The End of Bipolarity Notes Class 12 Political Science

Book 1 Chapter 1

In One Sight

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This lesson tells about the Soviet Union, how the Soviet Union came into existence,
developed itself and how it had to face the disintegration due to cold war in the end.

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The Soviet Union was formed in 1917 … inspired by communist ideology … joined the
victorious bloc in world war II … became a superpower after world war II … started
competing with America … deterioration of the soviet system … dissolution of the Soviet
Union … Shock Therapy.

Formation of The Soviet Union

The Soviet Union was formed in 1917 after the Bolshevik Revolution
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The Soviet Union is called the USSR (Union of Soviet Socialist Republics).
There were a total of 15 republics in the Soviet Union, that’s how the Soviet Union was
formed by joining 15 different countries.
The Soviet Union was created to secure the interests of the poor.
It was established according to socialism and communist ideology

What Was The Soviet System?

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The soviet socialist republic (USSR) was formed after the socialist revolution of 1917 in
Russia.
Its aim was to establish an equalitarian society,
In which a society based on equality was to be created by ending capitalism and private
property.
This system was called the soviet system.
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In other words, the soviet system is the system by which the Soviet Union developed
itself.

Economic Features of The Soviet System

The soviet system was based on socialism where all economic decisions were taken by
the government keeping the society in mind.
The soviet system had a planned economy (planning refers to planning for the future
taking into account the resources currently available).
Minimum standard of living (minimum standard of living means a situation in which a
person has all those facilities without which it is difficult for him to develop normally.)

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 Unemployment is negligible (unemployment was almost non-existent in the soviet
system)
Advanced communication system
State ownership was the dominant form of ownership
State control over land and other productive assets
The consumer industry was very advanced (manufacturing from a small pin to a large
item like a car)

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Huge reserves of energy resources (the Soviet Union had all the major energy resources
such as minerals, oil, iron, steel etc. In abundance.)

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Political Features of The Soviet System
Only one party rule ( the Soviet Union was ruled by only one party called communist
party ) .
Opposing capitalism , private ownership and free trade
No freedom to form any other political party

History of The Soviet Union

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Joseph Stalin’s Regime ( 1924-53 )

He led the Soviet Union from 1924 to 1953 and he played an important role in the
development of the Soviet Union.

Work

Promoted industries
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Won the second world war
Forced agglomeration of farming

Soviet Union and The Cold War

After the end of world war II in 1945, two super powers emerged in the world.
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Of which the first was America and the second was the Soviet Union.
Due to having two super powers, The Era of Cold War started in the world.
Both the super powers started trying to prove themselves better than the other
superpower.

Nikita Khrushchev
Nikita Khrushchev took command of the Soviet Union after Joseph Stalin

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 Main Events
Cuban Missile Crisis
Space race
(launch of sputnik, sending Yuri Gagarin into space)
Building the Berlin Wall

Effects of The Cold War on The Soviet Union

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High expenditure in the manufacturing of weapons

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Lag behind western countries
Fall of the economy
Slow growth
Diverted attention from the problems of the country

Mikhail Gorbachev
In 1985 Mikhail Gorbachev became the leader of the USSR.
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Two policies, Glasnost (Openness) and Perestroika (Restructuring), were formulated by
Gorbachev to reform the Soviet Union.
Which had the main objective to bring peace in the Soviet Union.

Political Reforms

Promoted democracy.
Withdrawal of forces from Afghanistan and Eastern Europe
Helped in the unification of Germany
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Financial Improvement

Stopped the arms race.

Attempts were made to promote economic development.
Promoted privatization.
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The Dissolution of The Soviet Union

Gorbachev tried to reform the Soviet Union.
But his efforts were completely unsuccessful.
Those who wanted these reforms said that the reforms are taking place very slowly and
those who were opposing these reforms continued to oppose them.
Because of this Gorbachev did not get support from anywhere.
In 1989 the fall of the Berlin Wall marked the beginning of the disintegration of the
Soviet Union.
By 1991, the Soviet Union had completely disintegrated.

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 Reasons of The Dissolution of The Soviet Union
Failure to fulfil the aspirations of the people.
Dominant bureaucracy.
Dominance of communist party.
Heavy expenditure in the manufacturing of weapons
Lag behind western countries

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Russian Dominance
Fall of the economy.

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Feeling of freedom in the people
Immediate causes
Emergence of a sense of freedom in the minds of the people
Gorbachev’s reforms (Perestroika and Glasnost)

Consequences of The Dissolution of The Soviet Union

End of Cold War
Beginning of American supremacy
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End of Arms Race
End of Soviet Union
Rise of 15 new Countries
Russia became the successor of the Soviet Union.
Blow to socialist ideology
Emergence capitalist ideology
Ban on the communist party in USSR.
Countries who got independence from the Soviet Union adopted democracy and
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capitalism
Russia got all the rights which Soviet Union had, such as permanent membership in the
security council of the United Nations and the status of the Nuclear State.
All the treaties made by the Soviet Union were now to be performed by Russia.
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Shock Therapy
When the Soviet Union disintegrated in 1991, shock therapy was created by the world
bank and the international monetary fund to establish the capitalist system in the
newly formed countries.
Soviet Union was built on the socialist ideology and all the industries there used to
work under the government. Now after the dissolution of the Soviet Union, capitalist
system was to be established in all these countries.
Shock therapy was a provision to hand over all government industries to private hands
by auction.
In other words, turning the government sector into a private sector was shock therapy.

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 Purpose of Shock Therapy
Privatization of State Estates
Free Trade
Connecting Soviet Countries to Western Economies

Results of Shock Therapy

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Completely unsuccessful.
Russia’s industrial structure collapsed

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Fall in Russian currency ruble.
Destruction of social welfare system
Big companies were sold at very low price.
Increase in economics inequality
Food crisis
Encouraged black marketing
History’s largest garage sale
Shock therapy was called the biggest garage sale in history because big companies
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were sold at the price of junk.

Why Did This Happen?

This happened because all the citizens were given vouchers to participate in the
auction. These vouchers were sold by those citizens to the black marketers because they
needed money and at the same time they were not in a position to participate in this sale.
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Communist Countries And India
Relations between India and communist countries have been good since the beginning.
Russia has been helping India from the very beginning.
Both dreams a multipolar world.
Both countries believe in democracy.
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80 bilateral agreements were signed between India and Russia in 2001.

India is one of the largest Russian arms buyers.
India imports huge amount of oil from Russia.
Russia helps India in many scientific projects.
Russia always supported India on Kashmir issue.

Arab Revolution (Arab Spring)

Tunisia
Tunisia is a country in North Africa

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 Zine el Abidine ben ali was the president here since 1987
It was a dictatorial Government
The media there was controlled and it could not show anything against the
Government.
Due to these things, people were subjected to atrocities and they did not get justice.

The Beginning of The Arab Revolution

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The Arab revolution started because of the self-immolation of a poor man named

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Mohammad Bouazizi.

Who Was Mohammad Bouazizi ?

Mohammad Bouazizi was a poor man

He was born on 29 March 1984 in Tunisia.
His father died when he was 3 years old.
He started working from the age of 10 and used to sell fruits.

The Main Problem

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Mohammad Bouazizi had applied for license of a shop near the town hall but he was
not able to get it.
On December 17, when he reached the same place where he used to sell fruits every
day, he saw that someone else was selling his goods there.
He talked to the person and tried to remove him from there and when he did not agree,
he talked to the police.
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But the police took away his fruits and his belongings and insulted him as well as bear
beat.
Due to all these things, he became very sad and in anger, he sprinkled kerosene on
himself and set himself on fire and committed suicide.
People tried to save him but he could not survive.
While committing self-immolation, his cousin ali made a video of the incident and this
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video became viral on social media because of Facebook.

