Dr Ram Manohar Lohiya National Law University

HISTORY – 1st Semester

PROJECT
COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF EARLY VEDIC
AND LATER VEDIC PERIOD

Submitted to: Submitted by:

Dr. Vandana Singh Aryan Chauhan
Associate professor (History) Enrolment no: 220101047
Dr. Ram Manohar Lohia B.A.L.L.B. (Hons.)
National Law University, Luckhnow 1st Semester (Section – A)

DECLARATION
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I hereby declare that the term paper titled ‘comparative analysis of early Vedic and later
Vedic period’, submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the award of degree of
B.A. LLB. (Hons.), to Dr. Ram Manohar Lohiya National Law University, is the original
work done by me under the guidance of Dr. Vandana Singh, Associate Professor (History),
Dr. Ram Manohar Lohiya National Law University. This research work has not been
submitted to any other University or Institute for the award of any degree/diploma/fellowship
or other titles.

Aryan Chauhan

220101047

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

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Every humble being should always first honour and thank those who have helped him/her
throughout their journey. With that, I would like to express my gratitude towards the Dr. Ram
Manohar Lohiya National Law University, which has allowed me to pursue good and
structured academic schemes and has added to my level of skills. Every opportunity I get
here, every work that I undertake or intend to undertake I will always be grateful to my
University.

Further, I would like to thank our respected Vice-Chancellor Professor Subir K Bhatnagar
for steering the university towards a growth-based and efficient academic curriculum which
allows one to explore and implore their skills and work upon them to a greater extent.
Further, I would like to thank my history Professor Dr. Vandana Singh for allowing me to
choose a book of my choice and then guiding me from the first rough draft to this researched
final draft. In this journey and afterward, I would always be indebted to you.

Lastly, I would like to extend my letter of thanks to my friends and family for showing faith
in me in the journey of this book review, they are the backbone of this project and have
motivated me when I felt like I cannot do it anymore.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

CONTENT PAGE NO.

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INTRODUCTION 5

THE VEDIC AGE AND THE CONFLICTING TIMELINE 6

POLITICAL CONDITIONS 7-9

JUDICIAL SYSTEM 10

SOCIAL CONDITIONS 11 - 13

ECONOMIC CONDITIONS 14 - 15

RELIGIOUS CONDITIONS 16 – 17

BIBLIOGRAPHY 18

INTRODUCTION

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Urban civilization first appeared in ancient India with the Indus Valley civilization in the
early third millennium BCE, in what is today Pakistan and north-west India. This was
contemporary with other early civilizations of the ancient world, in Mesopotamia and
Ancient Egypt, and is one of the earliest civilizations in world history. It is famous for its
large and well-planned cities.

The Indus Valley civilization vanished in the mid-2nd millennium BCE. In the following
thousand years, a people known as the Aryans, speaking an Indo-European language, moved
into northern India from central Asia. They came into India as pastoral, semi-nomadic tribes
led by warrior chieftains. Over time, they settled down as rulers over the native Dravidian 1
populations they found there, and formed tribal kingdoms.

This period of ancient Indian history is known as the Vedic age, as it was depicted in the
earliest Indian writings, called the Vedas. It is also the formative period in which most of the
basic features of traditional Indian civilization were laid down. These include the emergence
of early Hinduism as the foundational religion of India, and the social/religious phenomenon
known as caste2.

The period lasted from around 1500 BCE through to 600 BCE; that is, from the early days of
the Aryan migrations through to the age of the Buddha.

The Vedic age is divided by historians into early Vedic age (1500 – 1000 BCE) which is also
called Rigvedic period and the later Vedic period (1000 – 600 BCE) based on the visible
differences in the political setup, social conditions, economic conditions, politics and other
considerations. This was the beginning of a new and advanced era in the Indian subcontinent
which would work under the conditions set up by their ancestors and the people of that era.

GEOGRAPHICAL EXTENT DURING THE PERIOD

1
Dravidians are a linguistic and cultural group living in South Asia who predominantly speak any of the Dravidian
languages.
2
each of the hereditary classes of Hindu society, distinguished by relative degrees of ritual purity or pollution and of social
status is caste.

