MEDIA (CONTENT)

9.1 Traditional media and the new media

• Trends affecting the organisation of the media, including cross-media ownership,
digitalisation, media conglomerates and social media.
• Debates about who controls the media.
• Differences between the traditional media and the new media.
• The debate about whether the traditional media has been undermined by the growth of the
new media.

9.2 Theories of the media and influences on media content

• Pluralist theories of the media.
• Marxist and neo-Marxist theories of the media.
• Factors that influence the selection and presentation of news.
• The concepts of mass manipulation and hegemony as different ways of understanding the
production of media content.
• The postmodernist contribution to understanding the media.
• Censorship as a factor influencing media content.
• How the media may influence the political process, including agenda setting, opinion polls,
and news reporting.

9.3 The impact of the new media

• How the new media is contributing to globalisation.
• The new media as a challenge to existing power structures.
• The debate about digital optimism versus digital pessimism.
• The impact of the new media on social identities and interpersonal relationships.

10.1 Media representations of class, gender, ethnicity, and age groups

• How different groups are represented in the media.
• Ways that the media contributes to gender socialisation.
• Moral panics around class, gender, ethnicity and age groups.
• The relationship between the media and popular culture.

10.2 Different models of media effects

• Direct effects models of media influence, including the hypodermic syringe model.
• Indirect effects models of media influence, including the uses and gratification model, the two-
step flow model, the normative model and the cultural effects model.
• Debates about the strengths and limitations of the different models of media effects.
• Arguments and evidence about the extent to which human behaviour is influenced by the
media.

10.3 The impact of the media on behaviour

• Arguments and evidence about the extent to which violent media leads to violent behaviour.
• The impact of the media on crime, including deviance amplification and moral panics.
• Ways in which the media might have a positive impact on human behaviour.
• Ways in which people may be affected by media sensationalism and stereotyping.
9.1 The traditional and the new media

Trends affecting the organisation of the media.

The distinction between 'old' and 'new' media can be understood through their characteristics
and modes of communication.

Definition of Media: A medium serves as a channel of communication, enabling the sending

and receiving of information. When someone reads a newspaper, watches television, or views
a website, they are engaging with a medium, collectively referred to as media. Traditionally,
media is seen as 'one-to-many' communication, where one sender communicates to many
receivers.

Characteristics of Old Media: According to Dutton et al. (1998), old media (newspapers,
television, radio, etc.) has several defining features:

• Impersonal: The sender does not know the audience.

• Lacking immediacy: The audience isn't involved in message production.

• One-way: Communication flows from producer to consumer.

• Physically distant: The intended message is uniform for everyone.

• Organized: Requires a vehicle (TV receiver, printed page, internet) for message
transmission.

• Large-scale & simultaneous: facilitates communication to vast audiences, like the

World Cup viewership.

• Commodified: Media often comes at a cost; audiences can be sold as commodities,

such as in advertising.

Emergence of New Media: New media incorporates computer-based technologies that allow
for various communication styles:

• One-to-one: e.g., email

• One-to-many: e.g., Facebook, Twitter, blogs

• Many-to-many: e.g., peer-to-peer networks, allowing for diverse communication uses,

from work collaboration to sharing copyrighted materials.

Ownership and Control: Ownership and control, despite the different communication
models, exhibit similarities between old and new media.

1. Concentration of Ownership: This refers to an increasing trend where a few large

corporations and powerful individuals own most media outlets. Over the last 50 years,
this trend has led to fewer owners controlling larger corporations globally, with a few
giants like Comcast, Alphabet, Time Warner, and Walt Disney dominating the market.
According to McChesney (2000), while there may appear to be options (like numerous
TV channels), the content is often homogeneous, repetitive, and low-cost.

2. Conglomeration: This process involves companies diversifying their interests across

different media sectors. An example is Fininvest, owned by Silvio Berlusconi, which
 extends into television, book, and magazine publishing. In the realm of new media,
Amazon has evolved from being a major bookseller into a significant media company,
engaging in publishing and distributing moving images.

Digitalisation: Digitalisation refers to the transformation of media from analog to digital

formats, affecting various forms of mass media. Key examples include:

• Magazines and Newspapers: Many now have online editions, with some available
exclusively on the internet.

• Music: Distribution has shifted from physical formats like vinyl and CDs to digital
downloads and online streaming.

• Television: Many countries have ceased analog broadcasting in favour of digital

broadcasting, allowing for more channels and greater viewer options.

The shift to digitalisation has fundamentally altered media consumption. Television programs,
for instance, can now be viewed 'on demand' via catch-up services or streamed at users'
convenience. The technology has also advanced; many modern televisions are internet-
enabled, allowing access to streaming services and radio, and programs can be watched on
PCs, laptops, tablets, or mobile phones.

Social media: The rise of digitalisation, the internet, and computer technologies has fostered
the development of interactive media, enabling communication and information sharing
among users. Examples of social media platforms include Facebook, Twitter, Instagram,
Snapchat, WeChat (in China), and Line (in Japan).

Social media differs from traditional media forms, as it allows for 'many-to-many'
communication rather than 'one-to-one' (like letters or phone calls) or 'one-to-many' (like
television broadcasts). Although corporations own social media platforms, they empower
users to create content and establish their own networks.

Social media manifests in various forms, including social networks, social gaming, video
sharing, blogs, and virtual worlds. Given their recent emergence and rapid evolution,
sociological research on social media is both innovative and susceptible to becoming
outdated.

Debates about who controls the media.

Types of Media Ownership:

1. Private Ownership:

o Media owned for profit by individuals, families, or shareholders.

o Example: Rupert Murdoch's News Corporation, which operates globally in

newspapers, books, films, and television.

2. State Ownership:

o Government control varies by country. For instance, in China, the government

oversees all content on state-run television and tightly regulates internet
 access. In contrast, some public broadcasters in other nations have greater
independence.

o The UK historically had privately owned newspapers but relied on the state-run
BBC for radio and TV until competition from private broadcasters emerged.

Significance of Ownership:

• Owners can dictate the information audiences receive, leading to potential censorship,
either direct (e.g., withholding critical information) or indirect (e.g., political influence on
state media).

Alternative Perspectives on Media Control:

• Some argue that media owners exert less control over content than senior media
workers, known as controllers. Pluralists, including Galbraith (1967), suggest that a
managerial elite runs media organizations rather than single owners. Often, decision-
making resides with directors and managers, especially in companies without a
dominant shareholder. Thus, consumer preference shapes media offerings; if
audiences dislike the content, companies must adapt or risk losing business.

Traditional vs. New Media:

• Globalisation has heightened competition and diversity in media, as described by

Davis and McAdam (2000). Media corporations have become interconnected globally
with flexible structures that allow them to adapt to technological advancements.