He died on 4 January 2011 and thousands of people attended his funeral.

After The Death of Mohammad Bouazizi

After the death of Mohammad Bouazizi, no strong steps were taken, due to which the
anger of the people increased further.
People in Tunisia started protesting in large numbers.
To suppress the protest, bullets were fired on them by the government, so that people
could sit peacefully in fear but this did not happen.
Due to the hike in protest, curfew was imposed and later emergency was also imposed.

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 But in the end ben ali resigned from his post and ben ali’s rule came to an end.

Why Did The People of Tunisia Revolt?

Anger
Dictatorship
Corruption
Poverty

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Unemployment

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Suicide of Mohammed Bouazizi

After The Success of The Movement In Tunisia, The Movement Gradually

Spread Throughout North Africa and Arab Countries.

Consequences of The Arab Spring

Arab revolution did not succeed
It benefited only in Tunisia
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Libya and Syria were completely destroyed by the Arab Revolution
Military rule became stronger in some countries
Saudi Arabia and other countries handled the situation wisely

Middle East Crisis

There are mainly two topics we have to talk about in the middle east crisis.
Afghanistan Crisis (1979–89)
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First Gulf War

Afghanistan Crisis (1979–89)

Afghanistan’s Political System
Afghanistan remained separate from both the world war and the cold war
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Some political changes were made in 1960 by king Zahir Shah of Afghanistan.
Elections held in Afghanistan
Given political rights to the people
Emphasis on women education
He was deposed in 1973 by the king’s cousin Dawood khan and he himself
became the president and prime minister of Afghanistan.

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 Socialist Intervention
After 5 years, in 1978, the people’s democratic party of Afghanistan (pdpa)
overthrew the government of Dawood Khan.
Pdpa was a socialist party
Under the land reform process, they started taking land from people who had a
lot of land and started distributing this land among those who did not have land.
Because of this, the people of the village of Afghanistan got angry with the

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government because they had lands in high amount.

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Due to the land reforms villagers started revolting
The government tried to suppress this rebellion but did not succeed.
USSR And Afghanistan
The socialist government formed in Afghanistan sought help from the Soviet
Union and the Soviet Union helped by providing weapons and other materials.
Yet the villagers could not be controlled
Seeing the system deteriorating, in 1979, the Soviet Union sent its army to
Afghanistan.
The sending of soviet troops to Afghanistan was opposed by the general assembly
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of 34 Muslim countries and the United Nations
But the Soviet Union did not listen to anyone and took full control of the cities of
Afghanistan and the communication system there.
Afghanistan War (1979–89)
During this, a war started between the people of Afghanistan and the army of the
Soviet Union and the people of Afghanistan named it the war of religion.
The people of Afghanistan were supported by the us and thus the two
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superpowers came face to face in the Afghanistan War.
Osama Bin Laden was also involved in this war and due to this war, many
terrorist organizations like Taliban and Al Qaeda Emerged.
End of Afghanistan War
In 1985, Gorbachev became the president of the Soviet Union and began to
change the system of the Soviet Union.
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During this time, he withdrew his army from Afghanistan and by 1989 the Soviet
army was completely out of Afghanistan.
This is how the Afghanistan war ended
After The End of The Afghanistan War
Even after the withdrawal of the USSR army, the problem in Afghanistan did not
end
Civil war started between all the terrorist groups that had developed such as Al
Qaeda, Taliban and other Groups.

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 Gulf War
Iraq occupied Kuwait in 1990
World countries tried to convince Iraq but Iraq did not agree
At the end, UNO allowed the use of force on Iraq.
This military operation was named operation desert storm.
UNO forces were sent to attack Iraq. Although this army was a mixed army of 34

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countries, but 75% of the soldiers were from America and the general of this army was
also American.

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Saddam Hussein, who was the president of Iraq at that time, said that this war would
be a war of a hundred wars, meaning that it would be very difficult to defeat Iraq, but
nothing like this happened and Iraq was easily defeated in a few days and had to
withdraw from Kuwait. .
During this war America made an open display of its powers.
America used smart bombs in this war and therefore it was called computer war.
Simultaneously, this war was broadcasted live on TV, due to which it was called video
game war.
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This decision to attack Iraq, taken by UNO was called dramatic because no such
decision had ever been taken by UNO before.
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 Contemporary Centres of Power Chapter 2 Notes
Class 12 Political Science Book 1

New Centres of Power

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New centres of power mean those countries and organizations, which can become
superpowers in the future and plays a major role in the world system even in the present.

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Organizations
The European Union
ASEAN
BRICS

Countries ya
China
Japan
India
Israel
Russia

The European Union

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The countries of Europe suffered the most in the Second World War. therefore, after
the Second World War, the countries of Europe tried to improve their situation.
America helped European countries in this reform process.

Formation of the European Union

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Marshal plan

In 1948, the Marshall Plan was made by the US, under which the European Economic
Community was established.
The European Council was formed in 1949.
The European Economic Community was established in 1957.
The European Union was established in 1992

European Union ‘s objectives

rapid economic growth

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 mutual support
goods foreign policy

Features of the European Union

as an organization

economic and political

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giant nation state

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Your flag , anthem , foundation day (9th May) and currency (Euro).

Note:- In 2003 the European Union tried to make its own constitution but it could not
succeed.

Flag of the european union

The European flag is a symbol of the European Union
It has a circle of 12 golden stars on blue
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It shows unity and solidarity among the people of Europe.

Features of the European Union

economic features

World’s largest economy in 2005

threat to euro dollar
Gross domestic product more than 12000 billion dollars
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The US has three times the share of world trade

Military features

second largest army in the world

Two members Britain and France have nuclear weapons
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Two members Britain and France have permanent membership and veto of the
Security Council of the United Nations.

Note:- Britain left the European Union on 31 January 2020.

ASEAN
ASEAN Association of South East Asian Nations
आसियान दक्षिण पूर्व एशियाई राष्ट्रों का संगठन
Established in 1967 it was established by signing the
Bangkok Declaration.

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 Founding countries Indonesia , Malaysia , Philippines
, Singapore , Thailand
Later countries included Brunei , Vietnam , Laos , Myanmar ,
Cambodia

ASEAN Flag
10 paddy earrings were shown in the middle, which shows the unity of the ASEAN

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countries.

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Blue represents peace and stability.
Red represents courage and dynamism .
white shows purity
Yellow is a symbol of prosperity.

ASEAN ‘s objectives
promote social and cultural development
accelerate economic growth
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improve law and order
promote peace

Three Pillars of ASEAN

Keeping in mind the overall development by ASEAN, three institutions were created in 2003,
these are called the three pillars of ASEAN.

ASEAN Security Community

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ASEAN Economic Community
ASEAN Social and Cultural Community

Three Pillars of ASEAN

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ASEAN Security Community

Work

resolving disputes between member states

Promote peace and cooperation.

ASEAN Economic Community

Work

promote common trade

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 increase free trade
settling economic disputes

ASEAN Social and Cultural Community

Work

Raising the level of social and cultural development

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ASEAN Vision 2020
ASEAN Vision 2020 is a list of goals set by ASEAN for 2020.
By 2020, ASEAN wants to play an external role in the world.
Resolving all mutual disputes through dialogue is also the main point of ASEAN Vision
2020.

ASEAN Style
ASEAN’s way of developing is called the ASEAN Style
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It set a new example in front of the world by developing through cooperation and
reconciliation.
This method of cooperative and conflict-free development was called the ASEAN Style.
In this way, ASEAN became the fastest growing organization.

