UNIT 5 TECHNICAL WRITING: TECHNIQUES

Structure
5.1 Introduction
Objectives
5.2 Audience Analysis and Purpose Identification
5.1.1 The Technical Person
5.1.2 The Manager
5.1.3 The General Reader
5.1.4 Accommodating the Multiple Audience
5.1.5 Identification of Purpose
5.3 Three-stage Process of Technical Writing
5.3.1 Pre-writing
5.3.2 Drafting
5.3.3 Revising
5.4 Technical Writing Style
5.4.1 Choosing the Right Word and Phase
5.4.2 Sentence Structure and Length
5.4.3 Using Headings and Lists
5.4.4 Paragraph Structure and Length
5.4.5 Maintaining Coherence within and between Paragraphs
5.5 Summary
5.6 Answers to SAQs

5.1 INTRODUCTION
Technical writing can be defined as writing about a technical subject, intended to
convey specific information to a specific audience for a specific purpose.

The working world depends on written communication. Virtually every action

taken in a modern organization is documented in writing.

The average company has dozens of different forms to be filled out for routine
activities. For example

 Expenditures over a specified amount require a brief report showing that the
purchase is necessary and that the supplier from whom the purchase is sought
to be made is offering a better deal than the competition.

 When a major project is being contemplated within an organisation, a

proposal must be written to persuade management that the project would not
only be feasible but also in the interest of the organisation.

 Once the project is approved and underway, progress reports must be

submitted.

In addition to all this in-house writing, every organisation must communicate with
other organizations and the public. The letter is the basic type of format for this
purpose. Inquiry letters, sales letters, goodwill letters, and claim and adjustment
letters are just some types of daily correspondence. If a company performs
contract work for other companies, then proposals and reports are again called for.

The world of business is a world of communication. If you can communicate well

you are valuable to your organisation; if you cannot you are much less valuable.
Scientists and engineers may be technically brilliant and creative, but unless they
can convince coworkers and supervisors of their worth, their technical skills will
be unnoticed, unappreciated and unused. If technical people cannot communicate
to others what they are doing and why it is important, it is they and their technical
skills that will be superfluous.
Objectives

After studying this unit you will be able to :

 appreciate the importance of audience analysis and purpose identification,

 acknowledge the purpose of writing,

 comprehensive the three-stage process of writing, and

 write in technical style.

5.2 AUDENCE ANALYSIS AND PUWOSE IDENTIFICATION
The content and form of any technical document are determined by the situation
that call for that document i.e, by the audience and the purpose. Understanding the
writing situation helps you to devise a strategy to meet your readers' needs and
your own.

Once you have established the two basic elements of your writing situation you
must analyze each before deciding upon the content that your document should
include and form that it should take. Following the four-step procedure will help
you to analyze your audience effectively.

 Identify the uses the communication will have and the routes it will travel.

 Identify all of the possible audience, current or future, for a given

communication.

 Identify the concerns, goals, values, needs of the audience.

 Identify those arguments and approaches that will be most effective with the
audience and try to anticipate any objections that might be raised.

As the above procedures suggests virtually every writing situation is unique.

However, we may identify three types of audience :

1) The technical person,

2) The manager, and

3) The general reader.

5.2.1 The Technical Person

The term technical person is used to cover a fairly broad range of readers from the
expert who carries out original research and writes articles for technical journals
to the technician who operates equipment. In the middle of this range is the
technically trained professional - the engineer, the biologist, the accountant - who
analyzes and solves problems as they arise.

When you write for a technical person, keep in mind his or her needs. The expert
feels quite at home with technical vocabulary and formulae. You can get to the
details of the subject right away without providing the background. The middle
level technical person such as the engineer might need a brief orientation to the
subject, unlike the expert; the engineer is always familiar with the theoretical
background. The technician however needs schematic diagrams, part lists and
step-by-step instructions to apply to a concrete task.
5.2.2 The Manager

The manager is harder to define than the technical person for the word 'manager'
describes what a person does more than what a person knows. A manager makes
sure that the organisation operates smoothly and efficiently.

