1-Theory and methods

Definitions
Pilots study : a small-scale test of a piece of research project
before the main research.
Sampling frame :a list of members of the population. From
which the sample is chosen.
Quantitative data: information in a numerical form.
Validity: Refers to whether the findings accurately reflect the
reality they are describing.
Reliability: Refers to whether the findings can be checked by
another researcher.

Primary data information collected by this sociologist first-hand.

Secondary data Collected earlier by others and used later by
Sociologists.

Sampling methods

Stratified: Dividing groups into sub-categories (ethnicity, age, sex etc.) and selecting one of
each type. This sampling method is good as it shows a representative point of view from
different groups in society, however this method is time consuming.

Quota: The researcher picks participants based on particular instructions (e.g find 20
Nigerian players in the English Premiership) This is good as it is quick and easy, however
bias can occur and not everyone has a fair chance of being selected.

Random: Choosing any person with no set system. A situation where everyone has equal
chance of being selected.

Snowball: Respondents with desirable traits give names of further appropriate people. This
is good as it is useful for contact with certain hard to reach groups (gangs) however it is very
time consuming so only small samples are used.
For views on society, the 3 main views are feminist, marxist
and functionalist. these all have different opinions on society,
feminists and marxists both have conflict theories on society,
while Functionalists have a value consensus theory on society.
Functionalists believe that all institutions in society socialize us
working to instill shared values in people. For example, schools’
hidden curriculum values like punctuality and hard work. Also
societies share a common set of values. Same things like
honesty and kindness are seen as good. laws also enforces
norms. Lastly, due to globalization, people are becoming more
and more alike and share the same values. On the other hand
marxists and feminists disapprove of this as they have a conflict
view of society. Other things against value consensus are
subcultures and that values differ by time, and each society is
different in values. And people break laws, so they definitely do
not agree with them. And even the primary socialization by
families also differs. Marxist see a division between social
classes. While feminists see a division between the sexes
viewing society as patriarchal and that socialization of kids is
gendered to maintain men in power. For example, family roles
are stereotypical, based on gender. And there is a glass ceiling,
in workplaces. And there is an unfair domestic division of labor
evident in the triple Burden or the double burden, and there is
also objectification and women in the media seeing them as
sex objects and women often have lower salaries than their
husbands as they are not the breadwinners most often, and
they are the Caregivers and will always be financially
Dependent But they are both conflict theories and both see a
division on society. And they are based on inequality and
marxist feminist exist. S, and they both believe in the hidden
choreography. And they both are Macro approaches. And they
both see things like schools as ideological state apparatus.
Functionalists like talcott parsons always focus on what keeps
society stable and allows it to continue. They believe in the
organic or biological analogy. Which states that society is like a
living organism with different body parts. Functionalists also
Believe in meritocracy. where the harder you work, the greater
you gain. Which is disapproved by both marxists and feminists.
Marxism based on the sociologist Carl marks referred to the
division between the 2 social classes, the board UI Z owners of
wealth, and proliterary the working class where the bourgeoisie
has power and wealth to exploit the weight space for them to
survive. Marxists believe that school ensures. Some students
fail to make them feel like itid1878 s their own fault and accept
lower positions in society. This is
expensive. The probation and the lack of respect from
teachers and negative labelling, and in addition, burnistines
language barrier theory, where the middle class teacher uses a
form of speech that's more advanced that is harder for working
class students to understand the owas attention from what's
really going on in society and keep. Them busy with celebrities,
sports and travel issues. While the burguazi keep on exploiting
us, they also believe Radical changes are need in order to end
exploitation.

Approaches a positivism approach, which approaches

sociology in a scientific manner like natural scientific manner in
a different kind of natural scientists, proving theories or
hypothes is on a large-scale, research with quantitative data
and reliable methods that can be repeated. August comfy and
a mild dork time noticed the ability of natural scientists to study
the natural world of research that kind of research is objective.
Meaning there it is, unbiased bias is prejudice or stereotype.
That the sword's truth when research is influenced by the
values of the researcher, for example, the researcher might not
know down information that doesn't support their hypothesis, or
maybe they view something differently because of their own
prejudice and opinions some criticise. This method saying it's
very hard to avoid biassing research. Even scientists cannot
reach complete objectivity because Sociology is based on
human behavior which is unique and will interfere with
emotions

Interpretavists are the one that argue that there is a different

between soldiers and natural science. Because humans are
active, unconscious and make choices, and those choices can
also change, so they attack positives positively. Smith at
saying that they are not suitable for sociology, but in terms of
as tickets more important to understand why people behave as
they do then describe the social world, they prefer to use
unstructured interviews and observation rather than
experiments in surveys. For example, positives may be able to
count the number of people who met a certain type of crime.
However, entrepreneurs would prefer to know the cause behind
those crimes.

