LEARNING CONTENT X

Objectives:
1. Identify different kinds of meat.
2. Differentiate methods of cooking meat.
3. Discuss the principles in cooking meat.
4. Follow the correct way of preserving meat.
5. Prepare meat recipes.

Meat Cookery

In Old English, the word meat (“mete”) was a general blanket term for food. These days, the
definition of meat most commonly refers to the edible flesh of an animal, though you could also use it
when describing the edible part of a plant, like coconut meat or nut meat.

Types of Meat
Pork
High in vitamin B1 as well as omega-6 fatty acids, pork is one
of the world’s most popular types of meat. From Italian
sausage to barbecued pork ribs to bacon, pork is easy to prepare
and incredibly flavorful. For an easy weeknight dinner, quick
brine pork chops before you sear them off in a cast-iron skillet.
.

Pork Cuts

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 Beef
From a prehistoric looking T-bone steak to your
average ballpark hot dogs and beef jerky, beef is a
delicacy best enjoyed sparingly. It shares a main fatty
acid with none other than olive oil—oleic acid.
Ground beef makes for quick and easy burgers:
combine the meat with egg, onions, salt, and spices
or flavorings of your choice (think Worcestershire
sauce and powdered garlic) and form the mixture into
patties. Grill for a few minutes on either side or pair with your favorite burger toppings.

Beef cuts

Carabeef
This is obtained from caraba o. Preserved or cured meat
include beef longganisa, smoked beef, and adobo. Dried meat
includes tapa.

Lamb
Lamb is categorized as meat from a young sheep under a year
old. While lamb tends to be on the more expensive side of the
different meats, it’s also thought to be one of the healthiest,
with good levels of nutrients. Sear a rack of lamb in a cast-

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iron skillet before basting in garlic butter and finishing in a 375°F oven for 5 minutes.

Goat
A slightly tough muscular composition makes goat a
popular addition to stews and braises, where a low and slow
cooking technique can best break down the fats and infuse
the meat with flavor. Meat from adult goats is referred to as
chevon and cabrito, while young goats, it is capretto, natale or kid.
Game Meats
This category includes everything from pheasant to venison to
wild boar—meats that are not typically found in a grocery store,
though you may find them in some specialty meat markets.
Generally, these meats are quite lean, since they are caught in
the wild and eat varied, natural diets. Because they’re not
farmed, game meats are among the more expensive options.
Their tougher muscle structures benefit especially well from
braising.

Principles of Meat Cookery

High Heat Develops Flavor

Browning creates a tremendous amount of flavor and is a key step when cooking meat. This happens
through a process called the Maillard reaction, named after the French chemist who first described it in the
early 1900s. The Maillard reaction occurs when the amino acids and sugars in the food are subjected to
heat, which causes them to combine. In turn, hundreds of different flavor compounds are created. These
compounds break down to form yet more new flavor compounds, and so on, and so on. When browning
meat, you want a deep brown sear and a discernibly thick crust on all sides—best obtained by quick cooking
over high heat. To ensure that meat browns properly, first make sure the meat is dry before it goes into the
pan; pat it thoroughly with paper towels. This is especially important with previously frozen meat, which
often releases a great deal of water. Second, make sure the pan is hot by preheating it over high heat until
the fat added to the pan is shimmering or almost smoking. Finally, make sure not to overcrowd the pan;
there should be at least 1/4 inch of space between the pieces of meat. If there isn’t, the meat is likely to
steam instead of brown. If need be, cook the meat in two or three batches.

Low Heat Preserves Moisture

For large cuts of meat or poultry, it is often advocated to use a low-and-slow cooking method. It is
found that this approach allows the center to come up to the desired internal temperature with less risk of
overcooking the outer layers.

An experiment recently conducted proves that even cooking isn’t the only benefit of slow roasting:
It also helps minimize the loss of flavorful juices (and fat). They took two 6‑pound rib roasts and roasted
one at 450 degrees and the other at 250 degrees until each was medium-rare. Then, they weighed the cooked
roasts. The slow-cooked roast had lost about 9.25 percent of its starting weight, while the high-temperature
roast had lost nearly 25 percent of its original weight. Why the difference? Proteins shrink less and express
less moisture and fat when cooked at moderate temperatures than when roasted at high heat.

Match the Cut to the Cooking Method

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 Tough cuts, which generally come from the heavily exercised parts of the animal, such as the
shoulder or rump, respond best to slow-cooking methods, such as pot roasting, stewing, or barbecuing. The
primary goal of slow cooking is to melt collagen in the connective tissue, thereby transforming a tough
piece of meat into a tender one. These cuts are always served well done.

Tender cuts with little connective tissue generally come from parts of the animal that receive little
exercise (like the loin, the area along the back of the cow or pig). These cuts respond best to quicker, dry-
heat cooking methods, such as grilling or roasting. These cuts are cooked to a specific doneness. Prolonged
cooking increases moisture loss and can turn these tender cuts tough.

Don’t Forget About Carryover Cooking

Since the temperature of meat will continue to rise as it rests, an effect called carryover cooking,
meat should be removed from the oven, grill, or pan when it’s 5 to 10 degrees below the desired serving
temperature. Carryover cooking doesn’t apply to poultry and fish (they don’t retain heat as well as the dense
muscle structure in meat). The following temperatures should be used to determine when to stop the cooking
process.

Doneness Temperatures for Meat and Poultry

BEEF/LAMB/VEAL TEMPERATURE
Rare 115 to 120 degrees (120 to 125 degrees after resting)
Medium-Rare 120 to 125 degrees (125 to 130 degrees after resting)
Medium 130 to 135 degrees (135 to 140 degrees after resting)
Medium-Well 140 to 145 degrees (145 to 150 degrees after resting)
Well-Done 150 to 155 degrees (155 to 160 degrees after resting)
PORK
Medium 140 to 145 degrees (150 degrees after resting)
Well-Done 150 to 155 degrees (160 degrees after resting)
Why Resting Meat Is Essential
The purpose of resting meat is to allow the juices, which are driven to the center during cooking,
to redistribute themselves throughout the meat. As a result, meat that has rested will shed much less juice
than meat sliced straight after cooking. To test this theory, we grilled four steaks and let two rest while
slicing into the other two immediately. The steaks that had rested for 10 minutes shed 40 percent less juice
than the steaks sliced right after cooking. The meat on the unrested steaks also looked grayer and was not
as tender. A thin steak or chop should rest for 5 to 10 minutes, a thicker roast for 15 to 20 minutes. And
when cooking a large roast like a turkey, the meat should rest for about 40 minutes before it is carved.

Methods of Cooking Meat

Methods of cooking meat include dry heat (roasting, broiling, pan-broiling, pan- frying, stir-frying
and outdoor grilling) or moist heat (braising and cooking in liquid). Methods should be selected based on
initial tenderness of the cut, desired quality characteristics of the resulting product, available cooking
facilities and equipment, and the amount of time available for preparation.

Tender cuts of meat, cooked by dry-heat methods, result in tender and juicy products. Less-tender
cuts must be cooked for longer periods of time by moist-heat methods, to soften the connective tissue,
prevent surface drying and to develop flavor. Some less tender cuts such as beef top round and chuck arm
can be cooked by a dry heat method if marinated before cooking.

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Dry Heat Method
Dry heat methods of cooking are suitable for tender cuts of meat or less tender cuts which have
been marinated. Dry heat methods include roasting, oven broiling, grilling, pan-broiling, panfrying and
stir—frying.
Roasting
This method of cooking is recommended for larger cuts of beef, veal, pork and lamb.

