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Progressive design for students,

3 1924 020 576 306

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PROGRESSIVE DESIGN FOR STUDENTS
PROGRESSIVE DESIGN
FOR STUDENTS

BY

JAMES WARD
AUTHOR OF "principle? OF ORNAMRNT," "HISTORIC ORNAMENT," FTC.

WITH FORTY-TWO ILLUSTRATIONS

LONDON; CHAPMAN AND HALL, Limitei>

1902
PROGRESSIVE DESIGN
FOR STUDENTS

BY

JAMES WARD
AUTHOR OF "principles OF ORNAMENT," "HISTORIC ORNAMENT," ETC.

WITH FORTY-TWO ILLUSTRATIONS

LONDON: CHAPMAN AND HALL, Limited

1902
ir
 PREFACE

This Work on Ornamental Design, as its title indicates,

consists of a series of " Progressive" Lessons in Ele-

mentary and Applied Design, such as a Master might

give to a class of pupils who are desirous to obtain a

knowledge of the subject. The author has practised the

method laid down in the book when oivintj instruction to

classes in the elementary and advanced stages of design,

and has found that the course of study therein recom-

mended has produced some fairly satisfactory results.

The illustrations and examples of design are all based

on Nature, and have been conventionalised or treated to

suit the requirements of the space or object to which the

decoration is applied.

It is to be hoped that the book will be useful to Masters

of our Primary Schools when instructing large classes in

rudimentary design, and to Students and Masters of Art

Schools and Classes also, from the progressive nature of

the studies illustrated and explained. As to the practice

viii PREFACE

and principles of ornament, it is hoped that any one, who

is anxious for a knowledge of the subject, will find the

book an aid to his advancement in the study of design and

ornament.

A number of drawings are given, from Nature, of

Flowers, Leaves, Foliage, Birds, Insects, &c., which

Students may find useful as material for the units of their

essays in design, and lastly, one of the features of the book

is the explanation of some of the rudimentary but important

laws and principles, which should guide the young Student

in the Art of designing ornament and decoration.

JAMES WARD.
 CONTENTS

CHAPTER
PAGE
JNTRODUCTORY I

CHAPTER II

ON THE DRAWING AND DESIGNING OF BORDER ORNAMENT AND BI-

LATERAL ARRANGEMENTS ...

CHAPTER III

ON THE DESIGNING OF ORNAMENT TO FILL GIVEN SPACES . . . l6

CHAPTER IV
BRUSH-DRAWING 24

CHAPTER V
STENCILLING . . . .
29

CHAPTER VI
INTERLACING AND STRAP-WORK ORNAMENT 35

CHAPTER VII
.SOME APPLICATIONS OF DESIGN AND ORNAMENT 39
COUNTERCHANGE ORNAMENT .
45
SURFACE PATTERN DESIGN. THE DROP PATTERN .46
 ;;

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
PLATE
BORDER DESIGNS I

II

III

BI-LATERAL ARRANGEMENTS IV
V
GEOMETRICAL FIGURES AND CONSTRUCTION LINES VI
GEOMETRICAL FIGURES, SUBDIVISIONS VII

TRIANGLES ; DESIGNS FOR THE FILLING OF ... VIII

SQUARES „ „ IX
CIRCLES ; „ „ X
PENT.AGOXS ; „ „ XI
OBLONGS „ „ XII
OGEE AND LOZENGE SHAPES ;
XIII
SEMICIRCLE OR LUNETTE ;
XIV
LEAF FORMS ; TYPES OF XV
FLOWER FORMS ; TYPES OF XVI
FOLIAGE ; EXAMPLES OF XVII
FRUIT ; VARIOUS liXAMPLES OF ... . XVIII
INSECT AND BIRD FORMS XIX
BIRD, FISH, AND ANIMAL FORMS . . XX
BRUSH FORMS AND BRUSH EXPRESSION XXI
SILHOU^TE LEAF AND FLO\VER FORMS XXII
xii LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

I'LATE

SILHOUETTE PLANT FOR.MS XXIII

TITLE PAGE IN BRUSH EXPRESSION . . . XXIV
BRUSH DRAWING IN LINE ; EXAMPLE OF XXV
STENCILLED ORNAMENT . . . XXVI
JAPANESE STENCILS . . . XXVII
STENCIL FOR SURFACE DECORATION . . . XXVIII
STENCIL FOR PANEL DECORATION . . XXIX
INTERLACING DESIGNS XXX
INTERLACING AND STRAP-WORK ORNAMENT . , . XXXI
GERMAN CUP DESIGN ; EXAMPLE OF STRAP-WORK . . XXXII
PROPORTION, RATIO, ETC., EXAMPLES OF XXXIII
PROPORTION OF SPACES IN FLOOR DESIGN ... . XXXIV
PROPORTION IN ALTAR CLOTH DESIGN ... . . XXXV
CARVED WOOD PANELS, PROPORTION AND WANT OF IN . XXXVI
DESIGN FOR A MAJOLICA DISH . . . ... . XXXVII
COUNTERCHANGE ORNAMENT XXXVIII
CHECKER AND DIAPER DESIGNS XXXIX
DROP PATTERNS IN TEXTILES . XL
DROP PATTERN DESIGNED ON THE DIAMOND . . . .
'"."
. XLI
DROP PATTERN DESIGNED ON THE RECTANGLE XLII
PROGRESSIVE DESIGN FOR STUDENTS

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTORY

Any one who has gained an elementary knowledge of

drawing, derived from making copies of simple ornamental
or natural forms, may be taught the principles and may
begin the practice of rudimentary design in ornament. To
provide himself with material, to be used as units, or ele-

ments, for his first attempts in design, it ig only necessary

that the student should be able to draw, with the pencil or
brush, some fair representations of simple flowers and leaves
of plants from nature ; or if there should be any difficulty
in obtaining characteristic natural forms for study in the

schools, the master should draw some simple examples of

leaves or flowers on the blackboard, as units for the pro-
posed composition in design, or the pupils should be allowed
to copy some well-drawn and accurate illustrations from
nature for this purpose. The word "accurate " is not used
2 PROGRESSIVE DESIGN FOR STUDENTS

here to imply that the copies should be imitated from nature

in a photographic sense, but that they should be truthful in

a general way, showing the correct growth and spirit of the

natural specimen, and should be drawn more in elevation

than in perspective. The importance of having good and

accurate examples of drawings from nature and pictorial
art on the walls of our schools may be illustrated by the
following example qf " how not to do it." The writer,

when visiting one of our public schools, saw some coloured

lithographic examples of plant drawings on the walls,
intended for the use of the designing class ; one of these
was named the " Common Wild Rose ;
" but it was anything
but common, for this libel of nature was represented with
four petals instead of the usual five, and further, the lower

leaves were arranged on the leaf stalk alternately, instead

of growing opposite as they do in nature !

Very few kinds of plants have been used as ornament in

decorative design, considering the vast storehouse of nature

in this direction. Ancient and medieval artists, and even
modern artists have been contented with a limited choice.
Egypt and Assyria used the lotus, lily, papyrus, palm and
daisy. The ivy, olive, fir tree, and oak, honeysuckle, and
acanthus, were chiefly used by the Greeks, and later by the
Romans and artists of the Renaissance period (thirteenth
to seventeenth century) ; medieval or Gothic artists, in-

cluding the earlier Romanesque and Byzantine decorators,

used the vine, lily, passion-flower, maple and trefoil, plants
which had symbolic meanings.
 INTRODUCTOR^' 3

The Chinese kept to the peony and chrysanthemum, the

Japanese to the bamboo, fir tree, cherry and ahnond trees,
and the Saracens adopted a peculiar form of leaf in their

ornament, which is not exactly a leaf. The Persians in

their older work affected the Indian and Chinese natural
forms, but in their later work show an artistic appreciation
of many well-known flowers, such as the tulip, the rose,

the aster and hyacinth, but few plants, considering the

numerous varieties in nature, have been converted into

historic ornament.
Fruits have usually been bunched together in masses, or

used in festoons in ornament.