• Modern media conglomerates rarely have individual owners; they are owned by
diverse shareholders. Even platforms like Facebook, initially started by a small group,
are now widely owned.

• The advent of the internet and affordable technology has:

o Lowered media production costs.

o Opened media markets to new entrants.
o Provided access to global audiences.
Interactivity of New Media:

• New media allow for greater interactivity compared to traditional forms. While
traditional media might involve sending a letter to a newspaper, new media enable
users to create and share content widely, like posting on social media or contributing
photos to news organizations.

The Impact of New Media on Traditional Forms:

• New technologies facilitate simultaneous consumption of different media types.

Nonetheless, traditional media have adapted, finding new ways to connect with
audiences. For instance:

o Radio remains popular and has expanded due to digital broadcasting, allowing
more stations and global reach.
 o Newspapers face challenges as many people expect free online news, leading
to long-term readership declines. However, some have successfully
transitioned to digital formats, as seen with the Daily Mail, which despite print
decline, boasts significant online traffic.

Television Adaptation:

• Television continues to be a primary leisure activity, now enhanced by digital

technology that has increased available channels and services, including on-demand
options.

• Audience fragmentation has occurred, reducing communal family viewing and allowing
individual preferences to shape viewing habits, although communal events still draw
larger audiences.

Control and Information Access:

• Digital technologies limit the ability of both governments and owners to control
information. Populations now have the capacity to actively seek diverse information
online. As Weinberger (2012) suggests, for every fact online, there’s an opposing fact,
challenging traditional media’s ideological roles.

In conclusion, while ownership and control remain central to media operations, the rise of new
media and technological advances are reshaping how content is created, distributed, and
consumed, thereby affecting the influence of traditional media.

Differences Between Traditional Media and New Media

Globalization has introduced diversity and competition in media, as noted by Davis and
McAdam (2000), who describe this as a "new economic shift." Media companies now operate
across borders and have flexible structures to adapt to new technologies. Various
shareholders own most, like banks and pension funds, rather than individuals. For instance,
Facebook, originally created by Mark Zuckerberg and a small team, is now owned by many
institutional and individual investors.

Key Differences:

1. Diversity and Market Access:

o Modern media companies operate in various markets and offer many content
types, from print to digital. The internet has made media production cheaper
and allowed more people to enter the market and reach global audiences.

2. Interactivity:

o New media allows greater audience participation. Unlike traditional media,

where readers might send letters to newspapers, new media enables anyone
to create and share content easily. People can send news photos to outlets or
post opinions on platforms like Twitter.

3. Adaptation of Traditional Media:

o Traditional media have adapted to new technology. For example:

 ▪ Radio continues to thrive, with digital platforms enabling more
broadcasts.

▪ Newspapers face declining print sales but have successfully moved

online, reaching larger audiences. The British Daily Mail, for example,
is more popular online than in print.

4. Changes in Television:

o Television remains popular, but digital advancements have transformed it. Key
changes include:

▪ More channels and options for on-demand viewing.

▪ A shift in viewing habits, with fewer families watching together and more
individuals using various devices.

▪ Digital access allows diaspora communities to watch shows from their

home countries.

5. Audience Fragmentation:

o Traditional media once provided a shared experience, but with digital media,
audiences are now more fragmented. Besides communal events like the World
Cup, many people watch content alone on multiple devices.

6. Control of Information:

o The rise of new media has weakened the control that governments and media
owners have over information. As Weinberger (2012) states, audiences can
now actively seek diverse information online. This shift challenges the
traditional ideological role of the media since people have access to different
viewpoints.

9.2 Theories of the media and influences on media content

Pluralist theories of the media represent a range of views that reject Marxist interpretations.
They share common beliefs, particularly the importance of information diversity. Pluralists
argue that even when media ownership is concentrated, a variety of perspectives are still
available, especially with the rise of new media, which lowers costs for starting and distributing
media outlets. This enhances consumer choice—giving audiences more options in what to
read, watch, or listen to.

Key Ideas of Pluralism:

1. Consumer Choice:

o Pluralism emphasizes that media consumers, not producers, play a central role
in the media landscape. If producers fail to meet consumer demands, they risk
going out of business. Media owners strive to innovate and cater to audience
preferences, creating a competitive marketplace.
 2. Active Audience:

o Audiences are active participants; they choose what they enjoy and ignore what
doesn't align with their interests. New media expands this choice dramatically,
offering platforms for nearly every political and ideological viewpoint.

3. Demand-Driven Media:

o Unlike the Marxist view that audiences are passive recipients of whatever
media owners provide, pluralists assert that media owners must respond to
what consumers desire for success. This creates a scenario where both owners
and consumers benefit—owners gain profits while consumers receive
entertainment and information.

4. Diversity of Information:

o Pluralism highlights the media’s role in offering a diversity of information

sources, enabling people to access both national and global viewpoints. This
diversity allows for representation of ordinary people's interests and critiques
of powerful entities.

Criticisms of Pluralism:

Despite some valid points, pluralist theories face several criticisms:

1. Ownership and Control:

o Critics argue that pluralism exaggerates the separation between ownership and
control in media conglomerates. Murdock and Golding (1977) contend that
high-level managers in these corporations often act similarly to individual
owners, blurring the lines of control.

2. Influence of Major Shareholders:

o Major shareholders, like Rupert Murdoch's family with News Corp, still have
significant control over media content and direction.

3. Audience Reach of Old Media:

o While the internet complicates content control, traditional media often reach
larger audiences and are generally trusted more than many new media
sources, such as blogs, which have limited viewership.

4. Misconception of Diversity Through Competition:

o Pluralists claim that competition leads to media diversity, but this isn’t always
the case. Economies of scale allow a few large corporations to dominate the
market and exert significant political, ideological, and economic power globally.
Furthermore, major corporations like Apple and Amazon control what media
can be distributed; for example, Apple regulates what can be sold on iTunes,
demonstrating a significant influence over media diversity.
Marxist and Neo-Marxist Theories of the Media

Traditional Marxism posits that the media are crucial ideological institutions, wielding
significant power to shape public thought and behaviour. This determinist approach suggests
that media serve as tools for the ruling class to propagate ideologies that support capitalism.
These ideologies include:

• Support for capitalism

• Justification of social inequalities
• Defence of private property and profit
• Negative portrayals of alternatives to capitalism
According to Althusser (1971), the media functions as an ideological state apparatus (ISA),
facilitating a relationship between the political and economic elites in a way that promotes their
interests. The media creates a "false consciousness" among the working class, leading them
to accept their exploitation. For example, following the 2008 financial crisis in the UK, the
media often framed discussions around economic recovery in terms of "austerity," neglecting
alternative viewpoints. This narrative is seen as serving the interests of the ruling class by
fostering a false sense of unity about economic hardships.