India and ASEAN

Initially, India did not pay much attention to ASEAN, but in later times, India made
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efforts to improve relations with ASEAN countries and increase trade.
In 1991, the policy of Walk East was adopted by India and efforts were made to improve
relations with East Asian countries.
India has signed a free trade agreement with two ASEAN countries Singapore and
Thailand.
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Simultaneously, India is also trying to make a free trade agreement with ASEAN.

China

China’s early
China was established on 1 October 1949.
China isolates itself from the whole world
Beginning China developed big industries under the control of the government
Due to the lack of foreign exchange, it was difficult to get technology and goods from
abroad, so tried to produce everything from China inside the country.

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 Opening up The Economy
Instead of suddenly opening its economy, China changed the economy according to the
plan.
China made relations with America for the first time in 1972.
A year later, i.e. in 1973, the then Chinese Prime Minister Chou En Lai proposed
development in agriculture , industry , army and development and technology.

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In 1978, Prime Minister Deng Xiopeng announced the Open Door Policy.

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After Opening the Economy
Farming was privatized in 1982
Industries were privatized in 1988
SEZ ie SPECIAL ECONOMIC ZONE was established
Joined the World Trade Organization in 2001.
This process is called the rise of China.

Consequences of China’s new economic policies

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economy picks up
Due to the privatization of agriculture, the income of the farmers has increased.
Foreign investment in China increased
The amount of foreign exchange increased and China started investing in other
countries.
China emerged as an economic power in the world
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India and China relations

Issues

In 1962, there was a war between China and India in which India lost.
Border dispute between Jammu and Kashmir and Arunachal Pradesh
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China’s occupation of Tibet

Granting asylum to Dalai Lama by India

effort and improvement

Panchsheel Agreement
Negotiations started in 1981 to settle the border dispute
In 1988, Rajiv Gandhi visited China and there was some improvement in relations.
Economic cooperation increased and trade also increased.

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 What is BRICS?
BRICS is an organization created to enhance business, politics and cultural cooperation
among the 5 countries Brazil, Russia, India, China and South Africa
After the joining of South Africa in BRICS.

Reasons for the creation of BRICS:-

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At present, almost all the major organizations present in the world, such as the World

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Bank or the IMF, are influenced by the US and other western countries.
For this reason, an organization was created through which the emerging economies of
the world could be brought together and cooperation could be established between
them.
This was done because in future all these economies can compete with the developed
countries and that is why it is very important for them to come together.

Formation of BRICS
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At the time of formation, the name of this organization was BRIC, which was formed
from the initials of the names of its member countries, after joining the organization of
South Africa in 2010, it became BRICS.
BRIC was launched in Russia in 2006
The creation of BRIC was suggested by Jim O Neil, a UK economist.
Discussions about it began in Russia in 2006.
It was formed in 2009
At the time of formation it consisted of 4 countries and was called BRIC.
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In 2010 South Africa also joined BRIC and it became BRICS.

Member
Brazil
Russia
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India
China
South Africa
the headquarters
is in Shanghai (China)

Objectives of BRICS
Promote demand for reform of the UNO’s Security Council
Cooperate on trade and climate change issues
Simplifying import and export

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 Accelerating the pace of development through mutual cooperation
establish mutual political cooperation
ensure each other’s safety
Strive to work together to solve shared challenges

BRICS conference
Its first conference took place on 16 June 2009 in Yakitin (Russia).

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4 countries participated in this conference because South Africa was not a member of

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BRICS at that time
The second conference was held in Brazil on 15 April 2010 and during the same
conference South Africa was also included in BRICS.
The third BRICS summit was held in China on 14 April 2011 in which its name was
changed from BRIC to BRICS.
Now its conference is proposed in Russia in 2020

NDB (New Development Bank) New Development Bank

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All the countries of BRICS together formed a bank in 2014 which was named NDB Bank.

Formation of NDB Bank: –

India suggested to make BRICS countries a bank

Which was formed by these countries in 2014 and named as NDB i.e. New
Development Bank.
Its headquarter is in Shanghai
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The regional office is in South Africa
Presently its chairman is KV Kamath and it is an Indian
The total capital of this bank is $100 billion, of which $41 billion is from China, $18
billion is from India, Brazil and Russia and $5 billion is from South Africa.

Functions of NDB Bank

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This bank gives loan to member countries on easy installments

Provides economic suggestions to member countries
Helps member countries acquire technology

Features of BRICS

About 40% of the world’s population lives in the BRICS countries

The main two countries with the largest population in the world, India and China are
included in BRICS.
Russia is the largest country in the world by area and is a member of BRICS.
All countries except Russia are developing

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 India and China emerging as emerging power
It is estimated that by 2030 this group will overtake the US
Its GDP is about 23% of the whole world
About 27% of the area of ​the whole world comes under the countries of this
organization.

Current status of BRICS

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If we see in the present situation, BRICS could not be completely successful in carrying

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out its tasks, it is because there are some mutual differences between the countries of
BRICS such as

India and China dispute

China to build a road on the border of PoK

China’s intervention on Nepal and India border

Israel
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Creation of Israel
Israel became a separate country on 14 May 1948 after separating from Palestine.
It is the only Jewish country in the world
After independence, the biggest problem for it was the Muslim countries around it.
Egypt , Syria , Iraq , and Jordan attacked it soon after its independence .
This was the beginning of the Arab Israel War which lasted from 1948 to 1949.
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In this Israel won and captured a large area

June 1967 ( Six Day War )

In 1967, the countries around Israel, Jordan , and other Arab countries attacked it
together.
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Like the previous war, in this war also Israel defeated all of them very easily within just
6 days, that is why it is also called Six Day War.
In this war Israel also captured the Gaza Strip and increased its area by almost 3 times.

Geographical Features of Israel

Around it , there are Muslim countries like Lebanon , Syria , Jordan , and Egypt.
Total Area 22145 Sq. Kilometers
Population approx 85 lakh
located in southwest asia
A Jewish person born anywhere in the world is a citizen of Israel

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 Political Features
The national language here is Hebrew
The capital of Israel is Jerusalem
The president is Raven Rivlin
Prime Minister is Benjamin Netanyahu
Here too there is a system of parliamentary democracy like in India.

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Military Features

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Israel is the eighth largest country in the world based on military strength
Its army has about 35 lakh soldiers and women are also included in the army in Israel.
Army training is given to all school students.
Israel is far ahead in military technology compared to other countries
In Israel, it is mandatory for boys to serve in the army for at least 3 years and for girls
for 2 years.
It is not capable of all military weapons but also exports them on a large scale.
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Economic Features
Israel ranks 21st in the world on the basis of GDP
Israel is ahead of developed countries in the field of science and technology
Israel is ahead of its size in terms of trade
Israel’s main task is to develop innovative technologies and export them to the world.

Russia
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Russia’s early
After the Bolshevik Revolution in 1917, the Soviet Union was formed by merging 15
republican states.
Russia was also one of these 15 republic states.
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Russia was the largest republic among these 15 republics.

Russia was part of the USSR from 1917 to 1991
After the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, Russia became a country and it was
made the successor of the Soviet Union, that is, all the rights that were with the Soviet
Union were given to Russia.
such as nuclear weapons
Permanent Membership in the Security Council of the UNO
Russia had to abide by all the treaties that were made between the Soviet Union
and America.

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 Geographical Feature of Russia
Russia is a country in North Asia
Russia is the largest country in the world
Some part of it comes inside the continent of Asia and some of it comes inside Eastern
Europe.
In terms of size, it has grown almost 5 times more than India.

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Russia ranks seventh in the world by population

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Political Features of Russia
Russia is a democratic country
The capital of Russia is Moscow and its national language is Russian.
The president here is Vladimir Putin
The prime minister here is Mikhail Mishustin.
Here too, like other countries, elections are held normally and leaders are elected.