One former mirror research, a pilot study, which is a small-

scale test of a re views to see if there are any problems with
their research and whether it needs to be improved. This allows
the researchers to catch problems earlier. Stage in order to
save money, time, and effort later. Now we have sampling
methods. Sampling methods often use a sampling frame as a
list of everyone in the population. This can be a game from
electoral roles, telephone directories or school lead registers.
This is representative because itid1878 s very large-scale to
ensure generalizability a stratified sample might beauty where a
stratified sample divides the population into groups based on
specific characteristics. Like age Gand there are always might
not be representative systematic samples, for example, when
every end. Name or ant household is chosen quota sample,
the researcher divides the size of advanced how many people
will devote carefully if they stick to involving the research.
Lastly, snowball simpling is when you know someone from the
group, for example, again to get you in contact with the others.
This is especially helpful when there is no sampling frame.
There are 4 main ethical issues and ethical issues that have a
moral dimension, such as when or where distress may be
caused to the purpose of the participants. This includes the
consent of the participant, the privacy, and the deception of the
participant. An example of unethical experiments is the little
albert and the Milgram experiment, in the milgram experiment
obedience was measured by the level of shock that the
participant was willing to deliver. While many of the subjects
became extremely agitated, distraught, and angry at the
experimenter, they nevertheless continued to follow orders all
the way to the end. No consent, emotional harm.

Methods Sociological research methods include

questionnaires, interviews, observation, content analysis, and
triangulation. First off we have questionnaires. questionnaires
can either be closed ended, open-ended or scaled. They can
come in the form of postal questionnaires or direct
questionnaires. Then we have interviews. Interviews can be
structured, semi structured or unstructured. Structured
interviews have a preset number of questions, while
unstructured interviews just openly ask questions suitable to
the interviewee being asked. Then we have content analysis
where content from the media or historical documents or
statistics or anything similar is analysed analysed. Lastly,
triangulation, which is probably the best method as more than
one method is used. So limitations of methods are overcome
by supporting them with more data.

Questionnaires
Large scale and representative as a large number of qs can be
distributed
No hawthorns effect as researcher not present
Consent and privacy (anonymity) maintained
Cheaper Than structured interviews as it can be distributed by
post
more convenient to participants because they can fill the
questionnaire whenever they want
Quantitative data produced and reliable for set qs

Low response speed compared to structured interviews,

questions can be misunderstood as the researcher is not
available to clarify them so wrong, or false answers may be
provided or even neglected by the participant.
The researcher cannot be sure who answered the questions

Quan vs qual prim vs sec

With structured interviews, the interviewer can explain

questions that are not understood by the participant. S, in
addition, the interviewer can ask more in self completion.
Questionnaires and reports can be built with the participants to
gain the participants trust and get more valid answers.

But the sociologist draper stated that the Halo fact might take
place where the respondents may try to give answers to help
their researcher support his hypothesis providing dishonest
answers
prestige bias that make the respondent give socially
acceptable answers.
Another factor is the research or hawthorne effect due to the
presence of researcher. A female might be embarrassed to talk
about questions about female is because the interviewers
there.
Qualitative interviews
The validity of the data is increased because the focus here is
on issues that are important to the respondent as no specific
questions are preferred so there is a less risk of their research.
I decided what will be discussed. Secondly. Giving the freedom
to the respondent to answer. The way they wish gives them a
feeling of control in the interview. Due to the limited input of the
researcher that I reflect The interests of the respondent, in
addition, the respondent establishes strong report with The
respondents this allows sensitive topics to discuss in Depth

On the other hand the responses may be affected. The

interviewer might ask leading questions or react certain way for
certain answers. Also dismissed the requires certain skills to
ask the right questions and build a stronger relationship And
thinking of the right questions quickly.
According to sociologist Oati this can lead to confusion due to
the lack of understanding of the questions or lack of
understanding of the respondents answers as they are also
more time consuming than questionnaires. Not only does it take
time for the Interview it also Take time to analyse all the data. It
is also unreliable as there is no standardised set of questions
that can be repeated later on lastly The researcher must avoid
influencing.

Experiments experiment Can either be field experiments or lab

experiments. Field experiments are done in a natural setting
and can be larger scale. Because you cannot bring this Many
people to allow, for example, if we're in a school.
In addition, because it is done in natural setting, the researcher
can see the real life interactions Increasing validity
A lot of detail is collected and Behaviour is seen independent
as the researcher can see how people behave around. Need to
other an interact. However, there are lots of ethical issues,
especially if the researchers convert. In a field setting, not all
variables are controlled, so the reliability is lowered compared
to lab experiments.