Criticisms of Traditional Marxism

1. Media Critique: Critics note that the media do not always reproduce ruling-class
propaganda and can, at times, critique capitalist behaviour. However, these critical
perspectives often reach smaller audiences and are marginalized.

2. Ruling Class Unity: The notion that the ruling class has a unified interest is
challenged, especially by neo-Marxists. Different factions within the ruling class (like
financial vs. industrial capitalists) may not share the same goals.

3. Consumer Agency: Critics also argue that traditional Marxism portrays media
consumers as passive recipients. With increasing media choices, audiences can
access a variety of political and ideological viewpoints, making control by a singular
ruling class difficult.

Neo-Marxist Theories

In response to the criticisms of traditional Marxism, neo-Marxism offers a more nuanced view.
It suggests that while media influence exists, it is hegemonic rather than simply manipulative.
This means that the media promote core capitalist values but not necessarily in a coordinated
way.

1. Common Economic Interests: Owners and media controllers may share

fundamental economic beliefs but do not always agree on methods for promoting these
values. Managers often have autonomy within large media organizations, reflecting
the interests of owners while also making independent decisions.

2. Hegemony: Neo-Marxists argue that beliefs are not imposed from above but are
accepted by the working class. This consent is cultivated through ISAs, including the
media.
The Propaganda Model

Chomsky and Herman's propaganda model elaborates on these ideas, asserting that the
media play a critical role in shaping public support for the state and capitalism. The model
encompasses five filters that affect news reporting:

1. Ownership: Large media conglomerates dictate what is reported based on their

interests, censoring content that threatens these interests.

2. Advertising: The media cater to affluent audiences to attract advertisers, influencing

how news is framed.

3. Sourcing: Media rely on information from elite sources (politicians, corporations),

leading to a reluctance to challenge these sources.

4. Flak: Negative responses from business interests can shape media narratives,
managing public perception (e.g., corporate responses to climate change).

5. Ideology of Fear: The media often evoke fear of perceived threats (e.g., communism,
terrorism) to influence public opinion.

Criticisms of the Propaganda Model

Critics of the propaganda model question the notion that all media operate in concert as
described. They also point out that media sometimes expose corporate wrongdoing,
challenging the idea that they always serve elite interests.

In summary, while traditional and neo-Marxist theories highlight the media's role in promoting
capitalist ideologies and shaping public consciousness, they also face critiques regarding
consumer agency, the diversity of media perspectives, and the operational dynamics of media
organizations.

Factors that influence the selection and presentation of news

Economic, political and ideological factors can be used to explain the selection and
presentation of news.

Economic Factors

1. Resources: Larger national media companies have more resources than local outlets.
They often rely on news agencies like Reuters or the Press Association to gather
stories and reduce reporting costs.

2. Production Costs: Programming costs vary by media type. For example, rewriting
press releases (known as churnalism) is cheaper than conducting investigative
reporting. This trend has led to a decline in original stories.

3. Space Limitations: Print media has physical space constraints, making it costly to
publish more pages compared to new media platforms which have fewer limitations.

4. Advertising Influence: Privately owned media primarily rely on advertising for profit,
which can lead to self-censorship to avoid upsetting advertisers. Chomsky (1989)
 illustrated how advertisers influence content by exerting pressure to change or
withdraw articles.

Political Factors

1. Regulations: Governments set rules governing news content. For instance, China
imposes strict censorship, while democratic nations often practice covert censorship
through laws like the Official Secrets Act and libel laws.

2. Agenda-Setting: Media organizations select which news to report under legal and
political constraints, effectively setting the public agenda on important issues.

Social Construction of News

News is not merely discovered; it's socially constructed. The determination of what is
considered newsworthy relies on ideological frameworks guided by news values. These
values are absorbed by journalists during their training and help assess which stories are
important and how they should be presented.

Perspectives on News Values

• Pluralist View: News values reflect consumer choice and diversity. Different media
types cater to audience preferences, where a popular newspaper might focus on
entertainment over serious news.

• Marxist View: News values are shaped by the ideological interests of owners,
indicating that audiences are manipulated into desiring whatever the media deem
newsworthy.

Role of Editors and Gatekeeping

Editors ensure that news aligns with the agenda of media owners and that journalists
understand and adapt to the organizational values. Their decisions determine the prominence
of stories and influence public perceptions.

Framing and Interpretation

Hall (1980) argued that news is framed, meaning journalists present events in a way that
influences audience interpretation. For example, framing a civil war as a rebellion against a
legitimate government shapes how audiences perceive the actors involved.

Discourse and Social Construction

Postmodernist perspectives focus on the concept of discourse, which refers to how powerful
groups shape interpretations and meaning. Discourse creates a framework through which
audiences understand issues, reflecting the values of dominant groups.

Folk Devils and Moral Panic: Cohen (1972) identified folk devils as individuals viewed as
threats to social order, such as the poor or immigrants. These representations create a sense
of social solidarity by defining ‘others’ and are often linked to moral panics.
The concepts of mass manipulation and hegemony as different ways of understanding
the production of media content

Traditional Marxism

• Media as Ideological Tool: Traditional Marxism sees the media as a key tool used by
the ruling class to influence how people think and make decisions. Owners control
media content to manipulate public opinion in their favour.

• Promotion of Capitalist Values: The media promotes values that support capitalism,
giving a voice to those who align with the interests of owners while ignoring or
misrepresenting opposing views. This scapegoating of marginalized groups (like
immigrants and minorities) helps divert attention from the ruling class's role in social
problems, making inequality seem normal and acceptable.

Neo-Marxism

• Hegemony Concept: Neo-Marxism uses the idea of hegemony to explain the media’s
role in society. Instead of blatant manipulation, it reflects a mixture of class interests
and helps create a broad agreement on core societal values.

• Illusion of Diversity: From this perspective, the media appears to showcase various
opinions, but these often exist within a restricted range that doesn't challenge the
existing power structures. It maintains the status quo by emphasizing certain values
while allowing limited dissent.

• Agenda-Setting: The media decides what topics are worth discussing, usually framing
them within capitalist terms, restricting conversations about alternatives to capitalism.

• Influence Through Language: Media shapes public interpretation through the

language used in headlines, subheadings, and captions. This guides audiences toward
specific interpretations, similar to how advertisers promote products.

In summary, both traditional and neo-Marxist views emphasize how the media supports the
ruling class and capitalist ideologies while limiting dissent. Traditional Marxism focuses on
manipulation, while neo-Marxism highlights the creation of consensus around core values.

Postmodernist Contribution to Media Understanding

Postmodernist Perspective

• Pluralism and Diversity: Postmodernists share views with pluralists, emphasizing

that social changes are increasing media choices and diversity, making it harder for a
ruling class to control information, contrary to Marxist views.

