Biology 430: Unit #4 2010

Spring

Chapter 12: Nervous Tissue

1.

What are the two general cell types found within nervous tissue? What are their general functions? Which is excitable? Which can become cancerous? (see also Chapter 4, p139-140) Nervous Tissue Two general types: 1) Neuron: nerve cell Fxn: responds to a stimulus with an action potential 2) Neuroglia Fxn: to support neurons (protects, feeds, etc.)

NEUROGLIA can become cancerous by forming brain tumors from glia, called gliomas. Describe the overall organization of the nervous system (CNS, PNS, ANS, etc.). What are the functions of each specific system? (p425-426)

2.

CNS: brain and spinal cord Peripheral NS: Nervous tissue outside of the brain and spinal cord. Somatic NS: FXN= voluntary movement(somatic motor neuron stimulate skeletal muscle), Perceived sensation (sensation that you are conciously aware of) Autonomic NS: FXN=Involuntary movement (autonomic motor neurons stimulate skeletal MT, cardiac MT and glands), NON-Percived sensation (ex. Sensing Blood Pressure)

3.

Describe the anatomy of a neuron. What are the function(s) of each part/component? Define neurotransmitter.

Axon: FXN: Transport AP Axolemma: Plasma mbn of axon Axoplasm: Cyotplasm of axon Axon terminal Synaptic end bulb: FXN: to release neurotransmitter (chemical released by the synaptic end bulb that stimulates an effector (ex. Ach) Dendrite: FXN: receives stimulation Nucleus: FXN: codes for protein (ex. Neurotransmitter) Nissle bodies: Rough ER Neurofibrils: FXN: structural support, through intermediate filament. Trigger Zone: fxn: triggers Action potential.

4.

Describe the two ways substances are transported up and/or down the axon. What is the rate of axon healing in the PNS? At what rate does the rabies virus travel to get to the CNS? Pg.419 Axonal transport-2 ways 1) Slow- ~3mm/day -one direction only (away from cell body) FXN=to move axoplasm down axon from growth and repair. 2) Fast- ~300mm/day -uses microtubules & ATP FXN: moves vesicles up and down axon (2 directions)

5.

Describe the functional and structural names of neurons. Where are each located?

Pg.420 (figure 12.11) 3 functional names for neurons 1) Sensory Afferent Neurons (AP arrives at CNS) 2) Motor Efferent Neuron (AP exits the CNS) 3) Interneuron (btwn two neurons) 3 structural names for neurons Definition: process= outgrowth from cell body (dendrite)
1) Multipolar neuron -> 2 processes 2) Bipolar neuron -> 2 processes

LOC: the eye

3) Unipolar Neuron-> 1 process

LOC: sensory afferent neuron

6.

Describe the different types of neuroglia in the PNS and CNS. What are their functions ? Neuroglia -FXN: supports neurons -6 types: (2 in peripheral NS, and 4 in the central NS) 2 PNS Neuroglia 1) Satellite cell- surround cell bodies of the unipolar neurons FXN: provide a proper chemical environment for the neuron. 2) Schwann cellFXN: forms the myelin sheath around axon, and forms the neurolemma.

4 CNS Neuroglia
1) Oligodendrocyte:

FXN: myelinates axons in CNS ~ one cell mylenates many axons. Thus there is no neurolemma in the CNS. Thus axons dont heal well in the central nervous system.
2) Astrocyte: large, star shaped cell

Most numerous neuroglia FXN: 1) Provides structural support 2) Guide the neuron connection for learning. 3) Provides the proper chemical environment for neurons. 4) Remove excess NT (neurotransmitter)

5) Helps form the Blood Brain Barrier=FXN: prevents harmful substances from entering the brain 3) Microglia: phagocyte FXN: remove debree or microbes, etc. 4) Ependymal cell: -line the spaces in the CNS FXN: 1) produce cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) which fills the spaces (ventricles) 2) Help circulate the cerebral spinal fluid What are the functions of the myelin sheath and neurolemma? Myelin sheath: multilayered lipid and protein covering, insulates axons & increase the speed of nerve impulse conduction. Neurolemma: nucleated cytoplasmis layer of Schwann Cell which encloses myelin sheath, only found around axons in PNS FXN: when axon is injured it helps aid regeneration by forming tube that guides & stimulates regrowth of axon. What is the blood-brain barrier? Blood Brain Barrier: FXN= prevents harmful substances from entering the Brain How do axons heal? -Some axons can not heal, like the ones in the CNS, but those in the PNS may still be able. Where do axons heal better in the CNS or in the PNS? Why? (p453) Axons heal better in the PNS those in the CNS have little or no repair. In the PNS Axons and dendrites in the associate d with a neurolemma may undergo repair if the CELL BODY is intact, if SCHAWN CELLS are functional & if scar tissue formation does not occur to rapidly.
7.