Lessons may be learned from the treatment of plants in
Japanese art, such as directness of drawing, flexibility and
gracefulness of the natural curves, and their simplicity in

rendering foliage and floral forms, and from the Persians

in their delightful conventional echoes of plant form, as
expressed in their tile and pottery decoration.
The leaves, flowers, and fruit of the commonest plants
will serve as the best material for use in the first exercises
of rudimentary design. Many varieties also of moths,
butterflies, and other insects, as well as some simple forms
of animals, fishes, and birds, will provide useful material
when the student has had some experience with the simpler
flower and leaf forms.
I think it would be a wise thing if exercises in rudi-
mentary design could take the place of the usual practices
in freehand drawing in most of our primary and secondary

B 2
 4 PROGRESSIVE DESIGN FOR STUDENTS

schools, for it is evident that the young student might

advance quite as rapidly in the art of drawing, by executing
his own designs, provided he is not allowed to use tracing
paper or to adopt any other mechanical means to obtain
the "turn over," or repeats of his pattern, as he would by
going through the usual dreary experience of copying the
classical acanthus foliage, and spiral scroll-work. The
Roman and Italian acanthus foliage has had long innings
as the stock examination copies, and it is quite certain that
both teachers and students would welcome, occasionally, an
examination copy derived from some other natural or
historical source.

The study of classical ornament should have attention

concurrently with the drawing of, and designing from,
examples of plants and natural forms, not to be copied so
much as a means of learning to draw, but for the purpose
of enabling the student to learn the principles and con-
struction on which the composition of good ornament is

based. Too much copying of the acanthus foliage in art

is dry food for the young student, and is apt to create in
him a distaste for his work and to dull his imaginative
powers. Generally speaking, the study of historic ornament
might safely be left until the student has learned to draw
from objects and natural forms, and has had a fair amount
of practice 'in rudimentary design, for at this period in his
education his mind and judginent will be more ready to
receive and profit by the lessons which may be derived
from a study of such work.
 ;

INTRODUCTORY 5

Although the early study and practice of elementary

design is recommended, it should be unde-stood that draw-
ing from models and real objects should not be neglected
on the contrary, lessons in model drawing should alternate
with exercises in rudimentary design, in order that the pupil
should improve his hand and eye in the matters of pro-
portion and in the application of the laws of perspective,
when representing solid objects. Ten minutes or a quarter

of an hour's practice, once in a fortnight, in drawing from

memory some object shown to the student a few minutes
before he begins his task, would be an interesting change
in the student's work, and a valuable exercise for the

mind.
As a training for the mind, apart from its practical

value in the matter of hand and eye training, the practice

of design, as a school subject, is analogous to that of literary
composition, and is of the utmost value to the average
pupil in stimulating and developing his inventive powers.

Children are often asked, at school, to write essays on given

subjects, the object being that they may learn how to put

their own ideas and thoughts on paper ;

and further, tkese

compositions are, at the same time, exercises in the

grammatical construction of sentences. The intellectual

and reasoning faculties are here brought into action, afford-

ing a welcome relief from the pupil's more abstract and
mechanical lessons in other subjects. Originality of ideas,

the quality of the subject-matter, and the grammatical or

logical composition of the words and sentences, are looked
6 PROGRESSIVE DESIGN FOR STUDENTS

for in any literary effort of merit. It is obvious that a

training in the art of literary composition is of more value
than many other endless lessons in the mechanical acquisition
of knowledge of school subjects towards the developrnen^
of the pupil's intelligence ; and just in the same way, with
the hand and eye training added, will a systematic course
of lessons in rudimentary design help to brighten and
develop the mind of the pupil in a far greater degree
than the continuous and mechanical copying of drawing
examples.
In beginning the study of rudimentary design, forms of
the commoner plants should be used as material in prefer-
ence to abstract forms derived merely from straight and
curved lines. Design in purely abstract, geometrical, or
conventional forms will be better left until the pupil has
had one or two years' practice in the arrangement of natural
elements as compositions in design. In view of this, I

propose that we should take the ivy plant for our first

lesson in design, which, with its leaves and berries, though

common enough, is one of the most beautiful plants we have
around us. It will also form an object-lesson in the illus-
tration for some of the most elementary but important
principles of ornament.

From the first lesson, the master should explain to his

class of young students the elementary principles of orna-
ment, which might also be termed the grammar of
decorative
composition, without conforming to which, a design,
how-
ever effective, can hardly be considered good ornament.
 INTRODUCTORY 7

We may admit that a great poet may make his own grammar,
and a great artist may occasionally defy principles and
artistic laws, but beginners in any art will make more
progress when guided by sound principles and definite

laws.
 CHAPTER II

ON THE DRAWING AND DESIGNING OF BORDER ORNAMENT

AND BI-LATERAL ARRANGEMENTS

To create an interest in the mind of the young pupil for

his work, whether in drawing or design, it is important to
introduce to his notice some natural form or object, or a fair
representation of the same, so that he may recognise it as
the form of something he may have seen in nature. He
should be instructed how to design some rudimentary
arrangement based on this natural form, and to keep his

uwork, at first, as simple as possible, but the recurring units

of his design should be drawn as carefully and correctly as
his powers will admit.

If possible, a sprig of the natural plant should be obtained,

and a bold drawing from the plant should be made on the
blackboard by the teacher in cases where large classes of
pupils have to be taught. It would be better, however, to

get the pupils to make their own drawings from nature

when possible. This is not always practicable, nor is it

convenient always to obtain natural specimens, but, as before

 DRAWING AND DESIGNING OF BORDER ORNAMENT 9

mentioned, the drawings on the blackboard may be made

from good representations of the leaves, flowers, and fruit

of some plant, and the pupils should be asked to copy them

on the top left-hand side of their sheet of drawing-paper in
pencil, and afterwards put a wash of any simple flat colour
on the drawing. The drawing of the plant selected to make
the design from ought to be truthful in the general out-
line, without much perspective or foreshortening. A few
renderings of different shapes of leaves, buds, flowers, or
fruit, common to the plant, will be useful as presenting a
variety of material, but no botanical sections or separated
organs of the plant should be shown. Plant sections and
shapes of the various organs in plant life are necessary for
for scientific illustration and study, but not from an artistic

point of view, for in science we require the whole truth,

but in art we only want selected truths.

Reference to Plate I. shows how the leaves and berries
of the ivy plant are used as units of the border designs
and bi-lateral or symmetrical arrangements. A diagram of
the plant is shown on the plate. The typical ivy leaf is en-

closed in a pentagon whose lowest side is shorter than the

others. A series of similar pentagons should be lightly
drawn in pencil, each about three inches in height, to form
a border as shown at A. No measuring should be attempted.
A leaf should then be drawn inside each of the pentagons,
and the leaf stalks joined to the horizontal bottom line.

After the whole work is clearly and firmly outlined with the
lead-pencil, or with a brush and colour, it should be filled
lo PROGRESSIVE DESIGN FOR STUDENTS

in with any agreeable water-colour wash. This design (A)

should occupy the upper half of a quarter-imperial sheet of
paper. Accurate and careful drawing is of the greatest im-

portance, and should be attended to in all the exercises in

design, for the system of teaching here set forth embraces,
what is to be hoped, a rational gradation of lessons in

freehand drawing, using either the pencil or brush, as well

as progressive studies in decorative design.
After the above exercise is finished, or at a subsequent
lesson, the master should instruct the pupil to copy his
design in direct brush-work, on the same sheet of paper,
parallel to, and underneath the original exercise. A small
saucer filled with any agreeable colour, or coloured ink,
should be provided — one, say, for every two students. Sable
brushes of a medium size are best for use, and will be found
cheaper in the end than camel-hair brushes. When the
brush is well charged with colour, the horizontal line should

be drawn first, then each leaf should be copied, beginning

at the apex, and drawing down rapidly a vertical stroke
through the intended centre of the leaf to meet the horizon-
tal line and to form the leaf-stalk ; the contour of the leaf
should be drawn quickly and as accurately as possible ; then
finally the whole leaf should be filled in with colour. Fig.
B, on Plate I. illustrates the brush-work effect, though here
the design is slightly varied, the result being a " silhouette"-
where the treatment of " mass " is the primary consideration.
The latter exercise makes a pleasant variation in the pupil's-
task, and is an extremely useful and important factor in the
 PLATE IV.

Bl-LATERAL OR SYMMETRICAL ARRANGEMENTS FROM THE HORSE CHESTNUT.

\.To face page 14.
 PLATE I.

fv^ A
s ,-4-

»» A

&

Border Designs and Bi-laterai, Arrangements from the Ivy Plant.

{To face page lo.
 DRAWING AND DESIGNING OF BORDER ORNAMENT ii

education of his hand and eye in the matter of direct re-

presentation ; for in the execution of this kind of work he
cannot rub out any portion he once puts in, and knowing
this he is forced to work with great care.

The atte.mpts of beginners in these first exercises will;

of course, be very moderate, rough, unequal, and in

some cases amusing, but practice will very soon effect an

improvement if the system is only given a fair trial.