• Media Saturation: The media is now everywhere in our lives. Postmodernists argue
that it shapes our identities, and audiences often struggle to tell what is real versus
what is represented in the media. Events from reality TV can become news, blurring
these lines.
 • Hyper-Reality: Jean Baudrillard uses the term hyper-reality to describe how media
narratives create a new reality that feels more real than actual events. Changing
representations (like age) can shift perceptions of reality.

• Simulacra: Baudrillard calls these constructed realities simulacra, or representations

of representations. He argues that media do not just reflect hidden realities; they are
the message, as noted by McLuhan and Powers (1992).

Impact of New Media

• Producer-Consumer Blurring: New media create networks where individuals

produce and consume content, making it hard to distinguish between the two. This
complicates censorship and regulation both nationally and globally.

Censorship in Media

• Historical Context: In the 20th century, states used mass media for propaganda (e.g.,
Nazi Germany, Soviet Union). Today, states have less direct control, instead
establishing legal frameworks that guide media behaviour.

• Modern Censorship: States censor pornography and morally sensitive materials

while keeping some information secret. Media operate within these rules and often
self-censor to avoid controversy.

• Challenges of New Media: The internet's global nature complicates censorship. While
some countries (like North Korea) maintain strict controls, skilled users often bypass
restrictions. Social media aided protests, like the Arab Spring (2011), by facilitating
communication and avoiding state censorship.

• Content Management Issues: Social media can censor content (e.g., removing
nudity) but struggle with false news. This has led to demands for better content
oversight, with companies like Facebook using independent fact-checkers to combat
misinformation.

In summary, postmodernists highlight the complexities and challenges of media in a diverse,

interconnected world, while state censorship continues to evolve with technology.

How the media may influence the political process

Agenda Setting

• The news media have the power to choose what topics to report or ignore, which
influences what the public discusses and cares about. This influence is known as
agenda setting. While the media may not dictate what people think, they shape what
people think about and how they perceive issues. Decisions on news coverage can be
influenced by news values and economic pressures to compete and profit.

• Marxist View: Marxists argue that the news agenda is structured to keep the public
unaware of certain facts or issues and to control how they think about them, ultimately
reducing potential protest.
Opinion Polls

• Role of Opinion Polls: Opinion polls are published surveys or interviews that reflect
public feelings about various issues. For instance, a newspaper may report a poll
indicating that many people want government action on a specific topic.

• Impact on Elections: Opinion polls are especially common during election seasons,
showing how people plan to vote. This reporting can influence voter behaviour by
creating perceptions, such as a candidate or party being 'in the lead.' Consequently, if
an outcome seems inevitable, some voters may choose not to participate. To mitigate
this effect, some countries prohibit publishing polls in the final days before elections.

News Reporting

• Framing and Language: The way news stories are presented— the angle and
language used—can shape audience responses. Certain reporting styles may create
a sense of public concern, leading to demands for political action (this can become a
self-fulfilling prophecy).

• Investigative Reporting: Investigative journalism plays a crucial role by uncovering

hidden stories, such as human rights abuses, thus informing the public and prompting
action.

9.3 The impact of the new media

Personal Privacy Concerns

• Privacy Issues: New media raises serious privacy concerns. Social media platforms,
like Facebook, sell users' personal data to target ads, meaning users lose some
privacy for free services. This data can include sensitive information such as ethnicity,
IQ, sexuality, substance use, and political views.

• Socha and Eber-Schmid (2012) note that new media allows companies to track
users’ emails and online activity, leading to tailored advertising. Once information is
posted online, it is hard, if not impossible, to delete.

• Surveillance: Governments can monitor citizens' internet activities, including which

websites they visit and their conversations on platforms like Skype. Digital
communications are often easy to intercept. Neelamalar and Chitra (2009) found that
Indian college students are aware of the risks of using social networking sites,
indicating a level of social consciousness among them.

New Media and Globalization

• Global Reach: While older media like TV and film have global audiences, new media,
such as websites and social networks, are designed for global use. They enable easy
sharing of information across borders.

• New media connects different types of content (text, images, videos) worldwide. A key
example is Wikipedia, a collaborative online encyclopedia anyone can edit.
New Media and Power Structures

• The rise of new media challenges traditional power structures in media. Digital
networks make it easy to copy and share media, leading to issues like intellectual
property theft (piracy).

• Media companies respond in several ways:

1. Taking legal action against individuals and trying to shut down sites
like Napster and Megaupload that provide illegal downloads.

2. Creating new business models, such as the "freemium" model, which offers
free basic services while charging for extras (e.g., popular games
like Farmville).

• Hacking poses additional challenges, impacting:

o Governments: Engaging in cyberwarfare for spying or sabotage.

o Organizations: Concerns about cybertheft of intellectual property, like patents

and copyrights.

o Individuals: The risk of viruses and malware that can damage systems or steal
personal information.

In summary, new media affects privacy, promotes globalization, and challenges existing power
dynamics, creating both opportunities and challenges in our interconnected world.

The Debate: Digital Optimism vs. Digital Pessimism

The development of new media has sparked a debate about its impact on economic, political,
and cultural life, divided into two main perspectives: digital optimism and digital pessimism.

Digital Optimism

From a digital optimism standpoint, new media represents a form of digital liberation with
four key processes identified by Negroponte (1995):

1. Decentralisation

2. Globalisation

3. Harmonisation

4. Empowerment

Economic Impact:

• New media fosters innovative models of production and distribution, including ‘free’ or
‘gifting’ models where consumers pay nothing. One example
is "Wikinomics" (Tapscott and Williams, 2008), characterized by collaborative
software development.
Producers:

• Large corporations must respond to consumer demands due to the fast flow of
information. Crowdsourcing taps into collective intelligence, leading to the emergence
of a 'crowd truth'.

Political Impact:

• The global flow of information can weaken state control, making it difficult for
repressive governments to hide actions or censor information (e.g., the use of Twitter).

Cultural Impact:

• New media encourages participatory and personalized behaviour, allowing individuals

to engage in a global village while also curating their own experiences (the ‘Daily Me’).
This mix fosters creativity and enables anonymous expression online, promoting
freedom of speech.

Digital Pessimism

Contrarily, digital pessimists argue that the globalizing effects of new media can be problematic
and are not entirely positive. Key arguments include:

Economic Concerns:

• Hidden Costs: 'Free' business models often obscure true costs, including:

1. Exploiting Free Labor: For example, The Huffington Post relied on unpaid
contributions, selling for $300 million in 2011.

2. Quality Reduction: Companies depending on low-cost labor may compromise

quality or fail.