Economic Features of Russia

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Even though Russia is a big country in terms of size, Russia is not advanced in terms of
economic development.
Russia ranks 11th by GDP
Russia has abundant mineral resources, natural resources and gas reserves.
It is because of these resources that Russia is established as a strong country in the
world, but if compared with America economically, Russia lags far behind.
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Russian Military Features
Russia is one of the most powerful countries in the world in terms of arms
nuclear weapon
Permanent Membership of the Security Council of the UNO
Russia ranks second in the world in terms of military capability
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Russia gives equal competition to America in military field

Russia and India Relations

Relations between India and communist countries have been good since the beginning.
Russia has been helping India from the very beginning.
Both dream of a multipolar world
Both countries believe in democracy
80 bilateral agreements between India and Russia in 2001
india russian arms buyer
Import of oil from Russia into India

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 Russia’s help in scientific plans
Russia’s support to India on Kashmir issue

Japan

Japan and World War II

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Japan was one of the Axis powers in World War II
At the end of World War II, in 1945, the US dropped two atomic bombs on Japan.

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These bombs were dropped on two Japanese cities, Hiroshima and Nagasaki, and the
names of these bombs were Little Boy and Fat Man.
These bombs caused great destruction in Japan and Japan surrendered in World War
II.
After this the development of the Japanese economy started and today Japan is one of
the few main countries of the world.

Geographical Features of Japan

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Japan is a country in East Asia
Japan ranks 63rd in the world in terms of area
It is ranked 11th in the world by population
Most of Japan is surrounded by hills and forests
Japan is affected by most of the natural disasters in the world such as earthquake,
tsunami etc.

Political Features of Japan

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There is a constitutional monarchy in Japan, that is, there is a king and also a
democracy.
The current king of Japan is Naruhito
The political head of Japan is the Prime Minister here.
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The current Prime Minister of Japan is Shinzo Abe

The national language here is Japanese

Economic characteristics of Japan

Japan is the country with the most cutting-edge technology in the world
It is ranked third in the world by GDP
All kinds of products are exported by Japan
Despite being surrounded by so many disasters, Japan is far ahead of other countries in
the field of development.

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 Military Features of japan
Japan’s army is the fourth most powerful army in the world
Japan ranks fourth in the world in terms of military expenditure.
High quality technology is the main feature of the Japanese military
Japan is one of the largest countries in the world in terms of military strength
Like every region, Japan is also situated among the world’s big countries in military

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power.

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India

India’s opening round

British India was partitioned on 15 August 1947 and British India was mainly divided
into 2 countries, the first was India and the second was Pakistan.
The part which came in the territory of India also had two different parts, the first was
India and the second was the native princely states.
With independence, the biggest challenge before India was to include these indigenous
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princely states in India.
In course of time almost all the native princely states joined India and thus India was
formed.

India and China

Panchsheel Agreement
Panchsheel Agreement was signed between India and China in 1954.
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There were 5 principles in this agreement
respect for each other’s integrity and sovereignty
mutual non-aggression
not to interfere in each other’s internal affairs
equitable and mutually beneficial relationship
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peaceful coexistence

Tibet’s problem
Tibet is a small country located between India and China. China has been asserting its
authority over Tibet from the beginning, but India’s belief was just the opposite.
On 24 April 1954, India accepted China’s right over Tibet with some conditions and
China promised that Tibet would be given more autonomy but it did not happen.
An armed rebellion started in Tibet against the Chinese rule. This rebellion was
suppressed by the Chinese forces.

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 Seeing the situation deteriorating, Tibetan religious leader Dalai Lama sought asylum
from India in 1959 and India gave asylum to the Dalai Lama.
China called this move interference in its internal affairs and strongly opposed this
move.

India and China border dispute

The border dispute between India and China was over Aksai Chin in Jammu and

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Kashmir and NEFA area of ​Arunachal Pradesh.

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China expressed its right over these parts of India and India said that this matter has
been resolved at the time of British but China denied this.
Between 1957 and 1959, China occupied parts of Aksai’s China and started building
roads there.
A lot of discussions took place between the leaders of both the countries but the
problem could not be resolved. Many times there were skirmishes between the armies
of both the countries but no solution was found.
Due to Panchsheel agreement and trust in China, Nehru never felt that China could
attack India, but this time Nehru was proved wrong and in 1962 China attacked India.
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China attacked India in 1962. Due to this sudden attack, India did not get any chance to
prepare and the Chinese army came deep into India. In the end, a sudden ceasefire was
declared by China and India had to face defeat in this war.

Results of War
India lost
Indian foreign policy criticized
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Many senior military commanders resigned
Defense Minister VK Krishna Menon quits the cabinet
For the first time a no-confidence letter was brought against the government
The Communist Party of India was divided
Nehru’s image was damaged.
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War between India and Pakistan

1947 (Kashmir dispute)

War started between India and Pakistan soon after independence

The main reason for this war was Kashmir.
India won this war
In this war, some part of Jammu and Kashmir was occupied by Pakistan, which
India calls POK (Pakistan Occupied Kashmir) and Pakistan is called Azad Kashmir.

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 1965 (river water sharing)

India’s problems did not end after the 1962 China War
In 1965 , a war broke out between India and Pakistan over the problem of water
division.
In the end, India defeated Pakistan very comfortably.

1971 (Bangladesh)

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1971 East Pakistan problem caused war between India and Pakistan

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The war ended with the victory of India , the independence of East Pakistan and the
creation of a new country, Bangladesh.

1999 (Kargil War)

In 1999, it was due to infiltration and deployment of army in the Kargil area by
Pakistan. Operation Vijay was launched by India to drive out the intruders and in this
60-day long war, India completely destroyed Pakistan’s army.
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Geographical Features of India
India is a developing country in South Asia
world’s seventh largest country
Second largest country in the world by population
Surrounded by the Indian Ocean in the south, the Arabian Sea in the east and the Bay
of Bengal in the west
Largest cultural and religious diversity in the world
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Political Features of India
world’s largest democratic country
parliamentary system of government
federal government system
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Current Prime Minister – Narendra Modi

Current President – Ram Nath Kovind

Economic Characteristics of India

After independence, India adopted the model of mixed development in which equal
importance was given to the public and private sector.
India’s growth rate was normal from 1947 to 1991
In 1991, India adopted LPG by making major economic changes.
This is where India’s development got a boost.
The pace of India’s development accelerated since 1991

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 India is currently the fifth largest economy in the world
The world’s largest software exporting country is

Military Features of India

India comes in the first five countries of the world according to military capability
India ranks second in the world according to the number of soldiers
nuclear weapon country

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Contribution to the UNO Peacekeeping Force

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High quality weapons and trained soldiers are the main features of the Indian Army.

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 Contemporary South Asia Notes Class 12
Political Science Book 1 Chapter 3

South Asia

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There are mainly eight countries in the South Asian region.

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India
Nepal
Pakistan
Maldives
Bhutan
Sri Lanka
Afghanistan
Bangladesh
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Features of South Asia

Geographical
This region is bounded by the Himalayas in the north, the Indian Ocean in the south,
the Bay of Bengal in the east and the Arabian Sea in the west.
Because of these differences this area is filled with cultural and social diversity.
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Political
Support for democracy by all countries
The political system of the countries did not remain stable.
India and Sri Lanka have been successful in maintaining democracy after
independence.
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Pakistan and Bangladesh have both democratic and military rule.

Nepal had a constitutional monarchy till 2006 and then democracy came
Maldives used to be a sultanate till 1968, now it is a democracy.