I should point out that the " brush-drawing" here recom-

mended is not to be confounded with the Kindergarten
"blobbing," which, though a species of brush-work, and a
very entertaining occupation for young children, is more of
an amusement than a serious aid to art education. We
see, at times, in the exhibitions of primary school work,
some wonderful examples of patience and monotony. Illus-

trating the fashionable "blobbing" species of brush-work,

which are very clever and smart in execution, very neat,
but very mechanical.
The objection to " blobbing " is that it is usually carried

too far in some schools, that it leads to the suppression of

individuality in the pupil's work, and the results from an
educational point of view hardly justify the spending of
the time which is usually bestowed upon it. Brush-work
" silhouetting " from nature, and the translation of orna-
ment, as practice in brush-drawing, will be considered and
illustrated later on. (See Chapter IV.)
Fig. A, on Plate 1., is an illustration of " repetition " in

ornament, and Fig. B is an example of "alternation." U

12 PROGRESSIVE DESIGN FOR STUDENTS

The inverted heart-shaped ivy leaf alternates with the

ordinary five-pointed variety. Fig. C shows "alternation"

with the leaf and berries of the ivy, and illustrates " con-
trast." The arrangement of the berries illustrates the

principle of "radiation" in the growth of the berry-stalks,

the berries expanding in an " umbel " shape.
It will be noted that "radiation" is also illustrated by
the disposition of the principal veing in the ivy leaf, this

construction being similar in all leaves of the vine family,

of which the ivy is a member.
The next lesson, on the designing of the continuous
border, is illustrated on Plate II., the elements of which are
derived from the wood-sorrel. After the diagram of the
plant is drawn, the student should be allowed to make a
circle with compasses, to contain the first trefoil leaf of the

border design. This circle should be divided equally by

six radial lines, and the first leaf should be drawn in as af

Fig. A. The repeating leaves should be drawn of the

same size, without measuring, and the connecting base-line
afterwards. When the border design is outlined in carefully,
and the masses of the leaves are coloured, assuming that
the student has' done this on the top half of his sheet of
paper, a brush-work silhouette copy ought to be made on
the lower half of the paper, as explained in the former case
of the ivy-leaf border.
The second border, B, on Plate II., has the flower of the
wood-sorrel alternating with the leaf When converting
the flower to ornamental purposes,- a conventional rendering
 PLATE II.

Border Designs and Bi-lateral Arrangements from the Wood-Sorrel Plant.

[To face page 12,
 PLATE III.

Border Designs from the Oak Leaf and Acorn, showing Various Treatments of
THE Corner.
[To face page 13.
 DRAWING AND DESIGNING OF BORDER ORNAMENT 13

should be given, using the circle and the inscribed regular

pentagon as the geometrical elements on which the flower
is constructed, but in the repetitions of the flower or leaf
these mechanical helps should not be resorted to, for the

object of learning to draw in a freehand manner should

always be kept in view. Fig. C, on this plate, has for the
motive of the design the folded side view of the trefoil

leaf —the ordinary appearance of the leaf when it is

"sleeping" in the evening and during the night. This

design might be termed a "chasing" or running border.
Plate III. shows five different ways of designing the

corner in border ornament, the motives being the leaves

and acorns of the oak. To design a satisfactory corner to
a border is not an easy task. It is surprising to find how
very few ways there are in which a running border orna-
ment can be " mitred " so as to look well. The difficulty is

often got over by treating the corner space as a square, but

if there is no " echo " of some part of the border ornament
in the square, the problem is not solved. It will be noted
that the conventional rendering of the oak leaves and
acorns on this plate, although very much simplified from
the natural specimens, still retain the spirit and character
of nature. It is po.ssible, of course, to produce good orna-
ment, as the Greeks, Romans, and Saracens have done, in
which the natural forms have become so abstract, or so far
" corrupted," as to have lost their quality as derivatives
from nature, but we should remember, if we are to produce
any measure, however small, of originality in our designs,
14 PROGRESSIVE DESIGN FOR STUDENTS

or if we are to interest ourselves and others in our work,

we shall succeed better, if we try to keep a reminiscence of
nature in our productions.
The shapes of the leaves and acorns on Plate III. are

modified in proportion, height, and width according to the

requirements of their positions.
Figs. A and B, on this plate, may be termed " radiating
borders," and C, D, and E "running" patterns of borders.
The border at A shows a severe rendering of the leaf, and
has the enclosing line around the edges, the first step to
mark the position and shape ; and the " squat " shape of the
acorns brings them into harmony with the border lines and
spreading character of the leaves.
Students are advised to try other plants, as well as the
ones given, for their exercises in border designing, and
after some practice in the latter they should try to com-

pose bi-lateral or symmetrical arrangements. These should

be designed very simply, without any reference to enclosing
or boundary lines.
This kind of exercise is very useful as practice in getting

the balance of "mass" and "line," and is excellent for

freehand practice when executed on a fairly large scale,
which should not be less than a quarter-imperial size for
each design. When the design is drawn and coloured
flady, a copy of it should be made in direct brush-\York,

about one-third the size of the original.

Examples of these designs are given at D and E, on
Plate I. ; the latter example, from the ivy plant, is simpli-
 PLATE V.

A, B, AND C, Bl-LATERAL ARRANGEMENTS FROM THE TULIP AND WATER LiLY ;

D, Radial Design from Water Lily.

\To face fage 15.
 DRAWING AND DESIGNING OF BORDER ORNAMENT 15

fied to an extreme degree, but still remains vested with

a reminiscence of nature. " Symmetry," or like-sidedness,
"balance," and "contrast" are obviously the principles

exemplified in this design. Figs. D and E, on Plate II.,

derived from the wood-sorrel, though square in contour,

are not designed to fill a square. Three varieties of
symmetrical combinations are shown on Plate IV., and are
derived from the horse-chestnut.
The tulip is used as a motive in the designs at A and B,

Plate v., and the design C shows an arrangement of the

folded leaves and buds of the water-lily in elevation, while

the figure at D is a combination of the flowers and leaves

of the same plant shown in plan ; this is a very geome-
trical but legitimate rendering of the water-lily plant in
ornament. This design is very suitable for a treatment in
three colours, but is not so good as a brush-work exercise.
Bi-lateral combinations are far less difficult to design

than the filling of given spaces in ornament, or designing

for a special purpose, as in applied designs. The student
has only to be careful to obtain some pleasing lines of
arrangement and forms, the doubling over of which, in

most cases, is nearly sure to give pleasing results. Even

an ugly-shaped blot, or lop-sided form, will often, when
doubled over, make a satisfactory bit of ornament.
 CHAPTER III

ON THE DESIGNING OF ORNAMENT TO FILL GIVEN SPACES

Some geometrical figures are represented on Plate VI.,

numbered i to lo, the filling of which with ornamental

arrangements will now be considered. Apart from the

designing of a pleasing combination of decorative forms, the
student has to consider the enclosing lines of the figure
which is to contain the ornament. He should also bear in

mind that the principal masses should be so arranged that

they may " echo ''

the general shape of the figure selected
for decoration. Before deciding the actual scheme of the
work, it will be found advisable to make a few trials or small
sketches, arranging roughly the positions of the principal

masses by blots that may bear some relation to the plant

selected for the design, and afterwards connecting these by
the principal lines of the proposed composition.
This putting in of " mass " before " line " is the better way
to proceed when building up a design, and enables the
student to formulate, in a short space of time, something like
the general effect of his proposed task ; this is shown in the
PLATE VI.
PLATE VII.
 PLATE VIII.

Designs for the Filling of a Triangle from the Lesser Celandine; the Small
Diagrams indicate the Method of the First Arrangement of the
Principal Masses.
[To face page 17.
 DESIGNING OF ORNAMENT TO FILL GIVEN SPACES 17

small sketches on Plates VIII. and XIV. An important

matter to be attended to in designing a filling for a space
is that a guiding line should be drawn parallel, or concentric,
as the case may be, to the sides of the proposed figure that
is to contain the ornament, to which the latter must extend
and touch at regulated intervals, so that it may appear to
" carry a line " around itself. The plain space thus left be-

tween the ornament and enclosing line of the shape selected

is valuable, and acts as a kind of border. This line should
not be left in the finished work. (See the triangular fillings

on Plate VI 11.)
rPhe designs filling the triangles on Plate VIII. are
derived from the Lesser Celandine plant, and show three
ways of filling the figure. The design at A shows upward
growth from the centre of the base, B and C are radial in
construction, and D is slightly spiral in growth. The small
rough trial sketches on this plate should be noted.
Three fillings of the square are shown on Plate IX. ; the
motive of the designs is the Wild rose. '
When arranging the
units of a design, the student should endeavour, if possible,

to get some extra decorative value by making the ground

between the ornament an interesting feature in itself Some
pleasing shapes in the ground spaces may occasionally be

obtained, but not always, as many arrangements of good

ornament do not readily lend themselves to the production
of ornamental ground spaces ; but this effect should be aimed
for where possible, as it is always a great gain, and another
source of interest. Attempts in this direction may be
 "

i8 PROGRESSIVE DESIGN FOR STUDENTS

noticed at A and
on Plate IX., the dark central work at
B,

Fig. C, on Plate X,, and in the pentagon, B, on Plate

XI. It may be seen that the square fillings at A and

B, Plate IX., are radial in construction, an easy method

of filling a square, and perhaps the most .satisfactory.