3. Privacy Issues: Social media monetizes user data, often infringing on privacy.

4. Copyright Problems: Social media platforms may claim ownership of user-

generated content.

• Over time, the internet, once seen as a lawless frontier, is increasingly dominated by
large corporations, mirroring old media dominance. For instance, Facebook collects
extensive user data for profit.

Market Control:

• New media corporations may engage in practices that restrict market competition and
consumer choices:

o Locking out competitors: Companies like Amazon control eBook publishing

through products like the Kindle.

o Locking in consumers: Apple prevents third-party repairs to keep users within

its ecosystem.
Conglomeration:

• The concentration of ownership in new media resembles old media corporations,

limiting diversity and sourcing in news production (Schecter, 2000). The internet
appears diverse but is often dominated by a few entities. Corporations tend to
purchase content produced by users without fair compensation.

Political Challenges:

• Mass communication tools can also be weaponized by authoritarian regimes for

surveillance and control. Technologies like GPS can track users’ online and offline
activities.

Overall, the debate between digital optimism and pessimism reveals the complex implications
of new media in society, presenting both opportunities and challenges.

Identities in the Age of New Media: Optimist vs. Pessimist Perspectives

Understanding Identities. Traditionally, elements such as social class, gender, ethnicity,

and religion were relatively fixed. However, postmodernists argue that identities have
become more fluid and adaptable.

Digital Optimism

Greater Choice and Freedom

According to digital optimists, new media has expanded the possibilities for identity
formation:

• Individuals can construct new identities online and engage with a diverse array of
people, including those from different geographical locations.

• New media enables social networking, making it easier to maintain contact, reconnect
with others, and form new online communities.

• Optimists believe these interactions will broaden perspectives, fostering tolerance and
open-mindedness.

Digital Pessimism

Questions About Online Relationships

In contrast, digital pessimists challenge the idea that online interactions lead to meaningful
connections or increased tolerance:

• They ask whether digital 'friends' on platforms like Facebook are true friends in a
traditional sense.

• Pessimists suggest that online networks may predominantly comprise like-minded

individuals, reinforcing intolerance and extremist views rather than promoting
understanding.
Negative Online Behaviour
Digital pessimists highlight the prevalence of negative behaviour in online spaces, including:

• Trolling, cyberbullying, and other forms of abuse.

• They argue that users tend to curate news to confirm preexisting beliefs rather than
being exposed to diverse perspectives.

Corporate Power and social media

Concerns also arise regarding the dominance of corporations like Facebook, which collect
vast amounts of user data. This raises the following issues:

• Social media may prioritize advertising and targeted marketing over genuine human
connections.

• Time spent online may detract from real-life interactions, diminishing quality time with
family and friends and affecting interpersonal communication skills.

10.1 Media representations of class, gender, ethnicity and age groups

Representation of Different Social Groups in the Media

Groups in society can be represented in two primary ways: accurately (reflecting reality, such
as in photographs) or inaccurately (through deliberate or accidental misrepresentation). This
analysis focuses on the representation of groups categorized by class, gender, ethnicity,
and age.

Class Representation

Working Class:

• The media often portrays the working class through a limited range of stereotypes,
which include:

o Historical Representations: Depicted in popular dramas emphasizing themes

of servitude, poverty, and criminality.

o Contemporary Themes: Common portrayals involve crime, welfare

dependency, unemployment, violence, and casual sex.

• Recurrent media portrayals present working-class individuals as:

o Dangerous: Viewed as unpredictable and to be feared.

o Problematic: Associated with illegal or immoral behaviours.

o Dependent: Seen as relying on the state and the generosity of the upper
classes.

• Positive portrayals of the working class are rare, with exceptions mainly limited to
sports.

The Glasgow Media Group found that the working class has less access to media
representation and often is portrayed negatively. Documentaries and dramas frequently ignore
the contributions of the working class to historical movements, instead focusing on the actions
of upper-class figures, such as royalty and aristocracy.

• Contemporary narratives often marginalize working-class perspectives, framing them

as beneficiaries of middle-class assistance or subjects for discussion by middle-class
'experts.'

Middle Class:

• Middle-class representation is broader, depicting professional employment and cultural

contributions such as music, fashion, and art.

Problems with Representations:

• Stereotypes applied to working-class individuals often depict them as:

o Inarticulate

o Old-fashioned

o Uneducated

o Lazy

o Incapable (Ehrenreich).

Ehrenreich suggests that these portrayals silence working-class voices, making them unable
to represent themselves.

• For the upper class, negative behaviours like greed or criminality are often treated as
individual failings rather than reflecting broader systemic issues. For instance, during
the 2008 global financial crisis, the focus was on the actions of a few 'rogue bankers'
rather than on the widespread social problems caused by middle- and upper-class
behaviours.

Gender Representation in the Media

Gender stereotypes focus on two main areas: physical and emotional traits. Traditional media
often emphasizes clear distinctions between masculinity and femininity, whereas
contemporary portrayals show some blending of these roles.

Physical Representation

• Women: The media has historically sexualized female bodies to sell various products,
reflecting the concept of the male gaze (Mulvey, 1975). Women's beauty is often
presented as appealing to men, leading to objectification and shaping feminine
identities through a male perspective.

• Men: While male bodies are now more frequently depicted as sexually appealing, men
have a wider variety of acceptable body types compared to women.

These portrayals influence societal beauty standards, with women facing pressure to conform.
Young women are often shown as desirable, while older women frequently lack
representation. The male gaze also causes women to internalize these views and objectify
one another, stemming from male-dominated media production.

Age and Gender Discrimination

Grant et al. (2006) explain that women face a "double jeopardy" of discrimination based on
age and gender. Young women feel pressured to meet media-driven standards of femininity,
while older women struggle with reduced identity as societal markers, like attractiveness, fade.

Behavioural Assumptions

Media often reinforces stereotypes that women should be cooperative and submissive, while
dominant women are seen as humorous or deviant. Macdonald (2003) introduces "ladettes,"
women who challenge these norms by behaving like men. This indicates that gender roles are
not static and women can adopt masculine traits in specific situations.

Representations of men are also evolving:

• Historically, hegemonic masculinity valued toughness and emotional silence. Villains

in early films often lacked these "real" masculine traits.

• Recently, there’s been a rise in diverse masculinities, showing men as emotional,

supportive, and treating women as equals.

Sometimes, male representation is influenced by the female gaze, as seen in ads using male
models with objectifying portrayals, such as in cosmetics commercials.

In summary, while traditional representations of gender are being challenged, both masculine
and feminine portrayals still reflect societal norms and expectations.