Problems of countries of South Asia

Border dispute
River water dispute
Rebellion
Ethnic conflict

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 Poor economic condition

Countries of South Asia

Pakistan
After independence, military rule came in Pakistan under the leadership of Ayub Khan.

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Due to public displeasure, General Yahiya Khan overthrew Ayub Khan and himself
came under the rule.

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After the Bangladesh crisis in 1971, a democratic government was formed in Pakistan
under the leadership of Zulfikar Ali Bhutto.
This government lasted till 1977 and after Zia ul Haq overthrown the government and
again military rule came in Pakistan.
After 1982, there were movements in support of democracy in Pakistan and in 1988,
once again a democratic government was formed under the leadership of Benazir
Bhutto.
This government also did not last long and in 1999, once again General Pervez
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Musharraf seized power.

Why democracy could not be established in Pakistan?

Dominion of religious leaders, army and landowners
Army comes into power by showing the fear of Indian attack
Support of military rule by most political and social organizations
Lack of international support
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Military rule supported by other countries for their own benefit
Corrupt political parties

Bangladesh
After the independence of India, due to the large Muslim population in the two regions,
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two different regions were separated from India and Pakistan was created. One of these
areas was in the east and the other was in the west.

The main problem

There were more people speaking Bengali in East Pakistan, but since independence,
West Pakistan tried to impose Urdu language on the people, which was opposed by
them.
The people of East Pakistan started protesting against the bad behaviour on Bengali
culture.

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 Movements started in East Pakistan against the domination of West Pakistan and these
movements were led by Shaikh Mujibur Rahman.
In the elections of0 1970, Sheikh Mujibur Rahman’s party Awami League won all the
seats in East Pakistan.
But this was not accepted by the government of West Pakistan and Sheikh Mujibur
Rahman was arrested.
To suppress the movements in East Pakistan, Yahia Khan sent the army, in which

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thousands of agitators were killed by the Pakistani army.

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Independence of east Pakistan
Due to such situation in the country, thousands of people started coming to India.
Seeing all this, India started supporting the demand for independence of East Pakistan
and gave economic and military assistance to East Pakistan.
Because of this help, war broke out between West Pakistan and India.
India won in this war and East Pakistan became independent as a new country
Bangladesh.
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After independence
After independence, Bangladesh made its constitution and declared a secular,
democratic and socialist country.
In 1975, Sheikh Mujibur Rahman changed the constitution and adopted presidential
system instead of parliamentary system.
Sheikh Mujibur Rahman ended all parties except his own party, the Awami League.
Because of this, the tension in the country increased and the army revolted.
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Sheikh Mujibur Rahman was killed by the army and military rule came in Bangladesh.
After this Ziaur Rahman formed the Bangladesh National Party and tried to normalize
the system but he was also assassinated.
After Ziaur Rahman, military rule again came under the leadership of HM Ershad.
This rule was opposed by the students and the military rule ended in 1990.
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After this democracy was established and since 1991 there is democracy in Bangladesh.

Nepal
Nepal was a Hindu nation in history and remained a constitutional monarchy for a long
time.
During this period, the political parties and people of Nepal kept demanding
democracy, but using the army, the king suppressed these movements.
The people of Nepal continued their efforts and in 1990 the king accepted the
democratic constitution.

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 The influence of Maoists in Nepal has also increased since 1990.
Conflict broke out between the Maoists and the king’s army and in this struggle people
who were agitating for democracy also joined.
In this way a triangular conflict started in Nepal. This struggle went on for a long time.
Parliament was dissolved by the king in 2002 and the government was toppled.
Agitations against this started again and this time the government had to bow down
After that a democratic government was established

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Now Nepal has democratic government since 2006.
Nepal has made also its own constitution.

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Sri Lanka
Sri Lanka became independent in 1948 and democracy has prevailed here since
independence.
The main problem of Sri Lanka is the ethnic dispute between Tamil and Sinhalese.
Tamil – migrated from India and settled in Sri Lanka
Sinhalese – Natives of Sri Lanka.
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Cause of conflict
The natives of Sri Lanka, Sinhalese believe that they have right over Sri Lanka and
Tamils ​should not be given any kind of concession.
Due to this thinking, Tamils ​did not get equal share in the politics of Sri Lanka, due to
which they had to face many difficulties.
Because of all these problems and discrimination, Tamils ​formed their own
organization called LTTE (Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam) and adopted aggressive
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method to get their demands fulfilled.

Demands of Tamils.
LTTE said that a region of Sri Lanka should be made a separate country.
Presently LTTE and its supporters have been eliminated and Tamils ​of Sri Lanka are
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demanding equal rights.

India’s intervention
The Tamils ​of India put pressure on the Government of India to appeal to the
Government of Sri Lanka to improve the condition of Tamils ​in Sri Lanka.
The Indian government tried to talk to the Sri Lankan government and in 1987 sent a
peacekeeping force to rectify the situation.
This peace army got stuck in conflict with LTTE and the people of Sri Lanka also
opposed this army.

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 In 1989, India withdrew its peacekeeping force and the goal of establishing peace could
not be achieved.

Economic status of Sri Lanka

Despite the civil war, Sri Lanka developed rapidly.
Sri Lanka was the most successful in terms of population control.
Sri Lanka was the first to liberalize its economy in South Asia.

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Sri Lanka’s per capita GDP is also the highest in South Asia.

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Maldives
The Maldives was under the British Government until 1965.
Maldives gained independence from British rule in 1965 and became a sultanate under
King Muhammad Farid Didi.
In 1968, this monarchy was also abolished, and the republic was established, which has
remained till date.
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Bhutan
Bhutan enacted its constitution in 2008
Since than Bhutan currently has a system of constitutional monarchy.

Relations between India and the countries of South Asia

India and Pakistan

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There have been 4 wars between India and Pakistan so far.

1947 (Kashmir dispute)

1965 (River Water Division)
1971 (Bangladesh)
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1999 (Kargil War)

Issues of conflict
Kashmir dispute
Border dispute
Support of terrorism by Pakistan
Pakistan’s promotion of separatism
River water sharing

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 India and Bangladesh

Conflict
Illegal entry of thousands of Bangladeshis into India
Ganga and Brahmaputra river water sharing
Non-export of natural gas by Bangladesh to India

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Bangladesh’s support of anti-Indian Muslims
Do not give way to the Indian army to go to east India.

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Cooperation
Good economic relations
Cooperation on disaster management and environmental issues
Bangladesh is a part of India’s Look East policy

India and Nepal

Conflict
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There have been differences between India and Nepal regarding trade in history.
India’s concern is also about the friendship between China and Nepal.
India considers the growing Maoist supporters in Nepal as a threat to itself.
India is also not happy with Nepal not taking action against anti-Indian elements.
Nepal feels that India interferes in their internal affairs.
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Cooperation
Cooperation in the field of science and business
There is an agreement of free movement between both the countries, according to
which any person can come from India to Nepal and Nepal to India without passport
and visa.
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Nepal is being helped by India in many schemes.

India and Sri Lanka

Conflict
Tamil status
In 1987, a peacekeeping force was sent by India, which the people of Sri Lanka
considered interference in their internal affairs.

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 Cooperation
There is an agreement of free trade between both the countries.
Help by India during the tsunami in Sri Lanka.

India and Bhutan

Relations between India and Bhutan are very good.

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Bhutan drove the anti-India extremists from here, which helped India.

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India is helping with projects like hydroelectric power in Bhutan.
India gives maximum grant for development in Bhutan.

Relations between India and Maldives

In 1988, some soldiers from Sri Lanka attacked Maldives.
Maldives asked India for help and India sent its army to help Maldives
Help in the economic development of Maldives.
India’s support to Maldives’ tourism and fishing industry

SAARC (SAARC)
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SAARC was created to establish cooperation in the countries of South Asia.