The upright filling at C is more difficult, for this kind of

growth in the design is more suitable for the upright

oblong shape. The square character is here kept by
having important similar features at the corners to

emphasise the shape ; for instance, if leaves were used

instead of the flower forms at the lower corners, the
result would not be so good, as this would, when combined
with the central leaves, make a more triangular shape,

and unsatisfactory as part of a square filling.

The filling of the circle is, like the square, more satis-

factory if the ornament radiates from the centre, as at C, on

Plate X. There is not, however, the slightest objection
I
in

the ornament springing from the bdttom, as at Fig. A, where

the cyclamen is used as ornament, or in the " chasing
growth of the pink at B.

The cyclamen design is an illustration of "stability"' in

ornament, and the circle filling from the pink serves to

show "balance without symmetry" in the disposition of the

flowers. The larger circle at C is occupied with a design

based on the nasturtium. This design may serve to
illustrate the law of " even distribution " of the elements
used, and of " contrast" in the treatment of the latter, and
also of the ground spaces. It will be noticed that the
 PLATE IX.

Fillings of the Square. A AND B, Radial Ornament; C, Upright Growth.

[To face page 18
 PLATE X.

Three Methods of Circt.e Filling. A, Symmetrical Treatment of the Cyclamen;

B, Spiral Arrangement of the Pink; C, Radial Treatment of Nasturtium.
[To follow Plate IX.
 PLATE XI.

Three Methods of Filling a Pentagon, from the Datura Plant. A^ Radial;

B, Spiral and C, Vertical Growth.
;

[To face page i9-

 DESIGNING OF ORNAMENT TO FILL GIVEN SPACES 19

slight expression of "movement" in the lower portion of

the stems of both leaves and flowers is here counteracted
by the radial position of the flower and leaf masses, which
gives "rest," as opposed to movement; and where the
qualities of movement and rest are equally balanced in a
design, the contrasting result is desirable, and devoid of
monotony.
Three ways of filling the pentagon are shown on Plate
XI., the designs being based on the Datura plant. The
leaf and flower in elevation are arranged radially at Fig. A,
while the plant of the flower and a spiral treatment of the
leaves is seen at B. In the larger pentagon at C, leaves,
flowers, buds, and fruit are all used, and some advantage is

taken in the construction of the design from its natural

growth. This plant is admirably suited for decorative
purposes, from the ornamental variety of its difierent parts,

and might be used with advantage much more than it is in

modern decoration.
On Plate XII. is presented a variety of treatment in

the filling of the oblong space. An upright character of

ornamental filling is shown at A, where the Cowslip is the
motive of the design. While the arrangement emphasises
the upright oblong shape, the natural habit of the growth
is adhered to. The vine panel at B is an example of
"balance without symmetry," and is a more difficult

method of filling a space than that of a purely symmetrical

arrangement. Balance must be kept in any composition of
this kind. Although we strive for the effect of " even dis-
c 2
 '

20 PROGRESSIVE DESIGN FOR STUDENTS

tribution," we must avoid any appearance of repetition in

the size and placing of the units and masses ; the latter
should vary in size and gradation, but not violently so, and
the whole composition should look easy and natural in

growth.
The young student should practise the using of birds,
insects, or other animal forms in his designs as soon as he
is able to draw them. If not practicable, or if the task be
too difficult to draw from nature, drawings should be made
from still life or museum specimens, or even from good
drawings of natural history examples. Cases of moths,
butterflies, and stuffed birds ought to be part of the equip-
ment of all schools, and if the specimens are well mounted
and correctly described, they would be of more educa-
tional value than the badly drawn and worse coloured
lithographs that usually find a place on the walls of our
public schools.
Some suggestions of insect, bird, and animal life forms
are given on Plates XIX. and XX., that might be useful to
the elementary student in design, but it is strongly recom-
mended that when possible the student should make. studies
from life good examples of preserved specimens.
or from
The ravens introduced amongst the foliage of the beech
at Fig. C, on Plate XII., are so disposed as to emphasise
the horizontal dimensions of the oblong, and their dominant
forms are contrasting elements to the foliage, which would
be otherwise monotonous in effect, if the whole space was
occupied by the similar-sized leaves only. This illustrates
 PLATE XII.

Oblong Fillings. A, Vertical Design from the Cowslip B, Unsymmetrical Vine

;

Treatment; C, Horizontal Treatment of Bird and Beech Tree Forms.

[To face ^age 20.
 PLATE XIII

Fillings of the Ogee and Square Lozenge Shapes. A and B show the same
Design on a Dark and Light Ground D and E are Similar Treatments.
;
The
Ogee Shape at C has a Treatment of the Wild Hyacinth.
[To face ^age 21.
 PLATE XIV.

Fillings of the Semicircle or the Lunett'e.A is from the Lemon Tree D, from
;

THE Christmas Rose. B and C are Diagrams of the First Arrangement of

Principal Masses.
[To face page 20.
 PLATE XV.

riJCTUKTiun pffY rjinsY KutiDCLm k°5c PKinRq5E

naiuv.
StKRVEEKRt. I CYCLancn. BtrrEKSvccT.

Types of Various Leaf Forms.

\To follow Plate XIV.
 PLATE XVI.

fEHVlBKIX. rixAwc TnoTuc. ' fuiur. luur. JaS«ltlE;

Various Flower Forms akd Flower Growths.

\To follow Plate Xl^.
 PLATE XVII.

n«nesTY. 1} \j cicnaTis. ''

W
Examples of Various Kinds of Foliage.
{.To follow Plate XVI.
 PLATE XVIII.

Examples of Various Kinds of Fruit.

ITofolUm Plate XVII.
 PLATE XIX.

Insect and Bird Forms, &c., as Suggestions

for use in Design.
ITo follow Plate XVIII.
 DESIGNING OF ORNAMENT TO FILL GIVEN SPACES 21

a common principle in ornament —namely, that if dominant

forms are used in a composition, the rest of the design
should be kept in strict subordination by using some very
simple forms in a much greater repetition to complete the
work.
On Plate XIII. there are some fillings of the

"ogee" form, at A, B, and C, the former two being ex-

amples of the same design on a light and a dark ground,
derived from the Narcissus. The ogee space at C is filled

with a design based on the Wild Hyacinth, a plant which

lends itself to the decoration of this particular form. The
central mass is suggested by the cluster of young buds,
which takes a shape like this before opening into flower.
The ogee shape is an important and common basis of a
great family of diaper designs, particularly of Persian and
Italian textiles. This comes of its adaptability of repeating

all over a surface without leaving any interspaces. (See the

application of this at Fig. D, Plate XXXIX.) The designs
at D and E, on Plate XIII., are shown as the same pattern
on a light and dark ground, and fill a lozenge shape, or
square placed angle-wise. The honeysuckle in elevation,

as the motive used, lends itself admirably to the filling of

this space, and so illustrates the law of fitness or congruity,

a condition which is generally fulfilled when the lines, units,

and masses of a design " echo " the main lines of the

enclosing shape.
Plate XIV. illustrates some methods of filling the
"lunette " or semi-circular form. At B andC are examples
22 PROGRESSIVE DESIGN FOR STUDENTS

of the previously mentioned small rough sketches of the

blotting-in of the idea for the larger finished work. The
student should always begin his designs in this way, and
after making a few, he should select the best of them for

the basis of his intended work.