Distinguish the following pairs: sensory vs. motor: Sensory: feeling & being aware of internal & external changes. Sensory receptors detect internal stimuli, increase blood acidity, external stimuli. (EX. Raindrop landing on the arm.) Sensory info is carried through brain & spinal cord through brain and spinal nerves. Motor: Once sensory info is intergraded; the nervous system may elicit an appropriate motor response by activating (effectors: ex..muscle & glands) through the cranial and spinal nerve stimulation causing muscles to contract and glands to secrete. afferent vs. efferent: Afferent: aka sensory(means: carried towards) contain sensory receptors @ there distal ends(dendrites). When sensory neuron forms AP in its axon its conveyed to the CNS through cranial and spinal nerves (most are unipolar.) Efferent: aka motor(means: away from) they carry AP away from the CNS to effectors in the PNS through cranial and spinal nerves. (most motor neurons are mulitpolar) somatic vs. autonomic: Somatic: convey info from somatic receptors in: head, body wall, & limbs, special senses like; vision, hearing, taste and smell. Motor neuron ONLY conduct impulses to skeletal muscle. (voluntary)

Autonomic: convey senory receptors mainly in visceral organs (ex: stomach & lungs) to the CNS, motor neurons conduct impulses from CNS to smooth muscle, cardiac muscle and glands. (involuntary) contains 2 types: sympathetic division which is ex. Increase in heart rate (fight-or-flight) & parasympathetic division which is ex. Slowing down of heart rate (restand-digest). nerve vs. tract: Nerve: bundle of neuronal axons and/or dendrites that is outside of the CNS. Tract: bundle of nerve axons in the CNS. nucleus vs. ganglion: Nucleus: Cluster of unmylienated nerve cell bodies in the CNS. Ganglion: small masses of nervous tissue, containing neuron cell bodies that are located outside the brain and spinal cord. white matter vs. gray matter: White matter: composed primarily of myelinated axons, whitish color bc myelin gives white color. Gray matter: nervous system contains neuronal cell bodies, dendrites, & unmyelinated axons, axon terminals and neuroglia. GRAY bc nissle bodies give gray look & has very little or my myelin.
8.

What are leakage, ligand-gated, voltage-gated, and mechanically-gated channels? Where are each located on a neuron? What type of membrane potential do each cause? <4 types of channels sticker>

9.

What are the equilibrium potentials of potassium and sodium (EK+ and ENa+)? What forces are acting on these ions? Membrane potential: voltage difference across a plasma membrane.

*if there is only K+ leakage channel, K+ diffuses out. : K+ diffuses out until Equilibrium, when K+ concentrated graded= K+ electrical gradient. -EK+= potassium equilibrium potential= membrane potential @ equilibrium when only K+ channels present. **EK+= -90mv (by measurement)

<drawing for K+ leakage channel>

*if there is only Na+ leak channel: sodium will diffuse IN until equilibrium - ENa+= +60 mv (by measurement)

What is the resting membrane potential? Describe how the resting membrane potential is set up. Resting membrane potential: resting Mbn potential, if there was only K+ leakage channel, then Em= ENa+= + 60 mv Reality: 1) there are both channels.THUS, Em is between -90&+60. 2) There are many more K+ leakage channels.THUS, is closer to -90mv then to +60mv. -Em=-70 mvTHUS, the membrane is polarized. 1)leakage=always leaking (randomly open/close) Loc: everywhere on plasma membrane (black) FXN: sets up RMP<resting membrane potential> (due to mostly K+ leakage channels) <sticker>

**10 will be on test

10. What is a graded potential? Describe the ion movement during each of the two types of

graded potentials. Graded Potential (GP): small variable change in the membrane potential. Key points for graded potential: size of GP depends on the # of channels open. Which depends on the number of amount of NT What is the function of a graded potential? Fxn: to trigger or block an action potential **Can also use: trigger= excite/ and block=inhibit NT#1 open LG sodium channel & NT#2 open LG K+ channel <graph>

What is an action potential? (AP) large, non-variable change in Mbn potential.