Although it is difficult to generalize about the average manager's background, it is

easy to identify his needs. Managers are mainly interested in getting the job done.
When you write to a manager, try to determine his or her technical background
and then choose an appropriate vocabulary. You will in all cases need to focus on
the information the manager will need to carry out his or her job. For example, an
engineer who is describing to the sales manager a new product-line that the
research and development department has created will want to provide some
theoretical background on the product so that the sales representatives can
communicate effectively with potential clients. For the most part however the
description will comment on the products capabilities and its advantages over
competitors.

5.2.3 The General Reader

Occasionally you will have to address the general reader, sometimes called the
layperson. Here you need to avoid technical language and concepts and translate.
The layperson reads out of curiosity or self-interest, so use simple vocabulary and
examples.

5.2.3 Accommodating the Multiple Audience

Half a decade ago, the need to address a multiple audience placed no heavy
demands on the writer, because most managers were technical people, but this is
not the case anymore. Moreover, because of the photocopier more people see
written communication. If you think you might have a multiple audience, structure
the document accordingly. For memos and reports include a preliminary section
addressed to the manager and a detailed section addressed to the technical reader.

5.2.4 Identification of Purpose

Once you have analyzed your audience-re-examine your general purpose in

writing. Ask yourself, what do I want this document to accomplish? Think of your
writing not as an attempt to say something but as a way to help others to
understand it or act on it.

To come to a clearer definition of your purpose, think in terms of verbs. 'Try to

isolate verbs that represent what you are trying to do and keep them in mind.

Communicating Verbs Convincing Verbs

to explain to assess

to inform to request

to illustrate to propose

to review to recommend

to outline to forecast
 to authorize

to describe
The verbs can be used in clarifying the purpose of the document. e.g., "This report
"reviews the progress in the first six months of the heal-dissipation study."

5.4 THREE-STAGE PROCESS OF TECHNICAL WRITING

Many technical persons dislike writing and try to get over it as quickly as possible.
The writing process described here will make writing easier because it breaks it
down into smaller more manageable tasks.

5.4.1 Prewriting

This involves the following steps:

 Anaiyzing audience and purpose identification (has already been discussed in

the previous section).

 Brainstorming is a way of generating ideas. The process is to spend 15 - 20

minutes listing ideas about your subject as they come into your mind. You do
not need to write full sentences, or impose any order on your thinking.

 Outlining involves refining this brainstorming list into a clear and organised
plan. Creating an outline involves three main tasks.

i. Placing similar items together in a group.

ii. Sequencing items in the groups.

iii. Sequencing the groups.

You as a writer must constantly choose a pattern of development to use in

developing your ideas. 'The analysis of your audience and your purpose is your
best guide. There is no single approach to developing ideas. However, there are
some standard patterns that usually work well in particular situations.

The following five patterns of development can be used effectively in technical

writing :

1) Chronological Pattern: This works well when you want to describe a

process, give instructions on how to perform a task, or explain how
something happens.

2) Spatial Pattern: In this pattern, items are organized according to their

physical relationship to one another. The spatial pattern is useful in
structuring a description of a physical object.

3) General-to-Specific Pattern: This arrangement is common in sales

literature and reports intended for a multiple audience.

4) More Important-to-Less Important Pattern: This pattern is effective

even in describing events or processes that would seem to call for a
chronological pattern. For example suppose you were ready to write report
to a client after having performed an eight-step maintenance procedure on a
piece of electronic equipment. A chronological pattern - focusing on what
 you did - would answer the following question: What did I do, and what did
I find? A more important-to-less important pattern- focusing first on the
problem areas and then on the no-problem areas - would answer the
following question: What were the most important findings of the procedure?
Most readers would probably be more interested first, in knowing what you
found than in how you found it.

5) Problem-Methods-Solution Pattern: 'This is a basic pattern for outlining a

complete project. Begin with the problem, discuss the methods you
followed, and then finish with the result, conclusions, and recommendations.
This is appropriate for reports after the work has been completed.