Broiling
Broiling is suitable for tender beef steaks; beef and lamb kabobs; veal, pork and lamb chops; pork
ribs; sliced ham; bacon; butterflied lamb leg and ground beef, pork and lamb. Steaks and chops should be
at least 3/4-inch-thick and ham should be at least 1/2-inch-thick for successful broiling. Less tender cuts
such as beef flank steak, beef top round, and veal, pork and lamb shoulder chops may also be broiled when
marinated. Marinating can increase the tenderness of these cuts but only to a limited degree. The same
tender cuts suitable for oven broiling can be pan- or griddle broiled. This method is especially good for
meat 3/4 inch or less in thickness; very thick cuts of meat may become overcooked on the outside before
the middle has reached the desired degree of doneness.

Grilling (Barbecuing)
The technique we call grilling is thought to have originated in the Caribbean, where natives smoke-
dried meat over hot coals on wood-frame “grills? Early Spanish explorers called this the “barbacoa” which
evolved into the modern-day word “barbecue.”

Due to the method of heating, grilling is actually a method of broiling. Meat can be grilled on a grid or rack
over coals, heated ceramic briquettes or an open fire. While it is usually done out- doors, grilling can be
done in the kitchen with special types of range tops or newer, small appliances.

Standard charcoal briquettes are the most common fuel for grilling. High-quality briquettes burn
evenly and consistently. Flammable material for quick-start fires may be added. It takes longer for natural
lump charcoal to get hot, but it provides heat for a longer period of time.

Woods like mesquite, apple, cherry and grapevine—in chip or briquette form— gives unique
flavors to grilled beef and lamb. Hickory generally is best for smoking beef and pork. Wood chips are first
soaked in water about 30 minutes, drained, and then placed on the burning coals. (Softwoods and evergreens
should not be used; they can impart a bitter flavor and leave a residue in the grill.)

Pan-broiling
Pan-broiling is a faster and more convenient method than oven broiling for cooking thinner steaks
or chops.

Stir-frying
Stir-frying is similar to panfrying except that the food is stirred almost continuously Cooking is
done with high heat, using small or thin pieces of meat.

Deep-fat frying
When meat is cooked immersed in fat, the process is called deep-fat frying. This method is only
used with very tender meat. Usually, meat to be deep-fat fried is coated with egg and crumbs or a batter,

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or it is dredged in flour or corn meal (breaded). This method of cooking is sometimes used for brains,
sweetbreads, liver and croquettes; however, a number of other meat products are suitable for deep-fat frying.

Pan-frying
Panfrying differs from pan-broiling in that a small amount of fat is added first, or allowed to
accumulate during cooking. Panfrying is a method suitable for ground meat, small or thin cuts of meat,
thin strips, and pounded, scored or other- wise tenderized cuts that do not require prolonged heating for
tenderization.

Moist Heat Method

Moist-heat methods of cooking are suitable for less tender cuts of meat. Moist-heat cooking helps
to reduce surface drying in those cuts requiring prolonged cooking times. Unless a pressure cooker is used,
cooking temperature is usually low, but heat penetration is faster than in dry-heat methods because steam
and water conduct heat rapidly.

With moist-heat cookery, meat may lose some water—soluble nutrients into the cooking liquid.
However, if the cooking liquids are consumed, as in stews or soups, nutrients are transferred and not totally
lost.

Braising
In some regions of the country the term “fricassee” is used interchangeably with braising. Pot roast
and Swiss steak are popular examples of braised—meat dishes. Meat can be braised in cooking bags
designed specifically for use in the oven. Use of oven—cooking bags can reduce cooking time for larger
cuts of meat. No additional water is needed, as moisture is drawn out of the meat due to the atmosphere
created by the cooking bag.

Cooking in Liquid
Less tender cuts of meat can be covered with liquid and gently simmered until tender. Care should
be taken not to let the temperature of the liquid exceed 195°F, because boiling (212°F) toughens meat
protein. When the liquid is used as a base for soup it is called meat stock (also called broth or bouillon).
Meat that is partially cooked in liquid before cooking by another method is called “parboiled.”

The three ways to cook in liquid are simmering, stewing and poaching. Simmering and stewing are
used for less tender cuts of meat while poaching is used for tender cuts. Also, poaching is only appropriate
for beef while any type of meat (beef, veal, pork or lamb) can be simmered. The difference between
simmering and stewing is that simmering is used with whole cuts of meat while stewing is used with small
pieces of meat.

Poaching has been a traditional way of cooking poultry and fish. However, beef roasts can also be
successfully poached if they come from tender cuts. Appropriate roasts for poaching are beef eye round,
rib eye and tenderloin.

After an initial browning period, the poaching liquid is added and the roast is then gently simmered
until it reaches 130°F. A combination of beef broth or consommé, red wine and herbs makes a flavorful
poaching liquid. After cooking, the liquid can be used to make a simple sauce for the roast or it can be
strained and frozen for later use as a soup base or stewing liquid.

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 Poaching takes one third less time than roasting. (A beef roast will poach to rare in about 20 to 30
minutes). In addition to cooking more quickly, poaching helps to keep shrinkage of the meat to a minimum.
A poached beef roast is also just as tender, juicy and flavorful as one which has been conventionally
prepared.
Preservation and Storage

Meat preservation helps to control spoilage by inhibiting the growth of microorganisms, slowing
enzymatic activity, and preventing the oxidation of fatty acids that promote rancidity. There are many
factors affecting the length of time meat products can be stored while maintaining product safety and
quality. The physical state of meat plays a role in the number of microorganisms that can grow on meat.
For example, grinding meat increases the surface area, releases moisture and nutrients from the muscle
fibres, and distributes surface microorganisms throughout the meat. Chemical properties of meat, such as
pH and moisture content, affect the ability of microorganisms to grow on meat. Natural protective tissues
(fat or skin) can prevent microbial contamination, dehydration, or other detrimental changes. Covering
meats with paper or protective plastic films prevents excessive moisture loss and microbial contamination.

Cold Storage

Cold storage

Temperature is the most important factor influencing bacterial growth. Pathogenic bacteria do not
grow well in temperatures under 3 °C (38 °F). Therefore, meat should be stored at temperatures that are as
cold as possible. Refrigerated storage is the most common method of meat preservation. The typical
refrigerated storage life for fresh meats is 5 to 7 days.

Freezer storage is an excellent method of meat preservation. It is important to wrap frozen meats
closely in packaging that limits air contact with the meat in order to prevent moisture loss during storage.
The length of time meats are held at frozen storage also determines product quality. Under typical freezer
storage of −18 °C (0 °F) beef can be stored for 6 to 12 months, lamb for 6 to 9 months, pork for 6 months,
and sausage products for 2 months.

Freezing

The rate of freezing is very important in maintaining meat quality. Rapid freezing is superior; if
meats are frozen slowly, large ice crystals form in the meat and rupture cell membranes. When this meat is
thawed, much of the original moisture found in the meat is lost as purge (juices that flow from the meat).
For this reason, cryogenic freezing (the use of super cold substances such as liquid nitrogen) or other rapid
methods of freezing meats are used at the commercial level to maintain maximal product quality. It is
important to note, however, that freezing does not kill most microorganisms; they simply become dormant.
When the meat is thawed, the spoilage continues where it left off.