11. What is the normal threshold voltage? (-55=threshold voltage normal)Graphically

represent a graded potential, summation of graded potentials and an action potential include the correct units in your graph. <draw graph>

12. What specific steps are involved in the production of an action potential? i.e. Describe how

the voltage-gated sodium channels and voltage-gated potassium channels cause depolarization, repolarization and hyperpolarization. -voltage gated channels on axon: starting @ trigger zone Green= VG Na+ ch. Orange= VG K+ ch <sticker>

Which gates respond fastest to the threshold voltage? Sodium gates respond fastest. Why is the timing of these gates important?

13. What are the absolute and relative refractory periods? When do they occur?

Absolute refactory period: time that a second action potential cant be triggered. WHEN: ?? during the depolarizing & reploarizing phases. (Na+ action gate is already open) Relative refactory period: time that a 2nd AP can be triggered but it takes longer then normal stim. WHEN??: during the hyperpolarizing phase.
14. Describe how action potentials propagate. Why do they propagate on axons but not on

dendrites or cell bodies? AP Propagate: AP move along the plasma mbn this is the purpose the AP (to send the signal) requires voltage gated channels begin @ the trigger zone (TZ), cell body does not have these channels, THUS no AP.

Inside of a neuron is -70 (Em) voltage selted channels open if -55mv threshold is hit.

EX. Na+ channel opens ..Na+ comes in hits nxt channel & it opens cause its threshold etc..which is a domino effect. <drawing>

How do local anesthetics work? Local anesthesia blocks the VG Na+ channels <drawing>

-pain triggers pain receptors- sends AP to brain lidocaine would block the VG Na+ channel so no AP to brain Distinguish between continuous and saltatory conduction. 2 types of conduction:
1) Continuous: unmyelinated axon (no myelin sheath-but the Schwann cell still provides

electrical insivation)

2) Saltatory: uses myelinated axons AP leaps from node to node

*not many VG channels under myelin sheathso threshold occurs due to electrical impulse so the ionic current is fast in salutatory conduction (electricity is fast) bc skipping from node to node. 15. What factors influence action potential speed? Factors of AP speed: 1) Myelin sheath (faster) 2) Diameter of axon big=faster 3) in temperature in speed

What are the different axon fiber types? Where are they located? Which are the fastest, largest, myelinated, etc.? Distinguish between fast pain and slow pain. 3 types of axons aka nerve fibers
1) A fiber: myelinated and large diameter fast up to 250 mi/hr, short refactory perios

LOC: a) somatic motor neuron b) sensory neurons for touch, pressure, & proprioception (since of body position) some temp., sharp pain * sharp pain is felt fast aka fast pain, dull pain = slow pain
2) B Fiber: myelinated & small diameter medium speed (~25mph) have longer refactory

periodlower freq. of AP. Loc: Autonomic nervous system (ANS)

3) C Fibers: unmyelinated & small diameter- slow conduction of AP (~2.5mph)

dull ache= slow brain; has the longest refactory period THUS lowest AP frequency. Loc: a) ANS & b) sensory afferent neurons for some temp & dull pain
16. Define synapse. Describe the steps of synaptic transmission.

Synaptic transmission: between 2 neurons <Drawing> Steps: 1) AP moves down presynaptic endbulb to SEB. 2) AP opens the VG Ca2+ channels 3) Ca2+ diffuses into SEB 4) Ca2+ triggers exocytosis of synaptic vesicles- releasing the NT. 5) NT binds its specific LG channel on postsynaptic end bulb. 6) LG channel open & causes a GP called a postsynaptic potential. What are the two main types of neurotransmitters? What is an EPSP and IPSP? Describe how neurotransmitters cause either an EPSP or an IPSP. 2 types of neurotransmitters (NT):
1) Excitatory NT- opens LG Na+ channel (excitatory EPSP) 2) Inhibitory NT- opens LG K+ or Cl- channel (inhibitory IPSP)

<graphs> (* EPSP= excitatory post synaptic potential)(*IPSP=inhibitory post synaptic potential)

* Post synaptic neurons get hit with both @ same time.

17. What are temporal and spatial summation? How do they produce an action potential in the

post-synaptic neuron?

Summation of AP: 1 post synaptic neuron may binf many neurotransmitters @ the same timeIF the sum of all EPSP/ IPSP cause threshold @ TZ=AP. Types of summation of the AP: they all work together
1) Temporal summation: due to amount of NT from one presynaptic neuron (depends on

frequency of AP in presynaptic neuron) # of presynaptic N.)