Ethnic Minority Representation in Media

Representations of minority ethnic groups in Western media often highlight their

disadvantaged status and limited influence. While open racism has decreased, Hall (1995)
noted the rise of inferential racism, in which black ethnicities are portrayed as culturally
different instead of biologically different. This view often describes them as sources of social
problems, rather than victims.

Over-representation and Under-representation

1. Over-representation:

o Ethnic minorities are frequently depicted as both victims and perpetrators in

media. For example, UK coverage often shows Black individuals as:

▪ Victims of natural disasters like floods and famines.

▪ Perpetrators of man-made issues like wars and corruption.

o These representations often come through a white, middle-class male

perspective, depicting white people as saviours, which creates a binary
opposition between the Black victim and the white saviour.
 2. Under-representation:

o Minority ethnic groups appear less in advertising and drama than their
population numbers would suggest.

o Carrington (2002) discusses the "white gaze," which promotes hyper-

blackness by showing black individuals mainly through lenses of athleticism
and physicality.

Concept of 'Otherness'

Media often frames ethnic minorities as "Other," emphasizing cultural differences that
supposedly cause social issues. This shifts racism from biological attributes to differences in
language, religion, and family life.

Representations also include notions of threat:

• Cultural threats: The dominant white culture is often portrayed as endangered by

practices like arranged marriages or Shari’ah law.

• Physical threats: Minorities, especially Muslims, are frequently linked to terrorism and
crime, despite evidence that many such incidents involve other groups. Hall et al.
(1978) discussed moral panics concerning "black muggers," and the Metropolitan
Police (2002) claimed that mugging in London was "predominantly a black crime."

Age Representation in Media

Media ownership is largely controlled by middle-aged, middle-class men, which affects how
young people are portrayed through an "adult gaze." Society holds mixed views about youth,
resulting in two main representations:

1. Innocence: Children are seen as innocent and pure.

2. Discipline: Youth are perceived as unruly and needing adult control.

The rise of new technologies, especially the internet, contributes to these perceptions. Adults
often see children as victims of their inability to manage these technologies, leading to moral
panics about youth behaviour.

Pearson (1983) identifies common traits in media portrayals of young people, including:

• Rebellion

• Disrespect

• Selfishness

• Obsessions with self and sex.

Male youth are frequently depicted as delinquent and disengaged. Representations vary
based on societal changes and factors like class and gender. A prevalent theme over the past
40 years has been distinguishing normal youth from abnormal youth, with "normal" being set
against various youth subcultures (e.g., mods, punks).
Positive portrayals of youth exist as well, celebrating rebellion against adult norms and vibrant
social change.

Older Adults in Media

Older people have historically been depicted narrowly, often focusing on social problems.
Common representations include:

• Cost burdens: Challenges related to pensions, healthcare, and social services.

• Negative stereotypes: Older individuals are often shown as senile, ill, and
unattractive. Television frequently portrays them as grumpy and lonely.

While older men are used to convey seriousness in news, positive portrayals of older adults
are increasingly emerging due to demographic shifts:

• Older individuals watch more television and demand content that reflects their lives.

• Older women, in particular, are shifting from images of pity to being seen as
fashionable and active.

Two factors for these changes are:

1. Affluence: The older population holds a large portion of wealth, with about 80% of
wealth in the UK owned by those aged 50+ (Institute for Fiscal Studies, 2006),
attracting advertisers.

2. Media evolution: As media creators age, their experiences influence more varied
representations of older individuals.

In summary, media portrayals of youth and older adults reflect a mix of negative and positive
images shaped by societal changes and the interests of media owners.

Media and Gender Socialization

The media play a significant role in gender socialization, shaping how boys and girls learn
about gender roles. Traditional folk tales and children's stories often present stereotyped roles
for women, influencing the gender perceptions of both genders for many years. Early
childhood is crucial for understanding gender; exposure to stereotypical images can reinforce
ideas like attractiveness for girls and bravery for boys. Children may imitate what they see or
internalize these concepts over time.

Studies on Media Influence

• Marjorie Ferguson (1983) explored women's magazines and found they promote a
"cult of femininity." These magazines focus on topics like beauty, child-rearing,
housework, and cooking, leading women to narrow interests that often exclude careers
and current affairs.

• Angela McRobbie (1981) studied magazines for teenage girls and noted they typically
present stories that emphasize boys as dominant while girls are passive, focusing on
 capturing boys' attention. These magazines offer little on careers, academics, or
sports, and are seen as negative because they reinforce traditional roles.

Changing Media Representations

Media representations have evolved with changing social attitudes. For example:

• Older Disney films often depict female characters as passive, requiring rescue by male
heroes.

• Newer films feature stronger female characters who take the initiative and can even
rescue males, providing girls with better role models.

However, traditional gender roles still persist. In the Harry Potter series, while Hermione
Granger is portrayed as intelligent and confident, Harry remains the central character who
defeats evil.

Broader Context of Socialization

It's essential to recognize that media is one of many sources of information about gender roles.
Other influential agencies include:

• Family

• Peers

• Schools

There are varied views on media effects. One perspective suggests that children are easily
influenced by the media, while another argues that children critically evaluate media messages
and do not simply absorb them.

Moral panics around class, gender, ethnicity and age groups

Moral panics occur when certain groups, labelled as "folk devils," are depicted negatively by
the media, leading to societal fears. Here are some key examples from the UK:

1. Class:

Welfare recipients are often called "scroungers," with media claims that they live comfortably
off taxpayer money without working. However, most people on welfare are actually in paid
jobs.

2. Gender:

Media narratives often focus on young males, portraying them as troublemakers. There are
growing concerns about girls mimicking boys' behaviours, resulting in reports about "girl
gangs."

3. Ethnicity:

Panic over gangs and knife crime, particularly in London, tends to target Afro-Caribbean
youths. Additionally, Muslims are frequently portrayed negatively, with some media suggesting
they are sympathetic to terrorism.
4. Age:

Youth subcultures like mods, rockers, skinheads, and punks faced moral panics in the late
20th century, depicted as threats to societal values. Despite this, many of these individuals
later integrated into mainstream society.

The relationship between the media and popular culture

In the 20th century, mass media significantly shaped popular culture, a viewpoint linked to the
Frankfurt School's ideas about media in totalitarian societies (like 1930s Germany).

A mass society is marked by:

• Geographic isolation: People lack face-to-face interactions.

• Social isolation: They don't engage in larger groups, weakening community ties.

• Limited social interaction: Individuals see themselves as anonymous and

disconnected.

In such a society, mass culture, also known as 'popular' or 'low' culture, develops. This mass
culture provides shared values and beliefs for isolated individuals. However, since it’s
mediated, it can reflect the interests of the ruling class.