Thawing meats often can cause more detrimental quality changes than freezing. In contrast to
freezing, thawing should be a slow process. Meats are best thawed in the refrigerator with packaging left
intact, so that moisture loss is minimized. Placing frozen meats out on a warm countertop or under warm
water subjects the meat’s outer layers to room temperatures for long periods of time before the meat is
ready for cooking (completely thawed). This rapid method provides a conducive environment for the
growth of food-borne microorganisms and increases the risk of food poisoning.

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Vacuum packaging

Oxygen is required for many bacteria to grow. For this reason, most meats are vacuum-packaged,
which extends the storage life under refrigerated conditions to approximately 100 days. In addition, vacuum
packaging minimizes the oxidation of unsaturated fatty acids and slows the development of rancid meat.

Canning

The second most common method of meat preservation is canning. Canning involves sealing meat
in a container and then heating it to destroy all microorganisms capable of food spoilage. Under normal
conditions canned products can safely be stored at room temperature indefinitely. However, certain quality
concerns can compel processors or vendors to recommend an optimal “sell by” date.

Drying

Drying is another common method of meat preservation. Drying removes moisture from meat
products so that microorganisms cannot grow. Dry sausages, freeze-dried meats, and jerky products are all
examples of dried meats capable of being stored at room temperature without rapid spoilage.

Fermentation

One ancient form of food preservation used in the meat industry is fermentation. Fermentation
involves the addition of certain harmless bacteria to meat. These fermenting bacteria produce acid as they
grow, lowering the pH of the meat and inhibiting the growth of many pathogenic microorganisms.

Irradiation

Irradiation, or radurization, is a pasteurization method accomplished by exposing meat to doses of

radiation. Radurization is as effective as heat pasteurization in killing food-spoilage microorganisms.
Irradiation of meat is accomplished by exposing meat to high-energy ionizing radiation produced either by
electron accelerators or by exposure to gamma-radiation-emitting substances such as cobalt-60 or cesium-
137. Irradiated products are virtually identical in character to nonirradiated products, but they have
significantly lower microbial contamination. Irradiated fresh meat products still require refrigeration and
packaging to prevent spoilage, but the refrigerated storage life of these products is greatly extended.

Curing and Smoking

Meat curing and smoking are two of the oldest methods of meat preservation. They not only
improve the safety and shelf life of meat products but also enhance the color and flavor. Smoking of meat
decreases the available moisture on the surface of meat products, preventing microbial growth and spoilage.
Meat curing, as commonly performed in products such as ham or sausage, involves the addition of mixtures
containing salt, nitrite, and other preservatives.

Salt decreases the moisture in meats available to spoilage microorganisms. Nitrite prevents
microorganisms from growing and retards rancidity in meats. Nitrite also produces the pink color associated

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with cured products by binding (as nitric oxide) to myoglobin. However, the use of nitrite in meat products
is controversial owing to its potential cancer-causing activity.

Sodium erythorbate or ascorbate is another common curing additive. It not only decreases the risks
associated with the use of nitrite but also improves cured meat color development. Other common additives
include alkaline phosphates, which improve the juiciness of meat products by increasing their water-holding
ability.
Poultry Cookery

Birds that are raised for human consumption are called poultry. Poultry products are usually less
expensive than many meat products and may be adapted to a wide variety of dishes. You may also use a
wide variety of cooking techniques to cook poultry. Before you cook poultry, you will need to understand
the eight factors for making the right choice: kind, market form, class, style, color, odor, inspection, and
grading. You will also need to know how to safely handle and store poultry.

Poultry is similar to meat in structure. Both poultry and meat are made up of muscle, connective
tissue, fat, and bone. Poultry flesh is made up of protein, water, and fat. The fat in all types of poultry is
found just underneath the skin.

Poultry Classifications

Type of Poultry Description

Chicken
Cornish hen Young (5-6 weeks); very tender
Fryer or broiler Young (9-12 weeks), male or female; tender
Roaster Young (3-5 months), male or female; tender
Capon Male, under 10 months; very tender
Stewer Mature female, over 10 months; tough
Turkey
Fryer-roaster Young bird, male (tom) or female (hen); tender
Young turkey Hen or tom, with tender flesh but firmer cartilage
Yearling turkey Fully mature, but tender
Mature or old turkey Hen or tom with tough flesh and course skin
Goose
Young goose Under 6 months; tender
Mature goose Over 6 months; tough
Duck
Broiler or fryer duckling Young, with soft windpipe; tender
Roasting duckling Young; with hardening windpipe; tender
Mature duck Old, with tough flesh
Pigeon
Squab 3-4 weeks, light, tender meat
Pigeon Over 4 weeks, dark, tough meat
Guinea
Young guinea Under 6 months; tender
Old guinea Up to 12 months; tough
Maturity and Tenderness

A bird’s age is commonly called its maturity. Older poultry is tough. If you want tender poultry,
select a younger bird. Tenderness is also affected by the amount of exercise a bird gets. The more a bird

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exercises, the more connective tissue is created. Connective tissue holds muscle fiber together. A bird with
more connective tissue will have tougher flesh. Birds that rarely fly, such as turkeys and chickens, have
lighter-colored wing and breast meat, commonly called light meat. The parts of a bird that have more muscle
and connective tissue, such as the thighs and legs, are darker in color. This is commonly called dark meat.
Light meat has less fat and cooks faster than dark meat. Dark meat consist of more fat and generally takes
a longer time to cook. Duck and goose are composed of mostly dark meat. All poultry has giblets, the edible
internal organs of the bird.
Evaluating Poultry

Poultry is available in many market forms, classes, and styles. Market form is the form poultry is
in when it is purchased. Fresh poultry works well when the poultry is to be cooked within one to two days.
Frozen poultry may be kept for up to six months.

The two classes of poultry are maturity and gender, or whether a bird is male or female. Old birds
are tougher than young birds and male birds are tougher than female birds.

Judging Poultry

There are two main ways to judge quality in poultry:

 Color: Poultry color should vary from cream to yellow. It should not be purple or green from
bruising or spoiling. Dark wing tips are also a sign of spoilage. Do not use poultry that is spoiled.
 Odor: Poultry should not have a strong odor, or feel sticky under the wings or around the joints. A
strong odor and sticky feel indicate, or show, that the poultry is spoiled. Discard any spoiled poultry
immediately.

How to Cut up Poultry

1. Place the bird on the cutting board, breast side down, and remove the wings at the joint.
2. Turn the bird on its side, grasp the breast, and begin cutting between the breast and the leg. Turn
the bird over and repeat.
3. Pull the leg back and cut along the backbone to remove the leg. Turn the bird over and repeat. Set
the legs aside.
4. Cut along each side of the backbone toward the front of the breast. Then, remove the entire
backbone.
5. Use the tip of the knife to expose the breastbones and ribs.
6. Grasp the back of the breast and remove the breast and keel bones.
7. Lay the boneless breast on the cutting board and split into two pieces.
8. To separate the drumstick from the thigh, cut between the joints.

Handling and Storage

Fresh and frozen poultry must be handled very carefully to avoid illness or spoilage. Fresh poultry
is highly perishable, which means that it can quickly spoil if not handled properly. Once you receive fresh
poultry, place it in cold storage or pack it in ice until you are ready to use it. If the poultry will not be used
within two to three days, it should be frozen immediately.

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 You can store frozen poultry for up to six months at or below 0°F (–18°C). Make sure to keep
frozen poultry in its original packaging. When you remove it from the freezer to thaw, keep it in its
packaging until it is completely defrosted. Never refreeze poultry.