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 Fig. 13
Fig. 24

THE VEDIC AGE AND THE CONFLICTING TIMELINE:

The Rigveda is regarded as the oldest book in the world but there is unanimity among the
historians and scholars with regards to the composition period of this book. There are
different timelines suggested by scholars which differ not to the extent of centuries but to the
extent of thousands of years. Some say that the earliest period was 1000BCE while some put
it somewhere between 3000BCE and 2500BCE. The greatest unanimity with the period is
that the Rigvedic period lied between 1500BCE and 1000BCE and the later Vedic period lied
between 1000BCE and 600BCE.

POLITICAL CONDITIONS:
RIGVEDIC PERIOD

3
India during early Vedic period
4
India during later Vedic period

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  Political structure - Early Vedic societies were semi-nomadic tribal societies with
pastoral5 economies. There were no states. The peoples of the tribe ware called
‘Jana’, the chief of the tribe was called ‘Rajan’, ‘Gopati’ or ‘Gopa’ (cow protector)
and the supreme queen was called ‘Mahishi’. The country was known as ‘Rashtra’.
The Rajan's main responsibilities were to protect the ‘Jana’ and livestock from
enemies and to offer prayers to the gods on behalf of the jana. In the territorial
hierarchy, the smallest unit was called ‘Gram’ which was headed by ‘Gramini6’.
Above it was ‘Vis’ which was superseded by ‘Janah’. The common people had to
pay tribute which was mostly out of their own will with people at the bottom of
hierarchy being least politically engaged.
 Ruler - Kingship was the system prevalent in the rigvedic times. The protection of the
people was the sacred duty of the king. It seems that, the King’s post was hereditary
(similar to monarchical form) but we also have some traces of election by the tribal
assembly called ‘Samiti’. We also come across terms like ‘Gana7’ with ‘Ganapati’ as
its head. Elective monarchies were known although the Rigveda has no clear
reference to them. We have reference to the election of Rajan to the kingship in the
Atharva veda. In the later texts, we also came across the word Samrat. Although
there is no trace of huge territorial kingship but we have met with the idea of a
universal monarch.
 Ministers – The king had many ministers. The highest minister was the ‘Purohita’.
He was the only associate of the king as his guide, philosopher, and friend. His chief
work was that of a domestic priest, i.e., performed all religious functions of the king.
He had to accompany the king to the battlefield and guard him with his prayers. The
king had a ‘Senani’ who was the leader of the army of the king and ‘Graminis’
among whom one was in the royal ministry as the spoke person of the rural
population.
 Assemblies – The autocracy of the king was kept in check by Vidhata, ‘Sabha’ and
‘Samiti’. People expressed their will and opinion on important matters affecting them
through these assemblies. The matters ranged from welfare of the people to the
election of the king himself.
Vidatha appears for 122 times in the Rigveda and seems to be the most important

5
A pastoral economy is one that depends heavily on raising livestock such as cattle, sheep, and goats.
6
Head of the village for both military as well as civil functions
7
People’s assembly

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 assembly in the Rigvedic period. It was the oldest assembly performing all kinds of
functions- economic, military religious and social.
The Sabha performed both political as well as judicial functions. It was a body of
elders and used to advice king on the administrative matters as well as functioned as
the modern say court and tried criminal cases.
In a Samiti everyone was allowed to come and put forward their suggestions and
problems. Samiti was enshrined with the power to elect the king. Both these
assemblies had high importance in the early Vedic period.

LATER VEDIC PERIOD

In the later Vedic period (1000BCE to 600BCE), there were rapid changes in the
subcontinent. Several changes can be seen on the politics of that period juxtaposed with the
politics of Rigvedic period.

 Political structure – in the later Vedic period, there was shift from nomadic tribal life
to states due to the amalgamation of tribes. The old politics was put in the background
and new states came into view with new customs. The victories in war and the
accumulation of wealth lead to the inevitable growth of the royalty. Now the people
had to pay tribute in the form of bali and sulka mandatorily. This points towards the
marking of starting of taxation and revenue administration.
 Ruler – Kingship was regarded as the normal administrative method in the later
Vedic period. The already known idea of imperialism began to grow during this
period. The monarchy became absolute with some democratic elements within it. The
ideal put before the king was that he had to be the sole sovereign of the whole Earth
the influence of the king was enhanced by the rituals. This gave rise to many violent
rituals including the Rajasuya yajna8 and Ashwamedha yajna9.
The chief functions of the king were military and judicial functions. His immunity
from the law and the power to punish further increased in the later Vedic period.
 Ministers – in the Rigvedic period, except the Purohita, we didn’t have any civil
functionary in the ministry but in the later Vedic period we have Samgrahitri10,
8
A Rajasuya Yagna was a ritual to transform a king into an emperor. It was about sending out the message that this king has
become fit and powerful enough to be the king of kings.
9
The Ashvamedha was a horse sacrifice ritual followed by the Śrauta tradition of Vedic religion. It was used by ancient
Indian kings to prove their imperial sovereignty.
10
treasurer