Here is an example of a topic outline in the problems-methods-solution outline. It

was written by an engineer who had been asked by his supervisor to determine the
best way to improve the efficiency of the temperature controls used in the space
heaters manufactured by them. After explaining the reasons for wanting to
improve the efficiency, he described the technology the company was using. Next
he described the research on different methods of controlling temperature,
concluding with the method he recommended.

I. The Need for Grenter Efficiency in Our Heaters

1) Financial Aspects

2) Ethical Aspects

II. The Current Method of Temperature Control

The Thermostat

1) Principle of Operation

2) Advantages

3) Disadvantages

III. Alternative Methods of Temperature Control

A. Rheostat

1) Principles of Operation

2) Advantages

3) Disadvantages

B. Zero-Voltage Control

1) Principles of Operation

2) Advantages

3) Disadvantages

IV. Recommendation: Zero-Voltage Control

 Projected Developments in Semiconductor Technology

Availability of Components

Preliminary Design of Zero-Voltage Control System

Schedule Test-Analysis

References

If the same outline were written in another format, i.e. sentence outline, this is
bow the heading IIIA would appear:

Temperature could be controlled by a rheostat.

1. A rheostat operates according to the principle of variable

resistance; adjustments to the rheostat would allow more or less
current to flow in the heater by decreasing or increasing the
amount of current in the line.

2. The principal advantages of rheostats are that they are simple and
reliable.

3. The principal disadvantage of the rheostats is their size: a rheostat

capable of controlling current in our 1,500 watt heater would have
to be as big as the heater itself.

A popular variation of the traditional notation system for signifying varying levels
of headings is the decimal style:
5.0
5.1
5.1.1
5.1.2
5.2
6.0 etc.

5.4.2 Drafting

A rough draft is a preliminary version of the final document. Some rough drafts
are rougher than others. Many writers devise their own techniques for drafting, but
the key is to write quickly leaving the revision to the next step. Your goal is to get
beyond the "writers block" that can set in when you look down at a blank piece of
paper. Write something it will be easy to revise later.

5.4.3 Revising

Some writers can simply read their drafts and instantly recognize all the problems
in them, others devise comprehensive checklists so they will not forget to ask
themselves important questions.
It would be useful, if you do not revise your draft right after you have finished
writing it, This will give you time to "forget" the draft and approach it as your
readers will,

You can attempt revising in two stages.

In the first stage concentrate on the largest issues, content and organization.
Recreate your outline by writing a91 your headings in a list. Perhaps in writing the
draft you omitted a heading from your original outline. In the haste of drafting you
might have added material that now looks irrelevant. If so, mark it. You might
want to move it or omit it altogether. Look at the headings to set: that the
sequence is clear arid logical : remember that you are trying to meet yours
audiences needs. If you now think that a different organizational pattern will work
better, make the changes. Looking at your headings will also give you a sense of
the emphasis you have given to the different topics in the documents. If a minor
topic seems to be treated at Great length, check the draft itself. Reread your draft
also for accuracy, Have you provided all the necessary data? Are the data correct?
Check them against your notes.

ii) In the second stage, once you are satisfied that you have included the right
information in the right order, revise for style.

a) Have you used the appropriate: level of vocabulary for your audience?

b) Have you used a consistent terminology throughout and provided a lossary

- a list of definitions - if any of your readers will need it?

c) Have you varied your sentences appropriately

a. Are the sentences grammatically correct?

b. Are there awkward constructions?
c. Are the words spelt correctly?

Once you have revised your haft, give it to someone else to read. This will provide
a more objective assessment of your writing. Choose a person who comes close to
the profile of your eventual readers.

5.5 TECHNICAL WRITING STYLE

The word style as it is used here, encompasses word choice, sentence construction
and paragraph structure. Technical writing, like any other kind of writing, requires
conscious decisions - about which words and phrases to use, what kinds of
sentences to create and how to turn these sentences into clear and coherent
paragraphs.