Poultry Cooking Principles

A variety of moist and dry methods can be used to prepare poultry. This makes poultry one of the
most versatile food products served. Most poultry products are low in fat and can quickly become dry and
overcooked. Learning how to best apply proper cooking methods will help you create a moist final product.
Using lower temperatures and longer cooking times can produce moist results. Cooking with low
heat, however, has disadvantages. It does not brown the surface of poultry well. Cooking at high
temperatures causes the fat in skin to render, or melt. This creates a well-browned and crispy skin that seals
in juices.

The presence or absence of bones affects moisture and flavor during the cooking process, or series
of actions. Bones actually help the bird retain some of its moisture.

Roasting and Baking

Roasting and baking poultry are essentially the same process. Many chefs use the term “roasting”
when cooking whole birds and “baking” when cooking parts of a bird. Roasted or baked poultry should be
golden brown on the outside and tender and juicy on the inside. Using the proper cooking temperature
makes all the difference. The goal is to make the skin crispy and brown without drying out the meat.

Often, a poultry recipe will direct you to start cooking using a high temperature. Then, you will be
directed to lower the temperature to finish cooking. This technique promotes even cooking and seals in
juices to prevent the meat from drying out.

To help whole poultry retain moisture during roasting, you should baste it during the last stage of
the cooking process. To baste, spoon the fat drippings that have collected in the pan over the bird every 15
to 20 minutes. Baste only larger birds, like turkeys.

You do not have to baste a duck or a goose. Because these birds have a high fat content, basting
will make them too juicy and may make them taste greasy. Roast them on a rack so the fat will drip into
the pan, away from the bird. Some kinds of poultry, such as guineas and squabs, have very little fat. They
can benefit from barding, or wrapping poultry in a layer of fat before cooking. This helps the bird retain
moisture while it cooks.

Another way to keep poultry juicy during cooking is to oil the skin prior to the cooking process.
This helps prevent the skin from drying out and locks in moisture.

Searing

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 Your recipe may call for you to sear poultry before it is roasted or baked. Searing means to brown
the poultry’s surface quickly over high heat, usually in a hot pan. Searing is also done by dredging, or
coating poultry parts in seasoned flour and then browning them in a skillet. Searing helps seal in juices.
This is commonly done with chicken parts. For example, chicken is first cooked at 450°F (232°C) for 15
minutes. This allows the surface to brown. The heat is then reduced to 325°F (163°C). Then, the chicken
finishes cooking in a 325°F to 350°F (163°C to 177°C) oven.
Broiling and Grilling

Broiled or grilled poultry can make a very attractive dinner plate. The food should have a well-
browned surface and crosshatch grill marks, set at a 90-degree angle. Smaller birds or poultry pieces are
ideal for broiling or grilling.

1. Preheat the broiler or grill.

2. Prepare the poultry. It can be marinated, seasoned, or simply brushed lightly with oil.
3. Place the poultry with its presentation side down on a grid or rack in a broiler.
4. Turn the poultry 90 degrees midway through cooking to create crosshatch grill marks.
5. Periodically brush the poultry with oil or marinade to help keep it moist.
6. Carefully turn over the poultry using tongs so it can cook on the opposite side. If the poultry has
skin, use a spatula and tongs to avoid breaking the skin while turning.
7. Poultry is done when it reaches an internal temperature of 165°F (74°C) or higher for 15 seconds.

Frying Poultry

There are three ways to fry poultry: panfrying, deep-frying, and pressure-frying. All three usually
require that the food first be coated with a seasoned flour mixture or batter.

Pan-Frying

In pan-frying, the poultry is dipped in a batter or seasoned flour mixture that will turn golden brown
and crispy when the food is done. Poultry should be juicy and flavorful, not oily or greasy. When pan-
frying, the temperature of the fat or oil should be below the 400°F (204°C) smoking point, when the oil is
so hot that it smokes. Cooking at the proper temperature will help avoid an oily taste. Always brown the
presentation side first.

Deep-Frying

Poultry, especially chicken, is often deep fried in fat. The poultry pieces are coated prior to frying.
Common coatings include batter, flour, egg, and cracker or cereal crumbs.

Deep-fried chicken should be cooked at 325°F to 350°F (163°C to 177°C). The cooking time will
depend on the size of the chicken pieces and the meat color. Dark meat takes longer to fry than light meat,
and should be cooked separately. There should never be more than one layer of chicken in a frying basket.
Otherwise, the oil will cool and the product will be greasy.

Pressure-Frying

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 Pressure-frying uses the same frying principle, or rule, as other frying methods but uses a
commercial pressure fryer. A pressure fryer cooks foods more quickly and at lower temperatures than other
frying methods. Foods that are pressure-fried are extra crispy on the outside and juicy on the inside. This
makes them less greasy than other fried foods. You can pressure-fry any food that you would deep-fry.

Sautéing
Sautéing is a method of cooking poultry in an open pan until it is brown and juicy. Sautéing requires little
fat.

Simmering and Poaching

Poaching is commonly used to cook whole, young, tender birds. Simmering is used for older,
tougher birds. For simmering, poultry is cut into pieces.

Because these two cooking methods do not create strong flavors, it is important that the poultry be
seasoned when it is cooked. Use flavorful stock as the cooking liquid or add a mirepoix or bouquet garni.

In both simmering and poaching, the liquid should completely cover the poultry. The broth created
during cooking can be especially flavorful. You can reserve some of the liquid for later use with other
recipes such as gravies or sauces.

Braising

Braising is a cooking method that starts with dry-heat cooking and ends with moist heat cooking.
Braised poultry should always be accompanied by the liquid in which it was prepared.

Like poultry that is simmered or poached, braised poultry gets a boost of flavor during cooking
from its cooking liquid. Seasonings can be added to the liquid during cooking. The liquid may be reserved
for use in sauces.

Determining Doneness

No matter how poultry is cooked, the meat must be well done to be safe. Any kind of poultry should
be cooked to a minimum internal temperature of 165°F (74°C). The cooked poultry should hold this
temperature for at least 15 seconds. To properly measure temperature, place a meat thermometer in the
thigh of the bird at its thickest part, away from the bone.

Leftovers and Offcuts

Poultry offcuts can be minimized by purchasing prepared cuts. Otherwise, offcuts can sometimes
be used as individual portions. For example, chicken wings could be marinated and sold as an entree.
Otherwise, meat can be used in stews and stuffing, while the bones and sinews can be used in stocks and
sauces.

Leftovers are unsold, cooked items. Dry items, such as roast chicken, could be included in salads
or sandwiches. Wet dishes, such as chicken chasseur, can be successfully reheated following the correct
hygiene procedures.

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Seafood Cookery

Fish and Shellfish Identification

Fish Composition

Fish is composed of 70-80% water, 15-20% proteins, 1-13% fat, and 1% minerals. Fat, also known
as lipids, contains important omega-3 fatty acids that provide health benefits by helping to lower cholesterol
and blood pressure. Generally speaking, fish have an easier life in the water than land animals so their
muscles don’t work as hard. This results in a naturally tender product that requires minimal cooking.

The proteins in fish are different from meats because rather than bundles of muscle wrapped in
connective tissue, they are instead layered with collagen creating a “W” or wave-like appearance that
creates a flaking effect when cooked. Fish collagen is layered between the folds of the muscle tissues and
is weaker than animal connective tissue. This means that fish do not have to cook for long periods of time
to make them palatable. Fish collagen melts into gelatin at about 120˚F/60˚C. The fat content can vary
greatly in during growth, spawning, or migration periods. Fish that are in colder waters tend to be fattier
than warm water fish. Whether a fish is lean or fatty determines the perceived moistness on the palate. Fat
content also dictates cooking methods.