Although the leaves of the lemon tree and fruit, used as
the units of the filling at Fig. A, are nearly of the same size,

the necessary contrast and variety are obtained by the

different shapes and surface treatment of each. In this
example two colours might be used effectively to give
variety to the scheme. The design at D is a bold and
conventional rendering of the Hellebore, or Christmas rose.
It is to be hoped that sufficient has been said, and
enough illustrations given on the Plates numbered from
VIII. to XIV., to help the student when designing for the
filling of any given shape or form. Such forms as the
diamond, or double equilateral triangle, the hexagon, and
the octagon have not been treated, but the same rules and
principles mentioned in reference to the filling of the square,

lozenge, circle, and pentagon, apply equally to the former

shapes.
It is strongly recommended that teachers should exercise
their students in the use of plants and materials other than
those givenMn the designs we have been considering, and
for the suggested use of those who may have a difficulty
in obtaining sufficient varieties of natural examples, I have
drawn from nature some typical specimens of leaves,
foliage, flowers, and fruit, which are named and reproduced
 PLATE XX.

Bird, Fish, and Animal Forms as Suggestions for Use in Design.

\To follow Plate XIX. andface page 23'
 DESIGNING OF ORNAMENT TO FILL GIVEN SPACES 23

as illustrations on Plates XV., XVI., XVI I., and XVIII.

respectively. Insect, bird, and animal forms will be found
on Plates XIX. and XX., while further examples of leaves
and flowers, &c., are illustrated as brush-work translations
from nature on Plates XXI. and XXII.
 CHAPTER IV

BRUSH-DRAWING

As a means of acquiring power in draughtsmanship,

apart from its technical usefulness to the designer or painter,

there is no better practice for the student than the making

of studies, in direct brush-work, from plants, animal and
bird forms. We know what consummate masters the Japanese
are in brush-drawing, and how the greater portion of their
decoration, book illustration, and pictorial work is executed
direct with a full brush in colour or in ink. Even their
ordinary writing is done with the brush, the use of which
comes so naturally to them that its characteristics and
influence are apparent in all their handicrafts. This brush-
work feeling is strongly marked, for example, in their stencil
cuttings. (See Plate XXVII.)
The ornament in the decoration ofGreek vases and on
Indian, Persian, Moresque, and Mexican pottery, though
taking floral, leaf, and geometric forms, is found to be mainly
composed of brush forms, when analyzed.
 BRUSH-DRAWING 25

The use of the full brush of colour by pottery painters

and other decorators gives a richness of quality and a
certain look of freedom of execution to their work, which
no kind of printing, stencilling, or other mechanical methods
of application can hope to rival ; and whether the treat-

ment be fine and delicate, or broad and full, there is always

a satisfying charm in the work that has been executed in

a decorative manner in direct brush-work.

This kind of decoration might be broadly divided into
two classes : one where the decoration is composed or built

up of brush strokes purely, and the other where it is

rendered in direct brush expression as a " silhouette " or

shadow-like form.
Both classes of brush-work should be cultivated by the
student, but the latter class is by far the most valuable as a
training for the draughtsman ; for, although a great deal
might be said in favour of the first-named class, the practice

of it cannot be compared, from an artistic point of view,

with that of the second method.

If we examine that great ornamental class of historic

otterydecoration, which has been thought bymany to owe its

origin exclusively to brush strokes or forms, it will be ound

that, although the general aspect of the decoration would
lead one to suppose that the ornamental forms were generated
by the shapes of the brush strokes, this is not always the
case, for in numerous instances they are only translations
from previously existing examples of relief ornamentation
or of natural forms, but by endless repetitions of these
26 PROGRESSIVE DESIGN FOR STUDENTS

models, with the brush, they have acquired the likeness

and features of an apparent brush-stroke prototype.' The
brush-stroke ancestor theory may be plausible, but it is

hardly logical, and just now. its popularity is so great that

it is in danger of being ridden to death.
In a purely decorative direction brush forms and strokes
may be used very effectively as a medium of ornamental
expression. Such forms 'are shown at Figs. A and A' on
Plate XXL, and at B, F, and C the foliage and leaves are
composed of similar direct brush strokes. The bi,rds at D
and the ornament at G are also rendered in a similar
manner. A strictly heraldic or conventional form, derived
from nature, such as the eagle on this plate, readily lends

itself to expression in brush strokes, an example, of the

"

fitness of conventional expression of a decorative object.

The ornamental design at E, Plate XXL, is an example

of a brush-work translation from a cast of Italian ornar
ment ; it illustrates a most useful method of study that
should be cultivated by all art students. In exercises of
this kind the student should work direct with a full brush
of colour or ink ; no previous drawing in of the work with
.the pencil or point should be attempted. The light lines
or markings are left out to show the construction, which, if

filled, in, would make the study a complete silhouette, or

shadow-drawing, of the original ; it is better, however, when
painting; direct from casts or nature, to leave out the parts
which define the shapes, and mark the articulations and
divisions, so as to explain the drawing, and this leads to
 PLATE X\I.

Brush Forms and Brush Expression of Ornament.

[To face fage 26
 PLATE XXII.

i^f ^ /\ttllB«RC

Flower Forms in Silhouette.

Brush Expression of Leaf and \To face i>ape 2'-
 BRUSH-DRAWING 27

the exercise of more care and accuracy, and also is a greater

test, in -.correct drawing with the -brush., •

Studies of this nature are: of the utmost value for the

education .of the student, as they serve to form -useful
habits of keen observation of the model's construction and
proportion of parts ; for he will be all the more anxious to

avoid-, mistakes in drawing, knowing that it will be almost

^
impossible to correct them afterwards.
Direct brush-work expression, or "silhouetting," of plant
forms enables one to gain a greater knowledge of the
.
'

correct shapes of leaves,, flowers, and foliage,- &c., in a

much shorter time, than that derived from the making of
such studies, from nature, with the point or pencil, in out-

line ; and the image or typical shapes of each plant will be

more effectually fixed in the memory when executed in the

former method, for the very good reason that images or

shapes are always better seen and remembered when
presented in the " mass " than in " line " drawings.
On the other hand, it goes without saying, that, in

silhouette studies, we miss the beauty of many valuable

details seen in the natural specimen, which can be so
well expressed in pencil or pen drawings, such as the vena-
tion and turn of the leaf and flower petals, the growth
junction of stems and leaf axils, and all the variations of
light and shade. Brush-drawn exercises from plant life

are, however, recommended as a valuable aid to the

student or designer in their ordinary work, and as an
alternative method of decorative expression.
28 PROGRESSIVE DESIGN FOR STUDENTS

•In beginning studies of -this kind from nature it is advis-

able to select single leaves and flowers, and make repeated

copies of them. Progressive examples of such are given
'on XXII. After representing simple forms from
Plate
nature, more important sprays of flowers and foliage may-

be attempted, as on Plate XXIII.

The design I have given on Plate XXIV. is an example
of direct brush-work, and is intended for the decoration of
a title-page. This example is an illustration of the expres-

sion of "mass" in ornament, and the sea-horse panel on

Plate XXy. is an example of brush-drawing rendered in

"line."
 PLATE XXIII.

Brush Expression of Plant Form in Silhouette.

[To face itage 28.
 PLATE XXIV.

Design foe Title Pace in Brush Drawing.

\TofoUmu Plate XXtil.
 PLATE XXV.

ExAMPLR OF Brush Drawing in "Line."

IT^ ffl((rw Plate XXIV,
 CHAPTER V
STENCILLING

Stencil-cutting, and designing for stencils, being one of

the most elementary divisions of Art craftsmanship, may
appropriately be introduced to the notice of the young
student in these pages, as it forms an additional " hand and
eye " subject for those pupils who have spent some time in
the study of elementary design ; and, as an interesting

variation in the progressive work of the young designer, I

would strongly recommend the subject to the attention of

teachers and students. >

The materials required for the work are few and simple
in character. A sheet of cartridge or ", Whatman's" paper
— or, better still, what is known as the " Willesden " double-
ply waterproof paper, a pocket-knife, sharp at the end of
the blade, a sharpening stone, a few circular steel punches
of various sizes, and a sheet of glass, lead, or zinc, to cut

the stencil on, are all the materials that are wanted for the
cutting out of the design.
30 PROGRESSIVE DESIGN FOR STUDENTS

In designing for stencil plates, the main objects to aim

for are clearness and boldness of pattern. Simplicity
of effect, the avoidance of detail, and thin lines should
characterise a good stencil design, these being, in fact, the

integral parts of the stencil principle.

As one of the first lessons in stencil-cutting, a very-

simple design or drawing of an object, such as the butterfly

at Fig. A, Plate XXVI., or the border at B, should be
made direct on the paper that is to be used for the stencil

plate. With a moderate amount of care, these designs may

be easily cut. The design at B may be used as a border,
or it maybe repeated in any direction to make an "all
over " checker pattern.
Great care must be used when designing for stencil work
to make the " ties " come in such places that they may
not only explain the drawing, but will of themselves be so
arranged as to form part of the ornamental features, and so
"help" the design. In illustration of this, the student is

referred to the semicircular lines, where the "ties" are

carried through the large central forms on Plate XXVIII.,
and those in the oblong panel, Plate XXIX.
The diagram C, on Plate XXVI., is given as an ex-
ample of the kind of stencil that provides a good lesson
in accurate cutting ; here, and in all cases of circular
designs for stencils, compasses should be used to obtain the
requisite accuracy, and small circles and dots should be
made with steel punches.
At D, on the last-named plate, is an example of a
 PLATE XXVI.

