. In most urban cities in various countries such as Nigeria, it is the duty of the government to

provide potable water. Most often the responsibility is not adequately discharged, causing the

inhabitant of those cities to look elsewhere to meet their water needs. The alternative may be

unwholesome (O. C. Chika & E. A. Prince 2020)

Drinking water or potable water is of sufficiently high quality that it can be consumed or used

without risk of immediate or long term harm. In most developed countries, the water supplied to

households, commerce and industry is all of drinking water standard. Water covers about 70% of

the earth crust; hence it is the most abundant substance on the earth surface. This is because the

sources of surface water such as rivers, lakes, streams, oceans, sea, and wetlands are found in

abundance on this planet. Water is colourless, odourless and tasteless in its pure form and has a

boiling point of 100 °C and freezing point of 0 °C. It has the ability to exist in three different

phases - solid, liquid and gases. Liquid water consists of a continuous network of randomly

connected hydrogen bonds which form a liquid. Surface water is water in a liquid form which

always flows downwards usually, on mountain slopes. The quality of river water depends on the

feeding source of the river which includes surface runoff, water of glaciers, underground water,

1
swamp, rain, treated sewage, water of industrial enterprises and polluted area. Surface water is a

basic natural resources essential to man for his various and intense agricultural and industrial

activities. (Habibun Nabi and Rosiya Bint Yahya, 2016)

Nowadays, hazardous heavy metal pollution of wastewater is the utmost significant

environmental problem and endangers human beings throughout the world. Due to rapid

urbanization and industrialization, such as metal plating, mining, tanneries, painting, batteries,

paper industries, printing and photographic industries, pesticides and fertilizer industries, and car

radiator manufacturing, heavy metal ions, such as As(III)/AS(V), Pb(II), Cd(II), Ni(I),

Cr(III)/Cr(VI), Zn(II), Cu(II), Hg(I)/Hg(II), and Co(II) contained in wastewater are increasingly

directly or indirectly discharged into streams, lakes, rivers or oceans, especially in developing

countries. (Chaitali and Dhote, 2013).

Water is considered polluted if some substance or condition is present to such degree that the

water cannot be used for a specific purpose. Water pollution is defined as the presence of

excessive amounts of hazardous substance in water in such a way that it can be no useful.

Pollution is the introduction of a contamination into the environment. It is created by industrial

and commercial wasters, agricultural practices, everyday human activities and various means of

transportation. The water we drink must be pure, free from pollution and supply of safe drinking

water to human is one of the major prerequisites for a healthy life. Polluted water causes various

serious problems on health (Owa, 2014).

Water pollution by heavy metal has become a serious problem in the world. Heavy metals are

defined as those metals and metalloids that have high density and toxic to even at low

concentration (chaitali and Dhote, 2013). Heavy metals have relatively high density compared to

water (jaishankar et al., 2014). There are over fifty elements that can be classified as heavy

2
metals seventeen of which are considered to be very toxic and relatively available (chaithali and

Dhote, 2013).

1.2 Statement of Problem

Over dose of iron in the body result genetic disorders (WHO, 2003). Lead has a carcinogenic

property and it affects both the respiratory and digestive system and it suppress the immune

system as well. Lead is particularly harmful in children; affect their nervous system (zong et. al,

2005).Excess of manganese in the body effect the brain (Nutritional and Environmental

Medicine London, 2013). Eating food or drinking water with very high cadmium levels severely

irritates the stomach, leading to vomiting and diarrhea, and sometimes death (Agency for toxic

substance and disease Registry, 2012). .

1.3 Aims and Objectives

1.3.1 General Objective

The main aim is to identify the presence of heavy metals in drinking water of student’s affairs

borehole at Umaru Ali Shinkafi Polytechnic Sokoto

1.3.2 Specific objective

i. To study the physicochemical parameter of drinking water of the borehole.

ii. To estimate the amount of Fe, Cu, Cr, Cd, and Zn in drinking water of the borehole

iii. To compare the amount of Fe, Cu, Cr, Cd, and Zn in drinking water of the borehole

1.3 Limitation:

Although there are over 50 different heavy metals that may be present in water, this study will

estimate the amount of only five of them (Fe, Cu, Cr, Cd, and Zn). The sample size taken in this

study is very small because of time and budgetary constraints.