Some fish contain a dark blood-rich muscle running down the center of the fillet called the
“bloodline” (which actually contains no blood). The bloodline is a good indicator of freshness, which is
bright pink or red when fresh but turns brown as the fish ages. The dark region contains high levels of
myoglobin, the same chemical responsible for the red color of meats, and has a strong, fishy taste which is
why it is usually removed.

Skeletal Structure

For most fish the skeleton is made of bone, but some varieties, including shark, skate, and ray, are
made of cartilage. The skeletal structure, along with the size of the fish, determines how fish are filleted.

Market Forms of Fish

1. Whole or round fish are sold just as they come from the water. They must be scaled and
eviscerated — or gutted — before
cooking. If the head is left on, the fish
must be degilled. The edible
yield is about 45 percent.

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 2. Drawn fish have been eviscerated. They must be scaled and, if the head is left on, must
be degilled. The edible portion is about 48 percent.

3. Dressed fish are ready to cook, usually with head, tail and fins removed. The edible
is about 67 percent.

4. Fillets are the sides of the fish cut away from the backbone and are ready to cook. They
are usually boneless, with no waste.

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 5. Steaks are ready-to-cook, cross-sectional slices of large fish. The edible yield is about 86
percent.

Fish Identification

Fish are generally divided into different categories depending on their family and species, whether
they are fresh or saltwater fish, by their body shape (if they are round, flat, or cartilaginous fish), by fat
content, whether they are fatty or lean fish, and if they are cold- or warm-water fish.

Families are large groups of fish, for example salmon, and the species include the Atlantic, King,
or Coho varieties. The salmon family also includes trout and char. There are differences in flavor between
salt water and freshwater fish. Saltwater fish, because of the salinity of their environment, produce sweet-
tasting glycine and savory glutamate amino acids that milder-tasting freshwater fish lack.

Round fish are symmetrical with identical coloring on both sides, while flat fish swim sideways,
have asymmetrical eyes (eyes on one side of the head), and are darkly pigmented on their top side while
white on the bottom. Cartilaginous fish includes shark, skate, and ray, containing no ossified bones.

Fat content determines the best method for cooking fish. Lean fish that have almost no fat content
become dry when overcooked, while fattier fish are able to tolerate more heat without drying too quickly.

Warm-water fish are found along the Gulf Stream, reefs, and warm seas like the
Mediterranean. Cold-water fish are from the deep waters or colder areas of the oceans and have
characteristics that include firm flesh and higher levels of fat.

Fish categories in this section are grouped according to their families, and in some cases paired
with varieties from other families that possess a similar structure, texture, and fat content, or if they are
fabricated and cooked in like ways.

Anchovy and Herring

Anchovy and herring are oily fish high in omega-3 of the Engraulidae family, and although found fresh in
European countries, they are often salted, smoked, or pickled.

Salmon, Trout, Char, and Whitefish

Salmon, are found wild in northern oceans, while trout and char are found in freshwater lakes and
streams. These varieties of the Salmonidae family are also extensively farmed. They are relatively fatty
making them versatile for a variety of cooking methods including grilling, broiling, sautéing, and roasting,
and are also served raw, cured, or smoked. Freshwater Lake Whitefish, also a member of the salmon family

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found throughout Canada and the Great Lakes region of the United States, is a delicate lean fish with a mild
flavor that can be cooked similar to trout and char.

Tuna, Swordfish, Mackerel

Tuna, swordfish, and mackerel are members of the Scombridae family, and while marlin is a
relative of this family, swordfish is the sole member of the Xiphiidae family. These large predatory fish are
found throughout the globe in temperate to tropical waters of the Atlantic, Pacific, and Indian oceans. Tuna,
the most significant of this species includes Atlantic, Pacific, and southern Bluefin varieties prized for sushi
and sashimi, while Albacore is the most common canned variety. These fish are rich, oily, and have a
meaty flavor suitable for grilling and broiling.

Cod

The Cod family, including Haddock and Pollack, are found in northern ocean waters including New
England, Alaska, Canada, Asia, and Europe. For centuries dating back to the era of the Vikings, cod has
been one of the most commercially important fish that was processed by salting and drying and later became
part of the tringle trade to the Caribbean. Cod is also used extensively in processed frozen foods too. Today
because of pressure on cod populations from overfishing in New England and North Sea fisheries, the
amount of catch is severely limited. Haddock, Pollack, and Hake are similar in texture and have been used
as substitutes for cod. These fish are delicate white-fleshed fish that versatile for cooking by a variety of
methods and are particularly suitable for deep-frying, broiling, poaching, baking, and roasting.

Perch Family

The Perciform fish family includes freshwater varieties found in Europe, Asia, and North America.
The yellow perch is native to the Great Lakes Region. Zander is native to Eurasia and also known as
pikeperch. Tilapia, also known as St. Peter’s Fish, is a freshwater species related to perch found in the
Middle East and Africa. Today, tilapia is the third most important farmed fish, after carp and salmon, in
countries including China, the Philippines, Taiwan, Indonesia and Thailand. Perch varieties including
tilapia are known for their firm yet tender meat and delicate flavor suitable for frying, sautéing, broiling,
baking, and poaching.

Bass

A name shared with over 475 species, the Bass family, actually a Perch species, includes varieties
located around the world. Atlantic Striped Bass are found along the coasts from Canada to Florida. White
Sea Bass is found along the California coast. Grouper varieties including red, black, and gag are found
from the mid-Atlantic States down through the Gulf of Mexico and along both coasts of South America.
European Seabass are found extensively throughout Europe especially around the Mediterranean Sea.
Barrimundi is found from the Persian Gulf, through Southeast Asian, and down to Australia. Many varieties
of bass are farm raised today. Chilean Sea Bass, also known as Patagonian Toothfish is found in water near
Antarctica and is unrelated to the bass family. Bass are versatile fish, firm yet delicate flesh, medium-
flavored, and are suitable for almost any cooking method from grilling, to sautéing, and poaching.

Snapper

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 From the family of Perciforms, there are over 100 varieties of snapper found in abundance
throughout the tropics. These fish share similar characteristics with bass and other perch varieties. Their
meat is light colored, firm yet tender flesh, mild flavor, make them suitable for most cooking methods
including grilling, sautéing, grilling, poaching, and roasting.

Flatfish

Flatfish including halibut, sole, and turbot are Pleuronectiformes that swim sideways and possess
asymmetrical eyes on one side of their head. The skin, dark on the upper side and white on the underside,
is thought to act as camouflage. Flatfish are found in oceans around the world from the artic, to the tropics,
and down to Antarctica. Some varieties, including halibut and turbot, are also farmed today.

Halibut are the largest of the flatfish weighing as much as 150 lb./70 kg and are found in the Pacific,
North Atlantic, and the North Sea. Turbot average about 10-20 lb./4-9 kg and are found in the
Mediterranean, the Baltic Sea, the Black Sea, and the North Atlantic. Flounder are found in the Atlantic off
the coast of Canada, the United States, and the Gulf of Mexico with a weight range of 4-8 lb./1.8-3.6 kg,
while European varieties are harvested from the Mediterranean Sea averaging about 1.5 lb./680g to.
Dover sole, considered a highly prized fish, are found off the eastern Atlantic Ocean, the Baltic and
Mediterranean Seas and average 24-28 oz./700-800 g. Flatfish are white fleshed and lean, with a mild,
sweet taste and a large flake. Poaching, steaming, sautéing, and pan-frying are the best methods. The fillets
can easily overcook and become dry so special attention to cooking is required.