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 Bhagadugha11, Suta12, Kshattri13, Akshavapa14, Govikartana15 and Palagala16 in
addition to the Purohita, Senani and Gramini of the Rigvedic period.
 Assemblies - By the end of the Vedic period, king’s authority was beginning to derive
less from the support of such assemblies than from his own success in the struggle for
power. Vidhata completely disappeared. Sabha and Samiti continued to assert
themselves, but their nature and composition changed. They were ruled by princes
and wealthy nobles. Women were no longer allowed to sit on the sabha and were now
ruled by nobles and Brahmins17. The powers to elect king was still with the people
and the assembly so the king put in constant efforts to gain the confidence of the
people.

JUDICIAL SYSTEM:
RIGVEDIC PERIOD

The king was above law and he could not be punished for any crime or any civil matter. He
was regarded as ‘adandaya18’. The duties of a judge were performed by the king. He
exercised immense power in criminal cases and was probably the final court of appeal in civil
matters. Sabha was the council of elder members of the village which used to give decisions
regarding public matters, took the judicial functions. It became a prominent figure in the

11
Collector of taxes
12
Royal herald or charioteer
13
chamberlain
14
Super-intendent of gambling
15
King’s companion in the chase
16
courier
17
A Brahmin is a member of the highest caste or varna in Hinduism. The Brahmins are the caste from which Hindu priests
are drawn, and are responsible for teaching and religious works.
18
Who cannot be punished/ who is above the law

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justice delivery system of the early Vedic times. Practice of private vengeance was
recognised to a large extent in criminal cases.

LATER VEDIC PERIOD

The king, just like in the Rigvedic period, was adandaya. He had a very large part to play in
the justice administration. With the growth of population, the king could not effectively hear
and decide all the cases; hence the delegation of powers came into the picture. The king
started delegating his judicial powers to ‘Adhyakshas19’ . Certain cases were given to the
tribe for adjudication which was performed by a small assembly/body of elder people known
as ‘Sabhasads20’ . Trivial matters were decided by the village judge and the Sabha. Civil
cases were decided by arbitration. The practice of private vengeance in criminal matters was
still recognised but a lesser extent.

SOCIAL CONDITIONS:
RIGVEDIC PERIOD

 Social structure – The Rigvedic society was largely egalitarian. The only mention of
the four Varna was found in the Purushasukta21 of the tenth mandala (book) of the
Rig Veda, which makes one conclude that the Varna system was probably introduced
at the end of the Rig Vedic age and that there was social mobility and the absence of
strict social hierarchy. The division of the society was not based on the birth but on

19
Overseer appointed by a higher authority
20
Assessors
21
hymn 10.90 of the Rigveda, dedicated to the Purusha, the "Cosmic Being”

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 the occupation they chose as they age. It is therefore suggested by scholars that in the Rig
Vedic period the people were divided into classes instead of castes.
 Marriage - Monogamy22 was practiced by the common people but the royal people
were allowed to have polygamy23. The marriage of girls was not considered as
essential and we have many examples of girls marrying late and living with their
brothers and fathers. The girls were married only after attaining puberty. they were
allowed, to some extent, to choose their life partners. The practice of ‘Swayamvara’
24
was also prevalent in the society. No religious ceremony could be completed without
the wife.
 Household - The Rigveda stresses upon a highly organised society. The foundation of
the social life in the Rigvedic times was the patriarchal 25family. All the family
members lived together in wood/reed house. The master of the house was
‘Grihapati’/’kulapa’. Though the father was kind and affectionate yet at times he
became cruel towards his children. From Rig-Veda we come to know about a father
who blinded his son for his extravagance.
 Status of women – In the Rigvedic times, the status of the women was highest when
compared to the later stages in the Indian history. They were treated with equality and
were at par with men in most affairs of the society. Women were free to join men at
the Sabha and Vidhata. In Rigveda, they are sometimes referred to as dampati or
the queen of the house. There are no evidences if the seclusion of women.