3
 CHAPTER TWO

2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Drinking Water

Safe and readily available water is important for public health whether it is used for drinking,

domestic use and food production or recreational purposes. Improved water supply, sanitation,

and better management of water resources can boost countries economic growth and can

contribute greatly to poverty reduction. In 2010, the UN General Assembly explicitly recognized

the human right to water and sanitation. Everyone has the right to sufficient, continuous, safe,

acceptable, physically accessible and affordable water for personal and domestic use. By 2025

half of the world’s population will be living in water stressed area (WHO, 2019)

2.2 Heavy metals:

Heavy metals are naturally occurring elements that have a high atomic weight and a density at

least five times greater than that of water. Their multiple industrial, domestic, agricultural,

medical and technological applications have led to their wide distribution in the environment

raising concerns over their potential effects on human health and the environment. Their toxicity

depends on several factors including the dose, route of exposure and chemical species as well as

the age, gender, genetics and nutritional status of exposed individuals (Tchounwou et al., 2012).

There are about 40 elements that fall into this category. Heavy metals are largely found in

disperse form in rock formations. These heavy metals are distributed in the environment through

several natural processes such as volcanic eruptions, spring waters, erosion, bacterial activity and

anthropogenic activities which include fossil fuel combustion, industrial processes, agricultural

activities as well as feeding (Ali et al., 2013).

4
2.2.1 Heavy metal and their source.

Generally the heavy metal enter into the water supply by industrial and consumer material or

even from the acid rain breaking down soils and releasing heavy metals into streams, lakes,

rivers and groundwater. Not only this but also heavy metal enter into the drinking water source

through Pb pipes (Pandey and Madhuri, 2014)

Heavy metals enter the environment from natural and anthropogenic sources. The most

significant natural sources are weathering of minerals, erosion and volcanic activity while

anthropogenic sources include mining, smelting, electroplating, use of pesticides and (phosphate)

fertilizers as well

Heavy metals Source

As Pesticides and wood preservatives
Cd Paints and pigments, plastic stabilizers, electroplating, incineration of
cadmium-containing Plastics and phosphate fertilizers
Cr Tanneries, steel industriesand fly ash
Cu Pesticides and fertilizers
Hg Release from Au–Ag mining and coal combustion andmedical waste
Ni Industrial effluents, kitchen appliances, surgical instruments, steel alloys,
automobile and
Batteries
Pb Aerial emission from combustion of leaded petrol, battery manufacture,
herbicides and
Insecticides
Mn Widely distributed throughout the earth’s crust
Fe Drinking water pipes.

5
2.2.2. Importance and effect of heavy metals:

Regarding the role of heavy metals in drinking water heavy metals are classified as essential and

non-essential. Essential heavy metals are those which are needed by living organism in minute

quantity for vital physiological and biochemical functions. Examples of essential heavy metals

are Fe, Mn, Cu, Zn and Ni and Non-essential heavy metals are those which are not needed by the

living organism for any physiological function (Ali et al., 2013). Toxicity level depends on type

of metals, its biological role and the type of organism exposed to it. Heavy metals also effect on

aquatic flora and fauna which through bio magnifications enters food chain and ultimately affect

the human being as well (chaithali and Dhote, 2013). Increases in concentration of heavy metals

in human body have adverse health effect because they interfere with the normal functioning of

living system (Ali et al., 2013). Some of the non essential heavy metals even they do not have

biological role but remain present in other form harmful for the human body. Some of them act

as pseudo element in the body while at certain time they may interfere with metabolic processes

(jaishankar et al., 2014).

2.2.3 Heavy metal in plant

Many heavy metals are considered to be essential for plant growth. Some of these heavy metals

like Cu and Zn serve either as cofactor and activators of enzyme reactions theseessential trace

metal nutrients take part in redox reactions, electron transfer and structural functions in nucleic

acid metabolism. Heavy metals are considerably dangerous for the aquatic environment. This can

be due to their toxicity, wide sources, lack of biodegradable properties and accumulative

behavior (Nowrouzi et al., 2012). Heavy metal ions such as Cu+2, Zn+2, Mn+2, Fe+2, Ni+2 and

Co+2 are essential micronutrients for plant metabolism but when present in excess act as non-

essential. Metals such as Cd+2, Hg+2, Ag and Pb+2 can become extremely toxic (Das et al.,

6
2011). Bryophytes have been frequently used as monitors of heavy metal pollution in the field of

studies but their concentration also effect in the growth (Sidhu and Brown, 1996)