Shellfish Composition

Shellfish is generally composed of 75-80% water, 15-20% protein, 2-5% fat, 1-2% minerals. The
meat of crustaceans including lobster, shrimp, and crab is white fleshed, with connective tissue that has
more collagen and is therefore not as tender as fish. Mollusks, including abalone have a muscular foot that
helps them move around, while clams and oysters have an adductor muscle to open and close their shells.
Squid and octopus are mollusks turned inside out that have tough-collagen rich muscles.
Skeletal Composition

Crustaceans including lobster, shrimp, and crab have exoskeletons with hard outer shells protecting
their bodies. They have segmented bodies that protect their muscles and organs giving them structural
support, and periodically shed their shells through molting as they grow larger. Mollusks have hard shells
that protect them from predators composed of a chalky material called calcium carbonate.

Shellfish Identification

Shellfish are divided into two general categories that include crustaceans and mollusks Crustaceans
are arthropods, related to the insect family, and easily identified by their hard, segmented bodies. Mollusks
are divided into gastropods with a single shell-like snail; bivalves with hinged shells like clams; and
cephalopods like octopus are without shells. Echinoderms represent a small class of shellfish that includes
the spiny sea urchin with hard shells and long spines that are very sharp and protect them from predators.

Crustaceans

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 Crustaceans include lobster, shrimp, crab, and fresh-water varieties including crawfish. Shrimp and
lobster meat are most abundant in the tail with the exception of the American lobster which has large claws
and a fair amount of meat. Crabs have a shorter body and because they don’t move around much the muscles
in their tentacles and claws make up most of the edible meat. Soft shell crabs are molting crabs and are
prepared and consumed whole. Unless held live, crustaceans will deteriorate quickly because the mid-gut
glands, liver and intestines, will break down and turn the muscles into mush. Most crabs are pre-cooked
because of this rapid deterioration, while lobster and shrimp tails are commonly separated and frozen in
their raw state. Crustaceans are a dark green-to-blue color that blends in with their environment, but when
cooked turn a bright orange or red color from carotenoid pigments caused by the plankton in their diet.
Shrimp

Shrimp are swimming crustaceans that can range in size from less than 1 in./3 cm to about 10 in./25
cm in length. There are about 300 edible varieties of saltwater and freshwater shrimp. The term prawn is
the term commonly used in Great Britain for shrimp but in the United States a prawn can refer to a large
shrimp. Dublin Bay Prawns are actually langoustine, related to lobsters.

Lobsters

Lobsters are crawling crustaceans that live on the ocean floor. They are divided into several species
for commercial purposes. The American lobster, found along the eastern seaboard of the United States and
Canada, is notable for its claws. It takes 6-7 years for a lobster to reach edible size of 1-2 Lb. /450-900 g.
Spiny or Rock Lobsters are found in warmer waters including the Caribbean, Mediterranean, Australia,
Asia, and South Africa. They have large tails and long spiny antenna but lack the large claws of the
American Lobster. In Australia, New Zealand, and South Africa they are known as crayfish. Langoustine,
sometimes called Dublin Bay Prawns, Norway Lobster, or Scampi, are found in the north-eastern Atlantic
Ocean and North Sea as far north as Iceland and northern Norway, and south to Portugal and also in parts
of the Mediterranean Sea. They can grow to 7–8 in. /18–20 cm.

Lobster tails are sold as either warm-water lobster varieties originating from California, Florida,
the Mediterranean, South Pacific, Caribbean, New Guinea, New Zealand, Australia and South Africa, or
cold-water lobsters mainly from the north Atlantic and off the coast of New Zealand, Australia and South
Africa. Cold water varieties tend to be firmer, more tender meat, and sweeter tasting than warm-water tails
which can be softer in texture. Caribbean warm-water tails have distinct yellow spots and a yellow band
across the tail. Maine Lobster Tails, of the American Lobster variety have whiter meat and are considered
more tender because they grow more slowly in colder winters.

Crab
Unlike shrimp and lobster which are prized for their tails, crabs have small bodies but long legs
and claws where most of the edible meat is concentrated. Crabs vary from very small to quite large in size
and weight. Although live crabs are purchased and consumed fresh near the coasts, most crab meat is
cooked, processed, and sold as fresh pasteurized or frozen.

1. King Crab, prized for their leg meat, are the largest species of edible crab weighing in at 10-15 lbs.
/4.5-6.8 K with a leg span of 5 ft. /1.5m. They are found in the northern oceans off the coasts of
Alaska, Canada, Russia and Japan, and in the southern hemisphere near Australia, Chile and
Argentina. There are three commercially marketed species, golden, blue and red that are found in
the waters of Alaska with red king crab considered the best quality.

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 2. Snow Crabs are found in the northern Pacific and Atlantic Oceans including the Bering Strait in
Alaska, Sea of Japan, Newfoundland, and Norway. They measure 6-6 in./9.5-15 cm and weigh up
to 3 lbs. /1.3 kg. They are usually sold cooked and frozen as legs and claws.

3. Dungeness Crabs are harvested from the west coast of North America from Washington to
California. They grow to about 8 inches / 20 cm, weigh from 1.5 to 3 Lb. /0.7-1.3 K and typically
have a yield of 25% useable meat. The Jonah Crab, found on the Atlantic coast of North America
is related to the west coast Dungeness crab. They are harvested at about 7 inches /18 cm in length.
Jonah crab meat is more uniformly white and the large claws have more meat than the legs.

4. Blue Crabs are found along the east coast of North America from Nova Scotia to the Gulf of
Mexico, through the Caribbean Sea, and down the east coast of South America. An average size
fresh blue crab weighs about a third of a pound. The yield from a pound of fresh blue crab is about
14% which equates to about 2.25 oz./68 g per pound /450 g of whole shell-on crab. Blue crab is
commonly cooked, cleaned, and pasteurized for purchase as lump, flake or claw meat. Lump crab
meat is considered the most desirable because it is large whiter chunks from the body of the crab.
Soft-Shell Crabs are molting blue crabs available in the spring months and are meant to be eaten
whole.

5. Stone Crabs are found off the east coast of North America from Connecticut down to Belize, South
America, and in the Gulf of Mexico. Commonly marketed as Florida Stone Crabs, they are about
5 to 6.5 inches /13-17 cm across. Because their bodies are small, yielding little meat, they are mostly
prized for their claws. Harvesting is done by removing one or both of the claws from the live animal
and returning them to the ocean where they can regrow their lost limbs.

Mollusks

Mollusks are divided into separate categories including gastropods (also known as
univalves), bivalves, and cephalopods. Gastropods have a single shell and include snails (escargot), conch,
and abalone. These mollusks, because of their connective tissue, can be very tough when cooked. They are
often mechanically tenderized, sliced thin, and either cooked minimally, or stewed for several hours.

Bivalves

1. Clams are a bivalve mollusk found in various sizes around the world. There are over 2000 species
of clams and about 150 edible clam varieties. Unlike mussels and oysters that attach themselves to
rocks and reefs, clams bury themselves in sand or sediment.
Clam species are divided into hard-shell and soft-shell varieties. Soft shell clams live off the coasts
in shallow waters and hard-shell varieties live in deep waters and tend to be larger. Clams can vary
in size from as small as 1.5 in. /4 cm for a soft-shell steamer clam to as large as 8 in./ 20 cm for a
hard-shell Geoduck clam. Varieties that are farmed in North America included Soft-Shell Steamers,
Littleneck, Cherrystone, Manila Razor, Quahog, and Geoduck.