High culture (associated with the elite) is seen as:

• Difficult
• Demanding
• Deep
• Long-lasting
• Culturally valuable
In contrast, popular culture is viewed as:

• Manufactured

• Artificial

• Superficial

• Disposable

• Undemanding and culturally valueless

For example, ballet and opera are high culture, while pop music and soap operas are
considered popular culture.

Marxists argue that popular culture distracts the masses from their exploitation with
entertainment, while pluralists believe it simply fulfills people's needs and wants.

Postmodernists blur the lines between high and popular culture, noting how they mix—such
as opera music in commercials or university courses on pop culture figures like Beyoncé and
the Kardashians.
10.2 Different models of media effects

Understanding how media affects audiences is vital, as it influences ideas and behaviours.
Theories of media effects can be categorized into direct effects and indirect effects.

Direct Effects Models

Direct effects models suggest that media can have a strong impact, typically negative, on
behaviour. The hypodermic syringe model illustrates this idea, likening media messages to
a drug injected into audiences, changing their thoughts and actions in a predictable way. Here,
audiences are viewed as passive recipients due to their social isolation, relying on media for
information.

One idea within this framework is that media effects can accumulate over time. For example,
prolonged exposure to violent movies may lead to desensitization, where viewers become less
shocked by real-life violence.

However, Gauntlett (1998) critiques these models for viewing audiences as easily influenced.
He argues that much of the research is based on artificial settings, like labs. A famous study
by Bandura et al. (1961), known as the Bobo doll experiment, suggested that children imitate
televised violence, but methodological issues, such as biased assessments, weaken its
conclusions. Additionally, Hagell and Newburn (1994) found young offenders often lack
interest in television.

In recent discussions, the focus has shifted to vulnerable audiences, particularly children,
who may be more susceptible to media influence. While anecdotal evidence suggests a
connection between media violence and behaviour, Gauntlett (1995) showed even young
children can differentiate between fictional and real violence.

Indirect Effects Models

Indirect effects models contend that media influence is more subtle and mediated.
Messages can be received directly or through social interactions. For instance, Katz and
Lazarfield’s (1955) two-step flow model explains that messages move from media to opinion
leaders, who then share them within their social networks. Behaviour changes result from
discussions and interpretations rather than direct media impact.

This model highlights various factors:

• Perception: Noticing certain messages over others.

• Exposure: Choosing media that aligns with existing beliefs.

• Expression and Retention: Listening to important opinions and remembering

compatible messages.

The uses and gratification model supports this idea by asserting that audiences actively
select media for specific needs, making them strong participants. McQuail et al. (1972)
identified four primary uses: entertainment, social bonding, identity creation, and information
gathering. This positions media as largely powerless in direct influence, depending instead on
audience engagement.

Cultural effects models suggest that media act as cultural institutions that reinforce social
norms over time. They argue that consistent media portrayals can shape long-term attitudes.
For instance, frequent negative portrayals of women can lead to societal acceptance of these
views. Over time, viewers adopt these perspectives, as noted by Gerbner et al. (1986).

Audience reception theory, introduced by Hall (1980), emphasizes that media messages
have various meanings based on audience interpretation. Hall describes three types of
readings:

1. Hegemonic codes: The audience accepts the intended message.

2. Negotiated codes: The audience accepts the message but modifies it based on
personal beliefs.

3. Oppositional codes: The audience rejects the message entirely.

Other processes that influence interpretation include agenda-setting, where media highlight
specific issues for public discussion, and framing, which shapes how issues are understood.
Myth-making, as Gerbner (1994) asserts, suggests that extensive media consumption can
lead audiences to believe in distorted realities, such as the inflated perception of crime rates.

Debates on media effects models focus on their strengths and weaknesses, particularly
regarding how they view media and audiences.

Direct vs. Indirect Effects Models

• Direct effects models (e.g., hypodermic syringe model) assume that media have a
strong influence on passive audiences, leading to immediate and measurable
behavioural changes.

• Indirect effects models, like the uses and gratifications approach, suggest audiences
are active and have weaker media influence, resulting in gradual, long-term effects.

Research Challenges

1. Defining "the media": The broad term includes various forms (e.g., newspapers,
social networks), complicating comparisons of their effects.

2. Old vs. New Media: Old media (like newspapers) and new media (like video games)
interact differently with audiences. Video games are interactive, which complicates the
research on media effects.

3. Understanding "an effect": There’s no agreement on what qualifies as a media

effect—whether it’s immediate or slow.

Methodological Issues

• Direct effects research often uses experiments, which may not reflect real-life
behaviours and focus on short-term impacts. Long-term effects are harder to isolate
due to other influencing factors.

• Differences in interpretation can lead to varied conclusions. A researcher might

understand content differently than the audience, especially with new media.

Context Matters

Livingstone and Hargrave (2006) emphasize that context shapes media use, including:
 • Physical consumption: Whether media is shared or consumed alone.

• Mental consumption: How audiences relate to and empathize with content.

Cultural Differences

Media effects can vary across cultures due to differences in:

• Acceptance of violence or explicit content.

• Media regulations.

Postmodernist Critique

Postmodernists argue traditional media effects theories are flawed for several reasons:

1. Fragmented Audiences: Audiences are increasingly diverse, complicating the

assessment of media impact.

2. Media Literacy: Modern audiences are more skilled at understanding media, making
conventional research assumptions less valid.

3. Producers vs. Consumers: New media blurs the line between producers and
consumers. Staiger (2000) argues that audiences actively create meaning through
their interactions with media, making it difficult to quantify effects consistently.

Arguments and evidence about the extent to which human behaviour is influenced by
the media.

Discussions about the impact of media often focus on its negative effects, though it's also
essential to recognize some positive aspects. Here’s a comprehensive breakdown of the
negative influences:

Negative Media Impacts

1. Societal Level: Media can have widespread negative effects on economic, political,
and cultural aspects of society. For instance, they can contribute to social inequalities
or manipulate political opinions.

2. Social Group Level: Media often play a role in creating moral panics, which can
heighten fear or stigma against certain groups, leading to social tensions.

3. Individual Level: On a personal scale, exposure to violent media content may

contribute to aggressive behaviours or desensitization towards violence.

Economic Effects

Large media corporations often function as oligopolies, meaning they:

• Create barriers that prevent new media companies from entering the market.

• Restrict competition, leading to fewer choices for consumers.

• Limit the variety of content available.

Lechner (2001) argues that this situation fosters media homogenization, promoting a uniform
consumer culture with similar lifestyles across different regions.

Political Effects

The rise of new media has increased surveillance, which threatens personal privacy.
Governments and private companies collect data using technologies like smartphones and
social media platforms to monitor individuals. This information can then be sold to advertisers,
raising concerns over data privacy.