2) Spatial summation: due to amount of NT from more than one presynaptic N. (depends on

18. Describe all the ways that neurotransmitters are removed. NT removal: so the NT effects are short lined 1) Via diffusion- NT diffuses away from synaptic cleft and more taken up by astroctyes 2) Enzymes break down- ex. AChE 3) Reuptake- NT taken back into synaptic vesicle (this is by active transport) -ATP needed.
19. Know all the neurotransmitters discussed in class including their locations and their functions at those locations. (Know the material from the supplemental notes) What diseases and/or drugs

are associated with the various NTs? What are MAOI and SSRI? What are their functions? Why do you have to be careful if taking an MAOI? Compare agonist versus antagonist. **READ OVER ATTACHED LECTURE NOTES PRINTED FROM D2L!!!**** SSRI: Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors SSRI blocks the active transport+ pump- so blocks reuptake - NT stays in cleft longer= greater effect of the NT.

20. For both Alzheimers Disease and Parkinsons Disease, describe the neuronal damage that

causes them. What are the resulting NT deficits and results of those deficits? Chapter 13: The Spinal Cord and Spinal Nerves (Lab material may be tested in the lecture exam)
1. What are the three layers of the meninges? Describe the spaces associated with these layers

3 types of meninges: 1) Spinal meninges: surround the spinal cord and continuous with cranial meninges. 2) Crainal meninges: encircles the brain. 3) Dura mater: most superficial of the three, composed of dense irregular CT Arachnoid mater: middle of the 3 meninges of brain & spinal cord. Pia mater: innermost of the 3 meninges of Spaces: 1) Epidural space: btn the dura mater & wall of vertebral column 2) Subdural space: btn the dura mater & arachronoid mater & contains intestinal fluid. 3) Subarachnoid space: btn the arachnoid mater and pia mater has CSF that serves as a shock absorber.

picture on the next page..know for lab stuff too

What are the conus medullaris, cauda equina, and filum terminale?

(Discussed in lab)

Concus medullaris: spinal cord terminates/ends as a tapering Filum terminale: extention of pia mater, extends inferiorly, blends with arachnoid mater & dura mater and anchors to the spinal cord & coccyx. Cauda equine: (horse tail hair) a group name to distinguish the nerves that arise from the lumbar, sacral, and coccyx region of spinal cords.

2. Define reflex? Reflex: involuntary response to stimuli.

What is a reflex arc? What are the components of a reflex arc? Reflex arc= AP pathway for reflex. (5 components)
Stimulus 1) Sensory receptor
(Responds to stimulus by producing a generator or receptor potential) 2) Sensory Neuron

3) Intergrating Center Either the spinal cord or brain stem.

pg. 482 figure 13.14

5) Effector -skeletal muscle -smooth muscle -gland **effector will cause a response

4) motor neuron

Axon conducts impulses from intergrating center to effector

Distinguish between spinal vs. cranial, autonomic vs. somatic, monosynaptic vs. polysynaptic, and ipsilateral vs. contralateral reflexes. <sticker>

Examples for Types of reflexes: Spinal R: knee jerk reflex Cranial R: shining light into pupil & the pupil constricts Somatic R: Knee Jerk reflex; uses muscles to kick out Autonomic R: effector is smooth muscle or gland Monosynaptic R: Polysynaptic R: most are polysynaptic reflexes Ipsilateral: On the same side Contralateral: On the opposite side
3. Describe and diagram the stretch reflex. What is the stimulus, receptors and response of this

reflex? What is the purpose/function of the stretch reflex? Describe the reciprocal innervation during the stretch reflex. Stretch relax: Stim: stretch of a muscle Reflex: stretched muscle contracts Purpose: 1) it maintains position homeostasis2) Controls muscle tone Type: spinal reflex, somatic reflex monosynaptic reflex, ipsilateral reflex. Reciprocial Innovation of stretch reflex: Stim: stretch of muscle Response: relaxation of antagonist muscle Purpose: allows movement

<sticker on STRETCH RELFEX>

4. What are the Tendon Reflex and the Flexor and Cross-Extensor Reflex? What are their

purposes/functions? Pg.484 Tendon reflex: Stimulus: increase tention in a muscle. Response: muscle relaxes Purpose: prevent injury * at the same time of a Flex reflex you have a cross extensor reflex Cross extensor reflex: Stimulus: pain (ex. step on a tact) Response: extention of the opposite limb (ex. extend your opposite knee) Purpose: for keeping balance Chapter 14: The Brain and Cranial Nerves (Lab material may be tested in the lecture exam)
1.