LATER VEDIC PERIOD

 Social structure – the social changes in the later Vedic period were immense. In the
Later Vedic period caste system was in a state of semi rigidity. Change of caste
became difficult though not absolutely impossible. Hereditary occupations were
converted into hereditary castes. There was a tendency to discourage change of
occupation.
Great importance was attached to purity of descent. In the Later Vedic age, the status
of the Vaishya class seems to have deteriorated. The Brahmanical literature denied
many rights to Vaishya class. A Sudra could be expelled at will, to be slain at will and

22
The practice of having one wife and one husband
23
The practice of having more than one wife and one husband
24
in ancient India, it was a method of marriage in which a woman chose a man as her husband
from a group of suitors.
25
Male dominated

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 he was a servant of another. A Brahmin could kill a Sudra with impunity. Sudra was
considered as a thing, a chattel. He was required to serve the three higher classes.

 Status of women - The prestige and dignity of women declined in the later Vedic
Period. The birth of a son was desired, whereas the birth of a daughter was viewed as
a sign of sadness. Participation in political gatherings ceased.
Child marriage, the sati 26system, and dowry started increasing. Pardah27 system
became prevalent. Widow remarriage was forbidden. During this time, it became a
harsh patriarchal culture in which women’s rights were seized. Religion was the
primary reason for these limits on women resulting in many of their rights such as the
ability to marry at will and the right to education being revoked. Her social mobility
dwindled as limits were placed on her.

 Household – The basis of the organisation of the social institutions during the later
Vedic period continued to be the same as that of early Vedic period. The family was
the primary social unit. Each family consisted of several members. Sometimes a
number of families lived under the headship of the same male member Kulpati. Little
changes can be traced in the mode of housebuilding and dress. The practice of
adoption of sons also existed. But the adoption was made only in the absence of the
natural progeny.

 Marriage – There The institution of gotra appeared in the later Vedic age. No
marriage could take place between persons belonging to the same gotra or having the
same ancestor. Caste exogamy 28was widely practised. There is mention of
Chandrayana -penance for men marrying women of the same gotra. With the
solidifying of caste system, the people belonging to higher caste were free to marry in
the lower caste but not vice-versa.

26
It was a practice in which a widow sacrifices herself by sitting atop her deceased husband's funeral pyre.
27
Pardah is a Persian word meaning veil, curtain or screen. Pardah system involves the covering of the bodies or at least
faces by grown up women from the gaze of males other than the closest kin.
28
the social norm of marrying outside one's social group.

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ECONOMIC CONDITIONS:
RIGVEDIC PERIOD

 Agriculture – According to the Rigveda, agriculture was the main occupation of the
people. They ploughed the field with bulls and oxen in the pairs of six, eight and
twelve. The cultivated land was known as Urvara/Kshetra. Water was supplied to the
rice fields through irrigation canals. The use of manure was also known. Barley and
wheat were mainly grown. Cotton and oilseeds were also grown. Rice was not widely
cultivated.

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  Occupation - The Rig Veda mentions craftsmen like carpenters and chariot builders
who enjoyed a special status. Also mentioned are weavers, potters, and
leatherworkers. This indicates that they all practiced these crafts. Chariot racing and
gambling were popular pastimes.
 Trade and commerce - There was maritime and trade activity. For greater trade
profits, traders sometimes travelled to faraway lands. It's likely that there was
business dealing with Babylon and other countries in Western Asia. Barter 29was the
primary means of trade. Cow was utilized as unit of significant worth. Gradually, gold
pieces called "mishka" were used as a means of exchange. A group known as "Pani"
was in charge of overseeing and regulating commerce.
 Transportation - Rathas, or chariots, and wagons pulled by horses and oxen were the
primary modes of land transportation. Horseback riding was also popular. Despite the
fact that taskara (highway men) haunted the roads and infested the forests, traveling
was common.

LATER VEDIC PERIOD

 Agriculture - Agriculture was the main source of income and people led a sedentary
lifestyle during the late Vedic period. Ploughing was done with a wooden plough. The
Satapata Brahmana details the cultivation rituals. Even kings and princes did not
hesitate to dedicate themselves to manual labour. The Vedic people continued to
produce barley, but during this period rice (vrihi) and wheat (godhuma) became their
chief crops along with lentils.
 Occupation - During the later Vedic period, a wide variety of arts and crafts became
widespread, and the specialization of the craft took root. People were excellent
blacksmiths and smelters, as many copper wares were found at the PGW30 sites.
People knew tin, lead, silver, bronze, gold, iron and copper. A number of expert
groups were mentioned during this period. Overall, both the Vedic texts and
excavations demonstrate the maintenance of professional craftsmanship. Weaving
was exclusively for women, but it was done on a large scale.
 Trade and commerce - The volume of trade and commerce had skyrocketed with the
development of civilization. Both inland and overseas trades developed. With the
Kiratas residing in the mountains, inland trade continued. The herbs were exchanged
29
exchange (goods or services) for other goods or services without using money
30
The Painted Grey Ware culture (PGW) is an Iron Age Indian culture of the western Gangetic plain and the Ghaggar-
Hakra valley in the Indian subcontinent, conventionally dated c.1200 to 600–500 BCE