SAARC – South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation

Established in – ​1985
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Headquarters – Kathmandu (Nepal)

Members – India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Nepal, Bhutan, Sri Lanka, Maldives, Afghanistan

Objectives
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Maintaining Peace and Cooperation in South Aisa

Free Trade Zone

But SAARC could not succeed.

Cause
Dispute between countries
Lack of unity
Failure to resolve disputes

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 SAFTA
SAFTA – South Asian Free Trade Area

Implemented – in 2006

Objective

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Reducing custom duty between the countries of South Asia for free trade.

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Status
It also failed because small countries believe that through this agreement India wants
to take advantage of their markets.

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id
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 International organization Notes Class 12 Political
Science Book 1 Chapter 4

International organization

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Those organizations which are formed by many countries on the international level are called
international organizations. These organizations have member countries and they work for

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the whole world.

Need of international organizations

To solve problems that no country can solve alone.
To bring about an agreement between the countries.
To establish cooperation between countries.
To reduce the possibility of war in the world.
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Major international organizations
League of nations
United nations organisation
World bank
World trade organization
International monetary fund
Amnesty international
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Human rights watch.

League of nations
The whole world suffered heavy losses due to the first world war.
To prevent this type of world war from happening again and to maintain peace in the
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world, all the countries thought of forming an international organization so that the
disputes between the countries could be resolved by negotiation and there would be no
world war again.
That’s when the league of nations was created.
This organization was not very successful and the world had to face the second world
war.
The second world war was even more dangerous and caused more damage than the
first world war.
All the countries realized that the league of nations needed to be strengthened further.
Therefore, the league of nations was changed to the United Nations Organisation.

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 Note : The United Nation is considered the successor of the league of nations.

United Nation Organisation (UNO)

Established on – 24 oct 1945

Members – 193

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Headquarters – New York

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Objective
Maintain peace in the world
Settlement of disputes between countries through negotiations
Helping countries
Promoting the social and economic development of countries
Establishing treaties between countries
To develop a spirit of cooperation in the world
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Principal Organs
There are 6 Principal organs of the United Nations.

Security council
Secretariat
Economic and social council
General assembly
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International court of justice
Trusteeship council

Security council
The security council is the most important organ of the UNO.
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There are 15 members in the security council which are divided into 2 parts.
Permanent 5 members (USA, France, UK, China and Russia)
Temporary 10 members (These members are elected for 2 years)
Each permanent member has a special power called VETO (prohibition).
The permanent member can withhold or limit the motion by exercising the VETO.

Functions of the security council

Resolving disputes between countries
Keep peace in the world
Punishing those who disturb the peace

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 Secretariat
The bureaucracy of the UNO is called the secretariat.
The secretariat is the body of all the employees working for the uno.
It informs the rest of the organs of the uno and keeps an account of their work.

Economic and social council

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The economic and social council works for cultural, economic, social and educational

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development in the world.

Establishment – ​1945
Present members – 54
Meeting – the meeting of this council helds twice a year.
In Geneva in July
In New York in April

Objectives
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To raise the level of economic, social, educational and cultural development in the
world.

General assembly
The general assembly is one of the main organs of the uno.
In the general assembly, all the members of the uno are given one vote
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The general assembly is like the parliament of a country where disputes are discussed.
In the general assembly, decisions on general matters are taken by a general majority
and decisions on some special subjects are taken by a two-thirds majority.
Its conference is held every year.

International Court of Justice

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The International Court of Justice settles disputes between countries.

It is located in the Hague (Netherlands)
The international court of justice consists of 15 judges who are elected for 9 years.
After every 3 years, 5 judges are elected.
All decisions are taken by majority vote.

Trusteeship council
The trusteeship council was created to look after those areas which were not able to
maintain the governance on their own after the second world war.

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 It was the responsibility of the trusteeship council to look after these areas.
Initially 11 countries were kept in it.
Its work ended after the independence of Palamu island in 1996.

Reform of the united nations

Since the end of the cold war, many changes have taken place in the world and now the world

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is facing different challenges.

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Changes after the cold war
The dissolution of the Soviet Union
The beginning of a unipolar world
Beginning of American hegemony
China’s rapid development
Rapid growth of the economy of Asia.
Terrorism
Climate change (global warming)
Civil war
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Proliferation of nuclear weapons
Destruction of environment
Epidemics.

In view of these changes, the talk of reforming the united nations came to the fore because no
major changes have been made in the united nations since its inception, but the conditions of
the world have changed a lot.
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Proposed improvements
To escalate the issues falling within the jurisdiction of uno.
Improving the UNO’s design
Increasing the number of VETO countries
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New countries in the security council

Changing the way uno works

Note: – in view of these demands, a resolution was passed in the general

assembly of uno in 1992.

Complaints in the proposel

There were three main complaints in this proposal.

The security council does not represent the current political situation in the world.

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 Its decision reflects the interests of western countries.
There is no equal representation in the security council.

Changes made in the united nations

Some changes were made in September 2005 to make the united nations more relevant.

Peace foundation commission was formed.

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If a country fails to save its citizens from atrocities, then the world community will take

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its responsibility.
Condemn all forms of terrorism
Establishment of human rights council (19 June 2006)
Establishment of democracy fund

Simultaneously, certain criteria were proposed (proposed not made) to provide for
permanent membership of the security council, the country which fulfils these criteria can
become a permanent member of the security council.
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Great economic power
Large population
Large land area
Great military power
High contribution in the budget of UNO
Democracy and respect for human rights
Cultural diversity
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If a permanent member is elected according to the above-mentioned criteria, then India
fulfils all the criteria and is the biggest contender to become a permanent member in the
security council of UNO.

Unipolar world and UNO

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Almost all countries of the world believe that the united nations is not effective in unipolar
world. It was said so because-

America has a special influence on the UNO.

US contributes the most to the UNO budget.
UNO is headquartered in New York (USA) and for this reason most of its bureaucrats
are American.
America is a permanent member of the security council of the UNO and has the VETO.
America has always been ignoring the UNO due to its military and economic power.

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 Other international organizations
World bank
World trade organization
International monetary fund
Amnesty international
Human rights watch.

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World Bank

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Established – 1945
Members – 189
Headquarters – Washington DC

Objectives
Providing loans to developing countries.
Helping poor and developing countries to develop
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World Trade Organization
Establishment – ​1995 (Earlier there was GATT (General Agreement on Tariffs
and Trade)
Headquarters – Geneva
Member – 164
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Objectives
To promote free trade among all the countries of the world.
Making rules related to international trade.

International Monetary Fund

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Establishment – ​1945
Headquarters – Washington DC
Members – 189 (Currently)

Objectives
Keeping track of the economic condition of the countries
Providing financial and technical support

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 Amnesty International
Established – 1961
Headquarters – London

Objectives
Protect human rights

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Publishing human rights reports

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To make the people of the world aware of human rights

Human Rights Watch

Established – 1978
headquarters – New York

Objectives
Protect human rights

UNESCO
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United nations educational scientific and cultural organization
UNESCO is a part of the United Nations Organization, it was established for the
development of education, science and culture in the world.
The proposal to make it was presented on 16 November 1945.
Established– 4 November 1946
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Headquarters – Paris (France)
Members – 193 full members and 11 associate members

Note: Earlier it had 195 members, but after the withdrawal of America and Israel, its
members decreased to 193.
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Objectives
Development of people
Guiding Youth
Helping developing countries
Looking after Small island
Looking after Underdeveloped countries
Apart from this, UNESCO also works to determine and maintain the world heritage
sites.