2. Mussels are bivalve mollusks found around the world. The two most common species cultivated
are the New Zealand Green-Lipped Mussel, and in Canada the Prince Edward Island Blue Mussel.

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 Like most bivalves, mussels have a large organ called a foot connected to the byssus thread also
known as the "beard" which is removed before the mussels are cooked. Modern farm raised mussel
processing now removes the beard.

3. Oysters are a bivalve mollusk found globally usually in the beds and reefs of shallow waters and
estuaries. Salinity, mineral, and nutrient variations in the water influences their flavor profile. They
are able to reproduce on their own and will change their sex from male to female. The most common
oysters include the Eastern American Oyster, on the eastern Atlantic coast from Canada to
Argentina, and the Pacific Oyster, found off the shores of Japan to Washington State and as far
south as Australia. The Pacific oyster is the most widely cultured in the world and includes the
Kumamoto and the Olympia. North American varieties on the Atlantic coast include Malpeque,
Cotuit, and the Blue Point. The Belon oyster, from the Brittany region of France, is a European Flat
variety.

4. Scallops are marine bivalves found around the globe with most harvested off of the east coast of
the United States and Canada as well as in the Asia off the coasts of Japan and China. Scallops are
commonly processed for their abductor meat although in some markets they are sold with the roe
intact. Two common market varieties are the larger variety of Sea Scallops and the smaller variety
of Bay Scallops. Sea scallops are sorted and sold according to size using a count per pound. Sea
scallops can range from 10 to 40 per lb./450 g, common sizes that you may find in markets are 10
to 20, 20 to 30 or 30 to 40. Extra-large scallops are labeled with a U/10 or U/12 designation
signifying a yield of under 8 or 10 scallops per 1 lb./450 g.

Cephalopods

Cephalopods have an internal shell called a pen or cuttlebone and include squid
(calamari), octopus, and cuttlefish. These creatures have very tough connective tissue created by a
crisscross of collagen that makes cooking them a challenge. They are best when mechanically tenderized,
and either cooked minimally, or cooked for several hours.

1. Octopuses are a class of shell-less mollusks called cephalopods and there are about 300 varieties
found in most of the world’s oceans. Octopuses are popular in the Mediterranean region especially
in Greece, Italy and Spain, in Asia including Japan and Korea, and in Australia. They are related to
the squid and cuttlefish and all three have a gland that emits a black ink when threaten by physical
harm. The ink is sometimes used in culinary preparations to add color to pasta or risotto.

2. Squid, also known by its Italian name calamari, is a cephalopod mollusk with a soft body that is
supported by an internal shell. Many of the 350 species of squid inhabit shallow coastal waters or
live near the surface on the open sea, while others thrive in the depths of the ocean. They are popular
in Europe, Japan, Australia, and the United States.

3. The cuttlefish is a cephalopod mollusk with a flatter body than that of the squid, a closely related
species. The cuttlefish adopts the color of its environment as camouflage. The white flesh of the
cuttlefish is very firm and is similar to squid in texture.

Gastropods

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 Gastropods, also known as univalves, are known for their single shell, are saltwater, freshwater,
and terrestrial mollusks which include abalone, conch, and snails.

1. Abalone have flattened, slightly spiraled shells, soft white body, and a muscular foot, and clings to
rocks in cold water. It is found along the coasts of New Zealand, South Africa, Australia, Western
North America, and Japan. There are over 100 varieties found around the world, but many are in
danger from overfishing. Commercial abalone fishing in the United States is band, but some
farming is being done in California, Hawaii, and Japan. The white meat is tough and is often
tenderized by pounding with a mallet, and is sliced thin for eating raw, sautéing, or grilling. The
texture and flavor are similar to calamari.

2. Conch is a large snail found in warm waters of the Atlantic and the Caribbean from Florida to
Brazil. It is popular in the Florida Keys, Puerto Rico, and other Caribbean islands. Conch in the
United States is listed on the endangered species list so it must be imported from other areas of the
Caribbean. Conch meat has a mild, sweet clam-like flavor, but like abalone it is extremely tough
and must be tenderized before cooking.

3. Snails - Varieties of land and water snails are consumed in various cultures, better known by the
French term escargot. The French “petit gris” (for little gray) and the larger “très gro” or Roman
Snails, are the most popular. Snails are rarely sold fresh, but more likely canned requiring little
preparation. Indonesia, is a large producer of snails along with Greece, Turkey, and Nigeria.

Echinoderms

1. From the Greek word for “Spiny Skin”, the most notable edible entry in this category are Sea
Urchins. The edible park of the sea urchin is the row and it is usually eaten raw or ceviche style.
A small hard-shelled invertebrate marine animal that lives in coastal waters, the sea urchin has a
spherical shell and is covered with spines. The edible portion of this unisexual animal is the ovaries,
and also known as the "coral," and the liquid that surrounds them. The coral is an orange color
similar to that of a scallop. The sea urchin is found in most seas, but many of the almost 500 species
are inedible and some emit poisonous venom. Sea urchins are sold live whole or corals only and
are extremely perishable. Thick sturdy gloves are needed when handling or opening the sea urchins.

Fish and Shellfish Cooking Methods

The delicate nature of fish and seafood requires extra care and attention during the cooking process.
Because the muscles are much softer and the connective tissue is weaker than their land counterparts, it is
easy to overcook and ruin their flavors and textures. The same techniques used for cooking meats and
poultry can be applied to fish and seafood but cooking temperatures and times are generally reduced.

Raw Preparations

Because of the naturally tender characteristics of fish and seafood, many varieties are served in raw
preparations including sashimi, sushi, and tartare. Ceviche is a popular raw dish that uses citric acids to
marinade and “cold cook” the fish. Salted, cured or pickled fish are other international favorites. Raw clams

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and oysters on the half shell are popular too. All of these require the freshest fish of the highest quality and
careful handling that include strict temperature control and high sanitation standards.

Shellfish Cookery

Most shellfish can be cooked using any of the basic techniques for fish while observing similar
guidelines. Shellfish generally has more connective tissue and therefore will firm up when cooked. Small
crustaceans and mollusks will be tenderer than larger ones. In all cases using slower and gentler cooking
methods with a minimal amount of time will result in a moist and tender outcome.

 Crustaceans should be cooked minimally because they can get dry and rubbery if overcooked.
 Shrimp are commonly prepared by steaming, simmering, sautéing, grilling and poaching.
 Lobsters can be poached, steamed, grilled, broiled and sautéed.
 Because most crab meat is cleaned and cooked, they can be used in a variety of preparations from
simply heating the crab legs, or prepared in stuffing and crab cakes. Fresh crab can be steamed or
in the case of soft-shell crabs sautéed or deep fried.
 Mollusks will be chewy but tender when minimally cooked but can toughen when cooked too long.
Similar to meat, they must be cooked for an extended period to tenderize them again.
 Clams are used in chowders, soups, and stews. Smaller clams can be eaten raw or steamed. Larger
clams can be stewed, braised or deep-fried. The large geoduck is usually pounded to tenderize it
and sliced thin.
 Mussels are commonly steamed or stewed and can also be fried
 Oysters are eaten raw but can also be used in soups, stews, deep-fried or baked.
 Octopus flesh is tenderized through pounding or tumbling. It is also tenderized through braising,
simmering or steaming. Octopus can also be eaten raw in ceviche and sushi.
 Squid, also called calamari, can be tenderized by scoring the connective tissue of the body. It is
often deep-fried but can also be stewed or braised. Quick cooking is best because squid can become
quite tough and will need to be cooked a long time to tenderize.
 Cuttlefish can be treated similar to squid in cooking and handling techniques.
 Conch meat has a mild, sweet clam-like flavor but is extremely tough and must be pounded,
chopped, or marinated in lime juice to tenderize it before cooking. Some common preparations
include fritters, chowder, steaks and marinated raw salads.
 Sea urchin is eaten raw in ceviche-style preparations.