Cultural Effects

Global media often reinforce cultural dominance by overshadowing local traditions and values.
For example, the U.S. film industry and brands like Coca-Cola and Nike can shape global
culture. Kraeplin (2007) highlights how teen magazines associate beauty and consumerism,
further entrenching a culture focused on materialism.

Marxist Perspective

Traditional Marxist theories explain these negative effects through manipulation concepts,
suggesting that media directly influence how audiences perceive reality. In a society where
social isolation is common, media become the primary source of culture. Adorno and
Horkheimer (1944) describe this as the "culture industry," implying that the ruling elite maintain
power by controlling popular culture, which is consumed passively by the masses.

10.3 The impact of the media on behaviour

The idea that violent media, such as TV, films, and video games, contributes to violent
behaviour—especially among vulnerable individuals—is widespread but controversial.
Evidence for this connection is not as strong as some media claim.

Imitation Theory

A common explanation for the media-violence link is imitation. This idea comes from Bandura
et al.’s (1961) Bobo doll experiment, where children who saw adults acting violently were
more likely to play violently themselves. Notable cases include:

• The Columbine school shooting (1999), linked by some media to violent video
games like Doom.

• The murder of James Bulger (1993) in the UK, associated with the film Child’s Play
3, despite no evidence the boys had watched it.

Research Limitations

Research on media's impact on violence has many methodological issues. For example,
Belson’s (1978) study of 1,565 teenage boys found that those with high TV exposure
committed 49% more violent acts. Critics said he didn’t clearly distinguish between general
TV watching and violent content. Howitt (1992) noted that boys with moderate exposure to
violent programs were most likely to act violently, suggesting varied interpretations of the data.
Cultural Effects Model

The Cultural Effects Model argues that repeated exposure to violence in media normalizes
aggression. Gerbner (1994) stated that heavy media consumers may see the world as more
violent than it is, leading to desensitization and acceptance of violence.

Complex Interactions

Some researchers, like Huesmann and Miller (1994), argue that the relationship between
media and violence is two-way. People who are already inclined to view violence as
acceptable might be more attracted to violent media. It’s difficult to determine whether violent
individuals enjoy violent media or if such media influences them to become violent.

Other Perspectives

Media violence might also have a cathartic effect, allowing people to release anger without
real-life consequences. In some cases, media exposure—especially to violent events—can
make people more aware of violence's consequences and lead to social changes, as seen
after the Parkland school shooting in 2018, which prompted calls for stricter gun control.

Historical Context

Violence has existed for centuries, even before modern media. This raises questions about
whether media has significantly increased societal violence. Despite individual cases like
Columbine, Pinker (2012) notes a long-term decline in violence.

Media's Role in Crime: Deviance Amplification and Moral Panics

Wilkins (1964) introduced the concept of deviance amplification, where media coverage
intensifies societal reactions to deviant behaviour:

1. Media highlights primary deviance, causing public condemnation.

2. The deviant group becomes socially isolated and resentful.
3. Stronger social reactions occur, creating moral panics.
4. Increased deviant behaviour follows.
5. Authorities respond with stricter laws and controls.
Cohen (1972) expanded on moral panics, describing how media can create a societal fear
of certain groups (folk devils), leading to demands for control.

Sociological Perspectives on Moral Panics

Different sociological views explain moral panics:

• Interpretivist approaches argue moral panics arise from public concerns, with media
amplifying these fears without creating them. Cohen suggests this reinforces societal
morals by setting clear behavioural boundaries.

• Neo-Marxist approaches see moral panics as tools for maintaining power. They
argue that during crises, elites use moral panics to distract from deeper societal issues
and reinforce control over the population, as noted by Hall et al.
Positive Impacts of Media on Human Behaviour

While much focus is on the negative effects of media, it also has numerous positive impacts,
especially according to the uses and gratifications model:

1. Diversions: Media is often used for relaxation and entertainment, providing a break
from daily stress.

2. Education: Media serves educational purposes, both intentionally (e.g.,

documentaries) and unintentionally (e.g., learning through video games).

3. Community: Media promotes social interaction by creating common topics for

discussion, such as current events or reality TV. This fosters a sense of community,
even online where individuals connect over shared interests.

4. Identity Consolidation: Media helps people explore their identities in two ways:

o Individual Identity: Consumption of media like books and magazines helps

shape personal identity.

o Social Identity: Media also defines broader social identities (e.g., based on
class, age, gender, and ethnicity), shaping community and national identities.

5. Empowerment: New media can empower genders and age groups by encouraging
personal expression. Butler (1990) noted that media allows for a wider range of gender
identities. Haraway (1991) argued that in cyberspace, traditional gender roles become
less relevant, allowing for more fluid identities.

6. Awareness: Media informs the public about global issues:

o Economic trends, like the rise of China and India as production centres.

o Political events, such as the 2011 Arab Spring, where Twitter supplemented
traditional media.

o Cultural exchanges enhance understanding of similarities and differences

among cultures.

7. Political Change and Participation: Media encourages questioning of authority and

promotes political awareness. Lyotard argued that skepticism toward grand narratives
(like religion and politics) reduces the chances of negative media influence.

8. Engagement and Activism: New media allows quick connections with like-minded
individuals, increasing political participation. People can directly interact with
politicians, pressing for actions and creating more opportunities for discussion.

9. Increased Accountability: Political leaders and corporations are more scrutinized by

the public, thanks to the ease of monitoring and challenging their actions.
Effects of Media Sensationalism and Stereotyping

Sensationalism

• Definition: Sensationalism refers to reporting news in a way that excites or worries

the audience rather than presenting accurate information.

• Characteristics:

o Often includes bias, distortion, and exaggeration.

o Focuses on stories that provoke strong emotions like outrage, rather than
addressing issues that directly affect the audience.
o Commonly found in tabloid newspapers with misleading headlines and
dramatic images.
• Purpose: Media outlets use sensationalism to attract viewers and increase profits,
contributing to moral panics in society.

Stereotyping

• Impact on Stereotyped Groups and Audiences:

o Stereotyping can negatively affect both the groups being stereotyped and the
audiences receiving these stereotypes.
o Media effects models suggest that audiences may internalize these
stereotypes as accurate representations.
• Utility for Media Producers:

o Stereotypes help quickly convey information by simplifying character traits

(e.g., clothing and speech) to establish nationality or other characteristics.
o However, this simplification can lead to exaggeration and distortion, promoting
negative or dehumanizing representations of certain groups.
Challenging Stereotypes:

• Some media increasingly aim to challenge stereotypes by portraying female

characters as strong and capable, offering more nuanced representations.

Audience Awareness:

• The impact of stereotypes on audiences can depend on their prior knowledge of the
group being stereotyped. If they know the reality contradicts the stereotype, they may
reject it.

• This also applies to the stereotyped groups themselves, who are likely to recognize
and reject distorted representations.