2.2.4 Heavy metal in aquatic animals

Pollution of different environments is due to human activities in recent years. One of such

pollution is marine pollution by heavy metals. The heavy metals are accumulated in the marine

environment then transfer to the marine organisms. When their concentrations exceed in the

body they become toxic and cause several health problems. The fishes became sick then die (Das

et al., 2011). Heavy metal enters in the body of fish by three different potential ways by gills,

body surface and by digestive tract. Humans are also affected by intake of effected fishes for

mostly people of those areas where main food is fish (Afshan et al., 2014)

2.2.5 Heavy metal in animal and human body

Chemical elements in both Free State and a variety of chemical compounds are included in all

cells and tissues of the human body. For each element there is optimum range of concentration to

perform various functions. On the contrary at permissible limit metals are important for

enzymatic activity and genetic material integrity in biological system. Some of the heavy metal

are used for cellular division and contributes in carbohydrate, lipid and nucleic acid metabolism

(oves et al., 2016).Excess of heavy metals than the permissible limit bioaccumulate in living

organisms and the human body through various processes causing adverse effects. In the human

body these heavy metals are transported and compartmentalized into body cells and tissues

binding to proteins, nucleic acids destroying these macromolecules and disrupting their cellular

functions. Heavy metal toxicity can have several consequences in the human body. It can affect

7
the central nervous function leading to mental disorder, damage the blood constituents, may

damage lungs, liver, kidneys and other vital organs promoting several disease conditions. Also

the long term accumulation of heavy metals in the body may result in slowing the progression of

physical, muscular and neurological degenerative processes that mimic certain diseases such as

Parkinson’s disease and Alzheimer’s disease (Engwa et al., 2019). Repeated long-term contact

with some heavy metals or their compounds may even damage nucleic acids cause mutation and

mimic hormones there by disrupting the endocrine and reproductive system and eventually lead

to cancer (lars jarup, 2019) The concentrations of heavy metals in the environment have

increased significantly in recent decades. The sources of heavy metals in food crops vary in the

developing and developed world. The deposition of metal on food crops and the use of industrial

effluents and sewage sludge as fertilizers are the primary contamination sources in soil–crop

systems in developed countries. The inhalation of soil and dietary intake of fruits, crops and

vegetables contaminated with metals or metalloids can lead to gastrointestinal cancer (Rai et al.,

2019). The infants and younger population are more prone to the toxic effects of heavy metals as

the rapidly developing body systems in the fetus, infants and young children are far more

sensitive Childhood exposure to some metals can result in learning difficulties, memory

impairment, damage to the nervous system and behavioral problems such as aggressiveness and

hyperactivity. At higher doses heavy metals can cause irreversible brain damage. Children may

receive higher doses of metals from food than adults since they consume more food for their

body weight than adults ( khan tareen et al., 2013).

8
Fig 2 Pathway of heavy metal source and exposure to human (Engwa et al., 2019).

2.2.5.1 Iron:

Iron is the second most abundant metal in the earth's crust of which it accounts for about 5%.

Melting point of iron is found to be 1535 ºC where as the specific gravity is found to be 7.86 at

25º C (WHO, 2003).From the ancient time man has recognized the special role of iron in health

and disease. Until 1932 iron was not important. The importance of iron was finally settled by

convincing proof that inorganic iron was needed for hemoglobin synthesis. Iron is biologically

essential component of all living organism. The body requires iron for the synthesis of oxygen

9
transport proteins (Abbaspour et al., 2014). Iron is a part of hemoglobin, myoglobin,

cytochrome, aconitase, fumarate reductase and many proteins and enzymes essential for

metabolic (Nagajoti et al., 2010). Iron intake is very important especially for people over 50

years old. For aging diseases such as Alzheimer’s disease, atherosclerosis and others iron excess

has a major contribution. Iron is introduced through food and water therefore it is necessary to

know its concentrations (Pavlosvka et al., 2015). Humans have no way to excrete iron and loose

only 2mg per day from epithelial surfaces (American society of hematology, 2018). This loss is

balanced by intestinal absorption. Iron demand occurs during infancy and childhood due to

growth and development demands (Sophie et al., 2014)

Excess of iron intake form the drinking water and many other sources is becoming a serious

problem in the world. Iron poisoning has always been topic of interest mainly to pediatricians.