What is the blood-brain barrier?

(Discussed earlier in lecture)

Blood Brain Barrier=FXN: prevents harmful substances from entering the brain.
2.

What specific structure and cells create the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)? What are the functions of the CSF? (Discussed in lab) CSF: is a clear, colorless liquid FXN: protects the brain and spinal cord from chemical and physical injuries. It also carries O2, glucose and other needed chemicals from blood to neurons & neurolgia. Serves as a shock absorber.

3.

What structures make up the brain stem? What are the general functions of the brain stem? Brain stem: 3 parts
1) Midbrain: mesencephaalon

2) Pons: a part of the metecephalon 3) Medulla oblongata: myelecephalon General FXN: 1) Controls basic life functionsregulates the heart, breathing, digestion..etc.. 2) Contains motor and sensory tracts 3) Contains nuclei and cranial nerves 4) Integration for cranial nerves. 5) Regulates consciousness & sleep

4.

What are the functions of the reticular activating system? (Chapter 16, p590-591) Reticular activating system: (RAS) in the brain stem -clusters of neurons in a net like formation. FXN: 1)regulates consciousness & 2)awakens you from sleep *If asleep: RAS
Activates that if sensory is strong enough Thalamus & Cerebral Cortex

Awake

Sensory input going into like an alarm clock

*Can be any sensory modality (special scenes types) except for smell

Why do you fall asleep? Describe how caffeine to keep you awake? Why do we fall asleep: 1) When you are awake you use ATP. 2) ATP use Adenosine 3) Adenosine binds some receptors called A1 receptors. Which inhibits the RAS neurons causing sleepiness. * caffine blocks the A1 receptors*** Describe the stages of sleep. Sleep: 3 main parts A. REM= rapid eye movement B. Non-REM=has 4 stages Stage 1 sleep: has their eye closed & relaxed, flecting thoughts Stage 2 sleep: light sleep, eyes roll up to the side, can be a little bit of dreaming. Stage 3 sleep: moderate deep sleep, decrease in BP, decrease in temperature. Stage 4 sleep: deep sleep, decrease in BP, decrease in BT, (may be sleep walking) *REM- 3~5 episodes per night: -dreaming, decrease muscle tone, may be paralysis, very high neuronal activity. FXN: very much unknown.
5.

What are the functions of the cerebellum, thalamus and hypothalamus?

(Discussed in lab)

Cerebellum: Smoothes and coordinates contractions of skeletal muscle & regulates Posture and balance. Thalamus: maintenance of consciousness, relays almost all sensory input to cerebral cortex, helps with motor functions by transmitting info from cerebellum and basal ganglia to primary motor area of the cerebral cortex. Hypothalamus: controls and integrates activities of the autonomic nervous system, produces hormones and releasing hormones oxytocin & ADH, regulates emotional and behavioral problems, regulates eating and drinking & controls body temperature. 6. What are the 5 lobes of the cerebrum? 5 lobes= 1) Frontal lobe 2) Parietal lobe 3) Occipital lobe 4) Temporal lobe 5) Insula pg.516 for picture

What are the functions and locations (i.e. their specific lobe) of the following cerebral cortex areas: primary motor cortex, primary somatosensory area, pre-frontal area, Brocas Area, Wernickes Area, primary visual area, primary auditory area, visual association area and auditory association area. (Discussed in lab)

7.

What are commissural, association and projection tracts? Give specific examples of each.
(Discussed in lab)

(Cerebral white matter) Association tracts: contain axons that conduct nerve impulses btn gyrui in the same hemisphere. Commissural tract: contains axons the conduct nerve impulses from gyri one cerebral hemisphere to another gyri in the other cerebral hemisphere. Projection tract: contains axons that conduct nerve impulses from the cerebrum to lower part of the CNS.
8.

What structures are associated with the basal ganglia? What is Parkinsons Disease? Why does L-Dopa improve the symptoms of Parkinsons Disease? (Discussed in lecture, lab & NT handout) **READ OFF OF NEUROTRANSMITTER LECTURE NOTES**

9.