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 for clothing, armour, and skins. The people gained an understanding of how to
navigate the seas.
There was no beginning of regular coinage. The coins "nishka," "satamana," and
"krishnala" were in circulation. A gold bar known as a "nishka" had a unit value of
three hundred and twenty rati, or the weight of a satamana. The weight of a
"krishnala" was one rati, or 1.8 grams. The trade was controlled by a class of
merchants known as "Pani. "The "sreshthins" and "ganas," or corporations, clearly
indicate that guilds or corporations were formed to facilitate trade and commerce.
During this time, money lending and was also practiced.
 Transportation - The means of transport developed with the growth of trade and
commerce. Regarding means of transport mention may be made of wagons drawn by
oxen, chariots for war and sport and rough vehicle known as ‘bipatha’ for transport of
goods. Elephants and horses were also used. Ships and boats were also used as means
of transport.

RELIGIOUS CONDITIONS
RIGVEDIC PERIOD

The natural forces like The earth, fire, wind, rain, and thunder were worshiped by the
Rigvedic Aryans. They worshipped these natural forces by making many gods out of these
forces. Typically, they performed yajnas in the open air. In the early Rig Vedic period, there
was no idol worship or temple. The recitation of prayers and the offering of sacrifices were
the primary means by which the gods were worshiped. Individual and collective prayers were
offered. Aryans primarily prayed to gods for their children, cattle, food, wealth, health, etc.
but that was not for spiritual development. In the Rig Vedic religion, a peculiar occasion of

15
Henotheism 31or Kathenotheism 32exists in which the deity being invoked in a particular
hymn is regarded as the supreme god.

The mode of worship was simple. The Vedic worship meant primarily only oblation and
prayer. A great value was attached to the hymns. The Aryans chanted hymns to appease the
various divinities. Yajna or sacrifice was another mode to appease the gods and goddesses.
They offered milk, ghee, grains, wine, fruits etc. as offering into fire.

LATER VEDIC PERIOD

Indra and Agni, once prominent gods, have lost their significance. In contrast, in the later
Vedic era, Prajapati, or the Creator, rose to prominence. Rudra, the god of animals, and
Vishnu, the god of people and preservation, rose to prominence alongside other minor gods
of the Rigvedic period. This culture was founded on the cult of sacrifices, which was
accompanied by numerous formulas and rituals. The significance of sacrifices grew
significantly, and they took on both a public and private nature. The kings and the community
as a whole were involved in public sacrifices, whereas private sacrifices were performed by
individuals in their homes by those who led stable lives and had well-established households.
The large-scale killing of animals and, particularly, the destruction of cattle wealth were
among the sacrifices. Goghna, or a person who was fed cattle, was the name given to the
guest. Yajamana, the performer of yajna, was the name given to the sacrificer. Ashvemedha,
Vajapeya, Rajasuya, and other important yajnas were just a few examples.

Towards the end of later Vedic period, the Brahmans claimed a monopoly of priestly
knowledge and expertise and at the same time the opposition against Brahmans grew.

31
adherence to one particular god out of several, especially by a family, tribe, or other group.

32
the worship of one god at a time

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BIBLIOGRAPHY

BOOKS
Vedic India: A history by M. P. Ajith kumar
Ancient India by V.D. Mahajan
An Advanced History of India by RC Majumdar, HC Raychaudhari, Kalikinkar Datta
Life in Ancient India: Studies In Rig Vedic India

ONLINE SOURCES
Vedic religion | Indian religion | Britannica

Vedic religion | Indian religion | Britannica

Vedic Age - INSIGHTSIAS (insightsonindia.com)

Privacy error (iascurrent.com)

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PAPER
3_3_3_JAC.pdf (bioinfopublication.org)

(DOC) Vedic period | manjula vyas - Academia.edu

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