Children are highly susceptible to iron toxicity as they are exposed to a maximum of iron

containing products. Excess iron uptake is a serious problem in developed and meat eating

countries and it increases the risk of cancer ((Jaishankar et al., 2014). Excess of iron then the

limit value can also cause number of chronic disease like cancer, diabetes, cardiovascular disease

and many neurodegenerative conditions are also associated with excess of iron (Marianne, 2017).

Toxic effects of iron also include depression, coma and convulsion (who, 2003).

2.2.5.2 Cadmium:

Cadmium is a metal found in the earth crust associated with Zinc, lead and copper ores. Pure

cadmium is soft and silver-white metal. Cadmium is generally in +2 oxidation state. It is soluble

in dilute nitric acid and concentrated sulfuric acid (WHO, 2011). Cadmium can enter into the

drinking water by the penetration of industrial wastewater containing cadmium into the water

10
distribution network and also penetration via polyethylene tubes and containers (Fakhri et al.,

2014).

Cadmium metal is used mainly as an anticorrosive electroplated onto steel. Cadmium sulfide and

selenide are commonly used as pigments in plastics. Cadmium compounds are used in electric

batteries, electronic components and nuclear reactors (WHO, 2011).

Human health effects related to cadmium (Cd) exposure in the general environment were first

reported from western Japan after the Second World War. Dr Hagino, a local practitioner in

Toyama prefecture diagnosed many women exhibiting a bone disease with many pathological

fractures (Nordberg and china, 2003). The presence of cadmium in drinking water can be

dangerous for human health because of toxicity and biological accumulation. The consumption

of water which contains Cd in high concentration can lead to Bone and Kidney disease. The

international Agency for Research on cancer has classified cadmium as a group ―A‖ carcinogen.

Chronic exposure on cadmium cause kidney failure and itai - itai disease (Fakhri et al., 2014).

Cadmium is the 7th most toxic heavy metal as per ASTDR ranking. It is one of the toxic metals

to human being because once it gets absorbed by the humans gets accumulate in the human body

throughout the life. In the US more than 500,000 workers get exposed to toxic cadmium each

year as per The Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (Jaishankar et al., 2014).

2.2.5.3 Chromium

Chromium is widely distributed in the Earth’s crust. It can exist in valences of + 2 to + 6. In

general, food appears to be the major source of intake Jardine et al. (1999), Robson (2003).

Chromium is highly carcinogenic; therefore, minimal intake has been advocated (WHO 2011).

Generally, the reduction of chromium (VI) to chromium (III) is also favored under acidic

11
conditions Kimbrough et al. (1999). Chromium, in its hexavalent form, is the most toxic species

of chromium though some other species such as Chromium (III) compounds are much less toxic

and cause little or no health problems. Chromium (VI) has the tendency to be corrosive and also

to cause allergic reactions to the body. Therefore, breathing high levels of chromium (VI) can

cause irritation to the lining of the nose and nose ulcers. It can also cause anemia, irritations and

ulcers in the small intestine and stomach, damage sperm and male reproductive system. The

allergic reactions due to chromium include severe redness and swelling of the skin. Exposure of

extremely high doses of chromium (VI) compounds to humans can result in severe

cardiovascular, respiratory, hematological, gastrointestinal, renal, hepatic and neurological

effects and possibly death (Engwa et al. 2018)

2.2.5.4 Copper

Copper is both an essential nutrient and a drinking-water contaminant. Food and water are the

primary sources of copper exposure in developed countries. Ores of copper are chalcopyrite

(CuFeS2), chalcocite (Cu2S), covellite (CuS), cuprite (Cu2O) and malachite (CuCO3. Cu(OH)2)

(ATSDR 2007). Staining of laundry and sanitary wares occurs at copper concentrations above

1 mg/L. Gallagher (2001) stated that at levels above 2.5 mg/L copper imparts an undesirable

bitter taste to water; at higher levels, the color of water is also impacted. The WHO (2011)

guidelines derived a provisional health-based guideline value of 2 mg/L for copper. From the

analysis, copper values of pre-monsoon and postmonsoon season samples ranged from 0 to

0.341 mg/L. Copper is essential for good health. However, exposure to higher doses can be

harmful. Long-term exposure to copper dust can irritate your nose, mouth and eyes, and cause

headaches, dizziness, nausea and diarrhea. If you drink water that contains higher than normal

levels of copper, you may experience nausea, vomiting, stomach cramps or diarrhea.