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 World heritage sites are those sites which are of great importance to human beings
culturally.
A total of 38 sites in India have been identified as world heritage sites.

United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF)

United Nations International Children’s Emergency Fund

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Now the words International and emergency have been removed from its name.
United Nations Children’s Fund

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Established – 11 December 1946
Headquarters – New York
Members – 190 countries

Objectives
UNICEF established for child education, health and welfare
UNICEF, in collaboration with the world health organization, does many things for
children, such as immunization of children, providing nutritious food, preventing
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diseases etc.

Achievements
UNICEF was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1965
About 3 billion vaccines are provided by UNICEF every year to immunize children
UNICEF was also awarded the Indira Gandhi Peace Prize in 1989.
Amitabh Bachchan in 2005, Sachin Tendulkar in 2013 and Priyanka Chopra in 2016
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has been the brand ambassador of UNICEF.

International Labour Organisation (ILO)

It was formed in 1919 and in 2019 it has completed its 100 years.
It joined the United Nations in 1946
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Headquarters – Geneva (Switzerland)

Objectives
Promoting labour rights internationally
Maintaining social justice on global scale
Achievements
ILO was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1969
Contributed to development by protecting the rights of workers on global scale

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 Security in the Contemporary World Notes
Class 12 Political Science Book 1 Chapter 5

Security

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The basic meaning of security is freedom from threats.

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But it is not possible to be safe from all kinds of dangers because every human being is
always under some danger or the other.
For example-
Danger of getting into an accident while driving.
Danger of cutting hands while cutting vegetables.
Risk of falling and injury while playing.
If efforts are made to avoid all these dangers, no human can lead a normal life.
For this reason, only those threats are considered to be a threat to the safety of a
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person, which damages the core values ​of that person. In other words, the life or liberty
of that person is at risk.

Conceptions of security
If we talk about security, there are mainly two groups.

Traditional Notions
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External
Internal
Non-traditional notions

Traditional Notion of security

The traditional concept of security includes those threats that are dangerous to a
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country,
Those threats that cause harm to a country or its people.
Conventional security is mainly divided into two parts

External
All such threats to a country from outside its borders are kept within the scope of
external notion of security. The biggest danger in this is from the surrounding
countries, which can affect the security of that country by doing war.

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 Internal
Internal Security includes all those threats that a country faces from within its borders
From the people living within it, riots due to racism, civil war or other similar things
within it.

The non-traditional notion of security

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The non-traditional notion of security includes those threats which are dangerous not
for any one country but for the whole world and no one country can solve them

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alone. In other words, such dangers which are dangerous for the whole human race.
For example
Global warming
Pollution
Natural disasters
Poverty
Epidemic
Terrorism
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Problem of refugees
Increasing population etc.

Avoidance of Dangers

How to avoid external threats

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By strengthening military power

For a country, its army is most important because it protects it from all the dangers
that it can face from the countries around it.
In such a situation, keeping your army strong is the best way to avoid external threats.

Establishing a balance of power

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Balance of power means keeping an eye on the countries around you and always
keeping your power equal to their power, that is, if they are becoming more powerful
than you in military form, then try yourself and increase your military power so that
both the countries Always be equally powerful and no country dares to attack each
other.

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 Adopting a coalition policy

Forming alliances is also a good way to stop a war. Within this, all those countries that
feel that they can be a threat to each other form alliances among themselves and try to
build a trust that we will not attack each other and establish cooperation.

By disarmament

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Disarmament means reducing the weapons made. Within this, by negotiation between
two or more countries, a decision is taken to eliminate such weapons, which can be

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dangerous for both of them in the future. In this, both countries eliminate their own
dangerous weapons.

By weapon control

Weapon control means reducing or stopping the manufactureing of such dangerous

weapons which can cause great damage.
For example
Nuclear weapon
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How to avoid internal threats?
Internal security includes all those threats that harm the country from inside the
country’s borders.
For example:
Sectarian violence
Separatism
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Racism
Ethnic violence
Political instability
Incidents of violence

Measures to be taken
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Fair political system

Development
End of discrimination
Establishing equality

How to avoid unconventional dangers?

As we have seen above that the threats which come under non-traditional security
cannot be solved by any one country alone, due to this the ideology of cooperative
security was born in the world.

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 Cooperation security

There are many such threats in the world, which no country can solve alone, to deal
with these threats, all countries need to work together, this way of fighting the threats
is called cooperation security. In other words, when all the countries of the world try to
fight together against threats, then that cooperation is called Cooperation security.

India’s security policies

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Strengthen military capability
Since independence, there have been problems in the relations between India and its
surrounding countries. For this reason, India has tried to increase its military power
from the very beginning. India did its nuclear test in 1974 in Pokhran, which was
unsuccessful, but in 1998, the second nuclear test on the same site was successful and
India became a nuclear-rich country.

Deal with internal problems

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There are many internal problems in India.
For example: –
Poverty
Separatism
Racism
Uneven development
Corruption
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Solving all these problems is no less than a challenge for India.

Social and economic development

Economic and social development is very important for every country because when a
country is not economically strong, it has to depend on other countries, due to which
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the risk of becoming slave increases. So, in view of all these things, India has tried from
the very beginning that the country can become financially self-reliant.

Strengthen international institutions

Since independence, India has been trying to establish peace in the world and
strengthen international institutions.

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 In order to strengthen international institutions and establish peace in the world, India
has
Adopted the policy of non-alignment
Stressed upon Asian unity
Opposed colonialism

Terrorism

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What is terrorism?

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Terrorism is defined as the situation when a person resorts to violence to fulfil his
unreasonable demands.

Terrorism and the world

The Taliban and Al Qaeda were funded by the US during the Afghanistan crisis
Later these terrorist organizations carried out many attacks in America. Such as 9/11
Simultaneously, in many countries of the world, terrorists are being nurtured in the
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name of religion and jihad.

Terrorist organization
A group of terrorists with similar ideology is called a terrorist organization.
There are many terrorist organizations active in the world today.
ISIS
Taliban
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Al Qaeda
Lashkar-e-Taiba
Hizbul Mujahideen etc.

India and terrorism

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Nature of terrorism in india

Religious terrorism

In Punjab and Kashmir

Separatist terrorism

Terrorism spread in Punjab on the demand of Khalistan and in Jammu and Kashmir

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 Foreign terrorism

An example of this is the ongoing terrorism supported by Pakistan in Jammu and

Kashmir and in different regions of India.

Regional terrorism

Naxalism spread in many areas of Andhra Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Bihar,

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West Bengal, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, and Maharashtra is an example of regional
terrorism. It mainly supports the poor and tribals and it opposes the landlords.

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id
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 Environment and Resources Notes &ODVV3ROLWLFDO
Science Book 1 Chapter 6

Environment and Resources

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Environment

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Environment means anything that surrounds us. It includes living (biotic) or non-living
(abiotic) things. It includes physical, chemical and other natural forces etc.

Resources
Everything that we use to fulfil our needs is called a resource, for example water,
air, land etc.

Natural resources
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All those resources which we get from nature are called natural resources such as
trees, air, land etc.

Political Science and Environment

Although environment is a subject of science, there is a big reason to discuss it in
political science.
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At present, environmental problems have increased so much that no country can solve
them alone.
For this reason, it is necessary to have cooperation between the countries to solve all
these problems.
To reach an agreement between two countries, there must be cooperation between
their governments.
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This is the reason why environmental issues are being studied in politics.

Environmental problems
If we look at history, the environment has never been such a big issue.