Technical writing is meant to get the job done. The six basic characteristics of

Technical writing that you need to bear in mind are:

1) Clarity: The written document must convey a single meaning that the
reader can understand easily

2) Accuracy: The facts must be recorded carefully, objectively and without

bias.
 3) Comprehensiveness: The document must provide all the information the
readers will need.

4) Accessibility: The readers should be able to locate the information they

need easily

5) Conciseness: The document must be long enough to be clear but not a

word longer.

6) Correctness: Good technical writing observes the conventions of grammar,

punctuation, and usage, as well as any appropriate format standards.

5.5.1 Choosing the Right Word and Phrase

There are certain areas in which conscious choices need to be made :

i. Active and Passive Voice

ii. Person (of the Personal Pronoun)

There are two voices-active and passive. In the active voice; the subject of the
sentence performs the action expressed by the verbs e.g., Many physicists support
the big bang theory.

In the Passive voice, the subject receives the action e,g., The big-bang theory is
supported by many physicists.

In most cases, the active voice is preferable to the passive voice. Active verbs
make writing livelier and more personal. The active-voice sentence more clearly
emphasizes the actor. It is shorter, because it does not require the to be verb and
the past-particle as the passive voice sentence does. In the example above for
instance, the verb is support rather than "is supported" and "by" is unnecessary.

The passive voice, however, is more appropriate in some cases:

The 'doer' is clear from the context :

e.g. Students rue required to take both the courses.

The context makes it clear that the college requires that students take boll1 the
courses.

The doer is unknown :

The team for the World Cup has been announced;

The doer is unimportant :

The documents were hand-delivered this morning

To make something less hostile :

This bill has not been paid

is softer than

You have not paid the bill

In some cases reference to the doer is embarrassing, dangerous or in some other
way inappropriate.

The best approach to the active-passive problem is to recognize how the two
voices differ and use them appropriately.

Personal Pronouns

Organizations that prefer the active voice generally encourage the use of the first
person pronouns. It is current practice to let tile readers know there is a person
behind the print. Besides being friendlier, 'I’, 'You', and 'me' are also easier to
understand.

You should try to talk to the reader.

For instructions the most popular version is the second person in the imperative:

"Begin by locating the ON/OFF switch"

In the imperative style "you" is implied. Regardless of the preferred style,

however, be consistent in your use of the personal pronoun.

Choosing ale right words and phrases is of course very important. Here are seven
basic guidelines for choosing the right word.

 Be specific: Use precise words, providing adequate detail and avoiding

ambiguity.

 Avoid unnecessary jargon: Unnecessary jargon distances the readers

and makes them feel inadequate. If you are addressing a technically
knowledgeable audience, use appropriate jargon. It may be useful to add
a glossary (list of definitions if the document may be read by non-
technical persons).

 Avoid wordy phrases: Wordy phrases weaken technical writing by

making it unnecessarily long. Here is a list of some of the most
commonly used wordy phrases and their concise equivalents.

Wordy Phrase Concise Phrase

A majority of most

A number of some, many

At an early date soon

At the conclusion of after-following

At the present time now

At this point of time now

Based on the fact that because

Despite the fact that although

 Due to the fact that because

During the course of during

During the time that during, while.

Have the capability to can

In connection with about, concerning

In order to to

In regard to about, regarding

In the event that if

In view of the fact that because

It is often the case that often

It is our opinion that we think that

It is our understanding that we understand that

It is our recommendation that we recommend that,

Make reference to refer to

Of the opinion that think that

On a daily basis daily

On the grounds that because

Prior to before

Relative to regarding, about

So as to to

Subsequent to after

Take into consideration consider

Until such time as until

 Avoid cliches and pompous words :

For example:

The purchase of a computer will enhance our record maintenance capabilities.

Can simply be written as

Buying s computer will help us maintain our records.