12
Intentionally high intakes of copper can cause liver and kidney damage and even death. We do

not know if copper can cause cancer in humans. EPA does not classify copper as a human

carcinogen because there are no adequate human or animal cancer studies ATSDR (2004)

Results from a number of studies from Europe, Canada and the USA indicate that copper levels

in drinking-water can range from ≤0.005 to >30 mg/litre, with the primary source most often

being the corrosion of interior copper plumbing (US EPA, 1991; Health Canada, 1992; IPCS,

1998; US NRC, 2000). Levels of copper in running or fully flushed water tend to be low,

whereas those of standing or partially flushed water samples are more variable and can be

substantially higher. In a Canadian study of first-draw water samples, concentrations were >1

mg/litre in 53% of the homes in four Nova Scotia communities (ATSDR, 2002). In a study from

Sweden, the 10th-percentile copper concentration in 4703 samples of unflushed water from

homes in Malmo and Uppsala was 0.17 mg/litre, and the 90th-percentile value was 2.11 mg/litre

(Pettersson & Rasmussen, 1999); the median concentration was 0.72 mg/litre. In Berlin,

Germany, the median concentrations of two separate composite samples collected from 2944

households were 0.32 mg/litre and 0.45 mg/litre, and the maximum concentrations were 3.5

mg/litre and 4.2 mg/litre, respectively (Zeitz et al., 2003). A recent study in the Czech Republic

found that only 1.5% of the samples from the distribution system had copper concentrations

greater than 100 µg/litre (Puklova et al., 2001).

2.2.5.5 Zinc

Zinc is also an essential element in our diet. Too much zinc, however, can also be damaging to

health. Zinc toxicity in large amounts causes nausea and vomiting in children. A higher

concentration of zinc may cause anemia and cholesterol problems in human beings. Mining and

13
metallurgical processing of zinc ores and its industrial application are the major sources of zinc

in the air, soil, and water. It also comes from the burning of coal

2.2.6 Method of removing heavy metals in drinking water:

Removal of heavy metal is an important step toward safe drinking water. Shirkhanloo and his

team study on removal of heavy metal in drinking water practice in developing countries and

also find out success and failures of such method. According to them several of methods have

reported to remove heavy metals from wastewater and drinking water. Adsorption was found to

be the method of choice with various adsorbents being available. The other methods include

chemical precipitation, physical separation, ionexchange, membrane filtration, membrane

filtration, membrane distillation and hybrid method. Some of these methods are expensive and

likely to impractical for application in low and medium income countries.

2.2.7 Levels of heavy metals and potential health effects

Human activities like mining, to a large extent, upset the natural cycle of heavy metals and help

increase their content in the various media to toxic levels. According to FDA (1987), IOM

(2002), EPA (2003), the effects of heavy metals on humans depend on ingested dosage and may

cause impairment to human health. Figure 3 shows the mechanism of heavy metal intoxication in

humans. The main threats to human health from heavy metals are associated with exposure to

lead, cadmium, mercury and arsenic, Lars (2003). Concentration of heavy metals in rocks, water

and soils spans across vast areas. Some of the heavy metals have no significant physical or

biological action except for the toxic effects in relation to inhibiting the actions of certain

enzymes Long et al. (1995). If they become excess, they become toxic and can lead to damage to

the internal organs, reduce energy levels, mental and central nervous dysfunction, plants and

aquatic lives are not left out Ayandiran and Dahunsi (2016). The effects of longterm exposure

14
may result in slowly progressing physical, muscular and neurological degenerative processes

Gerhat and Blomquist (1992). Although medical records of the villagers were difficult to access

to evaluate the incidences of the toxicity of these metals in the areas, personal discussions and

observations show high incidences of abortion in women, selenoises in children and aged

women, high level of mental disorders among the youth population and Parkinson diseases

among old men and women, but a great number of them attribute these adverse health incidences

to poisons from their enemies, witch doctors and inability to please their ancestors or the gods of

their fore- fathers.

15
 CHAPTER THREE

3.0 METHODOLOGY

3.1 Laboratory Setup:

The whole research was done at Chemistry laboratory Umaru Ali Shinkafi Polytechnic Sokoto.