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 But due to the pace of development and increase in population in the world,
environment is becoming a matter of concern.
Main environmental problems at present
Pastures are running out
Arable land is running out
Fish stocks are declining
Water pollution is on the rise

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Deforestation is increasing
Biodiversity is running out

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Hole in the ozone layer
Increasing pollution in the world
The rise in earth’s temperature
Lack of availability of clean drinking water

The rise of environmental issues in global politics

Environmental issues took hold in the 1980s

Growth
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In 1972 a group of scholars from the Club of Rome published a book called Limits to

In this it was told how natural resources are being damaged due to increasing
population.
It was only after this that the United Nations Environment Program (UNEP) started.
It organizes many environmental protection conferences in the world.

The Global Commons

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Common wealth
Common wealth is the resource which is not owned by an individual but by the entire
community.
For example:
Playground
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Well
River etc.
Global commons
There are many such areas and resources in the world which are not owned by any one
country, they are called global commons.
For example
Antarctica
Outer space
Sea ​etc.

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 COMMON BUT DIFFERENTIATED RESPONSIBILITIES
Due to the different development situation in the world, a new ideology was born which
was named Common but Different Responsibilities.
If we look at the world today, the world is divided into three different parts, out of
which the first is the developed countries, the second is the developing countries and
the third is the less developed countries.

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In such a situation, environment is a big issue for developed countries, on the other
hand, economic development and poverty alleviation is more important for developing

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and less developed countries.
In such a situation, if each country is given equal responsibilities of maintaining the
common property, then it will not be right.
For example, if we ask both developed and developing to make equal efforts to protect
the environment, then it will not be right.
Because developed countries have already developed but developing countries have yet
to develop themselves and it will be difficult for them to protect the environment.
Along with this, more damage has been done to the environment by the developed
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countries, so for this reason the developed countries should take more steps to save the
environment.
This ideology is called common property but different responsibilities

Earth Summit (Rio Summit)

In 1992, the Environment and Development Conference was organized by the United
Nations in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.
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It is called Earth Summit
The countries involved in earth summit had created a plan Agenda 21 for sustainable
development
By sustainable development, we mean the way of development in which development
can be done without harming the environment.
During the discussion of this conference one thing came to the eyes that the world is
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mainly divided into two halves.

Northern Hemisphere and Southern Hemisphere
The countries of the Northern Hemisphere are concerned about the environment, on
the other hand, the countries of the Southern Hemisphere are still developing and they
are concerned about developing and eradicating the poverty of their country.
During this conference, Agenda 21 was prepared in which such methods of
development were given which would cause least damage to the environment.
Later it was also criticized because this conference was done for the environment but it
ended on the issues of development.

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 Common property but different responsibilities
The principle of common property but different responsibilities was recognized in the
Rio Convention of 1992.
A framework was made by the United Nations
UNFCCC (United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change)
It was accepted that all countries will contribute according to their ability and will fulfil

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their responsibilities in their own way in environmental protection.

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Kyoto Protocol
The Kyoto Protocol was created in view of the damage to the ozone layer due to
greenhouse gas emissions.
It is an international agreement designed to reduce greenhouse gas emissions in
countries
The gases which is responsible for global warming in the world are called greenhouse
gases.
Methane, carbon dioxide and chlorofluorocarbons are some of the main greenhouse
gases.
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The Kyoto Protocol was created to reduce the emission of these gases.
It was proposed in 1992 and has been implemented since 2005.

Note: Greenhouse gas emissions of developing countries are much less than developed
countries, therefore developing countries like China and India are excluded from this
protocol. means, this obligation does not apply to them.
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Steps taken by the Government of India for environmental
protection
Change in National auto fuel policy
Use of clean fuel has been encouraged
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Emphasis was given on the use of CNG in the means of transport

Emphasis was given on the use of renewable sources of energy
The Energy Conservation Act in 2001 and the Electricity Act in 2003 were passed
Emphasis on use of clean coal

Environmental movement
The movements which raise the environmental issues and demands are called
environmental movements.
There have been many such movements in India and the world which were related to
environmental issues.

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 Environmental movement in India
Chipko Movement
Narmada Bachao Andolan

Geopolitics of resources
One of the biggest features of the world is that no country in the world has all the

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resources available.
This has been the biggest reason for the conflict between the countries in history.

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The spread of European powers in the world and the capture of small countries was
also to get resources.
There are some countries in the world which have mineral resources while there are
some countries which have abundant natural resources.
For these reasons, there is a conflict between the countries.
The Gulf countries are a very good example of this, because of the oil resources present
there, the big powers have always tried to capture and keep it under their control.

Future prospects
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At present if we see, water is an important resource
Life is not possible without water
At present there are many countries of the world where the availability of water is less.
In such a situation, it is believed that water will emerge as a very important resource in
the future.
Many scholars have also said that if there will be a third world war in the world, it will
be because of water.
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The Indigenous people and their rights
Indigenous people are called those people whose ancestors have been living inside an
area for a long time, then people of some other culture or caste came from outside and
got their influence on these people.
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These Indigenous people still live life in their traditional ways.

Problems of Indigenous peoples

Struggle for equality
Struggle for identity
Struggle for development
Lack of infrastructure
Right to residency
Worried about deforestation

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 Globalisation
Book 1 Chapter 7

What is Globalization?

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Globalization is the flow of people, goods, ideas, and capital from one country to another.
Transfer of ideas from one part to another

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Movement of goods from one country to another
Transfer of capital from one country to another
Movement of people from one country to another

Reasons of globalization
Rapid growth of technology
Variation in Level of Development
Unequal availability of resources
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Cultural diversity

Consequences of globalization

Political consequences

Positive Impact
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Governance reform
Integration of Technology in Governance
Qualitative increase in the functioning of the government
Transparency
Simplification of governance
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Negative impact

End of the welfare state

A welfare state is a state that works for the welfare of the people.
Rise of the least interfering State
The least interfering state is said to be that state which is limited only to the
governance system and does not pay much attention to the welfare of the people.
Less government intervention in industries

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 Financial consequences

Positive impact

Increase in the pace of development

Fast reach to new technology
High utilization of resources
Growth in employment

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Growth in quality due to market competition

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Negative impact

Rise of MNCs (Multinational companies)

Multinational companies are companies that operate business in many countries
at the same time.
The collapse of small industries
Uneven development
Difficult to do business due to increased competition
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Strict visa policy of developed countries

Cultural consequences

Positive impact

Openness of thought
Development of mixed culture
Improvement in the status of women
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Change in eating and living habits

Negative impact

A great influence of American culture

Loss of the culture of small countries
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Development of one-sided culture

India and Globalization

India was a British colony before independence.
In that era, raw materials were taken from India and manufactured into products in
Britain and sold back in India.
After independence, India tried to end this dependence and decided that India would
produce all those things in the country that it was importing from outside.
This arrangement lasted till about 1991 and after that India adopted a new economic
policy.

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 India’s New Economic Policy (1991)

LPG
Liberalization
Liberalization means simplifying the policies of doing business i.e. Eliminating
licenses and other barriers.

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Privatization

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Privatization means by promoting the private sector, that is, giving the private
sector an opportunity to develop and remove the compulsion imposed on it.
Globalization
The uninterrupted flow of people, goods, capital, and ideas from one country to
another is called globalization.

After adopting this policy, there was an increase in the pace of development
inside India and due to the simplification of rules, businesses became bigger.
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Critique of Globalization
Globalization has been criticized all over the world
It has two sides

Left-wing
Leftists are people who support the poor
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Leftists say that the condition of the poor has worsened due to globalization
The government is running away from its responsibilities
Simultaneously poor is getting poorer and poorer and rich is getting richer and richer

Right-wing
Right-wing people who speak in favor of the rich.
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Right-wingers say that globalization is very necessary for rapid development and to
bring the condition of equal development all over the world.

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