Case study
Case studies focus on a single group or single person over
time.
Providing a great depth and detail of information, this leads to
greater validity than simple quantitative studies.
Also, it helps discover meanings people give to everyday
behaviour and explain them.
Lastly, verstehen is built as we can see how people live their
life and see the it through their own words.

Case studies are very time consuming, and they are also very
difficult to generalise because they focus on small groups that
are may only be representative for themselves.

Longitudinal studies a study that takes place in a total over a

long. Of time
Longitudinal studies are like a film that shows how people zives
changed Uber time instead of a snapshot. Like other types of
service, it can also help us find the fact that led to the changes
in people's lives or so. Cial behaviour in addition, respondents
are highly committed to the survey, so they are more likely to
provide honest valid information.
However, there is a high drop rate, and it requires a high
commitment from now. In addition, holder in effect might take
place affecting the participants behaviour.

Observation
Comes often in past papers
With participant observation, the researcher tries to put
themselves in the same position as the group that they are
studying. This may be done covertly with a hidden identity or
overkill with the intention and identity of the research given to
the group.
Covered participant observation helps avoid the whole dorm
observer effect, so the behaviour of the subject is not affected
by the presence of the observer Increasing validity and the
researcher gains close meanings of the motivation and
relationships within the group so that it can explain why those
people behave in this certain weigh being a member of the
group and the researcher. At the same time, can help him
make sense of the behaviour even on situations where the
group members may not put it understand their reasons for
their own behaviour. And some Situations require a covert
participant observation. As the researcher would otherwise be
denied to be in their research. For example, in gangs.
The researcher might otherwise be harmed, too.

However, getting into some groups may be hard and staying. It

would be even harder because the researcher would have to
get involved in everything. And he may not have access to all
places. Another limitation is getting out itid1878 s hard for the
researchers to stop participating with the group. So someone in
a game may not be ethical. Questions are also raised as this
deceives the people. With convert, it's harder
to take notes or ask too many questions or record
conversations. Compared to a Overt l observation. , the
research cannot be Repeated affecting reliability.

One participant observation takes place when the researcher

observes a group, but does not actively participate in what it is
doing if the people know their researchers there or watching
them Their behaviour will be affected, but if they don't distress.
Ethicallows sociologists to observe people in the northern
behaviour, avoiding government effect. But there is no
explanation for people's behaviour and it will totally depend on
the researchers interpretations even though he's not involved.
So this affects the reliability and validity of the data.

Content analysis includes studying media and communication

by classifying the content, and the mass media and counting
frequencies or analysing them, the strengths include providing
information about content of the media and quantitative
statistical form. This can help in testing sociological theories, for
example, the lack of female representation in media or more.
Secondly, it is redouble as it can be repeated over time. Lastly,
it does not involve people, so no ethical issues.
However, quantitative information does not tell us enough
about media effect on the audience or the reasoning behind it.
Triangulation is the use of 2 or more research methods where
the weakness of one method, such as a quantitative interview,
can be offset by the strength of another, such as qualitative
participant observation to improve overall research, reliability
and validity, check accuracy of data, and
provide balance between methods if 1 is weaker than the other,
however it. Is time it consuming expensive and requires kids
from the researcher and difficult to combine one? Positives
and interpretations have different ideas. Itid1878 s also
compared to it's hard to compare different forms of data. Maybe
the researcher will receive 2 opposing views and results. And
it's hard to tell which one is the correct or true 1?
Officials statistics are already available, and usually free of
charge. They are produced by well planned and organised
research using large samples, so they are high. Invalidity and
reliability and can be representative. Therefore canges over
time or trends, so comparisons can be made. Between groups,
for example.
However, interpretations are against such statistics because
they are not objective enough or are socially constructed. For
example Statistics showing an increase in crime might only
mean that more crimes are being recorded. Statistics are
produced by others and may not contain exactly what a
sociologist is looking for. Officials statistics are funded by the
government. So politics might have interfered. For example, the
dark figure of crime where most crimes are not recorded, so the
country looks better and tourism does not decline.
Comparisons over time, maybe we'd only if the same
phenomenon has been measured in the same way for every
stage. Morris is believed that statistics favour the ruling class
only recording crimes for the working class, which is called the
white collar.

Historical documents can be the only source of information

available to give data about past events. They are also
readily available. So their researcher will not have to do any
further research. Historical documents can provide qualitative
data with lots of details. Gordon Taylor life hiding from the nazis
and Amsterdam during World War 2. This provided valuable
details on the daily lives of people at that time.
Unrepresentative, hard to find, may be false.