%!0I ixilixilixil

/i^

Examples of Stencilled Ornament.

[To /ace fage 30,
 STENCILLING 3'

diaper pattern designed on a square, and so repeats in any

direction. This is a type of a pattern in which two stencil

plates may be used; the flowers inside the circles may

be cut in one stencil and all the rest of the pattern

in another, which would admit of two colours being

effectively used in the pattern.

Broadly speaking, there are two ways of cutting the

pattern for a stencil : one, where the pattern is cut out of

the plate, and another where the ground-work is cut out,

the ornament in the latter case being expressed by the

colour of the surface that may receive the stencil impression.

The first method is illustrated at Figs. A, B, C, F, and G,

on Plate XXVI., and the second method is shown at Fig.

E. The method where the ground is cut away, leaving

the pattern, is by far the more difficult in practice, as it

requires the greatest possible care to keep the drawing

correct. Before cutting a pattern of this kind, the student
should paint in the ground-work in black, and not the parts
that are intended to show as the ornament.

Fig. F, on the above plate, is a free filling of a square

form, the dots on the ground showing the use of the steel
punch. Fig. G is given as an illustration of straight line
work, and is an example of a very useful exercise in

cutting.

Stencil plates are very extensivelyused by the Japanese for

all kinds of decoration, but principally for the ornamentation

of silk and cotton fabrics, where, for this purpose, stencils take
the place of our block and roller system of printing fabrics.
32 PROGRESSIVE DESIGN FOR STUDENTS

The Japanese stencil-cutter begins his work by placing

several sheets of thin strong brown paper on the top of
each other, the uppermost sheet having the pattern drawn
on it, and cuts through the lot at once, thus obtaining
several accurate and similar cuttings, he then takes two
sheets and places them accurately together, getting the
correct fit by means of "register" holes or marks at the
top and bottom of his sheets, but just before pasting or
gluing the pairs of plates together he arranges a neat
net- work, of fine silken threads on the top of the lower
plate, these threads being securely fastened between the
two sheets of the stencil, in order to give an additional
strength to the stencil plate, so that it may last better under
the wearing action of the stencil brush, which is very great,
owing to the numerous impressions the plate is usually
required to produce.
Plate XXVII. is occupied by a few impressions taken
from a Japanese stencil plate. The sharp clean cut, which
may be noticed, is such as only the deft fingers of a
Japanese can accomplish, and this work is so perfect of its

kind that no European can rival, or hope to cotnpete with -

it successfully. The light thin lines, indicating the silken

net-work, may be seen in the above impressions, and

although the Japanese designer does not intend these lines
to be seen in his finished work, as 1;hey are usually
obliterated by the stencil brush, yet, if by chance they
assert their presence, they often add a beauty to the work
than otherwise.
 PLATE XXVII.

7^^
y^

^4S
'J^iS^

^ Examples of Japanese SxENCiL-cuTTiNr,.

[To ftzce page 32.
 PLATE XXVIII.

fm7M
miM
mim
Stencilled Design for an " All Over " Surface Decoration.
(7V> foll^u Plate XXVII.
 PLATE XXIX.

Design for a Panel Decojiation in Stencil Work.

[To follow Plate XXVIII. and to face page 33.
 i
STENCILLING 33

The Japanese obtain great varieties of decorative effect

In their stencil work, as in the cases where two or more
plates are used to complete one pattern, or picture, thereby
admitting of the use of two or more colours, or shades of
one colour ; also, another, and a very common use in which
stencil plates are employed by the Japanese artist, is in the
part production of pictures. The stencil plate, which is

occupied by a pictorial composition, is used to get a first

impression of the subject, and this impression is finished

off by the artist with his brush and colours, and often with
his fingers, which he uses to get a softened or shaded effect
while the original colour is still moist. It may thus be
seen that the possibilities of stencil decoration are almost
endless In the hands of the ingenious Japanese.
The kencil pattern on Plate XXVIII. is an example
illustrating the stencil principle, which combines clearness
and boldness, without any fine or delicate details, and, as

before mentioned, the " ties " here are so arranged as to

form part of the pattern, an example of a useful rule to

observe in designing for stencils. This pattern is suit-

able for a wall or for the decoration of a hanging, and is

designed to repeat in both directions of height and width.

The design on Plate XXIX. has its principal lines and
masses controlled in their disposition by the enclosing lines

of the oblong panel.

The pigments or paints used in stencil decoration may be
either oil colours, water colour, or tempera, the latter being

a mixture of powder colours and pure gum, or size. If

D
34 PROGRESSIVE DESIGN FOR STUDENTS

water colours or tempera are used, the paper of the stencil

plate must be rendered waterproof by a coating of thin oil

varnish, or painter's " knotting " varnish, or the Willesden

waterproof paper may be used. Stencil brushes of all

sizes may be obtained at any colour shop, and common dark

brown paper will answer the purpose of stencilling light-

tinted patterns on, and the lighter shades of brown paper

will do admirably for the reception of any dark tones of

colour. Ordinary writing ink can be used for black im-

pressions, especially if it is a little thick or old in the botde,
and when using ink, or ordinary colours, a palette of
porcelain, wood, or glass should be used on which to
distribute the colour and charge the stencil brush before
using it on the stencil plate.
 CHAPTER VI

INTERLACING AND STRAP-WORK ORNAMENT

The interlacing of linear forms in design has, from pre-

historic times, always had a peculiar fascination for orna-
mentists. The first ideas of such work may have been
suggested by the utilitarian art of weaving and plaiting
grasses and twigs together to form the mats which were
used as one of the earliest kinds of human clothing, or it

may have been suggested by the innumerable crossings and

interfacings of the twigs and stems of trees and various
plants. Whatever may have been the origin, there is
always a delightful mystery and weirdness in the effect pro-

duced by the crossings, re-crossings, interlacing, or weaving

of the uppermost branches and stems of large trees when
the sky is seen between the interfacings ; and in this effect

is also seen the satisfying elements of grace, delicacy, and

strength — qualities of the first order in any satisfactory

composition of ornament.
Strap-work is the natural development of linear inter-
D 2
 — .

36 PROGRESSIVE DESIGN FOR STUDENTS

lacing —a mere broadening of the line produces the strap

so it goes without saying that the principles which govern
the interlacing line are also guides for the production of
strap-work in ornament. More than three-parts of the

ornament and decoration of the savage tribes, and Saracenic

or Arabian, Byzantine, and Celtic ornament are composed
of interlacing lines and strap-work. It enters also very
largely into the carved ornament of the Elizabethan
Renaissance, the decoration of Italian and French book-
binding, German goldsmiths' work of the sixteenth and
seventeenth centuries ; and the celebrated Oiron or Henri-
Deux pottery ware is chiefly characterised by its decorative
strap-work.
Celtic twistings and interlacings are the most ingenious
and exhaustive in this great order of ornament. Almost
everything, whether derived from natural or artificial sources,

underwent a change, or was ultimately developed, or

"corrupted," in the hands of the Scandinavian or Celtic

artist, to every imaginable form of knots and twists, some
of the work being exceedingly clever and beautiful. (See
Fig. 2, Plate XXXI.)
In designing interlacing and strap- work ornament, the
chief thing to do is to make the lines cross at a right angle,
or as near as possible in that direction. The lines should
intersect or cross over, as cleanly as possible, in a direct

manner —that is to say, they should never "branch" out

of each other, or cross at an acute angle. Figs. 45, 46,
and 49 on Plate XXX. clearly illustrate this law, and
 PLATE XXXI.

Interlacing anb Strap-work Ornament.

I, 8, 9 AND 10, Arabian. 3, French. 2, Celtic. 4 and 5, Elizabethan.
§ AND 7, Byzantine.
\ra face f age 37.
 INTERLACING AND STRAP-WORK ORNAMENT 37

most of the illustrations on the same plate explain it

further.