Cooking Methods

1. Grill/Broil

Follow the basic rules for grilling meats and poultry but use a slightly lower temperature. Season
and oil the fish before beginning. Use firm fish and shellfish that can hold up to the heat and won’t fall
apart once on the grill. Grill baskets can be used for delicate fillets or whole fish to ease the turning process
or can be placed on sizzler platters and set under a broiler to cook. Shrimp, lobster, and scallops do well on
the grill because they have stronger connective tissue. Check for doneness by the touch method for smaller
fillets and steaks, and for whole fish use a thermometer.

Grilling/Broiling Method

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  Preheat grill or broiler; clean and season the grates.
 To ensure an even cooking process, cut fish fillets and steaks to a uniform thickness.
 Salt the fish and allow to rest for 15-30 minutes to draw out excess moisture.
 Pat the fish dry with a towel to remove excess surface moisture and oil the fish.
 Depending on the delicacy, size, and heat source, grill directly on the grate; place in a basket, or on
a broiler platter.
 For smaller cuts use the touch method to determine doneness, for larger fish use an instant-read
thermometer.
 Remember to under-cook slightly to compensate for carryover cooking.

2. Roast/Bake

A simple but effective way to cook fish, baking or roasting can be used as a stand-alone method or
to finish fish after pan-searing on the stove top. Since the fish usually does not gain much color in the
process, paprika is sometimes sprinkled on the surface. Herbs, spices, bread crumbs or nut crusts will also
enhance the color, flavor, and texture of the fish. Convection ovens will produce more browning, or an
initial pan-sear on the stove can also do the trick. The fish can be portion cut or cooked whole for a more
rustic presentation. Large fish are often scored in the thickest part to accelerate cooking and ensure that the
thinner tail section does not overcook.

Roasting Method

 Pre-heat oven to desired temperature, for smaller fish or fillets 425-130˚F/50-55˚C

 Prep fish and place on a sheet pan
 Season and brush with oil
 Place in oven and cook to the appropriate degree of doneness
 Serve with a prepared sauce

3. Sauté

A popular method for cooking fish and shellfish, the fish can be dredged in flour just prior to
cooking which adds texture, provides colors, and helps keep the fish moist. Sautéed fish a la Meuniere is a
classic French technique garnished with brown butter, lemon and chopped parsley.

Skinless – This method is often used for cooking fish a la Meuniere, amandine, or with other
ingredients including capers, tomatoes, or cucumbers.

To properly sauté make sure the pan is heated appropriately. The fish should sizzle when added to the
hot pan. In the case of sole fillets, they will only need a minute or two on each side to cook and should be
lightly browned when done.

Skin-On – Fish that have tender skins, including snapper, salmon and trout can be sautéed with the skin
intact providing a crisp texture that enhances the presentation. The technique must be properly executed
and served immediately otherwise the skin will be soggy and unpalatable.

1. Pat the fish dry with paper towels.

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 2. Liberally season fish with salt and pepper.
3. Brush with oil or clarified butter.
4. Heat a well-seasoned sauté pan, add oil or clarified butter, and place the fish skin-side down to
begin the searing process. Press lightly on the fillet with a fish spatula to flatten and evenly crisp
the skin.
5. Turn the fish and continue to sauté while basting the skin with some of the butter in the pan.
6. If the fillet is large, place the pan in a hot oven to finish.
7. For plating always serve the fish skin-side up to preserve the crispness of the texture.
8. Serve with a prepared sauce.

Pan-Fry - By adding more oil to the pan and lowering the heat, fish can be coated with flour, breadcrumbs,
or cornmeal and pan-fried to create a crisp texture.

Deep-Fry - Deep-frying, immersing food in in hot oil is popular in many cultures for preparing all types of
fish and shellfish including shrimp, oysters, clams, and scallops. Breading or batter provides a crisp texture
and the oil adds a savory quality to the palate. The method is best for small tender portions of food that
cook in a matter of minutes.

Breaded - For breaded foods a three-stage breading process is used consisting of flour, egg wash and
breadcrumbs. It is a convenient technique because the product can be prepared in advance and kept in a
cold or frozen state. Foods are fried at a temperature of 350˚F/177˚C. For ease in dropping and removing
foods from the deep-fryer use the “basket method”. A prepared sauce is served with the fish.

Batter-Fried - Batters are prepared with flour or other refined starches, water, beer or milk and eggs.
Japanese tempura is a batter that is very light in color and texture. Beer batter is often used in fish fries. The
batter is prepared in advance and the product is dipped in the batter just prior to dropping into the frying
oil. For batter-fried foods, use the “swimming method” for deep-frying without a basket otherwise the batter
will cling to a basket making it difficult to remove from the fryer. Serve with a prepared sauce as an
accompaniment.

4. Simmer/Boil

Moist heat cooking methods are often used for many preparations. They are simple methods that
can bring out the flavor and subtle texture of fish and seafood. Boiling is a crude method that can often
overcook and damage the delicate textures of fish and seafood but simmering is a gentler approach that will
preserve the quality of the product and the temperature is much easier to control.

Whether simmering or boiling the cooking liquid is salted and enhanced by the addition of aromatic
vegetables, lemon, herbs and spices and often combined with vegetables including potatoes, onions, carrots
and corn. This method can be adopted for all types of shellfish including crabs, lobster, clams and shrimp.

5. Steam

Steaming is a healthy cooking method that brings out the natural characteristics of fish and
shellfish. Because it is a naked method the product must be of the highest quality otherwise any off flavors
will be readily evident. Steaming is a particularly popular method for cooking mussels and clams. Shell-on
shrimp, crab, and lobster are also well-suited for this method. Steaming can be done in a chamber, a bamboo

LEARNING MODULE 5 Group 4

steamer, on a rack in a sealed pot, or by simply laying it in a sealed pan with a small amount of liquid. The
preparation is enhanced through the use of aromatics, herbs, spices, butter and other flavorings.

6. Poach

Two classic styles of poaching are submerging, also called deep poaching, and shallow poaching.
Butter or oil poaching is a contemporary version of poaching and is similar to a confit in its method.

Submerge Poach - Sometimes call deep-poaching, this method is commonly used for whole fish and
prepared by submerging the product completely in a court bouillon. The classic French dish “Truite au
Bleu” is prepared in this fashion which requires a freshly killed and gutted trout. A sauce is prepared
separately. If the whole fish are large, they are sometimes wrapped in cheesecloth to hold them together.

Shallow Poach - Shallow poaching is used for smaller cuts of fish that are folded or rolled into paupiettes.
Mousseline forcemeat can be used as a filling for the paupiettes. A small amount to liquid, usually in the
form of wine or stock is added to the pan along with shallots, garlic and a little butter. The fish is gently
cooked either on the stove top or transferred to an oven. A sauce is prepared from the caisson (cooking
liquid) in the pan.

7. Stew/Braise

Traditionally braises and stews are slow methods for cooking tough cuts of meats and poultry that
can often take hours to complete. Adapting these methods for fish and seafood requires the cooking time to
be shortened dramatically to create an optimal dish.

LEARNING MODULE 5 Group 4