Describe the structures and functions associated with the limbic system. ***LOOK @ FLASH CARDS FOR LIMBIC SYSTEM

(Discussed in lab)

- sometimes referred to as the emotional brain primary roles in range of emotions: pleasure, pain, affection, fear, and anger. Also olfaction (smell) & memory.
10. What is aphasia? What are the two types of aphasia? What can cause each type?*BONUS? 11. Describe hemispheric lateralization. What functions are associated with each hemisphere?

*BONUS ?
**look

12. Know the twelve cranial nerves and their functions, brain exits and skull exits.

(Discussed in lab)

at lab material for cranial nervesplace by this page.

Chapter 16: Sensory, Motor, and Integrative Systems

1.

Define sensation. Sensation: bodys awareness of stimulus.

Stim.

Sensory receptor

CNS
AP

Dendrites respond to stimulus by opening LG or MG channels(casuing depolarizing) GP

Define sensory modality: A unique type of sensation (ex. touch, pain, vision, etc.) Ex. Each sensory neuron carries only 1 modality. What is a generator potential? -A depolarizing in the dendrites of a sensory neuron. What are the possible CNS responses to a sensation? Define perception. CNS Responces: 1) Reflex: involuntary response 2) Perception=conscious awareness of sensation. 3) Ignore the sensation = problem in people with Autism. 4) Intergration is the process of learning.
2.

Describe the organization of the sensory modalities. What specific receptors are associated with each of the different modalities? Organization of Senses

Senses

Special Senses
5 Special Senses 1. Vision 2. Hearing 3. Taste 4. Smell 5. Equilibrium

General Senses
Visceral Senses: for the autonomic NS

Somatic Senses: are perceived But not special senses. Ex. touch

Somatic sensory modality: & receptors

1) Touch recp: Meissner corpuscle, merkel disk, hair root plexus 2) Pressure recp: pacinian corpuscle 3) Vibration recp: pacinian corpuscle & meissner corpuscle 4) Proprioception recp: muscle spindle + senses (muscle length/tention), tendon organ. 5) Temperature theromereceptors (free nerve ending dendrites respond to the stimulus.) 6) Pain Noiceptor (free nerve ending

Define adaptation. What causes adaptation? Adaption: decrease perception of a stimulus while the stimulus is still present. (ex. Jump in a cold lake & is able to adjust to the coldness) 2 causes: 1) sensory receptor: - generator potential while the stimulus is still present Fast adapt: touch, pressure, temp. Slow adapt: pain, proprioception 2) brain=can ignore the sensation.
3.

What sensory modality information is carried by the lateral spinothalamic tract and the posterior (dorsal) column? Where do the 1st, 2nd and 3rd order neurons of these tracts synapse? Where do they cross? Be able to draw out these tracts and neurons.

Somatic Sensory Pathways FXN: relay sensory info from sensory receptor to 1msomatosensory are (1SSA) -(uses) 3 neurons 1) 1st order neuron (1st on) 2) 2nd order neuron (2nd on) 3) 3rd order neuron (3rd on) ** Key Points= 2nd order neuron cell body is at the same level as its decussation 9means: the crossing to the opposite side) **WHY 3 NEURONS?..its allows us to modify or ignore the sensation. <sticker>
1) Posterior column pathways FXN: relays info for: touch, proprioception, vibration -KEY POINTS= 2nd order neuron cell body & decussation is @ the medulla oblongata Ex. Touch on the thumb

2) Lateral spinothalamic pathways FXN: relay information for : pain, itch, temp, & tickle *KEY POINT: 2nd prder neuron cell body & decussation is in the spinal cord EX. Pain on Elbow <sticker>

4.

Distinguish between upper and lower motor neuron. What is the function of the lateral corticospinal tract and the anterior corticospinal tract? Where do each of these tracts cross? Be able to draw out these tracts and neurons.

5.

Describe upper and lower motor neuron damage. Describe how a clinician can test reflexes to check for these.

6.

What is referred pain? Give an example. What is a dermatome? (Chapter 13, p480) Referred Pain: pain felt at a location that is different then the pain orgin. EX. Heart attack felt at the left arm. (figure 16.3) Dermatome: Sensory area of the skin that is innervated by a single spinal nerve. Ex. Shingles > a rash is a band -When the immune system lowers after old age the chicken pox virus will use the axon to travel down, in a vesicle, to skin to start to divide.

7.

Define memory and learning. What neuronal structural changes are required?

What is plasticity?

Distinguish between immediate, short-term and long-term memory. What is memory consolidation?