Effective interlacing work may consist of curved lines

only, as in Fig. 43, the Assyrian guilloche, and Figs. 54 and
55, on Plate XXX., and Fig. 8, on Plate XXXI., an example
of Arabian work ; or of straight lines alone, as in the Arabian
borders at Figs. 9 and 10, on the same plate ; or, again, the
most satisfactory arrangements are seen in the marriage of
the straight and curved lines as in the Celtic example. Fig.
2, and in the Byzantine panel at Fig. 7, on Plate XXXI.
Further examples of this kind may be seen in the con-
structive lines of the Italian book-cover decorations at Figsj

51, 52, and 53, Plate XXX.

It is characteristic of Arabian interlacing to use the

straight-lined geometric interlacing, and the curved^

line variety singly, in different compositions, and more
rare to find them used together in one scheme of orna-
ment.
Byzantine strap-work is pure in its lines, and is usually
of a high order as constructive design ; it is often found
accompanied by whole or half rosettes, or symbolic forms,
occupying the interstices, as at Figs. 6 and 7, Plate XXXI.
Elizabethan strap-work is impufe^as such, its curved lines
generally ending in scroll-work, instead of being carried
through the composition in continuity. (See Figs. 4 and 5,

Plate XXXI.) In these Elizabethan examples there may

be seen, in the bract-like forms at the sides of the curves,
and in other places, the influence of Arabian work, and in the
38 PROGRESSIVE DESIGN FOR STUDENTS

pierced holes and interperietrations we have reminiscences

of cartouche and shield-work.

Cartouche-work, which seems to be the link between
ornamental shield-work and strap-work, may. be seen on the
German cup of 1620 date,' designed, by Wecht'er, and
illustrated on Plate XXXII. The cartouche- work, on this

example, occupies the surrounding portions of the divisions

where the masks are placed. . This cup is a good example of
the kind of work produced by the German goldsmiths of the
late Renaissance period, the earlier half of the seventeenth
century. It is composed, as may be seen, almost entirely of

cartouche and strap-work ; the design is ingenious, but

overdone, and suffers for the want of some plain surfaces.
It cannot be denied, however, that, when executed in gold

or silver, the effect would be extremely rich and sparkling.

 PLATE XXXII.

German Cup in Silver by C. Wechter, date 1620, illustrating Cartouche-work

AND Strap-work.
\To face f age 38.
 CHAPTER VII

SOME APPLICATIONS OF DESIGN AND ORNAMENT

It is proposed, in this chapter, to consider design and

ornament as applied to the construction and decoration of
relief-work, and objects in the solid, and also some de-
velopments of pattern and other features concerning surface
decoration.
In the matter of designing shapes of objects in metal,
pottery, glass, wood, and stone, &c., a certain architectural

rhythm ought to be aimed for, which should be in accordance

with the fitness of the object, as to its use, and capabilities

of the material in which it is made. For example, the

contour of the mouldings and the space widths of the
various parts of an article that is to be made in pottery
should be quite different from those of an object that is

made in stone on the one hand, and metal on the other.

The artistic laws which govern the proper construction of an
object that has any pretentions to art, are, in every case,
similar; but, in the carrying out of these laws, we must bear
40 PROGRESSIVE DESIGN FOR STUDENTS

in mind the nature of the material we are designing for,

and the use for which the object is intended : it then simply
becomes a question of " treatment." For example, it is

wrong to make a design for cast iron, or bronze, do duty as

a design for chiselled iron, or brass, and the mouldings and
divisions on a silver candlestick will admit of being finer

and more numerous than the same features on a vase made

in pottery. Common earthenware, and the finer porcelain,
must be treated in design distinctly different, according to

the capabilities of the material, if we are to get artistic

fitness. The paperhanging design that resembles the silk

brocade is an artistic failure, and even the printed textile

must not simulate the effects produced by the warp and

shuttle. The characteristics, limitation of the material,
and utility of the object, ought always to be borne in mind
by the student or designer.
When designing for objects in the " round," or relief,

or for anything having architectural pretensions, one of

the first considerations is to' keep in view the law of
" proportion."

Although we cannot attempt to lay down any arbitrary

rules as to proportion in the abstract, or even as to the

relative dimensions of space divisions in an object, still

there are certain sizes and measurements that look better

than others, when in close relation, and it is not a difficult

matter to point out what would be generally conceded as

"bad" proportion. If we examine the candelabra at
Figs. I and 2, on Plate XXXIII., we shall find that Fig. i
 PLATE XXXIII.

-^
c J

L\

7'• GOOD- PROPORTION 1. BAD

Illustrations of Proportion, Ratio, and Relation of Space and Form in

Opposition ; also, the Want of Proportion.
\To face page i,\.
 SOME APPLICATIONS OF DESIGN AND ORNAMENT 41

illustrates an example of good proportion, because the

space divisions, that are adjacent to each other, are unequal
in height, and are composed of varying shapes ; the profile

or contour of the object changes in an agreeable manner,

adding an interest to the whole form, and each part
pleasantly contrasts with the part immediately above or
below it. There is also one dominant division, consisting

of the upper part of the shaft, which is greater in height

dimension than any of the other parts. This object, there-

fore, fulfils the main conditions that ought to be observed

in order to obtain good proportion in an example of this

kind. We shall understand this more clearly by an

"'
examination of Fig. 2, which is an example of " bad
proportion. Here the two greatest divisions of the shaft,,

that come next to each other, are almost equal, and

" equality" being antagonistic to proportion, ought always-
to be avoided ; the divisions of the base are also too equal
in height measurements, and are too much alike in their
soft contours. There is, also, not enough contrast in the
shapes of these divisions, most of the profiles being"
composed of similar curved, or segmental linps, and not
enough use is made of the straight line, in this connection,
as a contrasting element ; and, finally, there is no single
dominant feature to give the needed expression of good
proportion, which is seen in Fig. i.

The vase form at Fig. 5, on this plate, is a further example

of good proportion, as seen in the changing curves of its

contour, and in the essential unequality of its height divisions.

42 PROGRESSIVE DESIGN FOR STUDENTS

The Greeks were great masters of proportion, in their

architecture, figure sculpture, vases, and other objects of
minor art. Fig. 7, on Plate XXXIII., is from a Greek
Ionic entablature, an examination of which will reveal to us

that the secrets of their well-proportioned work in archi-

tectural features were the dominant division, as in the

frieze, and the inequality of the height measurements of their
mouldings, especially where the latter came near together.
The Greek architect would never make two mouldings
come together that had the same width, or that were of the
same section, and even the profiles of his mouldings were
derived from conic sections, rather than from the circle, so

great was his love for the beauty of proportion and variety
of artistic expression.

Fig. 3, on this plate, is another example of good propor-

tion. It will be noticed here, again, that the space divisions
of this frame are unequal, and that the dominant division
is further emphasised by its rosette decoration.

Fig. 8 is given as an example of a well-proportioned

panel, both as regards the ratio of breadth to length, and

as to the quantity of decoration in relation to the ground

space. In panels of any shape no hard and fast lines can
be laid down for the quantity of ornament introduced, or
amount of ground space to be left plain, as this would vary
very much according to the uses and position of the panels.
For instance, in a panelled room, the lower or dado panels
may be left empty, and the mid-panelling on the " field " of

the wall may also look quite well with little or no decoration,
 PLATE XXXIV.

Tessellated and Mosaic Floor Design, showing Proportionate Spaces and

Divisions in the Borders and Panels.
[To /ace fage 43^
 SOME APPLICATIONS OF DESIGN AND ORNAMENT 43

while if the frieze, ceiling, or the soffits of arches be

panelled, they would admit of being richly decorated with

carving or painting. In the latter cases, and in panels for

cabinets and smaller objects, a fairly safe rule is to allow

about two-thirds of the panel to be occupied by the orna-

ment, and the remaining third for the ground, which is

about the proportion shown in the panel at Fig. 8.

It is obvious that a square, being equal in length. and

breadth, can have no proportion in itself, but we can divide

it into any number of agreeable subdivisions, by arranging

circles, octagons, or smaller squares of different sizes within

the figure, as may be seen in the square ceiling at Fig. 6.

By' the use of the larger circular lines with the angle lines
of the square, a new feature, the spandrel, is obtained,
which- is distinctly different in shape to either the square or
circle, but is in- complete harmony with both. The varied
character of the ornament, in the panels, bands, and mould-,
ing decoration, also helps to make the whole composition
agreeable.
Another example of the treatment of a square is shown
on Plate XXXIV., which is a design for a floor, in

mosaic. Proportion is here obtained by the relation of

size .between the border and inner square panel, assisted by
the relation of the large circular panel to both border and ,

spandrels, and is further helped by the varying or unequal

widths of the main border, and the lines and spaces forming
subsidiary borders which surround it. Contrast in the
ornament, which fills the various spaces, is obtained by the
 .