3.2 Materials

S/NO NAME MODEL MANUFACTURER

1. Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy ACCUSYS211 BUCK SCIENTIFIC

2. Fume Cupboard

3. Weighting Balance ATY 224 SHIMADZU

4. Water Bath HHS

5. Conical Flask

3.3. Standard solution

1000 ppm standard solution of iron, Cadmium, Chromium, Copper and Zinc was prepared

3.3.1 Methodology

3.3.2 Sample collection:

Samples from the Borehole was obtained and then stored in sample bottles prior to the

experiment

3.2.3 Digestion of the sample:

For the digestion of water samples, 2-3 ml of Nitric acid was added to each of the sample

16
3.2.4. Instrumentation:

A Thermo scientific iCE 3000 AA was used for the FAAS measurement of iron, manganese

nickel, lead and cadmium in different water samples. The final set of spectrometer parameters

used is shown in table below:

. Parameter Iron Cadmium Copper Chromium Zinc

Wavelength 248.3nm 228.9nm 324.7nm 357.9nm 213.9nm

Lamp current 75% 75% 75% 75% 75%

Flame type Air- Air- Air- Air- Air-

Acetylene Acetylene Acetylene Acetylene Acetylene

3.2.6 Calibration graph

Deionized water was used as a blank and accurately prepared working standard solution was

used for the calibration graph. Calibration graph was obtained by plotting absorbance at y-axis

and concentration at x-axis.

3.2.7 Sample analysis

In order to measure the concentration of heavy metals in drinking water sample. Absorbance of

the sample was noted given by AAS.

17
 CHAPTER FOUR

RESULT AND DISCUSSION

4.0 RESULTS

Table 0.1Showing the concentration of some heavy metals

S/NO HEAVY METALS Conc(Ppm )

1. Copper 4.8
2. Cadmium 3.3
3. Chromium 4.5
4. Iron 10
5. Zinc 3.9

The table above shows the concentration of heavy metals in the tested samples. Cadmium has the

least concentration which is 3.3ppm with Iron having the highest concentration which is 10ppm.

The concentration of iron was found to be 10ppm which is in accordance with WHO (0.5-

50ppm) Iron is an essential element in human nutrition. Estimates of the minimum daily

requirement for iron depend on age, sex, physiological status, and iron bioavailability and range

from about 10 to 50 mg/day. The concentration of Copper was found to be 4.8ppm. Copper

concentrations in drinking-water vary widely as a result of variations in water characteristics,

such as pH, hardness and copper availability in the distribution system and corrosive action of

water leaching copper from copper pipes in buildings. High levels of dissolved oxygen have

been shown to accelerate copper corrosion in some cases. Concentrations can vary significantly

with the period of time the water has been standing in contact with the pipes; for example, fi rst-

draw water would be expected to have a higher copper concentration than a fully flushed sample.

High concentrations can interfere with the intended domestic uses of the water. Staining of

sanitary ware and laundry may occur at copper concentrations above 1 mg/l. At levels above 5

18
mg/l, copper also imparts a colour and an undesirable bitter taste to water. Although copper can

give rise to taste, it should be acceptable at the health-based guideline value of 2 mg/l. From the

results it is observed that the value is higher than the recommended value.

Cadmium exposure from drinking-water is relatively unimportant compared with exposure from

diet. However, impurities in the zinc of galvanized pipes and cadmium-containing solders in

fittings, water heaters, water coolers and taps can sometimes lead to increased cadmium levels in

drinking-water, particularly in areas supplied with soft water of low pH, which would be more

corrosive in plumbing systems containing cadmium. The guideline for cadmium in drinking-

water is 0.003 mg/L. from the results it is observed that the concentration is high above the

standard value and it’s with the least concentration.

In the case of concentration level of zinc, it is found from this study that the zinc concentration

level for the water sample is 0.75 mg/L. This implies that the mean concentration level of zinc in

those areas is not significant compared to WHO (2005) standards for which the average mean

concentration level for zinc is 3.0 (mg/L). Thus, it is clear that it may not impose a reasonable

toxic hazard to the populace unless when accumulated over a long period of time.

19
 CHAPTER FIVE

5.0 Conclusion and Recommendation

5.1 Conclusion

The presence of some of the heavy metals in the water is high but negligible, the water is fit for

drinking

5.2 Recommendation
Further studies should be carried out on the level of the physicochemical parameters, Microbial

parameters and more heavy metals concentration on the borehole water from time to time and in

more areas and from different sources. This will serve as baseline data and determine the source

of future groundwater pollution

20
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