Here is a list of some of the most commonly used fancy words and their plain
equivalents:
 Fancy Words Plain Words

Advise tell

Ascertain learn, find out

Attempt Try

Commence start, begin

Demonstrate show

Employ Use

Endeavour (verb) Try

Eventuate (verb) happen

Evidence (verb) Show

Finalize end, settle, agree

Furnish provide, give

Impact (verb) affect

Initiate begin

Manifest (verb) show

Parameters variables, conditions

Perform do

Prioritize rank

Procure get, buy

Quantify measure

Terminate end, stop

Utilize use

Avoid nominalisation:

e.g., we had a discussion about the matter

May be written as

We discussed the matter

An investigation of all possible alternatives was undertaken

May be written as

All possible alternatives were investigated

5.5.2 Sentence Structure and Length

The most commonly used sentence type in technical writing is the simple sentence
because it is direct and clear. However, a series of simple sentences can bore and
distract the reader, It would be useful to provide a variety of sentence types.
Compound and complex sentences may be used to communicate more complex
ideas. Similarly, using sentences of different lengths helps to make the writing
more interesting. In general 15-20 words in a sentence are effective for technical
writing. A succession of 10 word sentences would be too abrupt and choppy; a
series of 35 word sentences may be difficult to comprehend.

The best approach to determining an effective sentence length is to consider the

audience and the purpose.

 Audience : The more readers how about the subject, the more easily they will
be able to handle longer sentences.

 Purpose : If you are writing a set of instructions or some other kind of

information that your reader will be, working from directly, short sentences
are more effective. In addition, short sentences emphasize a particularly
important point.

5.5.3 Using Headings and Lists

Headings and lists though not unique to technical writing, are a major stylistic
feature, of reports, memos, and letters. For the reader, headings clarify
relationships in a document. To signify the different hierarchical levels in
headings in typewritten manuscript capitalization, underlining and indentation
may be used.

Like headings, lists help to the writer to manipulate the placement of the words on
the page to improve the effectiveness of the communication. Many sentences in
technical writing are Jong and complicated e.g.,

We recommend that more work on heat - exchanger performance he done with a

larger variety of different fuels at the same temperatures, with special finds such
as diesel fuel and shale-oil-derived fuels.

This sentence is easier to follow when revised as a list of bulletted items:

We recommend that more work on heat-exchanger performance be done with:

 A large variety of different fuels at same temperature,

 Similar fuels at different temperatures, and

 Special fuels such as diesel fuels and shale-oil-derived fuels.

In the latter version, of the placement on the words on the page reinforces the
meaning. Reports, memos and letters do not have to look ‘formal’ with sentences
and paragraphs covering the whole page. Heading and lists make writing easier to
read and understand.

5.5.3.1 Paragraph Structure and Length

The paragraph is the key unit of a composition. As you put paragraph together
focus on your readers needs. Put the point - the topic sentence - up front.
Technical writing should be clear and easy to read, not full of suspense. If a
paragraph describes a test you performed on a piece of equipment, include the
result in your first sentence -

The point to point continuity test on Cabinet 3 revealed no problems - Then go on

to explain the details.

The topic sentence in technical writing summarizes or' forecasts the main points
of the paragraphs. After the topic sentence, comes the support. The purpose of the
support is to make the topic sentence clear and convincing. Because every
paragraph is unique, it is impossible to define the exact function of the support. In
general, however, the support fulfills one of the following roles:

 To define a key term or idea included in the topic sentence.

 To provide examples or illustrations of the situation described in the topic

sentence.

 To identify the factors that led to the situation.

 To define the implications of the situation.

 To defend the assertion made in the topic sentence.

A length of 75 to 125 words will provide enough space for a topic sentence and
four or five supporting sentences. Long paragraphs require concentration for
longer periods and are more difficult to read.

The actual length of the paragraphs you write would depend on your analysis of
the audience and the purpose or writing. You need to write just 2 or 3 sentences
in a paragraph written to describe a graphic aid. On the other hand a complex idea
that requires 200 or 300 words should not be squeezed into one paragraph.