44 PROGRESSIVE DESIGN FOR STUDENTS

flowing character of the ornament in the circle as opposed

to that of a "set " character in the outer border.
A still further illustration of the harmony of unequal space
divisions, in the decoration of a square form, is shown in

the old Italian embroidery design on Plate XXXV.

'.

The two illustrations of Gothic tracery design for panel

fillings, on Plate XXXVI., are good examples of their kind-p

bufthe better design of the two is the l(3wer panel at B,:-for,

although it is divided into four equa:l divisions in width,-" the

central feature embraces two of these divisions, and bdngiof
quite a different character in design to the filling of thesur-'
rounding part, which acts like a border, a sense of proper-'
tion arid harmony is felt, which is wanting in the design- of

the upper panel at A, where, the width is divided equally

into three parts, and consequently the middle division is not
of sufficient importance in size to contrast agreeably, witb
the outer ornament.. • '

, In designing for plates or dishes, the proportionate) re--

la'tion between the centre and border should receive careful

attention. An agreeable width for borders of plates, incliid-

ing the bevel, between border and centre, would be about

one^^sikth of the diameter of the plate. This proportion" is
shown on the design for a majolica dish, on Plate XXXVII.:
It may be noticed, in this design, that the radiating border

is of a simple and restful character, which helps to counteract

the revolving appearance of the figures in the design of the
centre.

The illustrations of good and bad proportion, given in the

 PLATE XXXV.

Italian Ai.tar Cloth, 17TH Century, illustrating Proportionate Space Divisions

IN THE Widths of the Borders and Contrast in the Ornament.
[To face page 44.
 tPLATE XXXVI.

Gothic Carved Wood Panels German, i6th Century, illustrating at A a Want

OF Proportionate Spacing in the Tracery, and at B a more Correct Feeling
FOR Proportion.
[To follow Plate XXXV.
 PLATE XXXVn.

Design for a Majolica Dish.

VTo follow Plate XXX VI.
 PLATE XXXVIII.

L.T^.tV^

Examples of Arabian Counterchange Ornament,

t To face page 45.
 SOME APPLICATIONS OF DESIGN AND ORNAMENT 45

last few pages, do not, by any means, exhaust the subject ;

but it is to be hoped that sufficient has been said to enable

the student to form a correct estimate of this important

subject in relation to design.

COUNTERCHANGE OrNAMENT.

The class of ornament known as " counterchange " nega-

tives the law of proportion by the very nature of its con-
struction. In counterchange, as may be seen in the Arabian
examples, on Plate XXXVIII., the ornament changes ex-
actly with the ground, or occupies a similar shape to that
formed by the ground that comes next to it, or on either
side of it, as at Fig. i, on this plate. This kind of orna-
ment is seen at its best in Arabian, or Saracenic decoration,
both in its straight-lined and curved varieties. It has also
been used by other nations, notably in the applique em-
broidery work of the Spanish and Italians of the seventeenth

and eighteenth centuries. Its origin is from heraldic sources,

and at best it must be considered more of a device, or
puzzle, than good ornament, for any kind of ornament that
lacks proportion, and which leaves you in doubt as to which
is the ornament, which the ground, as counterchange cer-
tainly does, can hardly be considered good ornament. In
some situations, however, where diaper-like ornament is

wanted, the geometrical varieties of counterchange are

useful as decoration.
46 PROGRESSIVE DESIGN FOR STUDENTS

Surface Pattern Design.

Surface repeating patterns for textiles, paperhangings,

tiles, &c., that are intended to be produced by printing,
weaving, or stencilling, are usually designed on the square
or the diamond. Figs. 2 and 13, Plate VI.; the lozenge.

Figs. 7 and 15 ; the "ogee" shape. Figs. 8 and 12 ; or

the hexagon, Figs. 5, 11, 14, and 16, on the same plate.

Diagrams illustrating what is known as " spotting," and

"powdering," are shown at Figs. 15 and 16, on this plate.

Applications of designs to surface decorations are illus-

trated on the Plates XXXIX. to XLI I. Figs. A and B, on

Plate XXXIX., are examples of designs based on the square,
and are known as "checkers." C is a simple repeating
pattern, based on the lozenge — in this case, a square set
angle-wise ; and the design at D is constructed on the
"ogee" shape. All of these simple patterns usually gQ
under the name of "diapers" ; but, correctly speaking, the

true diaper is constructed on the ogee form, as at Fig. D.

The Drop Pattern.

The "drop" pattern illustrates an economical and

effective method of getting a greater variety of pattern
out of the width of the material than that adopted when
designing by any other method for the decoration of
textiles or paperhangings, and may be constructed on the
lines of a lozenge, a diamond, or on two oblongs placed
 PLATE XXXIX.

feR;^^
/^

A AND B ARE Examples of Checkers ; C and D are Diapers.

[To face t age 46.
PLATE XL.
 SOME APPLICATIONS OF DESIGN AND ORNAMENT 47

side by side, one of which drops half its length below the
other, as at L, on Plate XL. In a pattern of the above
nature, whether constructed on the lozenge, diamond, or
on oblongs, the pattern drops half its length below the
repeat, at either side of itself. Drop patterns may be bi-

symmetrical, or unsymmetrical, in character. An example

of a bi-symmetrical drop pattern is shown at Fig. i, Plate
XL. This pattern may be designed on the lines of' a
square lozenge, like the diagram K, or within- the lines of
an oblong whose dimension is that of a double. square, as
shown by the figure in chain-lines at ACDB, in Fig! i.

The square lozenge, which also contains a repeat of the

pattern, is shown at GEHF. The construction lines of the
lozenge and oblong, drawn on the pattern, explain the
manner of obtaining the repeat.

The pattern at Fig. 2, on this plate, is an unsymmetrical

" drop " designed on the diamond, shape, the position of
which, in this case, is upright, as in the diagram'M. It will
"
be seen that the repeats of this pattern follow, or " chase
each other, and do not "turn over" as in the former
pattern at Fig. i.

When patterns for paperhangings -or textiles are de-

signed on the lozenge or diamond forms, the latter should

not be less in width than the length of one side of the
lozenge or diamond, as anything less would make the

proportion of the figure too acute to be agreeable.

A design for a textile hanging, planned on. the hori-
zontal diamond, is given on Plate XLI. In this case the
48 PROGRESSIVE DESIGN FOR STUDENTS

principal features, or masses, are first put in, roughly, within

the diamond shape ; and afterwards, the leading lines of

growth and their connections ; then, lastly, the. lesser

•details.

But before a design of this nature, the units of whose

repeat are unsymmetrical, can be satisfactorily filled in, so
as to give an " all over " effect, the portion of the pattern

immediately over and under the line AB should be traced

off, and carefully transferred to the corresponding position

•on, the opposite line DC, and the portion previously

•designed, say at AD, should be, in ^ like manner,
transferred to the line BC, and afterwards the whole repeat
•could be finished. This process will " prove " the pattern,
arid ensure the repeat to work in any direction. The
diamond form, marked by the letters, on this plate, contains

the whole unit of the repeat.

The design for a printed textile illustrated on Plate
XLII. is another example of the drop pattern, and is con-
structed within the lines of a rectangle, whose height is a
little less than three times its width, th^ chief motive of- the

•composition being the waving line that runs continuously

through the pattern. To make a design of this character,
it is necessary that, at least two rectangles should bp placed
together, as in the sketch, and one of them should be
divided into two equal parts, by a horizontal line, as at BA.
It will also be necessary to extend the drawing, in some
places, beyond these lines — in cases, for instance, -
where
a leaf or a flower may require cornpletion in drawing, when
 PLATE XLI.

as at A, B, C, D.
Drop Pattern designed on the Diamond
[ To face fage 48,
 PLATE XLII.

AP'—T7

Printed Textile, Drop Pattern designed on the Rectangle Shape.

[To follm) Plate XLl.
 SOME APPLICATIONS OF DESIGN AND ORNAMENT 49

parts of them extend over the line. A reference to the

sketch will make this clear.

When using- the waved line in a drop pattern, it is

best to make about half of the principal masses and smaller

detail g-row, say, from the waved line on one side of
the curve, below, and the other half designed to grow
from the opposite side of the curve, so as to get the
requisite balance of parts. The student should also

endeavour to get a well-ordered variety of form in the

units of his pattern, so that the work may look interesting.

It will be seen that the portion of the design drawn on the

upper left half of this pattern coincides with that on the

lower half of the rectangle, on the right, and the lower left

half contains that part of the pattern which appears again

on the upper half on the right.

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