5.5.4 Maintaining Coherence within and between Paragraphs

In a coherent paragraph the ideas are linked together 1ogically and clearly. You
should express parallel ideas in parallel grammatical construction making the
writing coherent by adding transitional phrases and words, repeating key words,
and using demonstratives. Transitional words and phrases help your reader to
understand your writing by pointing out the direction the thoughts are following.
Here is a list of some common logical relationships between two thoughts and
some of the common transitions that express those relationships:

Addition

Also, and, finally first (second etc.) furthermore, in addition, likewise, moreover,
similarly

Comparison

In the same way, likewise, similarly

Contrast
Although, but, however, in contrast, nevertheless, on the other hand, yet

Illustration

For example, for instance, in other words, to illustrate

Cause- effect

As a result, because, consequently, hence, so, therefore, thus

Time or space

Above, mound, earlier, later, next, to the requisite, (left, next etc.) soon, there

Summary or conclusion

At last, finally, in conclusion, to summarize

Here are some sentences in which some of the above transitional words/phrases
are used:

1) So far, we have dealt with space in two-dimensional horizontal plane;

mainly to understand the footprint of activity in plan. However, space is
a three dimensional entity.

2) Therefore, in actual sense all the responsibility rests with the architect
and engineer.

3) In cold climate, orientation of building for admitting sun's radiation is

needed while it is not desirable in hot regions. Similarly winds can be
desirable or undesirable.

4) In a house, for example, living room, bedroom, kitchen etc. may be

termed as primary spaces.

SAQ 1

Underline the passive verbs in these sentences and replace all of them with actives,
while preserving the meaning.

1) The fact that the bridging of the gap presented engineering design
problems was not appreciated by anyone at Reliance.

2) The passport was sent to you at the address on your application form but
it was returned by the post office as undelivered mail.

SAQ 2

In the following sentences unnecessary nominalization has obscured the real verb.
Revise the sentences to focus on the real verb.

i. Pollution constitutes a threat to the Bharatpur Bird Sanctuary.

ii. The switch from the current system to the microfilm can be accomplished
in about two weeks.
SAQ 3

Rewrite and improve these wordy sentences. Make any changes you think
necessary but don’t change the meaning.

i. The rental is payable in respect of each and every quarter.

ii. Several directors meetings took place before they could reach a general
consensus of opinion.

SAQ 4

The following sentences might be too long for some readers. Break each one into
two or more sentences. If appropriate add transitional words and phrases or other
coherence devices.

i. In the event that we get the contract, we must be ready by June with the
necessary personnel and equipment to get the job done. So with this end in
mind a staff meeting, which all group managers are expected to attend, is
scheduled for February 12.

ii. Once we get the result of the stress tests on the 125-2 fiberglass mix, we
will have a better idea where we stand in terms of our time constraints
because if it is not suitable we will really have to hurry to find and test a
replacement by the Phase 1 deadline.

5.6 SUMMARY
It is very important for technical people to be able to communicate effectively.

The content and form of a technical document are determined by the situation that
calls for that document viz: The audience and the purpose.

The three-stage writing process make writing easier because it breaks it down into
smaller more manageable tasks. The stages are Pre-writing, Drafting, and
Revising.

Technical Writing style involves proper word choice, sentence construction and
paragraph structure.

5.7 ANSWERS TO SAOs

SAQ 1

i. No one at Reliance appreciated the fact that the bridging of the gap
presented design problems.

ii. The post-office returned the passport, which we had sent at the address
on you application form as undeliverable mail.

SAQ 2

i. The Bharatpur Bird Sanctuary is threatened by pollution.

ii. We can switch from our current system to the microfilm in about two
weeks.
SAQ 3

i. The rental is payable for each quarter.

ii. The directors met several times before they could reach a consensus.

SAQ 4

i. In the event that we get the contract, we must be ready by June 1 with
the necessary personnel and equipment. Accordingly, a meeting of all
group managers is scheduled for February 12.

ii. We get the results of the stress tests on the 125